THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771.

SECOND ten 1777—1784.

THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.

FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.

FIFTH twenty* 1815—1817.

SIXTH twenty 1823—1824.

SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.

EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860.

NINTH twenty-five , 1875—1889.

TENTH ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 19°3-

ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, IpJO — 1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rights reserved

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANN1CA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION '

VOLUME XVII

LORD CHAMBERLAIN to MECKLENBURG

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1911

E-3

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUNTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S.

Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J Maci,erei t;n j,ar,)

Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia salientia,

and Fishes in the British Museum; &c.
A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. I" Marlowe, Christopher;

See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. I. Mary, Queen of Scots.

A. E. J. ARTHUR ERNEST JOLLIFFE, M.A. f

Fellow, Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Senior -i. Maxima; Minima.
Mathematical Scholar, 1892. [

A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc.

Professor of English History in University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, •< Macalpine, John.
Oxford. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII. ; &c. . (.

A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.Hisx.S.

Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. ) »„(;.« f *
Author of The Cradle of New France ; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating to |
the Constitutional History of Canada.

A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK. f Manichaeism (in part);

See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. \ Marc ion.

A. H. F. REV. ANDREW HOLLINGSWORTH FROST, M.A. f Ma(rip <;„..,„,

Principal of Church Missionary College. Islington, 1870-1874. \ m

A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LL.D., LITT.D. f. . ...

See the biographical article: SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY.

A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. / Mazandaran.

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. I

A. J. G.* ARTHUR TAMES GRANT, M.A. f Louis XIII., XIV. and XV. of

King s College, Cambridge. Professor of History in the University of Leeds. \ France.

A. J. H. ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903).

Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music, ^ute (in part)'
London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885 ;•<
of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of ^J™ <-*** Pan>-
Musical Instruments; &c.

A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f Maskelyne;

See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \ Mayer, Johann Tobias.

A. M. Cl. AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). f

Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources •< Magistrate.
of Roman History, 133-79 B.C. I

A. M. F. REV. ANDREW MARTIN FAIRBAIRN, M.A., D.D., LL.D. f Martjnpall james

See the biographical article: FAIRBAIRN, A. M. \ m au> J

(Lory; Love-Bird;

A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Lyre-Bird; Macaw; Magpie;

See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. i Mallemuck; Manakin;

; Man u code; Martin.

A. N. W. ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Fellow and Senior Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author \ Mathematics,
of A Treatise on Universal Algebra.

A. R. C. ALEXANDER Ross CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S.

Colonel R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Trigonometrical Map: Projections (in part).
Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.

1986

VI

A. R. L.*

A. SI.

A. Sy.
A. Wa.

A. W. H.*

A. W. Hu.
A. W. M.
A. W. R.
B.W.
C. A. M. P.

C. B. P.
C. Ch.

C.F.A.
C. F. CL

C. G. Cr.
C. H. Ha.

C. L. K.
C. M.
C.P1.

C. R. B.

D. B. Ma.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

ARTHUR ROBERT LING, F.I.C. f

Editor of the Journal of the Institute of Brewing. Lecturer on Brewing and Malting J i
at the Sir John Cass Institute, London. Vice-President of the Society of Chemical ]
Industry. L

ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. r Majaria /

Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water- \ M
Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. L -Massage.

ARTHUR SYMONS.

See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR.

ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A.

Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly Literary
Adviser to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of Alfred Lord Tennyson; Legends of the*
Wheel; Robert Browning in " Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's
Lives of the Poets.

ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford.

Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900.

Mallarme, Stephane.

Lytton, 1st Baron.

Louis L, II., III. and IV.:

Roman Emperors;
Louis the German;
Louis II. and III. of France;
Louis the Child;
Magna Carta;
Maximilian L:
. _Roman Emperor.

Manning, Cardinal.

[ Man, Isle of.
Maxims, Legal.

REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A.

Rector of Bow Church, London. Formerly Librarian of the National Liberal Club.
Author of Life of Cardinal Manning ; &c.

ARTHUR WILLIAM MOORE, C.V.O., M.A. (1853-1909).

Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly Speaker of the House of Keys, and J.P. for
the Isle of Man. Author of A History of the Isle of Man; &c.

ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws
of England.

BENJAMIN WILLIAMSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Professor of Natural Philosophy, and Vice-Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.

Author of Differential Calculus; &c.

CHARLES AUGUSTUS MAUDE FENNELL, M.A., Lnr.D.

Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Editor of Pindar's Odes and Frag-
ments, and of the Stanford Dictionary of Anglicized Words and Phrases.

CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS, B.A. (Mrs W. Alison Phillips).
Associate of Bedford College, London.

CHARLES CHREE, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
President of Physical Society of London. Watt Medallist, Institute of Civil En-
gineers, 1905.

CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

CHARLES FREDERICK CLOSE, C.M.G.

Lieutenant-Colonel, R.E. Head of the Geographical Section, British General Staff.
Formerly British Representative on the Nyasa-Tanganyika Boundary Commission.
Author of Text-Book of Topographical Surveying ; &c. L

CHARLES GEORGE CRUMP, M.A. r

Balliol College, Oxford. Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office, London. Editor of •< Manor: in England.
Landor's Works; &c.

i Maclaurin, Colin.

Magic Square (in part).

| Louis XVIII. of France;
\ Marie Antoinette.

J. Magnetism, Terrestrial.
J Machine-Gun.
Map: Projections (in part).

CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., Pn.D.

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member
of the American Historical Association.

CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A.

Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.

I Matilda, Countess of Tuscany;
[ Lucius.

Lovell, Viscount;
Margaret of Anjou.

CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. r , _ .. ,.

Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik J ^y0"5' ^ou
im Zeitalter Gregor VII.; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums; &c. [ Marburg, Colloquy of.

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. is L. r

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Mayor of the Palace.

Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.

CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT. C

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow I Magellan; __

of Merton College, Oxford. University Lecturer in the History of Geography. 1 Marignolli (in part).

Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. L

DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. f iwahommedan Institutions-

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of I ™
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Religious } Manommeaan
Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I Malik Ibn Anas.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Vll

D. F. T.
D. G. H.

D. H.

D. Mn.

D. ML W.

D. S. M.*

E. A. J.

E. Bn.
E. C. B.

E. G.

E. Gr.
E. G. R.

E. H. M.
E. L. W.

E. M. T.

E. 0.*
E. Pr.

E. R. B.

E. Tn.

DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.

Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The Classical Concerto,
Goldberg Variations and analyses of many other classical works.

The

\ Madrigal (in music);
[ Mass (in music).

Keeper of Magnesia; Malatia;
i888;Naucratis, 1899 1 Mamsa; Marash;

' '

Marryat, Frederick;
Mast; Mathews, Thomas.

DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy.

the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Nat

and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at | Maronites.

Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

DAVID HANNAY.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal
Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c.

REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive -j Mackennal, Alexander.
Congregational Ideals', &c. \_

SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.

Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign

Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International I Lorls-Melikov.

and Officier de 1'Instruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of New Volumes |

(loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the

Egyptian Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c.

DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.Lrrr. f

Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic I .
Papyri of the Bodleian Library; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam; Cairo, Jerusalem |
and Damascus.

Mahomet.

ALFRED JONES.

Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver
Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Catalogue •!, Mace.
of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate ; A Private Catalogue of the Royal
Plate at Windsor Castle; &c.

Author of Zur Theorie und Geschichte -j Marx.

EDUARD BERNSTEIN.

Member of the German Reichstag, 1902-1906.
des Socialismus; &c.

RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dubl.). f Mabillon; Maurists;

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of the Lausiac History of Palladius, •{ Mechitharists.
in " Cambridge TCXLS and Studies."

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.

f Loti, Pierre; Lyrical Poetry;
I Macaronics;
1 Madrigal (in verse);
( Maeterlinck.

f Mantineia (in part) ;
1 Marathon (in part).

Map (in part).

ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.

See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.

ERNEST GEORGE RAVENSTEIN, M.A., PH.D.

Professor of Geography at Bedford College, London, 1882-1883. Formerly in
Topographical (now Intelligence) Department of the War Office. Author of The '
Russians on the Amur; A Systematic Atlas; &c. (^

ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A.

University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian -j Massagetae.
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College.

SIR EDWARD LEADER WILLIAMS (1828-1910).

Formerly Vice-President, Institute of Civil Engineers. Consulting Engineer, _. . _. . _

Manchester Ship Canal. Chief Engineer of the Manchester Ship Canal during its ~] Manchester Ship Canal.
construction. Author of papers printed in Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineers. [

SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lirr.D., LL.D.

Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898—1909. Sandars Reader in
Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hbn. Fellow of University College, Oxford.
Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian Academy of
Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of
Chronicon Angliae.

EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late .
Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham.
Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.

EDGAR PRESTAGE. f

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex-
aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Commendador, J Macido;
Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy ] Manuel de Mello
of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters of « Portuguese
Nun; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea; &c.

EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f Macedonian Empire;

Formerly Scholar of New College, Oxford. Author of House of Seleucus; Jerusalem •! Lvsimachus
under the High Priests. {_

REV. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON (d. 1907). f

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in\ Loyola.
England.

Manuscript.

Lung; Lupus;

Mammary Gland: Diseases.

viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

E. W. B. N. EDWARD WILLIAMS BYRON NICHOLSON, M.A.

Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Principal Librarian and Superintendent -j Mandeville, Sir John,
of the London Institution, 1873-1882. Author of Keltic Researches.

F. A. P. FREDERICK APTHORP PALEY, LL.D. J~ Lucian

See the biographical article: PALEY, F. A.

F. C. C. FREDERIC CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen).

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford, i Manichaelsm (in part).
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. I

F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. | Lothian

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. L

F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP. INST.

Vice- President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J Lymphatic System (in part) ;
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. Mammary Gland: Anatomy.
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.

F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D.

Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford University. Fellow of Brasenose T .
College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Member of the German Imperial J Lugudunum;
Archaeological Institute. Formerly Senior Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian 1 Mancunium.
of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906. Author of Monographs on
Roman History, &c. I

F. J. S. FREDERICK JOHN SNELL, M.A. / T vj_at(1

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Age of Chaucer; &c. \**^

F. K. FERNAND KHNOPFF. J" Matiou

See the biographical article: KHNOPFF, FERNAND E. J. M.

F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. f

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J Luxor;
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 Manetho.
German Archaeological Institute.

F. Po. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. f „„=„„

See the article: POLLOCK (family). \ Mame> Sir

F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f «.._.,._„

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ ra

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Magnetite*

Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -s M
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.Lirr. (Dublin).

Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, yo—
1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal •{ Marathi.
Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Lan-
guages of India ; &c.

G. Br. REV. GEORGE BRYCE, M.A., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada).

President of the Royal Society of Canada. Head of Faculty of Science and Lecturer | Manitnhi (in
in Biology and Geology in Manitoba Univers^ rSm-inr.^ A,,th«r ^f Mn»iinhn • ~\ "
A Short History of the Canadian People ; &c.

G. B. S. GEORGE BARNETT SMITH.

in Biology and Geology in Manitoba University, 1891-1904. Author of Manitoba; 1

Author of William I. and the German Empire; Life of Queen Victoria ; &c. { Maemahon.

G- C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.

Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly Editor and I M/.rnllonli Ci
Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at 1 C ' a

the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne.

G. G.* GEORGE GLADDEN. f

Associate Editor of Current Literature, 1904-1905. Editor of Biography, New J Martha's Vineyard.

International Encyclopaedia, 1901-1904, 1906-1907, and New International Year 1

Book, 1907-1908; &c. L

G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. • f

Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Author of The \ Lyndsay, Sir David.
Days of James IV. ; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c.

G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc.

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: J May-Fly (in part),
their Structure and Life.

G. R. P. GEORGE ROBERT PARKIN, LL.D., D.C.L. f Macdonald, Sir John

See the biographical article: PARKIN, GEORGE ROBERT. "^ Alexander.

f Mais t re, Joseph de;

G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D, D.C.L. Malherbe,.FranQOis de;

See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. \ Marguerite de Valois;

Marivaux, Pierre;
[ Marot, Clement.

I" Luqman;
G. W. T. REV GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A B.D. Mahommedan Religion;

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and J Mo-Hooonc a*, t>nri\-
Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Mandaeans (in part),

Maqqan;
[ MaqrizT; Mas'udi.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix

H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Formerly Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and Wales. Wollaston J Lyell Sir Charles.
Medallist, Geological Society. Author of The History of the Geological Society of
London; &c.

H. Cl. SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G. f Malacca;

Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly J Malay Peninsula;

Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Authors Malavs'

of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary

of the Malay Language. ( Malay states: Federated.

H. C. H. REV. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D.

Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological I Luray Cavern;
Society of America, National Geographic Society and Societe de Speleologie (France), -j Mammoth Cave
Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky;
&c. (.

H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.T.

Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Ada Sanctorum.

I Margaret, St; Martyrology.

H. E. S.* HORACE ELISHA SCUDDER (d. 1902). f

Formerly Editor of the Atlantic Monthly. Author of Life of James Russell Lowell; -\ Lowell, James Russell.
History of the United States ; &c.

H. Fr. HENRI FRANTZ. J" M

Art Critic, Gazette des Beaux-Arts (Paris). \ ™ lel'

H. Le. HERBERT MARTIN JAMES LOEWE, M.A.

Bueen's College, Cambridge. Curator of Oriental Literature, University Library, J Maimonides.
ambridge. Formerly Chief English Master at the Schools of the Alliance at Cairo J
and Abyassiyyeh, Egypt. Author of Kitab el Ansab of Samani; &c.

H. Lb. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and

Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal i Mechanics: Theoretical.

Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical

Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c.

H. L. H. HARRIET L. HENNESSEY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I. j Malaria (in part).

H. M. S. HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., Lrrr.D. f Maintpnnn Mid-imp HP-

T-» II- I y-« II *-. f I T-. r f **. . . . f r* • . r . \ 1>1«1I1 ICI1U11, ITlaUdillC UC,

Balhol College, Oxford. Professor of History in the University of California. •{ „
Author of History of the French Revolution ; &c. m-

H. S.* SIR HERBERT STEPHEN, BART., M.A., LL.M.

Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law. Clerk of Assize for the Northern -I Lytton, 1st Earl of.
Circuit.

H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A.

Author of Jdola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism; &c. 1 Lotze t*M Part>-

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. ^^ Ge°flrey de;

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J * *n' Adal
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angerins; Charlemagne. Matilda, Queen;

[ Matthew of Paris.

H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. f

Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J Malachi (in tart)
Oxford, 1901. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology \
(in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c. L

H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. J Mandeville, Sir John (in part);

See the biographical article : YULE, SIR HENRY. \Marignolli (in part).

L A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. [ Luria;

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge, J Luzzatto, Moses Hayim;
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short 1 Tii7zattn Samiipl David-
History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. Ma™ Marano

J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. '

See the biographical article: CROWE, SIR J. A. lse-

J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS. r Machiavelli;

See the biographical article : SYMONDS, J. A. •> Manutius

J. A. V.* JOHN AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, M.A., PH.D., F.I.C., F.L.S.

Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, &c. Author of J Manures
The Woburn Experiments ; &c.

J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT.

Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J M
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior ] masonry-
Engineers.

J. C. R. C. SIR JOHN CHARLES READY COLOMB, K.C.M.G. f m

See the biographical article : COLOMB, P. H. ~i Marines.

J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.

King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe.
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.

x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HisT.S.

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. J Lull, Raimon;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy, "j Mamjassant
Member of the Council of the Hispanic Society of America. Knight Commander
of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature. I

J. Ga. JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. J" Mary I., Queen.

See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES.

J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f

Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States Author of Burma-A Mandalay.
The Upper Burma Gazetteer. I

J. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D.

Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of ~\ Louis I. and II. Of Bavaria.

Das Rheinland unter die franzosische Herrschaft. L

J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A.

Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. \

J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). f Lord Great Chamberlain;

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Mar, Earldom of;
Pedigree. I Marquess.

J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.

Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge - „. „ ,

University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic -j kowe, air Hudson;
Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; chapters in Maret.
the Cambridge Modern History.

J. I. JULES ISAAC.

Louis XII. of France.

J. J. T. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D., F.R.S.

Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- ivrairnotn Dntii»e-
bridge. President of the British Association, 1909-1910. Author of A Treatise \ ™dS"el°-uPl
on the Motion of Vortex Rings; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; Matter.
Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism ; &c.

J. L. W. JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. J" Malory, Sir Thomas;

Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \ Map, Walter.

J. M. Gr. JAMES MONCRIEFF GRIERSON, C.B., C.M.G., C.V.O. r

Major-General, R.A. Commanding 1st Division Aldershot Command. Director J -. HIT*

of Military Operations at Headquarters, 1904-1906. Served through South African 1 Manoeuvres, Military.
War, 1900-1901. Author of Staff Duties in the Field; &c.

J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Mandeville, B

College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grate's History of Greece. [ Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

J. P. P. JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. r

Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J T /. •,

Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. 1 Luc&n (in part).
Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c.

Jno. S. SIR JOHN SCOTT, K.C.M.G., D.C.L. (1841-1904).

Deputy Judge Advocate-General to the Forces, 1898-1904. Judicial Adviser to -! Martial Law.
the Khedive of Egypt, 1890-1898. Hon. Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford.

J. Si.* REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. r

Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), Antananarivo, Mada- J Madagascar;
gascar. Membre de l'Acad6mie Malgache. Author of Madagascar and its People; | Mauritius.
Madagascar before the Conquest; A Madagascar Bibliography; &c.

J. S. Bl. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. f Mary: Mother of Jesus

Assistant-editor of the <jth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor of \ (in part).
the Encyclopaedia Biblica. Mazzini.

J. S. Co. JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A. r

Editor of the Imperial Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the Egyptian Ex-
ploration Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's College, Oxford. 1 Mahrattas (in part).
Author of India; &c.

J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J Marble;
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 Marl.
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.

J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical \ mam
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [ (** part).

J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S.

Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly „ . , /. A

Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in ] Mackerel (in part).
the University of Edinburgh and Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. (_

J. T. M. JOHN THEODORE MERZ, LL.D., PH.D., D.C.L.

Chairman of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Electric Supply Co., Ltd. Author of H L°tze (in part).
History of European Thought in the XlXth Century; &c. ' L

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi

J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. f Louis VI., VII., IX., X.

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \ and XI. of France.

J. V.* JULES VIARD. f Lore, Ambroise de;

Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction, France. -I Louvet, Jean;
Author of La France sous Philippe VI de Valois ; &c. [ Marcel, 6tienne.

J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). r Mark <;t (,;, *nri\-

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic \
Age~ &c. ^ Jnaiinew, at; LuKe, oi.

K. G. J. KINGSLEV GARLAND JAYNE. J „ .

Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. \ Malay Archipelago.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors.

K. K. KONRAD KESSLER, PH.D. f Mandaeans (in part).

Formerly Professor of Semitic Languages at the University of Greifswald. I

K. L. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A.

Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J Mary. Mother 01 Jesus
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- I (in part).
ment; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; &c.

K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. [Lute (in part);

Editor of Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the-( Lyre (in part);
Orchestra. [ Mandoline.

L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S.

Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. J Manganite;
Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. | Marcasite.
Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine.

L. V.* LuiGl VILLARI.

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent in -j Mazzini: Bibliography.
East of Europe. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country ; &c. (.

L. W. V-Hc L. W. VERNON-HARCOURT (d. 1909). / Lord Hien steward

Barrister-at-Law. Author of His Grace the Steward and the Trial of Peers. {

M. A. W. MARY A. WARD (Mrs Humphry Ward). f Lvlv

See the biographical article: WARD, MARY ARNOLD. \ '

f Louis Vffl. and XVII.

M. Br. MARGARET BRYANT. -j o{ France

M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH.D.

Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion -j MardUK.
of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c.

M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. f T vcureus. cy,,,,/,,,. Lawgiver-

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. \ ^
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. I ^ysanoer.

M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. (Oxon.). [ Mantineia (in part);

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham -j Manuel I., Comnenus;
University, 1905-1908. I Marathon (in part).

M P. MARK PATTISON, LL.D. /Macaulav

See the biographical article : PATTISON, MARK. L

N. D. M. NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. f

Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. \

N. V. JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. r

Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist J Marsilius of Padua;
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Socie'te' de I'Histoire de j Martin I.-V.: Popes.
France, and of the Soci6t6 de 1'Ecole des Chartes. [

N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Lycantnropy;
Soci&6 d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and~\ Magic.
Marriage in Australia; &c. L

0. R. OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. M.lNST.C.E. r

Formerly Professor of Engineering, Victoria University, Manchester Honorary J Lubrication.
Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge.

P. A. A. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc. JURIS. / 1 nbftek (in */ir/1

New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. \M

P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN. f »

See the biographical article:. KROPOTKIN, PRINCE, P. A. \ Maritime Province (in part).

P. G. PERCY GARDNER, M.A., Lirr.D., LL.D. f.

See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. \ ^ysl

P. GL PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LiTT.D. f

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J j^
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- J
logical Society.

Xll
P. G. T.

P. VI.
R. A.*

R. B. McK.
R. C. J.

R. G.
R. H. C.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

R. J. M.
R. K. D.

R. L.*

R. M'L.
R. M. D.

R. N. B.

R. P.
R. P. S.

R. Po.
R. S. C.

R.T.

R.We.

S. A. C.

PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D.

See the biographical article: TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE.

PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D.

See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL.

ROBERT ANCHEL.

Archivist to the Department de 1'Eure.

RONALD BRUNLEES MCKERROW, M.A.

Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of The Works of Thomas Nashe ; &c.

SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, D.C.L., LL.D.

See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE.

RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.

REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.LITT.

Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint at Oxford, 1905-1907. Fellow of the British
Academy. Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity College, Dublin, 1898-1906.'
Hibbert Lecturer at Oxford, 1898; Jowett Lecturer, 1898-1899. Author of
Critical History of a Future Life ; &c.

r

-! Maxwell, James Clerk.
j Manor (in part).

Louis XVI.; Marat.

Marprelate Controversy.

Lysias (in part).

/Lucan (in part);
I Max Miiller.

Manasses, Prayer of.

RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.

Christ Church,! Oxford. Barrister-at-law.
Gazette, London.

Formerly Editor of the St James's

SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed
Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese Consular
Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China; China;
Europe and the Far East; &c.

RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer
of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c.

ROBERT M'LACHLAN, F.R.S. f

Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine. \

RICHARD MOUNTFORD DEELEY, M.lNST.C.E., M.I.MECH.E., F.G.S.

Late Locomotive Superintendent, Midland Railway. Joint-author of Lubrication
and Lubricants.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513—1900; The First Romanovs,
1613 to 172$ ; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
to 1796; &c.

Lundy, Robert;

Macdonnell, Sorley Boy;

McNeile, Hugh;

Manchester, Earls and Dukes of;

March, Earls of;

Margaret, Queen of Scotland;

Masham, Abigail.

Manchuria.

Loris; Macaque;
Machaerodus;
Mammalia (in part);
Mammoth (in part); Manati;
Mandrill; Marmot;
Marsupialia; Mastodon.

May-Fly (in part).

REINHOLD PAULI.

See the biographical article: PAULI, REINHOLD.

R

j Lubricants.

Louis I. and II. of Hungary;

Malachowski;

Margaret, Queen; Martinuzzi;

Matthias I., Hunyadi;

Matvyeev;

Mazepa-Koledinsky.

Lubeck (in part).

Manor-House.

Lorraine;

Louis IV. and V. of France.

PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I. B.A.

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College,
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.

RENE POUPARDIN, D. ES L.

Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Biblioth&que
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c.

ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Cantab.).

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. m

Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville ] marn

and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. \ Marsi.

SIR RICHARD TEMPLE.

See the biographical article: TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD.

RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. (Princeton). f Mathpr increase-

Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of The Elegies of\ » ' ~

Maximianus; &c. [Mather, Richard.

STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. [

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and I "°*»
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In-} Manasseh.
scriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.

li

| Mahrattas (in part).

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii

.s.

Ige-
and Member of Council of the Royal Society.

S. Bl. SHEITORD BIDWELL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (1848-1009). f

Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Physical Society 1 Magnetism.

S. C. SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. / Marcantonio

\ ™

See the biographical article : COLVIN, SIDNEY.

ON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc.
See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON.

S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc. /Mar«-

\ m

T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.

Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member of
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, •
Oxford; Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topography of the

Lucania; Lucca;
Lucena; Lucretilis, Mons;
Lucus Feroniae; Luna;
Magna Graecia; Manduria;
Manfredonia;

Roman Campagna; &c.

Marches, The; Marino;

Marzabotto.

T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. f

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of I
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of ] Mare Clausum.
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I

T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, Pn.D. I" Marcellus.

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. \

f. G. Br. THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S. I"

Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto. Author of 'Essentials of -< Lymph and Lymph Formation.
Experimental Physiology. [_

T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. r

Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S.,
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's
Award; India; Tibet.

T. M. L. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. f

Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to J Luther, Martin;
the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of 1 Lutherans.
History of the Reformation ; Life of Luther ; &c.

T. R. R. S. THOMAS ROSCOE REDE STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. [

Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow of Worcester College, Oxford, -j Malacostraca.
Zoological Secretary of Linnaean Society, 1903-1907. Author of A History of
Crustacea; The Naturalist of Cumbrae; &c.

T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. f

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges,) Marlowe, Christopher (in part) ;
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 1 Marston, Philip Bourke.
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. L

T. W. R. D. THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.

Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. Professor of Lumbini;
Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President^ Mahavamsa;
of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian Maitreva
of Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; &c.

V. H. S. REV. VINCENT HENRY STANTON, M.A., D.D. r rnena| „» c*.

Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of Ely. Formerly warn, uosp i 01 ai,
Fellow, Dean, Tutor and Lecturer of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of The -j Matthew, Gospel of St;
Jewish and the Christian Messiahs; &c. [ Luke, Gospel of St.

W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. . rant™ Tou/n

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's I LUC OD' l Wn'

College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature ~]
and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. Lugano, Lake of;

[ Maggiore, Lago.

W. A. G. WALTER ARMSTRONG GRAHAM. f M 1 it t

His Siamese Majesty's Resident Commissioner for the Siamese Malay State of I malay oiaies.
Kelantan. Adviser to his Siamese Majesty's Minister for Lands and Agriculture. H Non-Federated.
Author of Kelantan, a Handbook ; &c. [_ Malay States: Siamese.

W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Louis Philippe;

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, •< Mahmud II. ;

Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. I Mass: Church.

W. D. L. WILLIAM DRAPER LEWIS, LL.B., PH.D.

Dean of the Law School, University of Pennsylvania. Lecturer on Economics, J Marshall John

Haverford College, Pennsylvania, 1890-1896. Editor of Great American Lawyers ;&c. [

W. E. A. A. WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. r

Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary J Manchester
Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the]
bardic name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c. L

W. E. D. WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M..E. f

Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London Mechanics: Applied
Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University J . .\

Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Balanc-
ing of Engines ; Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism ; &c.

W. E. G. P. WILLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A. / Marbles.

Author of The Transvaal and the Boers. \

XIV
W. F.*

W. Ho.
W. H. F.

W. J. M. R.
W. L. C.*
W. L. F.

W. L. G.

W. M. R
W. M. Ra.
W. P. C.
W. R. S.
W. Wn.

W. W. F.*
W. Y. S.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

REV. WILLIAM FAIRWEATHER, M.A., D.D. f

Minister of Dunnikier United Free Church, Kirkcaldy, N.B. Author of Maccabees -{
(Cambridge Bible for Schools) ; The Background of the Gospels; &c. I

WYNNARD HOOPER, M.A.
Clare College, Cambridge.

Financial Editor of The Times, London.

SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.

See the biographical article : FLOWER, SIR W. H.

WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN RANKINE, LL.D.

See the biographical article: RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN.

WILLIAM LEE CORBIN, A.M.

Associate Professor of English, Wells College, Aurora, New York.

Author of Documentary -j

WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D.

Professor of History in Louisiana State University.
History of Reconstruction ; &c.

WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.

Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in
Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council,
(" Colonial " series); Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration).

WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.

SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL.

WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY, D.C.L.

See the article: COURTNEY, L. H., BARON.

WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM P.OBERTSON.

WILLIAM WATSON, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Assistant Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Vice-President
of the Physical Society.

WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. r

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, J
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; 1
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period; &c. {_

WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.

Maccabees;
Maccabees, Books of.

Market.

Mammalia (in part);
Mammoth (in part);
Mandrill (in part);
Marten.

Mechanics: Applied (in part).
Mather, Cotton.

Lynch Law;
McGillivray, Alexander.

• Mackenzie, William Lyon:
Manitoba (in part).

Luini; Mantegna;
Martini; Masaccio;
Masolino da Panicale.

Lycaonia.

Marlborough, 1st Duke of.

Malachi (in part);
Mecca.

Magnet ograph;
Magnetometer.

Mars: Mythology;
Mauretania.

f Martial;

•{ Lucilius (in part);
{ Lucretius.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Lord Chamberlain.

Madison, James.

Manganese.

Marseilles.

Lotteries.

Madras.

Manila.

Marshal.

Louisiana.

Madrid.

Manipur.

Marston Moor.

Lourdes.

Mafia.

Manna.

Maryland.

Loyalists.

Magnesium.

Maori.

Massachusetts.

Luchu Archipelago.

Magnolia.

Maple.

Match.

Ltttzen.

Maine, U.S.A.

March.

Mayo.

Lyons.

Maize.

Marengo.

Mayor.

Macabre.

Malplaquet.

Marionettes.

Measles.

McKinley, William.

Malta.

Marriage.

Mecklenburg.

Madeira.

Mandamus.

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XVII

LORD CHAMBERLAIN, in England, an important officer of
the king's household, to be distinguished from the lord
great chamberlain (q.v.). He is the second dignitary of
the court, and is always a member of the government of
the day (before 1782 the office carried cabinet rank), a peer
and a privy councillor. He carries a white staff, and wears a
golden or jewelled key, typical of the key of the palace, which
is supposed to be in his charge, as the ensigns of his office. He
is responsible for the necessary arrangements connected with
state ceremonies, such as coronations and royal marriages,
christenings and funerals; he examines the claims of those who
desire to be presented at court; all invitations are sent out in
his name by command of the sovereign, and at drawing-rooms
and levees he stands next to the sovereign and announces the
persons who are approaching the throne. It is also part of his
duty to conduct the sovereign to and from his carriage.1 The
bedchamber, privy chamber and presence chamber, the ward-
robe, the housekeeper's room, the guardroom and the chapels
royal are in the lord chamberlain's department. He is regarded
as chief officer of the royal household, and he has charge of a large
number of appointments, such as those of the royal physicians,
tradesmen and private attendants of the sovereign. All theatres
in the cities of London and Westminster (except patent theatres),
in certain of the London boroughs and in the towns of Windsor
and Brighton, are licensed by him and he is also licenser of plays
(see THEATRE: Law; and REVELS, MASTER OF THE). His
salary is £2000 a year.

The vice-chamberlain of the household is the lord chamberlain's
assistant and deputy. He also is one of the ministry, a white-staff
officer and the bearer of a key ; and he is generally a peer or the son
of a peer as well as a privy councillor. He receives £700 a year.
Next to the vice-chamberlain comes the groom of the stole, an office
only in use during the reign of a king. He has the charge of the
vestment called the stole worn by the sovereign on state occasions.

'The lord chamberlain of the household at one time discharged
some important political functions, which are described by Sir
Harris Nicolas (Proceedings of the Privy Council, vol. vi., Preface,
p. xxiii).

'The office of master of the ceremonies was created by James I.
The master of the ceremonies wears a medal attached to a gold chain
round his neck, on one side being an emblem of peace with the motto

Beati pacific!," and on the other an emblem of war with the motto
" Dieu et mon droit " (see Finetti Philoxensis, by Sir John Finett,
master of the ceremonies to James I. and Charles I., 1656; and
D'Isracli's Curiosities of Literature, loth ed., p. 242 seq.).

1 See May, Parliamentary Practice, pp. 236, 244.

In the lord chamberlain's department also are the master, assistant
master, marshal of the ceremonies and deputy-marshal of the
ceremonies, officers whose special function it is to enforce the ob-
servance of the etiquette of the court. The reception of foreign
potentates and ambassadors is under their particular care, and they
assist in the ordering of all entertainments and festivities at the
palace.2 The gentleman usher of the black rod — the black rod which
he carries being the ensign of his office — is the principal usher of the
court and kingdom. He is one of the original functionaries of the
order of the Garter, and is in constant attendance on the House of
Lords, from whom, either personally or by his deputy, the yeoman
usher of the black rod, it is part of his duty to carry messages and
summonses to the House of Commons. There are six lords and six
grooms " in waiting " who attend on the sovereign throughout the
year and whose terms of attendance are of a fortnight's or three
weeks' duration at a time. Usually " extra " lords and grooms in
waiting are nominated by the sovereign, who, however, are unpaid
and have no regular duties. Among the serjeants-at-arms there are
two to whom special duties are assigned: the one attending the
speaker in the House of Commons, and the other attending the lord
chancellor in the House of Lords, carrying their maces and execut-
ing their orders.* The comptroller and examiner of accounts, the
paymaster of the household, the licenser of plays, the dean and
subdean of the chapels royal, the clerk and deputy clerks of the
closet, the groom of the robes, the pages of the backstairs, of the
chamber and of the presence, the poet laureate, the royal physi-
cians and surgeons, chaplains, painters and sculptors, librarians and
musicians, [&c., are all under the superintendence of the lord
chamberlain of the household.*

The queen consort's household is also in the department of the
lord chamberlain of the household. It comprises a lord chamberlain,
a vice-chamberlain and treasurer, equerry and the various ladies of
the royal household, a groom and a clerk of the robes. The ladies
of the household are the mistress of the robes, the ladies of the
bedchamber, the bedchamber women and the maids of honour,
The mistress of the robes in some measure occupies the position of
the groom of the stole.' She is the only lady of the court who comes
into office and goes out with the administration. She is always a
duchess, and attends the queen consort at all state ceremonies and
entertainments, but is never in permanent residence at the palace.'
The ladies of the bedchamber share the personal attendance on

4 The offices of master of the great wardrobe and master of the
jewel house in the lord chamberlain's department were abolished in
1782.

6 In the reign of Queen Anne, Sarah duchess of Marlborough from
1704, and Elizabeth duchess of Somerset from 1710, held the com-
bined offices of mistress of the robes and groom of the stole.

8 Since the great " bedchamber question " of 1839 the settled
practice has been for all the ladies of the court except the mistress
of the robes to receive and continue in their appointments inde-
pendently of the political connexions of their husbands, fathers and
brothers (see Gladstone's Gleanings of Past Years, i. 40; and
Torrens's Memoirs of Lord Melbourne, ii. 304).

xvn. i

2 LORD CHIEF JUSTICE— LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN

the queen consort throughout the year. Of these there are eight
always peeresses, and each is in waiting for a fortnight or three
weeks at a time. But the women of the bedchamber, of whom there
are also eight, appear only at court ceremonies and entertainments
according to a roster annually issued under the authority of the lord
chamberlain of the queen consort. They are usually the daughters
of peers or the wives of the sons of peers, and formerly, like the
mistress of the robes and the ladies of the bedchamber, habitually
assisted the queen at her daily toilette. But this has long ceased to
be done by any of them. The eight maids of honour have the
same terms of waiting as the ladies of the bedchamber. They are
commonly if not always the daughters or granddaughters of peers
and when they have no superior title and precedence by birth are
called honourable " and placed next after the daughters of barons
LORD CHIEF JUSTICE, in England, the presiding judge of
the king's bench division of the High Court of Justice, and in
the absence of the lord chancellor, president of the High Court.
He traces his descent from the justiciar of the Norman kings.
This officer appears first as the lieutenant or deputy of the king,
exercising all the functions of the regal office in the absence of
the sovereign. "In this capacity William Fitz-Osbern, the
steward of Normandy, and Odo of Bayeux, acted during the
Conqueror's visit to the continent in 1067; they were left,
according to William of Poitiers, the former to govern the north
of England, the latter to hold rule in Kent, vice sua; Florence
of Worcester describes them as "custodes Angliae," and Ordericus
Vitalis gives to their office the name of " praefectura." It would
seem most probable that William Fitz-Osbern at least was left
in his character of steward, and that the Norman seneschalship
was thus the origin of the English justiciarship " (Stubbs's
Constitutional History, i. 346). The same authority observes
that William of Warenne and Richard Clare (Bienfaite), who
were left in charge of England in 1074, are named by a writer
in the next generation " praecipui Angliae justitiarii "; but
he considers the name to have not yet been definitely attached
to any particular office, and that there is no evidence to show that
officers appointed to this trust exercised any functions at all
when the king was at home, or in his absence exercised supreme
judicial authority to the exclusion of other high officers of the
court. The office became permanent in the reign of William
Rufus, and in the hands of Ranulf Flambard it became co-
extensive with the supreme powers of government. But it was
not till the reign of Henry II. that the chief officer of the crown
acquired the exclusive right to the title of capitalis or totius
Angliae juslitiarius. Stubbs considers that the English form
of the office is to be accounted for by the king's desire to prevent
the administration falling into the hands of an hereditary noble.
The early justiciars were clerics, in whom the possession of power
could not become hereditary. The justiciar continued to be the
chief officer of state, next to the king, until the fall of Hubert
de Burgh (in the reign of King John), described by Stubbs as
the last of the great justiciars. Henceforward, according to
Stubbs, the office may be said to have survived only in the judicial
functions, which were merely part of the official character of the
chief justiciar. He was at the head of the curia regis, which was
separating itself into the three historical courts of common law
about the time when the justiciarship was falling from the supreme
place. The chancellor took the place of the justiciar in council,
the treasurer in the exchequer, while the two offshoots from the
curia regis, the common pleas and the exchequer, received chiefs
of their own. The king's bench represented the original stock of
the curia regis, and its chief justice the great justiciar. The
justiciar may, therefore, be said to have become from a political
a purely judicial officer. A similar development awaited his
successful rival the chancellor. Before the Judicature Act the
king's bench and the common pleas were each presided over by a
lord chief justice, and the lord chief justice of the king's bench
was nominal head of all the three courts, and held the title of
lord chief justice of England. The titles of lord chief justice of
the common pleas and lord chief baron were abolished by the
Judicature Act 1873, and all the common law divisions of the
High Court united into the king's bench division, the president
of which is the lord chief justice of England.

The lord chief justice is, next to the lord chancellor, the highest
judicial dignitary in the kingdom. He is an ex-officio judge of the

court of appeal. He holds office during good behaviour, and can only
be removed by the crown (by whom he is appointed) after a joint
address of both houses of parliament. He is now the only judicial
functionary privileged to wear the collar of SS. There has been much
discussion as to the origin and history of this collar;1 it was a badge
or insignia attached to certain offices entitling the holders to wear it
only so long as they held those offices. The collar of SS. was worn
by the chiefs of the three courts previous to their amalgamation in
1873, and that now worn by the lord chief justice of England was
provided by Sir A. Cockburn in 1859 and entailed by him on all
holders of the office. The salary is £8000 a year.

In the United States the supreme court consists of a chief justice
and eight associate justices, any six of whom make a quorum. The
salary of the chief justice is $13,000 and that of the associates
$12,500. The chief justice takes rank next after the president and
he administers the oath on the inauguration of a new president and
vice-president. The principal or presidingjudge in most of thestate
judicatures also takes the title of chief justice.

LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN, in England, a functionary
who must be carefully distinguished from the lord chamberlain;
he is one of the great officers of state, whose office dates frorr
Norman times; and the only one who still holds it under a
creation of that period. As his name implies, he was specially
connected by his duties with the king's chamber (camera curie);
but this phrase was also used to denote the king's privy purse,
and the chamberlain may be considered as originally the financial
officer of the household. But as he was always a great baron,
deputies performed his financial work, and his functions became,
as they are now, mainly ceremonial, though the emblem of his
office is still a key. The office had been held by Robert Malet,
son of a leading companion of the Conqueror, but he was forfeited
by Henry I., who, in 1133, gave the great chamberlainship to
Aubrey de Vere and his heirs. Aubrey's son was created earl of
Oxford, and the earls held the office, with some intermission,
till 1526, when the then earl left female heirs. His heir-male
succeeded to the earldom, but the crown, as is now established,
denied his right to the office, which was thenceforth held under
grants for life till Queen Mary and Elizabeth admitted in error
the right of the earls on the strength of their own allegation.
So matters continued till 1626, when an earl died and again
left an heir-male and an heir-female. After an historic contest
the office was adjudged to the former, Lord Willoughby d'Eresby.
No further question arose till 1779, when his heirs were two sisters.
In 1781 the House of Lords decided that it belonged to them
jointly, and that they could appoint a deputy, which they did.
Under a family arrangement the heirs of the two sisters respec-
tively appointed deputies in alternate reigns till the death of
Queen Victoria, when Lord Ancaster, the heir of the elder, who
was then in possession, claimed that he, as such, had sole right
to the office. Lord Cholmondeley and Lord Carrington as co-
heirs of the younger sister, opposed his claim, and the crown
also claimed for itself on the ground of the action taken by the
king in 1526. After a long and historic contest, the House of
Lords (1902) declined to re-open the question, and merely
re-affirmed the decision of 1781, and the office, therefore, is now
vested jointly in the three peers named and their heirs.

The lord great chamberlain has charge of the palace of
Westminster, especially of the House of Lords, in which he has
an office; and when the sovereign opens parliament in person
he is responsible for the arrangements. At the opening or closing
of the session of parliament by the sovereign in person he dis-
poses of the sword of state to be carried by any peer he may select,
and walks himself in the procession on the right of the sword of
state, a little before it and next to the sovereign. He issues the
tickets of admission on the same occasions. He assists at the
introduction of all peers into the House of Lords on their creation,
and at the homage of all bishops after their consecration. At
coronations he emerges into special importance; he still asserts
before the court of claims his archaic right to bring the king his
" shirt, stockings and drawers " and to dress him on coronation
day and to receive his ancient fees, which include the king's
bed and " night robe." He also claims in error to serve the king

1 Notes and Queries, series I, vol. ii.; series 4, vols. ii. ix. x. ; series
6, vols. ii. iii.; Planche, Dictionary of Costume, p. 126; Foss, Lives
of the Judges, vol. vii.; Dugdale, Orig. Jud. fol. 102.

LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR— LORD HIGH STEWARD

with water before and after the banquet, which was the function
of the " ewry," a distinct office held by the earls of Oxford
At the actual coronation ceremony he takes an active part in
investing the king with the royal insignia.

See J. H. Round, " The Lord Great Chamberlain " (Monthly
Review, June 1002) and " Notes on the Lord Great Chamberlain
Case " (Ancestor, No. IV.). (J. H. R.)

LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR, one of the great officers of state
of the United Kingdom, and in England the highest judicia
functionary. The history of the office and of the growth o
the importance of the lord chancellor will be found under
CHANCELLOR. The lord chancellor is in official rank the
highest civil subject in the land outside the royal family
and takes precedence immediately after the archbishop 01
Canterbury. His functions have sometimes been exercised by
a lord keeper of the great seal (see LORD KEEPER), the only real
difference between the two offices being in the appointment oi
the keeper by mere delivery of the seal, while a lord chancellor
receives letters patent along with it. He is by office a privy
councillor, and it has long been the practice to make him a peer
and also a cabinet minister. He is by prescription Speaker
or prolocutor of the House of Lords, and as such he sits upon
the woolsack, which is not strictly within the House. Unlike
the Speaker of the House of Commons, the lord chancellor takes
part in debates, speaking from his place in the House. He votes
from the woolsack instead of going into the division lobby.
The only function which he discharges as Speaker practically
is putting the question; if two debaters rise together, he has
no power to call upon one, nor can he rule upon points of order.
Those taking part in debates address, not the lord chancellor,
but the whole House, as " My Lords." The lord chancellor
always belongs to a political party and is affected by its fluctua-
tions. This has often been denounced as destructive of the
independence and calm deliberativeness essential to the purity
and efficiency of the bench. In defence, however, of the
ministerial connexion of the chancellor, it has been said that,
while the other judges should be permanent, the head of the
law should stand or fall with the ministry, as the best means of
securing his effective responsibility to parliament for the
proper use of his extensive powers. The transference of the
judicial business of the chancery court to the High Court
of Justice removed many of the objections to the fluctuating
character of the office. As a great officer of state, the lord
chancellor acts for both England and Scotland, and in some
respects for the United Kingdom, including Ireland (where,
however, an Irish lord chancellor is at the head of the legal
system). By Article XXIV. of the Act of Union (1705)
one great seal was appointed to be kept for all public acts,
and in this department the lord chancellor's authority extends
to the whole of Britain, and thus the commissions of the
peace for Scotland as well as England issue from him.1 As
an administrative officer, as a judge and as head of the
law, he acts merely for England. His English ministerial
functions are thus briefly described by Blackstone: "He be-
came keeper of the king's conscience, visitor, in right of the
king, of all hospitals and colleges of the king's foundation,
and patron of all the king's livings under the value of twenty
marks per annum in the king's books. He is the general guardian
of all infants, idiots and lunatics, and has the general super-
intendence of all charitable uses in the kingdom." But these
duties and jurisdiction by modern statutes have been distributed
for the most part among other offices or committed to the
judges of the High Court (see CHARITY AND CHARITIES; INFANT;
INSANITY). Under the Judicature Act 1873 the lord chancellor
is a member of the court of appeal, and, when he sits, its president,
and he is also a judge of the High Court of Justice. He is named
as president of the chancery division of the latter court. His
judicial patronage is very extensive, and he is by usage the
adviser of the crown in the appointment of judges2 of the
1 The great seal, which exists in duplicate for Irish use, is the great
seal of the United Kingdom.

Except the lord chief justice, who is appointed on the nomination
of the prime minister.

High Court. He presides over the hearing of appeals in the
House of Lords. His proper title is " Lord High Chancellor
of Great Britain and Ireland." His salary is £10,000 per annum,
and he is entitled to a pension of £5000 per annum.

AUTHORITIES. — Observations concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor
(1651), attributed to Lord Chancellor Ellesmere; Blackstone's
Commentaries; Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors; and D. M
Kerly, Historical Sketch of the Equitable Jurisdiction of the Court of
Chancery (1890).

LORD HIGH CONSTABLE, in England, the seventh of the
great officers of state. His office is now called out of abeyance
for coronations alone. The constable was originally the com-
mander of the royal armies and the master of the horse. He
was also, in conjunction with the earl marshal, president of
the court of chivalry or court of honour. In feudal times martial
law was administered in the court of the lord high constable.
The constableship was granted as a grand serjeanty with the
earldom of Hereford by the empress Maud to Milo of Gloucester,
and was carried by his heiress to the Bohuns, earls of Hereford
and Essex. Through a coheiress of the Bohuns it descended to
the Staffords, dukes of Buckingham; and on the attainder
of Edward Stafford, third duke of Buckingham, in the reign of
Henry VIII. it became merged in the crown. The Lacys and
Verduns were hereditary constables of Ireland from the izth to
the i4th century; and the Hays, earls of Erroll, have been
hereditary constables of Scotland from early in the I4th century.

LORD HIGH STEWARD. The Lord High Steward of England,
who must not be confused with the Lord Steward, ranks as the
first of the great officers of state. Appointments to this office
are now made only for special occasions, such as the coronation
of a sovereign or the trial of a peer by his peers. The history
of the office is noteworthy. The household of the Norman and
Angevin kings of England included certain persons of secondary
rank, styled dapifers, seneschals or stewards (the prototypes of
the lord steward), who were entrusted with domestic and state
duties; the former duties were those of purveyors and sewers to
the king, the latter were undefined. At coronations, however,
and great festivals it became the custom in England and else-
where to appoint magnates of the first rank to discharge for the
occasion the domestic functions of the ordinary officials. In
accordance with this custom Henry II. appointed both Robert II.,
earl of Leicester, and Hugh Bigod, earl of Norfolk, to be his
honorary hereditary stewards; and at the Christmas festival
of 1 1 86 the successors in title of these two earls, with William,
;arl of Arundel, who held the similar honorary office of hereditary
butler, are described as serving the king at the royal banqueting
table. Subsequently the earls of Leicester bought out the rights
of the earls of Norfolk for ten knights' fees.

The last of these earls of Leicester to inherit the hereditary
stewardship was Simon V. de Montfort; how he served as steward
at the coronation of Eleanor, queen of Henry III., is described
n the Exchequer Red Book. The office of steward in France,
then recently suppressed, had for some time been the highest
office of state in that kingdom, and Simon de Montfort appears
to have considered that his hereditary stewardship entitled him
.o high official position in England; and after his victory at
^ewes he repeatedly figures as steward of England in official
documents under the great seal. After Simon's death at Eves-
lam his forfeited estates were conferred on his son Edmund
of Lancaster, who also obtained a grant of the stewardship,
)ut only for life. Edmund was succeeded by Thomas, earl of
^ancaster, who received a fresh grant of the stewardship to
u'mself and the heirs of his body from Edward II.; and this
earl it was who, during the weak administration of the last-
mentioned king, first put forward in a celebrated tract the claim
of the steward to be the second personage in the realm and
upreme judge in parliament, a claim which finds some slight
ecognition in the preamble to the statute passed against the
Despencers in the first year of Edward IH.

Earl Thomas was executed for treason, and though his

attainder was reversed he left no issue, and was succeeded in

he earldom by his brother Henry. The subsequent earls and

dukes of Lancaster were all recognized as stewards of England,

LORD HIGH TREASURER

the office apparently being treated as annexed to the earldom, or
honor, of Leicester. John of Gaunt, indeed, at a time when it
was possible that he would never obtain the Leicester moiety of
the Lancastrian estates, seems to have made an ingenious but
quite unfounded claim to the office as annexed to the honor of
Hinckley. Strictly speaking, none of the Lancasters after
Thomas had any clear title either by grant or otherwise; such
title as they had merged in the crown when Henry IV. usurped
the throne. Meanwhile the stewardship had increased in im-
portance. On the accession of Edward III., Henry, earl of
Lancaster, as president of the council, had superintended the
coronation of the infant king; John of Gaunt did the same
for the infant Richard II.; and, as part of the duties involved,
sat in the White Hall of Westminster to hear and determine the
claims to perform coronation services. The claims were made by
petition, and included amongst others: the claim of Thomas of
Woodstock to act as constable, the rival claims of John Dymock
and Baldwin de Frevile to act as champion, and the claim of
the barons of the Cinque Ports to carry a canopy over the king.
Minutes of these proceedings, in which the duke is stated to
have sat " as steward of England," were enrolled by his order.
This is the origin of what is now called the Court of Claims.
The precedent of Richard II. has been followed on all subsequent
occasions, except that in modern times it has been the practice
to appoint commissioners instead of a steward to superintend
this court. In 1397 John of Gaunt created a notable precedent
in support of the steward's claim to be supreme judge in parlia-
ment by presiding at the trial of the earl of Arundel and others.
When Henry IV. came to the throne he appointed his young
son Thomas, afterwards duke of Clarence, to the office of steward.
Clarence held the office until his death. He himself never acted
as judge in parliament; but in 1415 he was appointed to preside
at the judgment of peers delivered in Southampton against
Richard, earl of Cambridge, and Lord Scrope of Masham, who
had been previously tried by commissioners of oyer and terminer.
No permanent steward was ever again created; but a steward
was always appointed for coronations to perform the various
ceremonial services associated with the office, and, until the Court
of Claims was entrusted to commissioners, to preside over that
court. Also, in the isth century, it gradually became the custom
to appoint a steward pro hac vice to preside at the trial, or at the
proceedings upon the attainder of a peer in parliament; and
later, to preside over a court, called the court of the lord high
steward, for the trial of peers when parliament was not sitting.
To assist in establishing the latter court a precedent of 1400
appears to have been deliberately forged. This precedent is
reported in the printed V 'ear-Book of 1400, first published in
1553; it describes the trial of " the earl of H " for participation
in the rebellion of that year, and gives details of procedure.
John Holand, earl of Huntingdon, is undoubtedly the earl
indicated, but the evidence is conclusive that he was murdered
in Essex without any trial. The court of the lord high steward
seems to have been first definitely instituted in 1499 for the trial
of Edward Plantagenet, earl of Warwick; only two years earlier
Lord Audley had been condemned by the court of chivalry, a
very different and unpopular tribunal. The Warwick trial was
most carefully schemed: the procedure, fundamentally dis-
similar to that adopted in 1415, follows exactly the forged
precedent; but the constitution of the court was plainly derived
from the Southampton case. The record of the trial was con-
signed to a new repository (commonly but wrongly called the
Baga de Secretis), which thenceforth became the regular place
of custody for important state trials. Latterly, and possibly
from its inception, this repository consisted of a closet with
three locks, of which the keys were entrusted, one to the chief
justice of England, another to the attorney-general and the third
to the master of the crown office, or coroner. Notwithstanding
the irregular origin of the steward's court, for which Henry VII.
must be held responsible, the validity of its jurisdiction cannot
be questioned. The Warwick proceedings were confirmed by
act of parliament, and ever since this court has been fully
recognized as part of the English constitution.

For about a century and a half prior to the reign of James I.
the criminal jurisdiction of parliament remained in abeyance,
and bills of attainder were the vogue. The practice of appoint-
ing a steward on these occasions to execute judgment upon a
peer was kept up till 1477, when George, duke of Clarence, was
attainted, and then dropped. Under the Stuarts the criminal
jurisdiction of parliament was again resorted to, and when the
proceedings against a peer were founded on indictment the
appointment of a steward followed as a matter of settled practice.
The proper procedure in cases of impeachment had, on the
contrary, never been defined. On the impeachment of Strafford
the lords themselves appointed Arundel to be high steward.
In Danby's case a commission under the great seal issued in the
common form adopted for the court of the steward; this was
recalled, and the rule agreed to by a joint committee of both
houses that a steward for trials of peers upon impeachments
was unnecessary. But, as such an appointment was obviously
convenient, the lords petitioned for a steward; and a fresh
commission was accordingly issued in an amended form, which
recited the petition, and omitted words implying that the appoint-
ment was necessary. This precedent has been treated as settling
the practice of parliament with regard to impeachments.

Of the proceedings against peers founded upon indictment
very few trials antecedent to the revolution took place in parlia-
ment. The preference given to the steward's court was largely
due to the practice, founded upon the Southampton case, of
summoning only a few peers selected by the steward, a practice
which made it easy for the king to secure a conviction. This
arrangement has been partially abrogated by the Treason Act
of William III., which in cases of treason and misprision of
treason requires that all peers of parliament shall be summoned
twenty days at least before every such trial. The steward's
court also differed in certain other particulars from the high
court of parliament. For example, it was ruled by Lord Chan-
cellor Jeffreys, as steward at the trial of Lord Delamere, that,
in trials of peers which take place during the recess of parliament
in the steward's court, the steward is the judge of the court,
the court is held before him, his warrant convenes the prisoner
to the bar, his, summons convenes the peers for the trial, and he
is to determine by his sole authority all questions of law that arise
in the course of the trial, but that he is to give no vote upon the
issue of guilty or not guilty; during a session of parliament, on
the contrary, all the peers are both triers and judges, and the
steward is only as chairman of the court and gives his vote
together with the other lords. Lord Delamere was tried in 1685
in the steward's court; since then all trials of peers have taken
place before the lords Jn parliament. The most recent trial was
that of Earl Russell in 1901, when Lord Chancellor Halsbury
was made lord high steward. The steward is addressed as " his
grace," he has a rod of office, and the commission appointing
him is dissolved according to custom by breaking this rod.

A court of claims sat and a steward was appointed for the
coronation of Edward VII.; and during the procession in West-
minster Abbey the duke of Marlborough, as steward, carried
" St Edward's crown" in front of the bearer of the Bible (the
bishop of London), who immediately preceded the king; this
function of the steward is of modern origin. The steward's
ancient and particular services at coronations are practically
obsolete; the full ceremonies, procession from Westminster
Hall and banquet in which he figured prominently, were aban-
doned on the accession of William IV.

For the early history of the steward see L. W. Vernon-Harcourt,
His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers (1907) ; for the later history
of the office see Sir E. Coke, Institutes (1797) ; Cobbett and Howelf,
State Trials (1809, seq.); S. M. Phillipps, State Trials (1826); John
Hatsell, Precedents, vol. 4 (1818); and Sir M. Foster, Crown Law
(1809). See also the various works on Coronations for the steward's
services on these occasions. (L. W. V.-H.)

LORD HIGH TREASURER, in England, once the third great
officer of state. The office was of Norman origin and dated
from 1216. The duty of the treasurer originally was to act as
keeper of the royal treasure at Winchester, while as officer of
the exchequer he sat at Westminster to receive the accounts

LORD HOWE— LORDS JUSTICES OF APPEAL

of the sheriffs, and appoint officers to collect the revenue. The
treasurer was subordinate to both the justiciar and the chancellor,
but the removal of the chancery from the exchequer in the
reign of Richard I., and the abolition of the office of justiciars
in the reign of Henry III., increased his importance. Indeed,
from the middle of the reign of Henry III. he became one of
the chief officers of the crown. He took an important part
in the equitable jurisdiction of the exchequer, and was now
styled not merely king's treasurer or treasurer of the exchequer,
but lord high treasurer and treasurer of the exchequer. The
first office was conferred by delivery of a white staff, the second
by patent. Near the end of the i6th century he had developed
into an official so occupied with the general policy of the country
as to be prevented from supervising personally the details of
the department, and Lord Burleigh employed a secretary for
this purpose. On the death of Lord Salisbury in 1612 the office
was put in commission; it was filled from time to time until
1714, when the duke of Shrewsbury resigned it; since that time
it has always been in commission (see TREASURY) . The Scottish
treasury was merged with the English by the Act of Union,
but the office of lord high treasurer for Ireland was continued
until 1816.

LORD HOWE, an island of the southern Pacific Ocean, lying
about 31° 36' S., 159° 5' E., 520 m. E.N.E. of Sydney. Pop.
120. It was discovered in 1778 by Lieutenant Ball (whose
name is commemorated in the adjacent islet of Ball's Pyramid),
and is a dependency of New South Wales. It measures about
5^ m. by i m., and is well wooded and hilly (reaching a height
of 2840 ft. at the southern end), being of volcanic formation,
while there are coral reefs on the western shore. It has a pleasant
climate. The name Lord Howe is given also to an islet of the
Santa Cruz group, and to two islands, also known under other
names — Mopiha, of the Society group, and Ongtong Java of
the Solomon Islands.

LORD JUSTICE CLERK, in Scotland, a judge next in rank
to the lord justice-general. He presides in the second division
of the court of session, and in the absence of the lord justice-
general, presides in the court of justiciary. The justice clerk
was originally not a judge at all, but simply clerk and legal
assessor of the justice court. In course of time he was raised
from the clerk's table to the bench, and by custom presided
over the court in the absence of the justice-general. Up to
1672 his position was somewhat anomalous, as it was doubtful
whether he was a clerk or a judge, but an act of that year, which
suppressed the office of justice-depute, confirmed his position
as a judge, forming him, with the justice-general and five of
the lords of session into the court of justiciary. The lord justice
clerk is also one of the officers of state for Scotland, and one of
the commissioners for keeping the Scottish Regalia. His salary
is £4800 a year.

LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL, the highest judge in Scotland,
head of the court of justiciary, called also the lord president,
and as such head of the court of session and representative of
the sovereign. The office of justice-general was for a consider-
able time a sinecure post held by one of the Scottish nobility,
but by the Court of Session Act 1830, it was enacted that, at
the termination of the existing interest, the office should be united
with that of lord president of the court of session, who then
became presiding judge of the court of justiciary. The salary
is £5000 a year.

LORD KEEPER OF THE GREAT SEAL, in England, formerly
a great officer of state. The Great Seal of England, which is
affixed on all solemn occasions to documents expressing the
pleasure of the sovereign, was first adopted by Edward the
Confessor (see SEALS), and entrusted to a chancellor for keeping.
The office of chancellor from the time of Becket onwards varied
much in importance; the holder being an ecclesiastic, he was
not only engaged in the business of his diocese, but sometimes
was away from England. Consequently, it became not unusual
to place the personal custody of the great seal in the hands of
a vice-chancellor or keeper; this, too, was the practice followed
during a temporary vacancy in the chancellorship. This office

gradually developed into a permanent appointment, and the
lord keeper acquired the right of discharging all the duties
connected with the great seal. He was usually, though not
necessarily, a peer, and held office during the king's pleasure,
he was appointed merely by delivery of the seal, and not, like
the chancellor, by patent. His status was definitely fixed (in the
case of lord keeper Sir Nicholas Bacon) by an act of Elizabeth,
which declared him entitled to " like place, pre-eminence,
jurisdiction, execution of laws, and all other customs, com-
modities, and advantages " as the lord chancellor. In sub-
sequent reigns the lord keeper was generally raised to the
chancellorship, and retained the custody of the seal. The last
lord keeper was Sir Robert Henley (afterwards Lord Northington),
who was made chancellor on the accession of George III.

LORD MAYOR'S DAY, in England, the oth of November,
the date of the inauguration of the lord mayor of London
(see Vol. XVI., p. 966), marked by a pageant known as the
Lord Mayor's Show. The first of these pageants was held in
1215. The idea originated in the stipulation made in a charter
then granted by John that the citizen chosen to be mayor
should be presented to the king or his justice for approval.
The crowd of citizens who accompanied the mayor on horse-
back to Westminster developed into a yearly pageant, which
each season became more elaborate. Until the isth century
the mayor either rode or walked to Westminster, but in 1453
Sir John Norman appears to have set a fashion of going
by water. From 1639 to 1655 the show disappeared owing to
Puritan opposition. With the Restoration the city pageant
was revived, but interregnums occurred during the years of
the plague and fire, and in 1683 when a quarrel broke out
between Charles and the city, ending in the temporary abro-
gation of the charter. In 1711 an untoward accident befell
the show, the mayor Sir Gilbert Heathcote (the original of
Addison's Sir Andrew Freeport) being thrown by his horse.
The next year a coach was, in consequence, provided for the
chief magistrate. In 1757 this was superseded by a gilded and
elaborately decorated equipage costing £10,065 which was used
till 1896, when a replica of it was built to replace it.

LORD PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL, in England, one of the
great officers of state, and a member of the ministry. It was
only in 1679 that the office of lord president became permanent.
Previously either the lord chancellor, the lord keeper of the
seal, or some particular court official took formal direction of
the Privy Council. In the reign of Charles I. a special lord
president of the council was appointed, but in the following
reign the office was left unfilled. The office was of considerable
importance when the powers of the Privy Council, exercised
through various committees, were of greater extent than at the
present time. For example, a committee of the lords of the
council was formerly responsible for the work now dealt with by
the secretary of state for foreign affairs; so also with that now
discharged by the Board of Trade. The lord president up to
1855 — when a new post of vice-president of the council was
created — was responsible for the education department. He
was also responsible for the duties of the council in regard to
public health, now transferred to the Local Government Board,
and for duties in regard to agriculture, now transferred to the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. The duties of the office now
consist of presiding on the not very frequent occasions when the
Privy Council meets, and of the drawing up of minutes of council
upon subjects which do not belong to any other department of
state. The office is very frequently held in conjunction with
other ministerial offices, for example, in Gladstone's fourth
ministry the secretary of state for India was also lord president
of the council, and in the conservative ministry of 1903 the
holder of the office was also president of the Board of Education.
The lord president is appointed by a declaration made in council
by the sovereign. He is invariably a member of the House of
Lords, and he is also included in the cabinet.

LORDS JUSTICES OF APPEAL, in England, the ordinary
judges of the court of appeal, the appellate division of the High
Court of Justice. Their style was provided for by the Supreme

LORDS OF APPEAL IN ORDINARY— LORELEI

Court of Judicature Act 1877. The number was fixed at five
by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1881, s. 3. Their
salary is £5000 a. year (see APPEAL).

LORDS OF APPEAL IN ORDINARY, in England, certain
persons (limited to four), who, having held high judicial office
or practised at the bar for not less than fifteen years, sit as
members of the House of Lords to adjudicate in cases before
that House in its legal capacity, and also to aid the judicial
committee of the Privy Council in hearing appeals. Of the four
lords of appeal in ordinary one is usually appointed from the
Irish bench or bar and one from Scotland. Their salary is
£ 6000 a year. They hold office on the same conditions as other
judges. By the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, under which they
are appointed, lords of appeal in ordinary are, by virtue of and
according to the date of their appointment, entitled during
life to rank as barons and during the time that they continue in
office are entitled to a writ of summons to attend, and to sit and
vote in the House of Lords. They are life peers only. The
patent of a lord of appeal in ordinary differs from that of a baron
in that he is not " created " but " nominated and appointed
to be a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary by the style of Baron."

LORD STEWARD, in England, an important official of the
king's household. He is always a member of the government,
a peer and a privy councillor. Up to 1782, the office was one of
considerable political importance and carried cabinet rank.
• The lord steward receives his appointment from the sovereign
in person, and bears a white staff as the emblem and warrant of
his authority. He is the first dignitary of the court. In the
Statutes of Eltham he is called " the lord great master," but in
the Household Book of Queen Elizabeth " the lord steward,"
as before and since. In an act of Henry VIII. (1539) " for
placing of the lords," he is described as " the grand master or
lord steward of the king's most honourable household." He
presides at the Board of Green Cloth.1 In his department are
the treasurer and comptroller of the household, who rank next
to him. These officials are usually peers or the sons of peers and
privy councillors. They sit at the Board of Green Cloth, carry
white staves, and belong to the ministry. But the duties which
in theory belong to the lord steward, treasurer and comptroller
of the household are in practice performed by the master of the
household, who is a permanent officer and resides in the palace.
He is a white-staff officer and a member of the Board of Green
Cloth but not of the ministry, and among other things he pre-
sides at the daily dinners of the suite in waiting on the sovereign.
In his case history repeats itself. He is not named in the Black
Book of Edward IV. or in the Statutes of Henry VIII., and
is entered as " master of the household and clerk of the green
cloth " in the Household Book of Queen Elizabeth. But he has
superseded the lord steward of the household, as the lord steward
of the household at one time superseded the lord high steward
of England.

In the lord steward's department are the officials of the Board
of Green Cloth, the coroner (" coroner of the verge "),and pay-
master of the household, and the officers of the almonry (see
ALMONER). Other offices in the department were those of the
cofferer of the household, the treasurer of the chamber, and the
paymaster of pensions, but these, with six clerks of the Board of
Green Cloth, were abolished in 1782. The lord steward had
formerly three courts besides the Board of Green Cloth under
him. First, the lord steward's court, superseded (1541) by —
second — the Marshalsea court, a court of record having jurisdic-
tion, both civil and criminal within the verge (the area within a
radius of 12 m. from where the sovereign is resident), and
originally held for the purpose of administering justice between
the domestic servants of the sovereign, " that they might not
be drawn into other courts and their service lost." Its criminal

*A committee of the king's household, consisting of the lord
steward and his subordinates, charged with the duty of examining
and passing all the accounts of the Household. The board had also
power to punish all offenders within the verge or jurisdiction of the
palace, which extended in every direction for 200 yds. from the gates
of the court yard. The name is derived from the green-covered table
at which the transactions of the board were originally conducted.

jurisdiction had long fallen into disuse and its civil jurisdiction
was abolished in 1849. Third, the palace court, created by letters
patent in 1612 and renewed in 1665 with jurisdiction over all
personal matters arising between parties within 12 m. of White-
hall (the jurisdiction of the Marshalsea court, the City of London,
and Westminster Hall being excepted). It differed from the
Marshalsea court in that it had no jurisdiction over the sovereign's
household nor were its suitors necessarily of the household.
The privilege of practising before the palace court was limited
to four counsel. It was abolished in 1849. The lord steward or
his deputies formerly administered the oaths to the members
of the House of Commons. In certain cases (messages from the
sovereign under the sign-manual) " the lords with white staves"
are the proper persons to bear communications between the
sovereign and the houses of parliament.

AUTHORITIES. — Statutes of Eltham; Household Book of Queen
Elizabeth; Coke, Institutes; Reeves, History of the Law of England;
Stephen, Commentaries on the Laws of England; Hatsell, Precedents
of Proceedings in the House of Commons; May, Parliamentary
Practice.

LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446), baron of Ivry in Nor-
mandy and a French commander, was born at the chateau of
Lore (Orne, arrondissement of Domfront). His first exploit in
arms was at the battle of Agincourt in 1415; he followed the
party of the Armagnacs and attached himself to the dauphin
Charles. He waged continual warfare against the English in
Maine until the advent of Joan of Arc. He fought at Jargeau,
at Meung-sur-Loire and at Patay (1429). Using his fortress
of Saint Ceneri as a base of operations during the next few years,
he seized upon Matthew Gough near Vivoin in 143 1 , and made an
incursion as far as the walls of Caen, whence he brought away
three thousand prisoners. Taken captive himself in 1433, he
was exchanged for Talbot. In 1435 he and Dunois defeated
the English near Meulan, and in 1436 he helped the constable
Arthur, earl of Richmond (de Richmond), to expel them from
Paris. He was appointed provost of Paris in February 1437,
and in 1438 he was made " judge and general reformer of the
malefactors of the kingdom." He was present in 1439 at the
taking of Meaux, in 1441 at that of Pontoise, and he died on the
24th of May 1446.

See the Nouvelle Biographie Generate, vol. xxxi., and the Revue
Historique du Maine, vols. iii. and vi. (]. V.*)

LORE, properly instruction, teaching, knowledge. The O. Eng.
l&r, as the Dutch leer and Ger. Lehre, represents the Old Teutonic
root, meaning to impart or receive knowledge, seen in " to
learn," " learning." In the Gentleman's Magazine for June
1830 it was suggested that " lore " should be used as a termination
instead of the Greek derivative -ology in the names of the various
sciences. This was never done, but the word, both as termination
and alone, is frequently applied to the many traditional beliefs,
stories, &c., connected with the body of knowledge concerning
some special subject; e.g. legendary lore, bird-lore, &c. The
most familiar use is in " folk-lore " (<?.».).

LORELEI (from Old High Ger. Lur, connected with modern
Ger. lauern, " to lurk," " be on the watch for," and equivalent
to elf, and lai, " a rock "). The Lorelei is a rock in the Rhine
near St Goar, which gives a remarkable echo, which may partly
account for the legend. The tale appears in many forms, but is
best known through Heinrich Heine's poem, beginning Ich
•weiss nicht was soil es bedeuten. In the commonest form of the
story the Lorelei is a maiden who threw herself into the Rhine
in despair over a faithless lover, and became a siren whose voice
lured fishermen to destruction. The 13th-century minnesinger,
known as Der Marner, says that the Nibelungen treasure was
hidden beneath the rock. The tale is obviously closely con-
nected with the myth of Holda, queen of the elves. On the Main
she sits combing her locks on the Hullenstein, and the man
who sees her loses sight or reason, while he who listens is con-
demned to wander with her for ever. The legend, which Clemens
Brentano claimed as his own invention when he wrote his poem
" Zu Bacharach am Rheine " in his novel of Godwi (1802), bears
all the marks of popular mythology. In the igth century it
formed material for a great number of songs, dramatic sketches,

LORETO

operas and even tragedies, which are enumerated by Dr Hermann
Seeliger in his Loreleysage in Dichtung und Musik (Leipzig-
Reudnitz, 1898). The favourite poem with composers was
Heine's, set to music by some twenty-five musicians, the settings
by Friedrich Silcher (from an old folk-song) and by Liszt being
the most famous.

LORETO, an episcopal see and pilgrimage resort of the Marches,
Italy, in the province of Ancona, 15 m. by rail S.S.E. of that
town. Pop. (1901) 1178 (town), 8033 (commune). It lies
upon the right bank of the Musone, at some distance from the
railway station, on a hill-side commanding splendid views from
the Apennines to the Adriatic, 341 ft. above sea-level. The town
itself consists of little more than one long narrow street, lined
with shops for the sale of rosaries, medals, crucifixes and similar
objects, the manufacture of which is the sole industry of the place.
The number of pilgrims is said to amount to 50,000 annually,
the chief festival being held on the 8th of September, the
Nativity of the Virgin. The principal buildings, occupying the
four sides of the piazza, are the college of the Jesuits, the Palazzo
Apostolico, now Reale (designed by Bramante), which contains
a picture gallery with works of Lorenzo Lotto, Vouet and
Caracci and a collection of majolica, and the cathedral church
of the Holy House (Chiesa della Casa Santa), a Late Gothic
structure continued by Giuliano da Maiano, Giuliano da Sangallo
and Bramante. The handsome facade of the church was erected
under Sixtus V.,who fortified Loretoand gave it the privileges
of a town (1586); his colossal statue stands in the middle of the
flight of steps in front. Over the principal doorway is a life-size
bronze statue of the Virgin and Child by Girolamo Lombardo;
the three superb bronze doors executed at the latter end of the
i6th century and under Paul V. (1605-1621) are also by Lom-
bardo, his sons and his pupils, among them Tiburzio Vergelli,
who also made the fine bronze font in the interior. The doors
and hanging lamps of the Santa Casa are by the same artists.
The richly decorated campanile, by Vanvitelli, is of great height;
the principal bell, presented by Leo X. in 1516, weighs n tons.
The interior of the church has mosaics by Domenichino and Guido
Reni and other works of art. In the sacristies on each side of
the right transept are frescoes, on the right by Melozzo da Forli,
on the left by Luca Signorelli. In both are fine intarsias.

But the chief object of interest is the Holy House itself. It
is a plain stone building, 28 ft. by 12$ and 13 J ft. in height;
it has a door on the north side and a window on the west;
and a niche contains a small black image of the Virgin and Child,
in Lebanon cedar, and richly adorned with jewels. St Luke is
alleged to have been the sculptor; its workmanship suggests
the latter half of the isth century. Around the Santa Casa is a
lofty marble screen, designed by Bramante, and executed under
Popes Leo X., Clement VII. and Paul III., by Andrea Sansovino,
Girolamo Lombardo, Bandinelli, Guglielmo della Porta and
others. The four sides represent the Annunciation, the Nativity,
the Arrival of the Santa Casa at Loreto and the Nativity of the
Virgin respectively. The treasury contains a large variety of
rich and curious votive offerings. The architectural design is
finer than the details of the sculpture. The choir apse is decorated
with modern German frescoes, which are somewhat out of place.

The legend of the Holy House seems to have sprung up (how
is not exactly known) at the close of the crusading period.

It is briefly referred to in the Italia Illustrata of Flavius
Blondus, secretary to Popes Eugenius IV., Nicholas V.,
Calixtus III. and Pius II. (ob. 1464); it is to be read in all its
fullness in the " Redemptoris mundi Matris Ecclesiae Lauretana
historia," by a certain Teremannus, contained in the Opera Omnia
(1576) of Baptista Mantuanus. According to this narrative the
house at Nazareth in which Mary had been born and brought up,
had received the annunciation, and had lived during the childhood
of Jesus and after His ascension, was converted into a church
by the apostles. In 336 the empress Helena made a pilgrimage
to Nazareth and caused a basilica to be erected over it, in which
worship continued until the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
Threatened with destruction by the Turks, it was carried by
angels through the air and deposited (1291) in the first instance

on a hill at Tersatto in Dalmatia, where an appearance of the
Virgin and numerous miraculous cures attested its sanctity,
which was confirmed by investigations made at Nazareth by
messengers from the governor of Dalmatia. In 1294 the angels
carried it across the Adriatic to a wood near Recanati ; from this
wood (lauretum), or from the name of its proprietrix (Laureta),
the chapel derived the name which it still retains (" sacellum
gloriosae Virginis in Laureto "). From this spot it was after-
wards (1295) removed to the present hill, one other slight
adjustment being required to fix it in its actual site. Bulls in
favour of the shrine at Loreto were issued by Pope Sixtus IV.
in 1491 and by Julius II. in 1507, the last alluding to the trans-
lation of the house with some caution (" ut pie creditur et fama
est "). The recognition of the sanctuary by subsequent pontiffs
has already been alluded to. In the end of the I7th century
Innocent XII. appointed a " missa cum officio proprio" for the
feast of the Translation of the Holy House, and the feast is
still enjoined in the Spanish Breviary as a " greater double "
(December 10).
See also U. Chevalier, Notre-Dame de Lorelte (Paris, 1906).

LORETO, an inland department of Peru, lying E. of the
Andean Cordilleras and forming the N.E. part of the republic.
Extensive territories, nominally parts of this department, are in
dispute between Peru and the neighbouring republics of Brazil,
Colombia and Ecuador (see PERU), and the northern and eastern
boundaries of the territory are therefore not definitely determined.
Loreto is bounded W. by the departments of Amazonas and San
Martin (the latter a new department, with an area of 30,744 sq. m. ,
taken from Loreto, lying between the central and eastern
Cordilleras and extending from the 6th to the gth parallels,
approximately), and S. by Hu&nuco and Cuzco. The area of the
department, including the territories claimed by Peru, is estimated
at 257,798 sq. m. The population is estimated (1906) at 120,000.
The aboriginal population is not numerous, as the thick, humid
forests are inhabited only where lakes and streams make open
spaces for sunlight and ventilation. With the exception of the
eastern Andean slopes and a little-known range of low mountains
on the Brazilian frontier, called the Andes Conomamas, the suiface
is that of a thickly wooded plain sloping gently towards the
Maranon, or Upper Amazon, which crosses it from W. to E.
There are open plains between the Ucayali and Huallaga, known
as the Pampas del Sacramento, but otherwise there are no
extensive breaks in the forest. The elevation of the plain near
the base of the Andes is 526 ft. on the Ucayali, 558 on the
Huallaga, and 453 at Barranca, on the Maranon, a few miles
below the Pongo de Manseriche. The eastward slope of the
plain is about 250 ft. in the 620 m. (direct) between this point
and Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier; this not only shows
the remarkably level character of the Amazon valley of which it
forms a part, but also the sluggish character of its drainage.
From the S. the principal rivers traversing Loreto are the Ucayali
and Huallaga, the former entering from Cuzco across its southern
boundary and skirting the eastern base of the Andes for about
four degrees of latitude before it turns away to the N.E. to join the
Maranon, and the latter breaking through the Eastern Cordillera
between the 6th and 7th parallels and entering the Maranon
143 m. below Yurimaguas, where navigation begins. The lower
Ucayali, which has a very tortuous course, is said to have 868 m.
of navigable channel at high water and 620 m. at low water.
North of the Maranon several large rivers pass through Peruvian
territory between the Santiago and Napo (see ECUADOR) , nearly
all having navigable channels. On the level plains are a number
of lakes, some are formed by the annual floods and are temporary
in character. Among the permanent lakes are the Gran Cocama,
of the Pampas del Sacramento, the Caballococha — a widening
of the Amazon itself about 60 m. N.W. of Tabatinga — and
Rimachuma, on the north side of the Maranon, near the lower
Pastaza.

The natural resources of this extensive region are incalculable,
but their development has been well nigh impossible through
lack of transport facilities. They include the characteristic
woods of the Amazon valley, rubber, nuts, cinchona or Peruvian

8

LORIENT— LORIS-MELIKOV

bark, medicinal products, fish, fruits and fibres. The cultivated
products include cocoa, coffee, tobacco and fruits. Straw hats and
hammocks are manufactured to some extent. The natural outlet
of this region is the Amazon river, but this involves 2500 m. of
river navigation from Iquitos before the ocean is reached.
Communication with the Pacific coast cities and ports of Peru
implies the crossing of three high, snow-covered ranges of the
Andes by extremely difficult trails and passes. A rough mountain
road has been constructed from Oroya to Puerto Bermudez, at
the head of navigation on the Pachitea, and is maintained by the
government pending the construction of a railway, but the
distance is 210 m. and it takes nine days for a mule train to make
the journey. At Puerto Bermudez a river steamer connects with
Iquitos, making the distance of 930 m. in seven days. From
Lima to Iquitos by this route, therefore, involves 17 days travel
over a distance of 1268 m. The most feasible route from the
department to the Pacific coast is that which connects Puerto
Limon, on the Maranon, with the Pacific port of Payta, a distance
of 410 m., it being possible to cross the Andes on this route at the
low elevation of 6600 ft. The climate of Loreto is hot and humid,
except on the higher slopes of the Andes. The year is divided
into a wet and a dry season, the first from May to October, and the
average annual rainfall is estimated at 70 in. though it varies
widely between distant points. The capital and only town of
importance in the department is Iquitos.

LORIENT, a maritime town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Morbihan, on the right
bank of the Scorff at its confluence with the Blavet, 34 m. W. by
N. of Vannes by rail. Pop. (1906) 40,848. The town is modern
and regularly built. Its chief objects of interest are the church
of St Louis (1709) and a statue by A. Mercie of Victor Masse, the
composer, born at Lorient in 1822. It is one of the five maritime
prefectures in France and the first port for naval construction in
the country. The naval port to the east of the town is formed by
the channel of the Scorff, on the right bank of which the chief
naval establishments are situated. These include magazines,
foundries, forges, fitting-shops, rope-works and other workshops
on the most extensive scale, as well as a graving dock, a covered
slip and other slips. A floating bridge connects the right bank
with the peninsula of Caudan formed by the union of the Scorff
and Blavet. Here are the shipbuilding yards covering some
38 acres, and comprising nine slips for large vessels and two others
for smaller vessels, besides forges and workshops for iron ship-
building. The commercial port to the south of the town consists
of an outer tidal port protected by a jetty and of an inner dock,
both lined by fine quays planted with trees. It separates the
older part of the town, which is hemmed in by fortifications from
a newer quarter. In 1905, 121 vessels of 28,785 tons entered
with cargo and 145 vessels of 38,207 tons cleared. The chief
export is pit-timber, the chief import is coal. Fishing is actively
carried on. Lorient is the seat of a sub-prefect, of commercial
and maritime tribunals and of a tribunal of first instance, and has
a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a lycee,
schools of navigation, and naval artillery. Private industry is
also engaged in iron-working and engine making. The trade in
fresh fish, sardines, oysters (which are reared near Lorient) and
tinned vegetables is important and the manufacture of basket-
work, tin-boxes and passementerie, and the preparation of
preserved sardines and vegetables are carried on. The road-
stead, formed by the estuary of the Blavet, is accessible to vessels
of the largest size; the entrance, 3 or 4 m. south from Lorient,
which is defended by numerous forts, is marked on the east by the
peninsula of Gavres (an artillery practising ground) and the
fortified town of Port Louis; on the west are the fort of Lpqueltas
and, higher up, the battery of Kernevel. In the middle of the
channel is the granite rock of St Michel, occupied by a powder
magazine. Opposite it, on the right bank of the Blavet, is the
mouth of the river Ter, with fish and oyster breeding establish-
ments from which 10 millions of oysters are annually obtained.
The roadstead is provided with six lighthouses. Above Lorient
on the Scorff, here spanned by a suspension bridge, is Kerentrech,
a pretty village surrounded by numerous country houses.

Lorient took the place of Port Louis as the port of the Blavet.
The latter stands on the site of an ancient hamlet which was
fortified during the wars of the League and handed over by
Philip Emmanuel, duke of Morcceur, to the Spaniards. After the
treaty of Vervins it was restored to France, and it received its
name of Port Louis under Richelieu. Some Breton merchants
trading with the Indies had established themselves first at Port
Louis, but in 1628 they built their warehouses on the other bank.
The Compagnie des Indes Orientales, created in 1664, took
possession of these, giving them the name of 1'Orient. In 1745
the Compagnie des Indes, then at the acme of its prosperity,
owned thirty-five ships of the largest class and many others of
considerable size. Its decadence dates from the English conquest
of India, and in 1770 its property was ceded to the state. In 1782
the town was purchased by Louis XVI. from its owners, the
Rohan-Guemene family. In 1746 the English under Admiral
Richard Lestock made an unsuccessful attack on Lorient.

LORINER, or LORIMER (from O. Fr. loremier or lorenier, a
maker of lorains, bridles, from Lat. lorum, thong, bridle; the
proper form is with the n; a similar change is found in Latimer
for Latiner, the title of an old official of the royal household, the
king's interpreter), one who makes bits and spurs and the metal
mountings for saddles and bridles; the term is also applied to a
worker in wrought iron and to a maker of small iron ware. The
word is now rarely used except as the name of one of the London
livery companies (see LIVERY COMPANY).

LORIS, a name of uncertain origin applied to the Indo-Malay
representatives of the lemurs, which, together with the African
pottos, constitute the section Nycticebinae of the family Nyctice-
bidae (see PRIMATES). From their extremely slow movements
and lethargic habits in the daytime these weird little creatures
are commonly called sloths by Anglo-Indians. Their soft fur,
huge staring eyes, rudimentary tails and imperfectly developed
index-fingers render lorises easy of recognition. The smallest
is the slender loris (Loris gracilis) of the forests of Madras and
Ceylon, a creature smaller than a squirrel. It is of such exceeding
strangeness and beauty that it might have been thought it
would be protected by the natives; but they hold it alive before
a fire till its beautiful eyes burst in order to afford a supposed
remedy for ophthalmia! The mainland and Cingalese animals
form distinct races. Both in this species and the slow loris
there is a pair of rudimentary abdominal teats in addition to
the normal pectoral pair. The slow loris (Nycticebus lardigradus)
is a heavier built and larger animal, ranging from eastern Bengal
to Cochin China, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Java and Sumatra.
There are several races, mostly grey in colour, but the Sumatran
N. t. hilleri is reddish. (R. L.*)

LORIS-MELIKOV, MICHAEL TARIELOVICH, COUNT (1825?-

88), Russian statesman, son of an Armenian merchant, was
born at Tiflis in 1825 or 1826, and educated in St Petersburg,
first in the Lazarev School of Oriental Languages, and afterwards
in the Guards' Cadet Institute. He joined a hussar regiment,
and four years afterwards (1847) he was sent to the Caucasus,
where he remained for more than twenty years, and made for
tiimself during troublous times the reputation of a distinguished
cavalry officer and an able administrator. In the latter capacity,
though a keen soldier, he aimed always at preparing the warlike
and turbulent population committed to his charge for the
transition from military to normal civil administration, and in
this work his favourite instrument was the schoolmaster. In
he Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he commanded a separate
corps d'armee on the Turkish frontier in Asia Minor. After
:aking the fortress of Ardahan, he was repulsed by Mukhtar
Pasha at Zevin, but subsequently defeated his opponent at
Aladja Dagh, took Kars by storm, and laid siege to Erzerum.
For these servic.es he received the title of Count. In the following
year he was appointed temporary governor-general of the region
of the Lower Volga, to combat an outbreak of the plague. The
measures he adopted proved so effectual that he was transferred
to the provinces of Central Russia to combat the Nihilists and
Anarchists, who had adopted a policy of terrorism, and had
succeeded in assassinating the governor of Kharkov. His

LORIUM— LORRAINE

success in this struggle led to his being appointed chief of the
Supreme Executive Commission which had been created in
St Petersburg to deal with the revolutionary agitation in general.
Here, as in the Caucasus, he showed a decided preference for
the employment of ordinary legal methods rather than excep-
tional extra-legal measures, and an attempt on his own life soon
after he assumed office did not shake his convictions. In his
opinion the best policy was to strike at the root of the evil by
removing the causes of popular discontent, and for this purpose
he recommended to the emperor a large scheme of administrative
and economic reforms. Alexander II., who was beginning to
lose faith in the efficacy of the simple method of police repression
hitherto employed, lent a willing ear to the suggestion; and
when the Supreme Commission was dissolved in August 1880,
he appointed Count Loris-Melikov Minister of the Interior with
exceptional powers. The proposed scheme of reforms was at
once taken in hand, but it was never carried out. On the very
day in March 1881 that the emperor signed a ukaz creating
several commissions, composed of officials and eminent private
individuals, who should prepare reforms in various branches of
the administration, he was assassinated by Nihilist conspirators;
and his successor, Alexander III., at once adopted a strongly
reactionary policy. Count Loris-Melikov immediately resigned,
and lived in retirement until his death, which took place at Nice
on the zznd of December 1888. (D. M. W.)

LORIUM, an ancient village of Etruria, Italy, on the Via
Aurelia, 1 2 m. W. of Rome. Antoninus Pius, who was educated
here, afterwards built a palace, in which he died. It was also
a favourite haunt of Marcus Aurelius. Remains of ancient
buildings exist in the neighbourhood of the road on each side
(near the modern Castel di Guido) and remains of tombs, inscrip-
tions, &c., were excavated in 1823-1824. Two or three miles
farther west was probably the post-station of Bebiana, where
inscriptions show that some sailors of the fleet were stationed—
no doubt a detachment of those at Centumcellae, which was
reached by this road.

LORRACH, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, in the
valley of the Wiese, 6 m. by rail N.E. of Basel. Pop. (1905)
10,794. It is the seat of considerable industry, its manufactures
including calico, shawls, cloth, silk, chocolate, cotton, ribbons,
hardware and furniture, and has a trade in wine, fruit and
timber. There is a fine view from the neighbouring Schutzenhaus,
1085 ft. high. In the neighbourhood also is the castle of Rotteln,
formerly the residence of the counts of Hachberg and of the
margraves of Baden; this was destroyed by the French in 1678,
but was rebuilt in 1867. Lorrach received market rights in
1403, but did not obtain municipal privileges until 1682.

See Hochstetter, Die Stadt Lorrach (Lorrach, 1882).

LORRAINE, one of the former provinces of France. The
name has designated different districts in different periods.
Lotharingia, or Lothringen, i.e. regnum Lotharii, is derived
from the Lotharingi or Lotharienses (O.G. Lotheringen, Fr.
Loherains, Lorrains), a term applied originally to the Prankish
subjects of Lothair, but restricted at the end of the 9th century
to those who dwelt north of the southern Vosges.

Lorraine in Medieval Times. — The original kingdom of Lorraine
was the northern part of the territories allotted by the treaty
of Verdun (August 843) to the emperor Lothair I., and in 855
formed the inheritance of his second son, King Lothair. This
kingdom of Lorraine was situated between the realms of the
East and the West Franks, and originally extended along the
North Sea between the mouths of the Rhine and the Ems,
including the whole or part of Frisia and the cities on the right
bank of the Rhine. From Bonn the frontier followed the Rhine
as far as its confluence with the Aar, which then became the
boundary, receding from the left bank in the neighbourhood
of Bingen so as to leave the cities of Worms and Spires to
Germany, and embracing the duchy of Alsace. After crossing
the Jura, the frontier joined the Sa6ne a little south of its con-
fluence with the Doubs, and followed the Sa6ne for some distance,
and finally the valleys of the Meuse and the Scheldt. Thus the
kingdom roughly comprised the region watered by the Moselle

and the Meuse, together with the dioceses of Cologne, Trier,
Metz, Toul, Verdun, Liege and Cambrai, Basel, Strassburg
and Besancon, and corresponded to what is now Holland and
Belgium, parts of Rhenish Prussia, of Switzerland, and of the old
province of Franche-Comt6, and to the district known later as
Upper Lorraine, or simply Lorraine. Though apparently of
an absolutely artificial character, this kingdom corresponded
essentially to the ancient Francia, the cradle of the Carolingian
house, and long retained a certain unity. It was to the in-
habitants of this region that the name of Lotharienses or Lotharingi
was primitively applied, although the word Lotharingia, as the
designation of the country, only appears in the middle of the
xoth century.

The reign of King Lothair (?.».), which was continually
disturbed by quarrels with his uncles, Charles the Bald and
Louis the German, and by the difficulties caused by the divorce
of his queen Teutberga, whom he had forsaken for a concubine
called Waldrada, ended on the 8th of August 869. His inherit-
ance was disputed by his uncles, and was divided by the treaty
of Meersen (8th of August 870), by which Charles the Bald
received part of the province of Besancon and some land between
the Moselle and the Meuse. Then for a time the emperor Charles
the Fat united under his authority the whole of the kingdom
of Lorraine with the rest of the Carolingian empire. After the
deposition of Charles in 888 Rudolph, king of Burgundy, got
himself recognized in Lorraine. He was unable to maintain
himself there, and succeeded in detaching definitively no more
than the province of Besancon. Lorraine remained in the
power of the emperor Arnulf, who in 895 constituted it a distinct
kingdom in favour of his son Zwentibold. Zwentibold quickly
became embroiled with the nobles and the bishops, and especially
with Bishop Radbod of Trier. Among the lay lords the most
important was Regnier (incorrectly called Long-neck), count of
Hesbaye and Hainault, who is styled duke by the Lotharingian
chronicler Reginon, though he does not appear ever to have
borne the title. In 898 Zwentibold stripped Regnier of his
fiefs, whereupon the latter appealed to the king of France,
Charles the Simple, whose intervention, however, had no enduring
effect. After the death of Arnulf in 899, the Lotharingians
appealed to his successor, Louis the Child, to replace Zwentibold,
who, on the I3th of August ooo, was killed in battle. In spite
of the dissensions which immediately arose between him and the '
Lotharingian lords, Louis retained the kingdom till his death.
The Lotharingians, however, refused to recognize the new
German king, Conrad I., and testified their attachment to the
Carolingian house by electing as sovereign the king of the West
Franks, Charles the Simple. Charles was at first supported
by Giselbert, son and successor of Regnier, but was abandoned
by his ally, who in 919 appealed to the German king, Henry I.
The struggle ended in the treaty of Bonn (921), by which appar-
ently the rights of Charles over Lorraine were recognized. The
revolt of the Prankish lords in 922 and the captivity of Charles
finally settled the question. After an unsuccessful attack by
Rudolph or Raoul, king of France, Henry became master of
Lorraine in 925, thanks to the support of Giselbert, whom he
rewarded with the hand of his daughter Gerberga and the title
of duke of Lorraine. Giselbert at first remained faithful to
Henry's son, Otto the Great, but in 938 he appears to have
joined the revolt directed against Otto by Eberhard, duke of
Franconia. In 939, in concert with Eberhard and Otto's
brother, Henry of Saxony, he declared open war against Otto
and appealed to Louis d'Outremer, who penetrated into Lorraine
and Alsace, but was soon called back to France by the revolt
of the count of Vermandois. In the same year Giselbert and
Eberhard were defeated and killed near Andernach, and Otto
at once made himself recognized in the whole of Lorraine, securing
it by a treaty with Louis d'Outremer, who married Giselbert's
widow Gerberga, and entrusting the government of it to Count
Otto, son of Ricuin, until Giselbert's son Henry should have
attained his majority.

After the deaths of the young Henry and Count Otto in 944,
Otto the Great gave Lorraine to Conrad the Red, duke of

IO

LORRAINE

Franconia, the husband of his daughter Liutgard, a choice which
was not completely satisfactory to the Lotharingians. In
953 Conrad, in concert with Liudulf, the son of the German
king, revolted against Otto, but was abandoned by his supporters.
Otto stripped Conrad of his duchy, and in 954 gave the govern-
ment of it to his own brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne.
Bruno had to contend against the efforts of the last Carolingians
of France to make good their claims on Lorraine, as well as
against the spirit of independence exhibited by the Lotharingian
nobles; and his attempts to raze certain castles built by brigand
lords and to compel them to respect their oath of fidelity
resulted in serious sedition. To obviate these difficulties Bruno
divided the ducal authority, assigning Lower Lorraine to a certain
Duke Godfrey, who was styled dux Ripuariorum, and Upper
Lorraine to Frederick (d. 959), count of Bar, a member of the
house of Ardenne and son-in-law of Hugh the Great, with the
title of dux Mosellanorum; and it is probable that the partition
of the ancient kingdom of Lorraine into two new duchies was
confirmed by Otto after Bruno's death in 965. In 977 the
emperor Otto II. gave the government of Lower Lorraine to
Charles I., a younger son of Louis d'Outremer, on condition
that that prince should acknowledge himself his vassal and
should oppose any attempt of his brother Lothair on Lorraine.
The consequent expedition of the king of France in 978 against
Aix-la-Chapelle had no enduring result, and Charles retained
his duchy till his death about 992. He left two sons, Otto,
who succeeded him and died without issue, and Henry, who
is sometimes regarded as the ancestor of the landgraves of
Thuringia. The duchy of Lower Lorraine, sometimes called
Lothier (Lotharium) , was then given to Godfrey (d. 1023), son of
Count Godfrey of Verdun, and for some time the history of
Lorraine is the history of the attempts made by the dukes of
Lothier to seize Upper Lorraine. Gothelon (d. 1043) , son of Duke
Godfrey, obtained Lorraine at the death of Frederick II., duke of
Upper Lorraine, in 1027, and victoriously repulsed the incursions
of Odo (Eudes) of Blois, count of Champagne, who was defeated
and killed in a battle near Bar (1037). At Gothelon's death in
1043, his son Godfrey the Bearded received from the emperor
only Lower Lorraine, his brother Gothelon II. obtaining Upper
Lorraine. Godfrey attempted to seize the upper duchy, but was
defeated and imprisoned in 1045. On the death of Gothelon
in 1046, Godfrey endeavoured to take Upper Lorraine from
Albert of Alsace, to whom it had been granted by the emperor
Henry III. The attempt, however, also failed; and Godfrey
was for some time deprived of his own duchy of Lower Lorraine
in favour of Frederick of Luxemburg. Godfrey took part in the
struggles of Pope Leo IX. against the Normans in Italy, and in
1053 married Beatrice, daughter of Duke Frederick of Upper
Lorraine and widow of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany. On the
death of Frederick of Luxemburg in 1065 the emperor Henry IV.
restored the duchy of Lower Lorraine to Godfrey, who retained
it till his death in 1069, when he was succeeded by his son Godfrey
the Hunchback (d. 1076), after whose death Henry IV. gave the
duchy to Godfrey of Bouillon, the hero of the first crusade, son
of Eustace, count of Boulogne, and Ida, sister of Godfrey the
Hunchback. On the death of Godfrey of Bouillon in noo
Lower Lorraine was given to Henry, count of Limburg. The
new duke supported the emperor Henry IV. in his struggles
with his sons, and in consequence was deposed by the emperor
Henry V., who gave the duchy in 1 106 to Godfrey, count of
Louvain, a descendant of the Lotharingian dukes of the beginning
of the loth century. This Godfrey was the first hereditary duke
of Brabant, as the dukes of Lower Lorraine came to be called.

Upper Lorraine. — The duchy of Upper Lorraine, or Lorraine
MoseUana, to which the name of Lorraine was restricted from
the nth century, consisted of a tract of undulating country
watered by the upper course of the Meuse and Moselle, and
bounded N. by the Ardennes, S. by the table-land of Langres,
E. by the Vosges and W. by Champagne. Its principal fiefs
were the countship of Bar which Otto the Great gave in 951
to Count Frederick of Ardenne, and which passed in 1093 to the
lords of Montbeliard; the countship of Chiny, formed at the end

of the loth century, of which, since the I3th, Montmedy was
the capital; the lordship of Commercy, whose rulers bore the
special title of damoiseau, and which passed in the i3th century
to the house of Saarebrucken; and, finally the three important
ecclesiastical lordships of the bishops of Metz, Toul and Verdun.
Theodoric, or Thierri (d. 1026), son of Frederick, count of Bar
and first duke of Upper Lorraine, was involved in a war with the
emperor Henry II., a war principally remarkable for the siege
of Metz (1007). After having been the object of numerous
attempts on the part of the dukes of Lower Lorraine, Upper
Lorraine was given by the emperor Henry III. to Albert of Alsace,
and passed in 1048 to Albert's brother Gerard, who died by
poison in 1069, and who was the ancestor of the hereditary
house of Lorraine. Until the isth century the representatives
of the hereditary house were Theodoric II., called the Valiant
(1069-1115), Simon (1115-1139), Matthew(i 139-1 176), Simon II.
(i 176-1205), Ferri I. (1205-1206), Ferri II. (1206-1213), Theobald
(Thibaut) I. (1213-1220), Matthew II. (1220-1251), Ferri III.
(1251-1304), Theobald II. (1304-1312), Ferri IV., called the
Struggler (1312-1328), Rudolph, or Raoul (1328-1346), John
(1346-1391) and Charles II. or I., called the Bold (1391-1431).
The 1 2th century and the first part of the I3th were occupied
with wars against the counts of Bar and Champagne. Theobald
I. intervened in Champagne to support Erard of Brienne against
the young count Theobald IV. The regent of Champagne,
Blanche of Navarre, succeeded in forming against the duke of
Lorraine a coalition consisting of the count of Bar and the
emperor Frederick II., who had become embroiled with Theobald
over the question of Rosheim in Alsace. Attacked by the
emperor, the duke of Lorraine was forced at the treaty of Amance
(1218) to acknowledge himself the vassal of the count of Cham-
pagne, and to support the count in his struggles against his
ancient ally the count of Bar. The long government of Ferri III.
was mainly occupied with wars against the feudal lords and the
bishop of Metz, which resulted in giving an impulse to the
municipal movement through Ferri's attempt to use the move-
ment as a weapon against the nobles. The majority of the
municipal charters of Lorraine were derived from the charter
of Beaumont in Argonne, which was at first extended to the
Barrois and was granted by Ferri, in spite of the hostility of
his barons, to La Neuveville in 1257, to Frouard in 1263 and to
Luneville in 1265. In the church lands the bishops of Toul and
Metz granted liberties from the end of the i2th century to the
communes in their lordship, but not the Beaumont charter,
which, however, obtained in the diocese of Verdun in the I4th
and isth centuries.

By the will of Duke Charles the Bold, Lorraine was to pass
to his daughter Isabella, who married Rene of Anjou, duke of
Bar, in 1420. But Anthony of Vaudemont, Charles's nephew
and heir male, disputed this succession with Rene, who obtained
from the king of France an army commanded by Arnault
Guilhem de Barbazan. Ren6, however, was defeated and taken
prisoner at the battle of Bulgneville, where Barbazan was
killed (2nd of July 1431). The negotiations between Rene's
wife and Anthony had no result, in spite of the intervention
of the council of Basel and the emperor Sigismund, and it was
not until 1436 that Rene obtained his liberty by paying a
ransom of 200,000 crowns, and was enabled to dispute with
Alfonso of Aragon the kingdom of Naples, which he had inherited
in the previous year. In 1444 Charles VII. of France and the
dauphin Louis went to Lorraine, accompanied by envoys from
Henry VI. of England, and procured a treaty (confirmed at
Chalons in 1445), by which Yolande, Rene's eldest daughter,
married Anthony's son, Ferri of Vaudemont, and Rene's second
daughter Margaret became the wife of Henry VI. of England.
After his return to Lorraine in 1442, Rene was seldom in the
duchy. Like his successor John, duke of Calabria, who died
in 1470, he was continually occupied with expeditions in Italy
or in Spain. John's son and successor, Nicholas (d. 1473), who
supported the duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, against
the king of France, died without children, and his heir was
Ren6, son of Frederick of Vaudemont. The duke of Burgundy,

LORRAINE

ii

however, disputed this inheritance, and carried off the young
Rene and his mother, but on the intervention of Louis XI. had
to set them at liberty. Ren6 helped the Swiss during their
wars with Charles the Bold, who invaded Lorraine and was
killed under the walls of Nancy (1477). Rene's last years
were mainly spent in expeditions in Provence and Italy. He
died in 1508, leaving by his second wife three sons — Anthony,
called the Good, who succeeded him; Claude, count (and
afterwards duke) of Guise, the ancestor of the house of Guise;
and John (d. 1 5 50) , known as the cardinal of Lorraine. Anthony,
who was declared of age at his father's death by the estates
of Lorraine, although his mother had tried to seize the power
as regent, had been brought up from the age of twelve at the
French court, where he became the friend of Louis XII., whom
he accompanied on his Italian expeditions. In 1525 he had to
defend Lorraine against the revolted Alsatian peasants known
as rustauds (boors), whom he defeated at Lupstein and Scher-
weiler; and he succeeded in maintaining a neutral position in
the struggle between Francis I. of France and the emperor
Charles V. He died on the I4th of June 1 544, and was succeeded
by his son Francis I., who died of apoplexy (August 1545) at
the very moment when he was negotiating peace between the
king of France and the emperor.

Lorraine in Modern Times. — Francis's son Charles III. or II.,
called the Great, succeeded under the tutelage of his mother
and Nicholas of Vaudemont, bishop of Metz. Henry II. of
France took this opportunity to invade Lorraine, and in 1552
seized the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun. In the
same year the emperor laid siege to Metz, but was forced to
retreat with heavy loss before the energetic resistance of Duke
Francis of Guise. On leaving Lorraine, Henry II. took Charles
to France, brought him up at the court and married him to his
daughter Claude. After the accession of Francis II., the young
duke returned to Lorraine, and, while his cousins the Guises
endeavoured to make good the claims of the house of Lorraine
to the crown of France by virtue of its descent from the Carolin-
gians through Charles, the son of Louis d'Outremer, he devoted
himself mainly to improving the administration of his duchy.
He reconstituted his domain by revoking the alienations irregu-
larly granted by his predecessors, instructed his chambre des
comptes to institute inquiries on this subject, and endeavoured to
ameliorate the condition of industry and commerce by re-
organizing the working of the mines and saltworks, unifying
weights and measures and promulgating edicts against vagabonds.
His duchy suffered considerably from the passage of German
bands on their way to help the Protestants in France, and also
from disturbances caused by the progress of Calvinism,
especially in the neighbourhood of the three bishoprics. To
combat Calvinism Charles had recourse to the Jesuits, whom
he established at Pont-a-Mousson, and to whom he gave over
the university he had founded in that town in 1572. To this
foundation he soon added chairs of medicine and law, the first
professor of civil law being the mattre des requites, the Scotsman
William Barclay, and the next Gregory of Toulouse, a pupil
of the jurist Cujas. Charles died on the i4th of May 1608, and
was succeeded by his eldest son Henry II., called the Good,
who rid Lorraine of the German bands and died in 1624 without
issue.

Henry was succeeded by his brother Francis II., who abdicated
on the 26th of November 1624 in favour of his son Charles IV.
or III. At the beginning of the reign of Louis XIII. Charles
embroiled himself with France by harbouring French malcontents.
Louis entered Lorraine, and by the treaty of Vic (3ist of
December 1631) bound over Charles to desist from supporting
the enemies of France, and compelled him to cede the fortress
of Marsal. Charles's breach of this treaty led to a renewal of
hostilities, and the French troops occupied St Mihiel, Bar-le-duc,
Pont-a-Mousson and Nancy, which the duke was forced to cede
for four years (1633). In 1632, by the treaty of Liverdun, he
had already had to abandon the fortresses of Stenay and Clermont
in Argonne. On the igth of January 1634 he abdicated in
favour of his younger brother Francis Nicholas, cardinal of

Lorraine, and withdrew to Germany, the parlement of Paris
declaring him guilty of rebellion and confiscating his estates.
After vain attempts to regain his estates with the help of the
emperor, he decided to negotiate with France; and the treaty
of St Germain (29th of March 1641) re-established him in his
duchy on condition that he should cede Nancy, Stenay and
other fortresses until the general peace. This treaty he soon
broke, joining the Imperialists in the Low Countries and defeating
the French at Tuttlingen (December 1643). He was restored,
however, to his estates in 1644, and took part in the wars of the
Fronde. He was arrested at Brussels in 1654, imprisoned at
Toledo and did not recover his liberty until the peace of the
Pyrenees in 1659. On the 28th of February 1661 the duchies
of Lorraine and Bar were restored to him by the treaty of
Vincennes, on condition that he should demolish the fortifications
of Nancy and cede Clermont, Saarburg and Pfalzburg. In
1662 Hugues de Lionne negotiated with him the treaty of
Montmartre, by which Charles sold the succession to the duchy
to Louis XIV. for a life-rent; but the Lorrainers, perhaps
with the secret assent of their prince, refused to ratify the treaty.
Charles, too, was accused of intriguing with the Dutch, and was
expelled from his estates, Marshal de Crequi occupying Lorraine.
He withdrew to Germany, and in 1673 took an active part in
the coalition of Spain, the Empire and Holland against France.
After an unsuccessful invasion of Franche-Comte he took his
revenge by defeating Cre'qui at Conzer Briicke (nth of August
1675) and forcing him to capitulate at Trier. On the i8th of
September 1675 died this adventurous prince, who, as Voltaire
said, passed his life in losing his estates. His brother Francis,
in favour of whom he had abdicated, was a cardinal at the age of
nineteen and subsequently bishop of Toul, although he had
never taken orders. He obtained a dispensation to marry his
cousin, Claude of Lorraine, and died in 1670. He had one son,
Charles, who in 1675 took the title of duke of Lorraine and was
recognized by all the powers except France. After an unsuccess-
ful attempt to seize Lorraine in 1676, Charles vainly solicited
the throne of Poland, took an active part in the wars in Hungary,
and married Eleanor of Austria, sister of the emperor Leopold I.,
in 1678. At the treaty of Nijmwegen France proposed to restore
his estates on condition that he should abandon a part of them ;
but Charles refused, and passed the rest of his life in Austria,
where he took part in the wars against the Turks, whom he
defeated at Mohacz (1687). He died in 1690.

Leopold, Charles's son and -successor, was restored to his
estates by the treaty of Ryswick (1697), but had to dismantle
all the fortresses in Lorraine and to disband his army with the
exception of his guard. Under his rule Lorraine flourished.
While diminishing the taxes, he succeeded in augmenting
his revenues by wise economy. The population increased
enormously during his reign — that of Nancy, for instance,
almost trebling itself between the years 1699 and 1 735. Leopold
welcomed French immigrants, and devoted himself to the
development of commerce and industry, particularly to the
manufacture of stuffs and lace, glass and paper. He was respon-
sible, too, for the compilation of a body of law which was known
as the " Code Leopold." Some time after his death, which
occurred on the 27th of March 1729, his heir Francis III. was
betrothed to Maria Theresa of Austria, the daughter and heiress
of the emperor Charles VI. France, however, could not admit
the possibility of a union of Lorraine with the Empire; and in
r73S> at the preliminaries of Vienna, Louis XV. negotiated an
arrangement by which Francis received the duchy of Tuscany,
which was vacant by the death of the last Medici, in exchange
for Lorraine, and Stanislaus Leszczynski, the dethroned king of
Poland and father-in-law of Louis XV., obtained Lorraine, which
after his death would pass to his daughter — in other words,
to France. These arrangements were confirmed by the treaty
of Vienna (i8th of November 1738). In 1736, by a secret agree-
ment, Stanislaus had abandoned the financial administration
of his estates to Louis XV. for a yearly subsidy. The intendant,
Chaumont de la Galaiziere, was instructed to apply the French
system of taxation in Lorraine; and in spite of the severity of

LORTZING— LOS ANGELES

the administration Lorraine preserved a grateful memory of
the good king Stanislaus, who held his brilliant little court at
Luneville, and founded an academy and several libraries and
hospitals. At his death in February 1766 the two duchies of
Lorraine and Bar became definitively incorporated in the
kingdom of France. The treaties of 1735 and 1736, however,
guaranteed their legislation, the privileges enjoyed by the three
orders, and their common law and customs tariffs, which they
retained until the French Revolution. Lorraine and Barrois
formed a large government corresponding, together with the
little government of the three bishoprics, to the intendance of
Lorraine and the generality of Metz. For legal purposes, Metz
had been the seat of a parlement since 1633, and the parlement
of Nancy was created in 1776. There was, too, a chambre des
comptes at Metz, and another at Bar-le-duc. (For the later
history see ALSACE-LORRAINE.)

See Dom. A. Calmet, Histoire ecclesiastique et civile de Lorraine
(2nd ed., Nancy, i_747-?757); A. Bigot, Histoire de Lorraine (1879-
1880); E. Huhn, Geschichte Lothringens (Berlin, 1877); R. Parisot,
Le Royaume de Lorraine sous les Carolingiens (Paris, 1899); Comte
D'Haussonville, Histoire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France
(2nd ed., Paris, 1860); E. Bonvalot, Histoire du droit et des insti-
tutions de la Lorraine et des Trois-Eveches (Paris, 1895); and E.
Duvernoy , Les Etats Generaux des duches de Lorraine et de Barjusqu'a
la majorite de Charles III. (Paris, 1904) (R. Po.)

LORTZING, GUSTAV ALBERT (1801-1851), German composer,
was born at Berlin on the 23rd of October 1801. Both his
parents were actors, and when he was nineteen the son began
to play youthful lover at the theatres of Dusseldorf and Aachen,
sometimes also singing in small tenor or baritone parts. His
first opera Alt Pascha von Jannina appeared in 1824, but his
fame as a musician rests chiefly upon the two operas Der Wild-
schiitz (1842) and Czar und Zimmermann (1837). The latter,
although now regarded as one of the masterpieces of German
comic opera, was received with little enthusiasm by the public
of Leipzig.* Subsequent performance in Berlin, however, provoked
such a tempest of applause that the opera was soon placed on
all the stages of Germany. It was translated into English,
French, Swedish, Danish, Dutch, Bohemian, Hungarian and
Russian. Der Wildschillz was based on a comedy of Kotzebue,
and was a satire on the unintelligent and exaggerated admiration
for the highest beauty in art expressed by the bourgeois gentil-
homme. Of his other operas it is only necessary to note Der
Pole und sein Kind, produced shortly after the Polish insurrection
of 1831, and Undine (1845). Lortzing died at Berlin on the
zist of January 1851.

LORY, CHARLES (1823-1889), French geologist, was born
at Nantes on the 3Oth of July 1823. He graduated D. es Sc.
in 1847; in 1852 he was appointed to the chair of geology at
the University of Grenoble, and in 1881 to that of the Ecole
Normale Suptrieure in Paris. He was distinguished for his
researches on the geology of the French Alps, being engaged on
the geological survey of the departments of Isere, Dr6me and
the Hautes Alpes, of which he prepared the maps and explanatory
memoirs. He dealt with some of the disturbances in the Savoy
Alps, describing the fan-like structures, and confirming the views
of J. A. Favre with regard to the overthrows, reversals and
duplication of the strata. His contributions to geological
literature include also descriptions of the fossils and strati-
graphical divisions of the Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks
of the Jura. He died at Grenoble on the 3rd of May 1889.

LORY (a word of Malayan origin signifying parrot, in general
use with but slight variation of form in many European languages),
the name of certain birds of the order Psitiaci, mostly from the
Moluccas and New Guinea, remarkable for their bright scarlet
or crimson colouring, though also, and perhaps subsequently,
applied to some others in which the plumage is chiefly green.
The lories have been referred to a considerable number of genera,
of which Lorius (the Domicella of some authors), Eos and
Chalcopsittacus may be here particularized, while under the name
of " lorikeets " may be comprehended such genera as Tricho-
glossus, Charmosyna, Loriculus and Coriphilus. By most
systematists some of these forms have been placed far apart,
even in different families of Psittaci, but A. H. Garrod has

shown (Proc. Zool. Society, 1874, pp. 586-598, and 1876, p. 692)
the many common characters they possess, which thus goes
some way to justify the relationship implied by their popular
designation. A full account of these birds is given in the first
part of Count T. Salvador! 's Ormtologia della Papuasia e delle
Molucche (Turin 1880), whilst a later classification appeared in
Salvadori's section of the British Museum Catalogue of Birds,
xx., 1891.

Though the name lory has often been used for the species
of Eclectus, and some other genera related thereto, modern
writers would restrict its application to the birds of the genera
Lorius, Eos, Chalcopsittacus and their near allies, which are
often placed in a subfamily, Loriinae, belonging to the so-called
family of Trichoglossidae or " brush-tongued " parrots. Garrod
in his investigations on the anatomy of Psittaci was led not to
attach much importance to the structure indicated by the
epithet " brush-tongued " stating (Proc. Zool. Society, 1874,
p. 597) that it " is only an excessive development of the papillae
which are always found on the lingual surface." The birds
of this group are very characteristic of the New Guinea subregion,1
in which occur, according to Count Salvador!, ten species of
Lorius, eight of Eos and four of Chalcopsittacus; but none
seem here to require any further notice,2 though among them,
and particularly in the genus Eos, are included some of the
most richly-coloured birds in the whole world; nor does it
appear that more need be said of the lorikeets.

The family is the subject of an excellent monograph by St George
Mivart (London, 1896). (A. N.)

LOS ANDES, a former state of Venezuela under the redivision
of 1 88 1, which covered the extreme western part of the republic
N. of Zamora and S. of Zulia. In the redivision of 1904 Los
Andes was cut up into three states — Merida Tachira and
Trujillo.

LOS ANGELES, a city and the county-seat of Los Angeles
county, in southern California, U.S.A., along the small Los
Angeles river, in the foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains;
a narrow strip, 18 m. long, joins the main part of the city to
its water front on the ocean, San Pedro Bay. Pop. (1880)
11,183, (1890) 50,395, (1900) 102,479, of whom 19,964 were
foreign-born;3 the growth in population since 1900 has been
very rapid and in 1910 it was 319,198. The city had in
1910 an area of 85-1 sq. m., of which nyjre than one-half has been
added since 1890. Los Angeles is served by the Southern
Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the San Pedro, Los
Angeles & Salt Lake railways; by steamers to San Francisco;
and by five systems of urban and suburban electric railways,
which have 300 m. of track within the city and 700 m. within a
radius of 30 m. beyond its limits. Inclined railways ascend
Third Street Hill and Court Street Hill, in the heart of the city;
and a system of subways extends from the centre of the city
to its western limits. The harbour, San Pedro Bay, originally
open and naturally poor, has been greatly improved by the
Federal government; a breakwater 9250 ft. long was begun in
1898 and the bar has been deepened, and further improvements
of the inner harbour at Wilmington (which is nearly landlocked
by a long narrow island lying nearly east and west across its
mouth) were begun in 1907. Important municipal docks have
been built by the city.

The situation of the city between the mountains and the
sea is attractive. The site of the business district is level, and
its plan regular; the suburbs are laid out on hills. Although
not specifically a health resort, Los Angeles enjoys a high

1 They extend, however, to Fiji, Tahiti and Fanning Island.

1 Unless it be Oreopsittacus arfaki, of New Guinea, remarkable as
the only parrot known as yet to have fourteen instead of twelve
rectrices.

1 In addition to the large foreign-born population (4023 Germans,
3017 English, 2683 English Canadians, 1885 Chinese, 1720 Irish and
smaller numbers of French, Mexicans, Swedes, Italians, Scots,
Swiss, Austrians, Danes, French Canadians, Russians, Norwegians,
Welsh and Japanese) 26,105 of the native white inhabitants were of
Foreign parentage (i.e. had one or both parents not native born), so
that only 54,121 white persons were of native parentage. German,
French and Italian weekly papers are published in Los Angeles.

LOS ANGELES

reputation for its climate. From July 1877 to 1908 (inclusive)
the mean of the minima for January, the coldest month of the
year, was 44-16° F.; the mean of the minima for August, the
warmest month, was 60- 1° F.; and the difference of the mean
temperature of the coldest and the warmest month was about
1 8° F.; while on five days only in this period (and on no day in
the years 1904-1908) did the official thermometer fall below
32° F. There are various pleasure resorts in the mountains,
and among seaside resorts are Santa Monica, Ocean Park, Venice,
Playadel Rey, Hermosa, Redondo, Terminal Island, Long Beach,
Alamitos Bay, Huntington Beach, Newport, Balboa and Corona
del Mar. There are excellent roads throughout the country.
Los Angeles has beautiful shade trees and a wealth of semi-tropic
vegetation. Its residential portions are characterized by
detached homes set in ample and beautiful grounds. Towering
eucalyptus, graceful pepper trees, tropic palms, rubber trees,
giant bananas, yuccas and a wonderful growth of roses, heliotrope,
calla lilies in hedges, orange trees, jasmine, giant geraniums
and other flowers beautify the city throughout the year. There
are 22 parks, with about 3800 acres within or on the borders
of the city limits; among the parks are Griffith (3015 acres),
Elysian (532 acres), 'Eastlake (57 acres), Westlake (35 acres)
and Echo (38 acres). The old Spanish-Moorish mission architec-
ture has considerably influenced building styles. Among the
important buildings are the Federal Building, the County Court
House, the City Hall, a County Hall of Records, the Public
Library with about 1 10,000 volumes in 1908, the large Auditorium
and office buildings and the Woman's Club. The exhibit in
the Chamber of Commerce Building illustrates the resources
of southern California. Here also are the Coronel Collection,
given in 1901 by Dona Mariana, the widow of Don Antonio
Coronel, and containing relics of the Spanish and Mexican
r6gime in California; and the Palmer Collection of Indian
antiquities. In Los Angeles also are the collections of the
Southwest Society (1904; for southern California, Arizona and
New Mexico) of the Archaeological Institute of America. On
the outskirts of the city, near Eastlake Park, is the Indian
Crafts Exhibition, which contains rare collections of aboriginal
handiwork, and where Indians may be seen making baskets,
pottery and blankets. Of interest to visitors is that part of the
city called Sonora Town.with its adobe houses, Mexican quarters,
old Plaza and the Church of Our Lady, Queen of the Angels
(first erected in 1822; rebuilt in 1861), which contains interesting
paintings by early Indian converts. Near Sonora Town is the
district known as Chinatown. The principal educational
institutions are the University of Southern California (Methodist
Episcopal, 1880), the Maclay College of Theology and a
preparatory school; Occidental College (Presbyterian, 1887),
St Vincent's College (Roman Catholic, founded 1865; chartered
1869) and the Los Angeles State Normal School (1882).

The economic interests of Los Angeles centre in the culture of
fruits. The surrounding country is very fertile when irrigated,
producing oranges, lemons, figs and other semi-tropical fruits.
Thousands of artesian wells have been bored, the region between
Los Angeles, Santa Clara and San Bernardino being one of the most
important artesian well regions of the world. The city, which then
got its water supply from the Los Angeles river bed, in 1907 author-
ized the issue of $23,000,000 worth of 4 % bonds for the construction
of an aqueduct 209 m. long, bringing water to the city from the
Owens river, in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. It was estimated
that the project would furnish water for one million people, beside
supplying power for lighting, manufacturing and transportation
purposes. All the water in excess of the city's actual needs may be
employed for irrigation. Work on the aqueduct was begun in 1908,
and it was to be completed in five years. From 1900 to 1905
the value of the factory products increased from $15,133,696 to
$34,814,475 or 130%, and the capital employed in manufactures
from $10,045,095 to $28,181,418 or 180-5%. The leading manu-
facturing industries in 1905, with the product-value of each in this
year, were slaughtering and meat-packing ($4,040,162), foundry
and machine shop work ($3,146,914), flour and grist milling
($2,798,740), lumber manufacturing and planing ($2,519,081),
printing and publishing (newspapers and periodicals, $2,097,339;
and book and job printing, $1,278,841), car construction and repair-
ing ($1,549,836) — in 1910 there were railway shops here of the
Southern Pacific, Pacific Electric, Los Angeles Street, Salt Lake and
Santa Fe railways — and the manufacture of confectionery ($953,915),

furniture ($879,910) and malt liquors ($789,393). The canning and
preserving of fruits and vegetables are important industries. There
is a large wholesale trade with southern California, with Arizona and
with the gold-fields of Nevada, with which Los Angeles is connected
by railway. Los Angeles is a port of entry, but its foreign commerce
is relatively unimportant. The value of its imports increased from
$721,705 in 1905 to $1,654,549 in 1907; in 1008 the value was
$I.I93.552- The city's exports were valued at $45,000 in 1907 and
at $306,439 in 1908. The coastwise trade is in lumber (about
700,000,000 ft. annually), shipped from northern California, Oregon
and 'Washington, and in crude oil and general merchandise. There
are rich oil-fields N. and W. of the city and wells throughout the city;
petroleum is largely employed as fuel in factories. The central
field, the Second Street Park field in the city, was developed between
1892 and 1895 and wells were drilled farther E. until in 1896 the
eastern field was tapped with wells at Adobe and College streets;
the wells within the city are gradually being abandoned. The
western field and the western part of the central field were first
worked in 1899-1900. The Salt Lake field, controlled by the Salt
Lake Oil Company, near Rancho de Brea, W.S.W. of the city, first
became important in 1902 and in 1907 it was the most valuable field
in California, S. of Santa-Barbara county, and the value of its product
was $1,749,980. In 1905 the value of petroleum refined in Los
Angeles was $461,281.

Land has not for many years been cheap (i.e. absolutely) in the
southern Californian fruit country, and immigration has been, gener-
ally, of the comparatively well-to-do. This fact has greatly affected
the character and development of the city. The assessed valuation
of property increased more than threefold from 1900 to 1910, being
$276,801,517 in the latter year, when the bonded city debt was
$17,259,312-50. Since 1896 there has been a strong independent
movement in politics, marked by the organization of a League for
Better City Government (1896) and a Municipal League (1900),
and by the organization of postal primaries to secure the co-operation
of electors pledged to independent voting. Since 1904 the public
school system has been administered by a non-partisan Board of
Education chosen from the city at large, and not by wards as there-
tofore.

Los Angeles, like all other Californian cities, has the privilege
of making and amending its own charter, subject to the approval
of the state legislature. In 1902 thirteen amendments were
adopted, including provisions for the initiative, the referendum
and the recall. The last of these provides that 25% of
the voters choosing a municipal officer may, by signing a
petition for his recall, force a new election during his term of
office and thereby remove him if another candidate receives a
greater number of votes. This provision, introducing an
entirely new principle into the American governmental system,
came into effect in January 1903, and was employed in the
following year when a previously elected councilman who was
" recalled " by petition and was unsuccessful in the 1904 election
brought suit to hold his office, and on a mere technicality the
Supreme Court of the state declared the recall election invalid.
In 1909 there was a recall election at which a mayor was removed
and another chosen in his place.

The Pueblo de Nuestra Sefiora la Reina de los Angeles was
founded in 1781. The Franciscan mission of San Gabriel — still
a famous landmark — had been established ten years earlier a
few miles eastward. Beginning about 1827, Los Angeles, being
the largest pueblo of the territory, became a rival of Monterey
for the honour of being the capital of California, was the seat of
conspiracies to overthrow the Mexican authority, and the
stronghold of the South California party in the bickerings and
struggles that lasted down to the American occupation. In
1835 it was made a city by the Mexican Congress, and declared
the capital, but the last provision was not enforced and was
soon recalled. In 1836-1838 it was the headquarters of C. A.
Carrillo, a legally-named but never de facto governor of California,
whose jurisdiction was never recognized in the north; and in
1845-1847 it was the actual capital. The city was rent by
factional quarrels when war broke out between Mexico and the
United States, but the appearance of United States troops under
Commodore Robert F. Stockton and General John C. FrSmont
before Los Angeles caused both factions to unite against a
common foe. The defenders of Los Angeles fled at the approach
of the troops, and on the I3th of August 1846 the American flag
was raised over the city. A garrison of fifty men, left in control,
was compelled in October to withdraw on account of a revolt
of the inhabitants, and Los Angeles was not retaken until

LOS ISLANDS— LOST PROPERTY

General Philip Kearny and Commodore Stockton entered the
city on the i8th of January 1847. This was the only important
overt resistance to the establishment of the new regime in
California. The city was chartered in 1850. It continued to
grow steadily thereafter until it attained railway connexion
with the Central Pacific and San Francisco in 1876, and with
the East by the Santa F6 system in 1885. The completion of
the latter line precipitated one of the most extraordinary of
American railway wars and land booms, which resulted in giving
southern California a great stimulus. The growth of the city
since 1890 has been even more remarkable. In 1909 the township
of Wilmington (pop. in 1900, 2983), including the city of San
Pedro (pop. in 1900, 1787), Colegrove, a suburb W.N.W. of the
city, Cahuenga (pop. in 1900, 1586), a township N.W. of the
former city limits, and a part of Los Feliz were annexed to the
city.

LOS ISLANDS (!SLAS DE LOS IDOLOS), a group of islands
off the coast of French Guinea, West Africa, lying south of
Sangarea Bay, between 9° 25' and 9° 31' N. and 13° 46' and
13° 51' W., and about 80 m. N.N.W. of Freetown, Sierra Leone.
There are five principal islands: Tamara, Factory, Crawford,
White (or Ruma) and Coral. The two largest islands are Tamara
and Factory, Tamara, some 8 m. long by i to 2 m. broad, being
the largest. These two islands lie parallel to each other, Tamara
to the west; they form a sort of basin, in the centre of which
js the islet of Crawford. The two other islands are to the south.
The archipelago is of volcanic formation, Tamara and Factory
islands forming part of a ruined crater, with Crawford Island
as the cone. The highest point is a knoll, some 450 ft. above
sea-level, in Tamara. All the islands are richly clothed with
palm trees and flowering underwood. Tamara has a good
harbour, and contains the principal settlement. The inhabitants,
about 1500, are immigrants of the Baga tribe of Senegambian
negroes, whose home is the coast land between the Pongo and
Nunez rivers. These are chiefly farmers. The Church of England
has a flourishing mission, with a native pastorate. At one time
the islands were a great seat of slave-traders and pirates. The
latter are supposed to have buried large amounts of treasure in
them. In an endeavour to stop the slave trade and piracy, the
islands were garrisoned (1812-1813) by British troops, but the
unhealthiness of the climate led to their withdrawal. In 1818
Sir Charles McCarthy, governor of Sierra Leone, obtained the
cession of the islands to Great Britain from the chiefs of the
Baga country, and in 1882 France recognized them to be a
British possession. They were then the headquarters of several
Sierra Leone traders. By article 6 of the Anglo-French conven-
tion of the 8th of April 1904, the islands were ceded to France.
They were desired by France because of their geographical
position, Konakry, the capital of French Guinea, being built
on an islet but 3 m. from Factory Island, and at the mercy
of long range artillery planted thereon. The islands derive
their name from the sacred images found on them by the early
European navigators.

See A. B. Ellis, West African Islands (London, 1885), and the
works cited under FRENCH GUINEA.

LOSSIEMOUTH, a police burgh of Elginshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 3904. It embraces the villages of Lossiemouth,
Branderburgh and Stotfield, at the mouth of the Lossie, 5! m.
N.N.E. of Elgin, of which it is the port, by a branch line of the
Great North of Scotland railway. The industries are boat-
building and fishing. Lossiemouth, or the Old Town, dates
from 1700; Branderburgh, farther north, grew with the harbour
and began about 1830; Stotfield is purely modern and contiguous
to the splendid golf-course. The cliffs at Covesea, 2 m. W.,
contain caves of curious shape. Sir Robert Gordon of Gordons-
town used one as a stable in the rebellion of 1745; weapons oi
prehistoric man were found in another, and the roof of a third
is carved with ornaments and emblems of early Celtic art.

Kinneddar Castle in the parish of Drainie — in which Lossiemouth
is situated — was a seat of the bishops of Moray, and Old Duffus
Castle, 2\ m. S.W., was built in the reign of David II. The estate of
Gordonstown, close by, was founded by Sir Robert Gordon (1580-
1656), historian of the Sutherland family, and grandfather of the

Daronet who, because of his inventions and scientific attainments,
was known locally as " Sir Robert the Warlock " (1647-1704).
Nearly midway between Lossiemouth and Elgin stand the massive
ruins of the palace of Spynie, formerly a fortified residence of the
bishops of Moray. " Davie's Tower, 60 ft. high with walls 9 ft.
thick, was built by Bishop David Stewart about 14.70. The adjacent
loch is a favourite breeding-place for the sea-birds, which resort to
the coast of Elginshire in enormous numbers. A mile S.E. of the
lake lies Pitgaveny, one of the reputed scenes of the murder of King
Duncan by Macbeth.

LOSSING, BENSON JOHN (1813-1891), American historical
writer, was born in Beekman, New York, on the 1 2th of February
1813. After editing newspapers in Poughkeepsie he became
an engraver on wood, and removed to New York in 1839 for the
practice of his profession, to which he added that of drawing
illustrations for books and periodicals. He likewise wrote or
edited the text of numerous publications. His Pictorial Field-
Book of the Revolution (first issued in 30 parts, 1850-1852, and
then in 2 volumes) was a pioneer work of value in American
historical literature. In its preparation he travelled some
9000 m. during a period of nearly two years; made more than
a thousand sketches of extant buildings, battlefields, &c.; and
presented his material in a form serviceable to the topographer
and interesting to the general reader. Similar but less character-
istic and less valuable undertakings were a Pictorial Field-Book
of the War of 1812 (1868), and a Pictorial History of the Civil
War in the United States of America (3 vols. 1866-1869). His
other books were numerous: an Outline History of the Fine
Arts; many illustrated histories, large and small, of the United
States; popular descriptions of Mount Vernon and other
localities associated with famous names; and biographical
sketches of celebrated Americans, of which The Life and Times
of Major-General Philip Schuyler (2 vols. 1860-1873) was the
most considerable. He died at Dover Plains, New York, on
the 3rd of June 1891.

LOSSNITZ, a district in the kingdom of Saxony, extending for
about 5 m. along the right bank of the Elbe, immediately N.W.
of Dresden. Pop. (1905) 6929. A line of vine-clad hills shelters
it from the north winds, and so warm and healthy is the climate
that it has gained for the district the appellation of the " Saxon
Nice." Asparagus, peaches, apricots, strawberries, grapes and
roses are largely cultivated and find a ready market in Dresden.

LOST PROPERTY. The man who loses an article does not
lose his right thereto, and he may recover it from the holder
whoever he be, unless his claim be barred by some Statute of
Limitations or special custom, as sale in market overt. The
rights and duties of the finder are more complex. If he know
or can find out the true owner, and yet convert the article to
his own use, he is guilty of theft. But if the true owner cannot
be discovered, the finder keeps the property, his title being
superior to that of every one except the true owner. But this
is only if the find be in public or some public place. Thus
if you pick up bank notes in a shop where they have been lost
by a stranger, and hand them to the shopkeeper that he may
discover and repossess the true owner, and he fail to do so, then
you can recover them from him. The owner of private land,
however, is entitled to what is found on it. Thus a man sets
you to clear out his pond, and you discover a diamond in the
mud at the bottom. The law will compel you to hand it over
to the owner of the pond. This applies even against the tenant.
A gas company were lessees of certain premises; whilst making
excavations therein they came upon a prehistoric boat; and
they were forced to surrender it to their lessor. An aerolite
becomes the property of the owner of the land on which it falls,
and not of the person finding or digging it out. The principle
of these three last cases is that whatever becomes part of the
soil belongs to the proprietor of that soil.

Property lost at sea is regulated by different rules. Those
who recover abandoned vessels are entitled to salvage. Property
absolutely lost upon the high seas would seem to belong to the
finder. It has been claimed for the crown, and the American
courts have held, that apart from a decree the finder is only
entitled to salvage rights, the court retaining the rest, and thus

LOSTWITHIEL— LOT

practically taking it for the state on the original owner not being
found. The modern English law on the subject of wreck (includ-
ing everything found on the shore of the sea or tidal river)
is contained in the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. The finder
must forthwith make known his discovery to the receiver of
wreck under a penalty. He is entitled to a salvage reward, but
the property belongs to the crown or its grantee unless the true
owner claims within a year. In the United States unclaimed wreck
after a year generally becomes the property of the state. In
Scotland the right to lost property is theoretically in the crown,
but the finder would not in practice be interfered with except
under the provisions of the Burgh Police (Scotland) Act 1892.
Section 412 requires all persons finding goods to deliver them
forthwith to the police under a penalty. If the true owner is
not discovered within six months the magistrates may hand
them over to the finder. If the owner appears he must pay a
reasonable reward. Domestic animals, including swans, found
straying without an owner may be seized by the crown or lord
of the manor, and if not claimed within a year and a day they
become the property of the crown or the lord, on the observance
of certain formalities. In Scotland they were held to belong to
the crown or its donatory, usually the sheriff of a county. By
the Burgh Police Act above quoted provision is made for the
sale of lost animals and the disposal of the free proceeds for the
purposes of the act unless such be claimed. In the United
States there is diversity of law and custom. Apart from special
rule, lost animals become the property of the finder, but in
many cases the proceeds of their sale are applied to public
purposes. When property is lost by carriers, innkeepers or
railway companies, special provisions as to their respective
responsibilities apply. As to finds of money or the precious
metals, see TREASURE TROVE.

LOSTWITHIEL, a market town and municipal borough in the
Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 30% m.
W. of Plymouth by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901)
1379. It is pleasantly situated on the banks of the river Fowey.
The church of St Bartholomew is remarkable for a fine Early
English tower surmounted by a Decorated spire; there are also
beautiful Decorated windows and details in the body of the
church, and a richly carved octagonal font. A bridge of the
1 4th century crosses the river. The shire hall includes
remains of a building, called the Stannary prison, dating from
the i3th century. The Great Western railway has workshops
at Lostwithiel.

Lostwithiel owed its ancient liberties — probably its existence —
to the neighbouring castle of Restormel. The Pipe Rolls (1194-
1203) show that Robert de Cardinan, lord of Restormel, paid
ten marks yearly for having a market at Lostwithiel. By an
undated charter still preserved with the corporation's muniments
he surrendered to the burgesses all the liberties given them by
his predecessors (antecessores) when they founded the town.
These included hereditary succession to tenements, exemption
from sullage, the right to elect a reeve (praepositus) if the grantor
thought one necessary and the right to marry without the lord's
interference. By Isolda, granddaughter of Robert de Cardinan,
the town was given to Richard, king of the Romans, who in the
third year of his reign granted to the burgesses a gild merchant
sac and soc, toll, team and infangenethef, freedom from pontage,
lastage, &c., throughout Cornwall, and exemption from the
jurisdiction of the hundred and county courts, also a yearly
fair and a weekly market. Richard transferred the assizes from
Launceston to Lostwithiel. His son Edmund, earl of Cornwall,
built a great hall at Lostwithiel and decreed that the coinage
of tin should be at Lostwithiel only. In 1325 Richard's charter
was confirmed and the market ordered to be held on Thursdays.
In 1386 the assizes were transferred back to Launceston. In
1609 a charter of incorporation provided for a mayor, recorder,
six capital burgesses and seventeen assistants and courts of
record and pie powder. The boundaries of the borough were
extended in 1733. Under the reformed charter granted in 1885
the corporation consists of a mayor, four aldermen and twelve
councillors. From 1305 to 1832 two members represented

Lostwithiel in parliament. The electors after 1609 were the
twenty-five members of the corporation. Under the Reform
Act (1832) the borough became merged in the county. For the
Thursday market granted in 1326 a Friday market was sub-
stituted in 1733, and this continues to be held. The fair granted
in 1326 and the three fairs granted in 1733 have all given place
to others. The archdeacon's court, the sessions and the county
elections were long held at Lostwithiel, but all have now been
removed. For the victory gained by Charles I. over the earl of
Essex in 1644, see GREAT REBELLION.

LOT, in the Bible, the legendary ancestor of the two Palestinian
peoples, Moab and Ammon (Gen. xix. 30-38; cp. Ps. Ixxxiii. 8);
he appears to have been represented as a Horite or Edomite
(cp. the name Lotan, Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22). As the son of Haran
and grandson of Terah, he was Abraham's nephew (Gen. xi. 31),
and he accompanied his uncle in his migration from Haran to
Canaan. Near Bethel1 Lot separated from Abraham, owing tc
disputes between their shepherds, and being offered the first
choice, chose the rich fields of the Jordan valley which were as
fertile and well irrigated as the " garden of Yahweh " (i.e. Eden,
Gen. xiii. 7 sqq.). It was in this district that the cities of Sodom
and Gomorrah were situated. He was saved from their fate
by two divine messengers who spent the night in his house, and
next morning led Lot, his wife, and his two unmarried daughters
out of the city. His wife looked back and was changed to a
pillar of salt,2 but Lot with his two daughters escaped first to
Zoar and then to the mountains east of the Dead Sea, where the
daughters planned and executed an incest by which they became
the mothers of Moab and Ben-Ammi (i.e. Ammon; Gen. xix.).
The account of Chedorlaomer's invasion and of Lot's rescue by
Abraham belongs to an independent source (Gen. xiv.), the age
and historical value of which has been much disputed. (See
further ABRAHAM; MELCHIZEDEK.) Lot's character is made
to stand in strong\'contrast with that of Abraham, notably in the
representation of his,selfishness (xiii. 5 sqq.), and reluctance to
leave the sinful city (xix. 16 sqq.); relatively, however, he was
superior to the rest (with the crude story of his insistence upon
the inviolable rights of guests, xix. 5 sqq.; cf. Judges xix. 22 sqq.),
and is regarded in 2 Pet. ii. 7 seq. as a type of righteousness.

Lot and his daughters passed into Arabic tradition from the Jews.
The daughters are named Zahy and Ra'wa by Mas'udi ii. 139; but
other Arabian writers give other forms. Paton (Syria and Palestine,
pp. 43, 123) identifies Lot-Lotan with Kitten, one of the Egyptian
names for Palestine; its true meaning is obscure. For traces of
mythical elements in the story see VVinckler, Altorienl. Forsch. ii.
87 seq. See further, J. Skinner, Genesis, pp. 310 sqq. (S. A. C.)

LOT (Lat. Oltis) , a river of southern France flowing westward
across the central plateau, through the departments of Lozere,
Aveyron, Lot and Lot-et-Garonne. Its length is about 300 m.,
the area of its basin 4444 sq. m. The river rises in the CeVennes
on the Mont du Goulet at a height of 4918 ft. about 15 m. E.
of Mende, past which it flows. Its upper course lies through
gorges between the Causse of Mende and Aubrac Mountains
on the north and the tablelands (causses) of Sauveterre, Severac
and Comtal on the south. Thence its sinuous course crosses
the plateau of Quercy and entering a wider fertile plain flows
into the Garonne at Aiguillon between Agen and Marmande.
Its largest tributary, the Truyere, rises in the Margeride moun-
tains and after a circuitous course joins it on the right at
Entraygues (department of Aveyron), its affluence more than

1 The district is thus regarded as the place where the Hebrews, on
the one side, and the Moabites and Ammonites, on the other, com-
mence their independent history. Whilst the latter settle across the
Jordan, Abraham moves down south to Hebron.

1 Tradition points to the Jebel Usdum (cp. the name Sodom) at
the S.W. end of the Dead Sea. It consists almost entirely of pure
crystallized salt with pillars and pinnacles such as might have given
rise to the story (see Driver, Genesis, p. 201 ; and cf. also Palestine
Explor. Fund, Quart. Statements, 1871, p. 16, 1885, p. 20; Conder,
Syrian Stone-lore, p. 279 seq.). Jesus cites the story of Lot and his
wife to illustrate the sudden coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke
xvii. 28-32). The history of the interpretation of the legend by the
early and medieval church down to the era of rational and scientific
investigation will be found in A. D. White, Warfare of Science with
Theology, ii. ch. xviii.

i6

LOT— LOT-ET-GARONNE

doubling the volume of the river. Lower down it receives
the Dourdou de Bozouls (or du Nord) on the left and on the right
the Cele above Cahors (department of Lot), which is situated
on a peninsula skirted by one of the river's many windings.
Villeneuve-sur-Lot (department of Lot-et-Garonne) is the
only town of any importance between this point and its mouth.
The Lot is canalized between Bouquies, above which there is no
navigation, and the Garonne (160 m.).

LOT, a department of south-western France, formed in 1790
from the district of Quercy, part of the old province of Guyenne.
It is bounded N. by Correze, W. by Dordogne and Lot-et-Garonne,
S. by Tarn-et-Garonne, and E. by Aveyron and Cantal. Area
2017 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 216,611. The department extends
over the western portion of the Massif Central of France; it
slopes towards the south-west, and has a maximum altitude
of 2560 ft. on the borders of Cantal with a minimum of 213 ft.
at the point where the river Lot quits the department. The Lot,
which traverses it from east to west, is navigable for the whole
distance (106 m.) with the help of locks; its principal tributary
within the department is the Cele (on the right). In the north
of the department the Dordogne has a course of 37 m.; among
its tributaries are the Cere, which has its rise in Cantal, and the
Ouysse, a river of no great length, but remarkable for the
abundance of its waters. The streams in the south of Lot all
flow into the Tarn. The eastern and western portions of the
department are covered by ranges of hills; the north, the centre,
and part of the south are occupied by a belt of limestone plateaus
or causses, that to the north of the Dordogne is called the Causse
de Martel; between the Dordogne and the Lot is the Causse
de Gramat or de Rocamadour; south of the Lot is the Causse
de Cahors. The causses are for the most part bare and arid
owing to the rapid disappearance of the rain in clefts and chasms
in the limestone, which are known as igues. These are most
numerous in the Causse de Gramat and are sometimes of great
beauty; the best known is the Gouffre de Padirac, 7 m. N.E.
of Rocamadour. The altitude of the causses (from 700 to 1300 ft.,
much lower than that of the similar plateaus in Lozere, Herault
and Aveyron) permits the cultivation of the vine; they also
yield a small quantity of cereals and potatoes and some wood.
The deep intervening valleys are full of verdure, being well
watered by abundant springs. The climate is on the whole that
of the Girondine region; the valleys are warm, and the rainfall
is somewhat above the average for France. The difference of
temperature between the higher parts of the department belong-
ing to the central plateau and the sheltered valleys of the
south-west is considerable. Wheat, maize, oats and rye are the
chief cereals. Wine is the principal product, the most valued
being that of Cahors grown in the valley of the Lot, which is,
in general, the most productive portion of the department.
It is used partly for blending with other wines and partly for
local consumption. The north-east cantons produce large
quantities of chestnuts; walnuts, apples and plums are common,
and the department also grows potatoes and tobacco and
supplies truffles. Sheep are the most abundant kind of live
stock; but pigs, horned cattle, horses, asses, mules and goats
are also reared, as well as poultry and bees. Iron and coal are
mined, and there are important zinc deposits (Planioles). Lime-
stone is quarried. There are oil-works and numerous mills, and
wool spinning and carding as well as cloth making, tanning,
currying, brewing and the making of agricultural implements
are carried on to some extent. The three arrondissements are
those of Cahors, the capital, Figeac and Gourdon; there are
29 cantons and 329 communes.

Lot belongs to the I7th military district, and to the acadlmie
of Toulouse, and falls within the circumscription of the court
of appeal at Agen, and the province of the archbishop of Albi.
It is served by the Orleans railway. Cahors, Figeac and Roca-
madour are the principal places. Of the interesting churches
and chateaux of the department, may be mentioned the fine
feudal fortress at Castelnau occupying a commanding natural
position, with an audience hall of the i2th century, and the
Romanesque abbey-church at Souillac with fine sculpturing

on the principal entrance. The plateau of Puy dTssolu, near
Vayrac, is believed by most authorities to be the site of the
ancient Uxcellodunum, the scene of the last stand of the- Gauls
against Julius Caesar in 51 B.C. Lot has many dolmens, the
finest being that of Pierre Martine, near Livernon (arr. of
Figeac).

LOT-ET-GARONNE, a department of south-western France,
formed in 1790 of Agenais and Bazadais, two districts of the
old province of Guienne, and of Condomois, Lomagne, Brullois
and pays d'Albret, formerly portions of Gascony. It is bounded
W. by Gironde, N. by Dordogne, E. by Lot and Tarn-et-Garonne,
S. by Gers and S.W. by Landes. Area 2079 sq. m. Pop. (1906)
274,610. The Garonne, which traverses the department from
S.E. to N.W., divides it into two unequal parts. That to the
north is a country of hills and deep ravines, and the slope is
from east to west, while in the region to the south, which is a
continuation of the plateau of Lannemezan and' Armagnac, the
slope is directly from south to north. A small portion in the
south-west belongs to the sterile region of the Landes (<?.».);
the broad valleys of the Garonne and of its affluent the Lot are
proverbial for their fertility. The wildest part is towards the
north-east on the borders of Dordogne, where a region of causses
(limestone plateaus) and forests begins; the highest point
(896 ft.) is also found here. The Garonne, where it quits the
department, is only some 20 ft. above the sea-level; it is navig-
able throughout, with the help of its lateral canal, as also are the
Lot and Baise with the help of locks. The Drot, a right affluent
of the Garonne in the north of the department, is also navigable
in the lower part of its course. The climate is that of the
Girondine region — mild and fine — the mean temperature of
Agen being 56-6° Fahr., or 5° above that of Paris; the annual
rainfall, which, in the plain of Agen, varies from 20 to 24 in., is
nearly the least in France. Agriculturally the department is
one of the richest. Of cereals wheat is the chief, maize and oats
coming next. Potatoes, vines and tobacco are important
sources of wealth. The best wines are those of Clairac and
Buzet. Vegetable and fruit-growing are prosperous. Plum-trees
(pruniers d'ente) are much cultivated in the valleys of the Garonne
and Lot, and the apricots of Nicole and Tonneins are well known.
The chief trees are the pine and the oak; the cork-oak flourishes
in the Landes, and poplars and willows are abundant on the
borders of the Garonne. Horned cattle, chiefly of the Garonne
breed, are the principal live stock. Poultry and pigs are also
reared profitably. There are deposits of iron in the department.
The forges, blast furnaces and foundries of Fumel are important;
and agricultural implements and other machines are manu-
factured. The making of lime and cement, of tiles, bricks and
pottery, of confectionery and dried plums (pruneaux d'Agen)
and other delicacies, and brewing and distilling, occupy many
of the inhabitants. At Tonneins (pop. 4691 in 1906) there is a
national tobacco manufactory. Cork cutting, of which the
centre is M6zin, hat and candle making, wool spinning, weaving
of woollen and cotton stuffs, tanning, paper-making, oil-making,
dyeing and flour and saw-milling are other prominent industries.
The peasants still speak the Gascon patois. The arrondissements
are 4 — Agen, Marmande, Nerac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot — and
there are 35 cantons and 326 communes.

Agen, -the capital, is the seat of a bishopric and of the court
of appeal for the department of Lot-et-Garonne. The depart-
ment belongs to the region of the XVII. army corps, the acadlmie
of Bordeaux, and the province of the archbishop of Bordeaux.
Lot-et-Garonne is served by the lines of the Southern and the
Orleans railways, its rivers afford about 160 m. of navigable
waterway, and the lateral canal of the Garonne traverses it for
54 m. Agen, Marmande, N6rac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot, the
principal places, are treated under separate headings. The
department possesses Roman remains at Mas d'Agenais and at
Aiguillon. The churches of Layrac, Monsempron, Mas d'Agenais,
Moirax, Mezin and Vianne are of interest, as also are the fortifica-
tions of Vianne of the I3th century, and the chateaux of
Xaintrailles, Bonaguil, Gavaudun and of the industrial town
of Casteljaloux.

LOTHAIR I.— LOTHAIR II.

LOTHAIR I. (795-855), Roman emperor, was the eldest son
of the emperor Louis I., and his wife Irmengarde. Little is
known of his early life, which was probably passed at the court
of his grandfather Charlemagne, until 815 when he became
ruler of Bavaria. When Louis in 8 1 7 divided the Empire between
his sons, Lothair was crowned joint emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle
and given a certain superiority over his brothers. In 821 he
married Irmengarde (d. 851), daughter of Hugo, count of Tours;
in 822 undertook the government of Italy; and, on the 5th of
April 823, was crowned emperor by Pope Paschal I. at Rome.
In November 824 he promulgated a statute concerning the
relations of pope and emperor which reserved the supreme
power to the secular potentate, and he afterwards issued various
ordinances for the good government of Italy. On his return to
his father's court his step-mother Judith won his consent to her
plan for securing a kingdom for her son Charles, a scheme which
was carried out in 829. Lothair, however, soon changed his
attitude, and spent the succeeding decade in constant strife
over the division of the Empire with his father. He was alter-
netely master of the Empire, and banished and confined to Italy;
at one time taking up arms in alliance with his brothers and
at another fighting against them; whilst the bounds of his
appointed kingdom were in turn extended and reduced. When
Louis was dying in 840, he sent the imperial insignia to Lothair,
who, disregarding the various partitions, claimed the whole
of the Empire. Negotiations with his brother Louis and his
half-brother Charles, both of whom armed to resist this claim,
were followed by an alliance of the younger brothers against
Lothair. A decisive battle was fought at Fontenoy on the 25th
of June 841, when, in spite of his personal gallantry, Lothair
was defeated and fled to Aix. With fresh troops he entered
upon a war of plunder, but the forces of his brothers were too
strong for him, and taking with him such treasure as he could
collect, he abandoned to them his capital. Efforts to make
peace were begun, and in June 842 the brothers met on an
island in the Saone, and agreed to an arrangement which
developed, after much difficulty and delay, into the treaty of
Verdun signed in August 843. By this Lothair received Italy
and the imperial title, together with a stretch of land between
the North and Mediterranean Seas lying along the valleys of
the Rhine and the Rhone. He soon abandoned Italy to his
eldest son, Louis, and remained in his new kingdom, engaged
in alternate quarrels and reconciliations with his brothers, and
in futile efforts to defend his lands from the attacks of the
Normans and the Saracens. In 855 he became seriously ill,
and despairing of recovery renounced the throne, divided his
lands between his three sons, and on the 23rd of September
entered the monastery of Priim, where he died six days later.
He was buried at Priim, where his remains were found in 1860.
Lothair was entirely untrustworthy and quite unable to maintain
either the unity or the dignity of the empire of Charlemagne.

See " Annales Fuldenses "; Nithard, " Historiarum Libri," both
in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bande i. and ii.
(Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.); E. Muhlbacher, Die Regesten des
Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1881); E. Dummler,
Geschickte des ostfrankischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1887-1888) ; B. Simson,
Jahrbucher des deutschen Retches unter Luduiig dent Frommen (Leipzig,
1874-1876).

LOTHAIR II. or III. (c. 1070-1137), surnamed the "Saxon,"
Roman emperor, son of Gebhard, count of Supplinburg, belonged
to a family possessing extensive lands around Helmstadt in
Saxony, to which he succeeded on his father's death in 1075.
Gebhard had been a leading opponent of the emperor Henry IV.
in Saxony, and his son, taking the same attitude, assisted
Egbert II., margrave of Meissen, in the rising of 1088. The
position and influence of Lothair in Saxony, already considerable,
was increased when in noo he married Richenza, daughter of
Henry, count of Nordheim, who became an heiress on her father's
death in 1101, and inherited other estates when her brother
Otto died childless in 1116. Having assisted the German king,
Henry V., against his father in 1104, Lothair was appointed
duke of Saxony by Henry, when Duke Magnus, the last of the
Billungs, died in 1106. His first care was to establish his

authority over some districts east of the Elbe; and quickly
making himself independent of the king, he stood forth as the
representative of the Saxon race. This attitude brought him
into collision with Henry V., to whom, however, he was forced
to submit after an unsuccessful rising in 1112. A second rising
was caused when, on the death of Ulrich II., count of Weimar
and Orlamiinde, without issue in 1112, Henry seized these
counties as vacant fiefs of the empire, while Lothair supported
the claim of Siegfried, count of Ballenstadt, whose mother was
a relative of Ulrich. The rebels were defeated, and Siegfried
was killed at Warnstadt in 1113, but his son secured possession
of the disputed counties. After the defeat by Lothair of Henry's
forces at Welfesholz on the nth of February 1115, events called
Henry to Italy; and Lothair appears to have been undisturbed
in Saxony until 1123, when the death of Henry II., margrave of
Meissen and Lusatia raised a dispute as to the right of appoint-
ment to the vacant margraviates. A struggle ensued, in which
victory remained with the duke. The Saxony policy of Lothair
during these years had been to make himself independent, and
to extend his authority; to this end he allied himself with the
papal party, and easily revived the traditional hostility of the
Saxons to the Franconian emperors.

When Henry V. died in 1125, Lothair, after a protracted
election, was chosen German king at Mainz on the 3Oth of August
1125. His. election was largely owing to the efforts of Adalbert,
archbishop of Mainz, and the papal party, who disliked the
candidature of Henry's nephew and heir, Frederick II. of
Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia. The new king was crowned at
Aix-la-Chapelle on the I3th of September 1125. Before suffering
a severe reverse, brought about by his interference in the internal
affairs of Bohemia, Lothair requested Frederick of Hohenstaufen
to restore to the crown the estates bequeathed to him by the
emperor Henry V. Frederick refused, and was placed under the
ban. Lothair, unable to capture Nuremberg, gained the support
of Henry the Proud, the new duke of Bavaria, by giving him his
daughter, Gertrude, in marriage, and that of Conrad, count of
Zahringen, by granting him the administration of the kingdom
of Burgundy, or Aries. As a counterstroke, however, Conrad
of Hohenstaufen, the brother of Frederick, was chosen German
king in December 1127, and was quickly recognized in northern
Italy. But Lothair gained the upper hand in Germany, and by
the end of 1129 the Hohenstaufen strongholds, Nuremberg and
Spires, were in his possession. This struggle was accompanied
by disturbances in Lorraine, Saxony and Thuringia, but order
was soon restored after the resistance of the Hohenstaufen
had been beaten down. In 1131 the king led an expedition
into Denmark, where one of his vassals had been murdered
by Magnus, son of the Danish king, Niels, and where general
confusion reigned; but no resistance was offered, and Niels
promised to pay tribute to Lothair.

The king's attention at the time was called to Italy where
two popes, Innocent II. and Anacletus II., were clamouring
for his support. At first Lothair, fully occupied with the affairs
of Germany, remained heedless and neutral; but in March
1131 he was visited at Li6ge by Innocent, to whom he promised
his assistance. Crossing the Alps with a small army in September
1 132, he reached Rome in March 1 133, accompanied by Innocent.
As St Peter's was held by Anacletus, Lothair's coronation as
emperor took place on the 4th of June 1133 in the church of
the Lateran. He then received as papal fiefs the vast estates
of Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, thus securing for his
daughter and her Welf husband lands which might otherwise
have passed to the Hohenstaufen. His efforts to continue the
investiture controversy were not very serious. He returned to
Germany, where he restored order in Bavaria, and made an
expedition against some rebels in the regions of the lower Rhine.
Resuming the struggle against the Hohenstaufen, Lothair
soon obtained the submission of the brothers, who retained their
lands, and a general peace was sworn at Bamberg. The emperor's
authority was now generally recognized, and the annalists speak
highly of the peace and order of his later years. In 1 135, Eric II.,
king of Denmark, acknowledged himself a vassal of Lothair;

1 8 LOTHAIR— LOTHIAN, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

Boleslaus III., prince of the Poles, promised tribute and received
Pomerania and Rugen as German fiefs; while the eastern
emperor, John Comnenus, implored Lothair's aid against
Roger II. of Sicily.

The emperor seconded the efforts of his vassals, Albert the
Bear, margrave of the Saxon north mark, and Conrad I., margrave
of Meissen and Lusatia, to extend the authority of the Germans
in the districts east of the Elbe, and assisted Norbert, archbishop
of Magdeburg, and Albert I., archbishop of Bremen, to spread
Christianity. In August 1 136, attended by a large army, Lothair
set out upon his second Italian journey. The Lombard cities
were either terrified into submission or taken by storm; Roger II.
was driven from Apulia; and the imperial power enforced
over the whole of southern Italy. A mutiny among the German
soldiers and a breach with Innocent concerning the overlordship
of Apulia compelled the emperor to retrace his steps. An
arrangement was made with regard to Apulia, after which
Lothair, returning to Germany, died at Breitenwang, a village
in the Tirol, on the 3rd or 4th of December 1137. His body was
carried to Saxony and buried in the monastery which he had
founded at Konigslutter. Lothair was a strong and capable
ruler, who has been described as the " imitator and heir of the
first Otto." Contemporaries praise his justice and his virtue,
and his reign was regarded, especially by Saxons and churchmen,
as a golden age for Germany.

The main authorities for the life and reign of Lothair are: " yita
Norberti archiepiscopi Magdeburgensis " ; Otto von Freising,
" Chronicon Annalista Saxo " and " Narratio de electione Lotharii "
all in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bande vi.,
xii. and xx. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). The best modern
works are: L. von Ranke, Weltgeschichtc, pt. viii. (Leipzig, 1887-
1888); W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der Deutschen Kaiserzeit,
Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877), Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); Ph. Jaffe,
Geschichle des Deutschen Reiches unter Lothar (Berlin, 1843); W.
Bernhardi, Lothar von Supplinburg (Leipzig, 1879); O. von Heine-
mann, Lothar der Sachse und Konrad III. (Halle, 1869); and Ch.
Volkmar, " Das Verhaltniss Lothars III. zur Investiturfrage," in
the Forschungen zur Deutschen Geschichte, Band xxvi. (Gottingen,
1862-1886).

LOTHAIR (941-986), king of France, son of Louis IV., suc-
ceeded his father in 954, and was at first under the guardianship
of Hugh the Great, duke of the Franks, and then under that of
his maternal uncle Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. The beginning
of his reign was occupied with wars against the vassals, particu-
larly against the duke of Normandy. Lothair then seems to
have conceived the design of recovering Lorraine. He attempted
to precipitate matters by a sudden attack, and in the spring
of 978 nearly captured the emperor Otto II. at Aix-la-Chapelle.
Otto took his revenge in the autumn by invading France. He
penetrated as far as Paris, devastating the country through
which he passed, but failed to take the town, and was forced
to retreat with heavy loss. Peace was concluded in 980 at
Margut-sur-Chiers, and in 983 Lothair was even chosen guardian
to the young Otto III. Towards 980, however, Lothair quarrelled
with Hugh the Great's son, Hugh Capet, who, at the instigation
of Adalberon, archbishop of Reims, became reconciled with
Otto III. Lothair died on the 2nd of March 986. By his wife
Emma, daughter of Lothair, king of Italy, he left a son who
succeeded him as Louis V.

See F. Lot, Les Dernier s Carolingiens (Paris, 1891); and the
Recueti des actes de Lothair e et de Louis V., edited by L. Halphen and
F. Lot (1908).

LOTHAIR (825-869), king of the district called after him
Lotharingia, or Lorraine, was the second son of the emperor
Lothair I. On his father's death in 855, he received for his
kingdom a district lying west of the Rhine, between the North
Sea and the Jura mountains, which was called Regnum Lotharii
and early m the loth century became known as Lotharingia
or Lorraine. On the death of his brother Charles in 863 he added
some lands south of the Jura to this inheritance, but, except
for a few feeble expeditions against the Danish pirates, he seems
to have done b'ttle for its government or its defence. The
reign was chiefly occupied by efforts on the part of Lothair
to obtain a divorce from his wife Teutberga, a sister of Hucbert,
abbot of St Maurice (d. 864) ; and his relations with his uncles,

Charles the Bald and Louis the German, were influenced by his
desire to obtain their support to this plan. Although quarrels
and reconciliations between the three kings followed each other
in quick succession, in general it may be said that Louis favoured
the divorce, and Charles opposed it, while neither lost sight of the
fact that Lothair was without male issue. Lothair, whose desire '
for the divorce was prompted by his affection for a certain
Waldrada, put away Teutberga; but Hucbert took up arms
on her behalf, and after she had submitted successfully to the
ordeal of water, Lothair was compelled to restore her in 858.
Still pursuing his purpose, he won the support of his brother,
the emperor Louis II., by a cession of lands, and obtained the
consent of the local clergy to the divorce and to his marriage
with Waldrada, which was celebrated in 862. A synod of
Prankish bishops met at Metz in 863 and confirmed this decision,
but Teutberga fled to the court of Charles the Bald, and Pope
Nicholas I. declared against the decision of the synod. An
attack on Rome by the emperor was without result, and in
865 Lothair, convinced that Louis and Charles at their recent
meeting had discussed the partition of his kingdom, and
threatened with excommunication, again took back his wife.
Teutberga, however, either from inclination or compulsion,
now expressed her desire for a divorce, and Lothair went to
Italy to obtain the assent of the new pope Adrian II. Placing
a favourable interpretation upon the words of the pope, he had
set out on the return journey, when he was seized with fever
and died at Piacenza on the 8th of August 869. He left, by
Waldrada, a son Hugo who was declared illegitimate, and his
kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald and Louis
the German.

See Hincmar, " Opusculum de divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergae
reginae," in Cursus completus patrologiae, tome cxxv., edited by
J. P. Migne (Paris, 1857-1879); M. Sdralek, Hinkmars von Rheims
Kanonistisches Gutachten tiber die Ehescheidung des Kdnigs Lothar II.
(Freiburg, 1881); E. Diimmler, Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches
(Leipzig, 1887-1888); and E. Miihlbacher, Die Regenten des Kaiser-
reichs unter den Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1881).

LOTHIAN, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. MARK KERR,
ist earl of Lothian (d. 1609), was the eldest son of Mark Kerr
(d. 1584), abbot, and then commendator, of Newbattle, or
Newbottle, and was a member of the famous border family of
Ker of Cessford. The earls and dukes of Roxburghe, who are
also descended from the Kers of Cessford, have adopted the
spelling Ker, while the earls and marquesses of Lothian have
taken the form Kerr. Like his father, the abbot of Newbattle,
Mark Kerr was an extraordinary lord of session under the
Scottish king James VI.; he became Lord Newbattle in 1587
and was created earl of Lothian in 1606. He was master of
inquests from 1577 to 1606, and he died on the 8th of April
1609, having had, as report says, thirty-one children by his wife,
Margaret (d. 1617), daughter of John Maxwell, 4th Lord Herries.
His son Robert, the 2nd earl, died without sons in July 1624.
He had, in 1621, obtained a charter from the king enabling his
daughter Anne to succeed to his estates provided that she
married a member of the family of Ker. Consequently in 1631
she married William Ker, son of Robert, ist earl of Ancrum
(1578-1654), a member of the family of Ker of Ferniehurst,
whose father, William Ker, had been killed in 1590 by Robert
Ker, afterwards ist earl of Roxburghe. Robert was in attend-
ance upon Charles I. both before and after he came to the
throne, and was created earl of Ancrum in 1633. He was a
writer and a man of culture, and among his friends were the poet
Donne and Drummond of Hawthornden. His elder son William
was created earl of Lothian in 1631, the year of his marriage with
Anne Kerr, and Sir William Kerr of Blackhope, a brother of the
2nd earl, who had taken the title of earl of Lothian in 1624, was
forbidden to use it (see Correspondence of Sir Robert Ker, earl of
Ancrum, and his son William, third earl of Lothian, 1875).

WILLIAM KER (c. 1605-1675), who thus became 3rd earl of
Lothian, signed the Scottish national covenant in 1638 and
marched with the Scots into England in 1640, being present when
the English were routed at Newburn, after which he became
governor of Newcastle-on-Tyne. During the Civil War he was

LOTHIAN— LOTI

prominent rather as a politician than as a soldier; he became
a Scottish secretary of state in 1649, and was one of the com-
missioners who visited Charles II. at Breda in 1650. He died
at Newbattle Abbey, near Edinburgh, in October 1675. William's
eldest son Robert, the 4th earl (1636-1703), supported the Revolu-
tion of 1688 and served William III. in several capacities; he
became 3rd earl of Ancrum on the death of his uncle Charles
in 1690, and was created marquess of Lothian in 1701. His
eldest son William, the and marquess (c. 1662-1722), who had
been a Scottish peer as Lord Jedburgh since 1692, was a supporter
of the union with England. His son William, the 3rd marquess
(c. 1690-1 767), was the father of William Henry, the 4th marquess,
who was wounded at Fontenoy and was present at Culloden.
He was a member of parliament for some years and had reached
the rank of general in the army when he died at Bath on the 1 2th
of April 1775. His grandson William, the 6th marquess (1763-
1824), married Henrietta (1762-1805), daughter and heiress of
John Hobart, 2nd earl of Buckinghamshire, thus bringing
Blickling Hall and the Norfolk estates of the Hobarts into the
Kerr family. In 1821 he was created a peer of the United
Kingdom as Baron Ker and he died on the 27th of April 1824.
In 1900 Robert Schomberg Kerr (b. 1874) succeeded his father,
Schomberg Henry, the gth marquess (1833-1900), as zoth
marquess of Lothian.

LOTHIAN. This name was formerly applied to a considerably
larger extent of country than the three counties of Linlithgow,
Edinburgh and Haddington. Roxburghshire and Berwickshire
at all events were included in it, probably also the upper part of
Tweeddale (at least Selkirk). It would thus embrace the
eastern part of the Lowlands from the Forth to the Cheviots,
i.e. all the English part of Scotland in the nth century. This
region formed from the 7th century onward part of the kingdoms
of Bernicia and Northumbria, though we have no definite informa-
tion as to the date or events by which it came into English
hands. In Roman times, according to Ptolemy, it was occupied
by a people called Otadini, whose name is thought to have been
preserved in Manaw Gododin, the home of the British king
Cunedda before he migrated to North Wales. There is no reason
to doubt that the district remained in Welsh hands until towards
the close of the 6th century; for in the Historia Brittonum the
Bernician king Theodoric, whose traditional date is 572-579, is
said to have been engaged in war with four Welsh kings. One
of these was Rhydderch Hen who, as we know from Adamnan,
reigned at Dumbarton, while another named Urien is said to
have besieged Theodoric in Lindisfarne. If this statement is
to be believed it is hardly likely that the English had by this
time obtained a firm footing beyond the Tweed. At all events
there can be little doubt that the whole region was conquered
within the next fifty years. Most probably the greater part of
it was conquered by the Northumbrian king iEthelfrith, who,
according to Bede, ravaged the territory of the Britons more
often than any other English king, in some places reducing the
natives to dependence, in others exterminating them and
replacing them by English settlers.

In the time of Oswic the English element became predominant
in northern Britain. His supremacy was acknowledged both
by the Welsh in the western Lowlands and by the Scots in
Argyllshire. On the death of the Pictish king Talorgan, the son
of his brother Eanfrith, he seems to have obtained the sovereignty
over a considerable part of that nation also. Early in Ecgfrith's
reign an attempt at revolt on the part of the Picts proved un-
successful. We hear at this time also of the establishment of an
English bishopric at Abercorn, which, however, only lasted for
a few years. By the disastrous overthrow of Ecgfrith in 685
the Picts, Scots and some of the Britons also recovered their
independence. Yet we find a succession of English bishops at
Whithorn from 730 to the 9th century, from which it may be
inferred that the south-west coast had already by this time
become English. The Northumbrian dominions were again
enlarged by Eadberht, who in 750 is said to have annexed Kyle,
the central part of Ayrshire, with other districts. In conjunction
with (Engus mac Fergus, king of the Picts, he also reduced the

whole of the Britons to submission in 756. But this subjugation
was not lasting, and the British kingdom, though now reduced
to the basin of the Clyde, whence its inhabitants are known as
Strathclyde Britons, continued to exist for nearly three centuries.
After Eadberht 's time we hear little of events in the northern part
of Northumbria, and there is some reason for suspecting that
English influence in the south-west began to decline before
long, as our list of bishops of Whithorn ceases early in the gth
century; the evidence on this point, however, is not so decisive
as is commonly stated. About 844 an important revolution
took place among the Picts. The throne was acquired by
Kenneth mac Alpin, a prince of Scottish family, who soon became
formidable to the Northumbrians. He is said to have invaded
" Saxonia " six times, and to have burnt Dunbar and Melrose.
After the disastrous battle at York in 867 the Northumbrians
were weakened by the loss of the southern part of their territories,
and between 883 and 889 the whole country as far as Lindisfarne
was ravaged by the Scots. In 919, however, we find their leader
Aldred calling in Constantine II., king of the Scots, to help them.
A few years later together with Constantine and the Britons they
acknowledged the supremacy of Edward the Elder. After his
death, however, both the Scots and the Britons were for a time
in alliance with the Norwegians from Ireland, and consequently
/Ethelstan is said to have ravaged a large portion of the Scottish
king's territories in 934. Brunanburh, where .(Ethelstan defeated
the confederates in 937, is believed by many to have been in
Dumfriesshire, but we have no information as to the effects
of the battle on the northern populations. By this time, how-
ever, the influence of the Scottish kingdom certainly seems to
have increased in the south, and in 945 the English king Edmund
gave Cumberland, i.e. apparently the British kingdom of Strath-
clyde, to Malcolm I., king of the Scots, in consideration of his
alliance with him. Malcolm's successor Indulph (954-962)
succeeded in capturing Edinburgh, which thenceforth remained
in possession of the Scots. His successors made repeated attempts
to extend their territory southwards, and certain late chroniclers
state that Kenneth II. in 971-975 obtained a grant of the whole
of Lothian from Edgar. Whatever truth this story may contain,
the cession of the province was finally effected by Malcolm II.
by force of arms. At his first attempt in 1006 he seems to have
suffered a great defeat from Uhtred, the son of earl Waltheof.
Twelve years later, however, he succeeded in conjunction with
Eugenius, king of Strathclyde, in annihilating the Northumbrian
army at Carham on the Tweed, and Eadulf Cudel, the brother
and successor of Uhtred, ceded all his territory to the north of
that river as the price of peace. Henceforth in spite of an in-
vasion by Aldred, the son of Uhtred, during the reign of Duncan,
Lothian remained permanently in possession of the Scottish
kings. In the reign of Malcolm III. and his son, the English
element appears to have acquired considerable influence in the
kingdom. Some three years before he obtained his father's
throne Malcolm had by the help of earl Siward secured the
government of Cumbria (Strathclyde) with which Lothian
was probably united. Then in 1068 he received a large number
of exiles from England, amongst them the ^Etheling Eadgar,
whose sister Margaret he married. Four other sons in succession
occupied the throne, and in the time of the youngest, David,
who held most of the south of Scotland as an earldom from
1107-1124 and the whole kingdom from 1124-1153, the court
seems already to have been composed chiefly of English and
Normans.

AUTHORITIES. — Bede, Historia Ecclesiastic^ (ed. C. Plummer,
Oxford, 1896); Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer,
Oxford, 1899) ; Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series, ed. T. Arnold,
1882); W. F. Skene, Chronicle of Picts and Scots (Edinburgh, 1867),
and Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh. 1876-1880); and I. Rhys, Celtic
Britain (London). (F. G. M. B.)

LOTI, PIERRE [the pen-name of Louis MARIE JULIEN
VIAUD] (1850- ), French author, was born at Rochefort on
the 1 4th of January 1850. The Viauds are an old Protestant
family, and Pierre Loti consistently adhered, at least nominally,
to the faith of his fathers. Of the picturesque and touching
incidents of his childhood he has given a very vivid account

20

LOTSCHEN PASS— LOTTERIES

in Le Roman d'un enfant (1890). His education began in Roche-
fort, but at the age of seventeen, being destined for the navy,
he entered the naval school, Le Borda, and gradually rose in his
profession, attaining the rank of captain in 1906. In January
1910 he was placed on the reserve list. His pseudonym is said
to be due to his extreme shyness and reserve in early life, which
made his comrades call him after le Loti, an Indian flower which
loves to blush unseen. He was never given to books or study
(when he was received at the French Academy, he had the courage
to say, " Loti ne sait pas lire "), and it was not until 1876 that
he was persuaded to write down and publish some curious
experiences at Constantinople, in Aziyade, a book which, like
so many of Loti's, seems half a romance, half an autobiography.
He proceeded to the South Seas, and on leaving Tahiti published
the Polynesian idyl, originally called Rarahu (1880), which
was reprinted as Le Manage de Loti, and which first introduced
to the wider public an author of remarkable originality and
charm. Le Roman d'un spahi, a record of the melancholy
adventures of a soldier in Senegambia, belongs to 1881. In 1882
Loti issued a collection of short studies under the general title
of Fleurs d' ennui. In 1883 he achieved the widest celebrity,
for not only did he publish Man jrere Yves, a novel describing
the life of a French bluejacket in all parts of the world— perhaps
his most characteristic production — but he was involved in a
public discussion in a manner which did him great credit. While
taking part as a naval officer in the Tongking War, Loti had
exposed in the Figaro a series of scandals which followed on the
capture of Hue (1883), and was suspended from the service
for more than a year. He continued for some time nearly silent,
but in 1886 he published a novel of life among the Breton fisher-
folk, called Pecheur d'islande, the most popular of all his writings.
In 1887 he brought out a volume of extraordinary merit, which
has not received the attention it deserves; this is Propos d'exil,
a series of short studies of exotic places, in his peculiar semi-
autobiographic style. The fantastic novel of Japanese manners,
Madame Chrysantheme, belongs to the same year. Passing over
one or two slighter productions, we come in 1890 to Au Maroc, the
record of a journey to Fez in company with a French embassy. A
collection of strangely confidential and sentimental reminiscences,
called Le Livre de la pitii et de la mart, belongs to 1891. Loti
was on board his ship at the port of Algiers when news was
brought to him of his election, on the aist of May 1891, to the
French Academy. In 1892 he published Fantdme d' orient,
another dreamy study of life in Constantinople, a sort of con-
tinuation of Aziyade. He described a visit to the Holy Land,
somewhat too copiously, in three volumes (1895-1896), and
wrote a novel, Ramuntcho (1897), a story of manners in the
Basque province, which is equal to his best writings. In 1900
he visited British India, with the view of describing what he saw;
the result appeared in 1903 — L'Inde (sans les Anglais). At his
best Pierre Loti was unquestionably the finest descriptive writer
of the day. In the delicate exactitude with which he reproduced
the impression given to his own alert nerves by unfamiliar forms,
colours, sounds and perfumes, he was without a rival. But he
was not satisfied with this exterior charm ; he desired to blend
with it a moral sensibility of the extremest refinement, at once
sensual and ethereal. Many of his best books are long sobs
of remorseful memory, so personal, so intimate, that an English
reader is amazed to find such depth of feeling compatible with
the power of minutely and publicly recording what is felt.
In spite of the beauty and melody and fragrance of Loti's books
his mannerisms are apt to pall upon the reader, and his later books
of pure description were rather empty. His greatest successes
were gained in the species of confession, half-way between fact
and fiction, which he essayed in his earlier books. When all his
limitations, however, have been rehearsed, Pierre Loti remains,
in the mechanism of style and cadence, one of the most original
and most perfect French writers of the second half of the igth
century. ' Among his later works were : La Troisieme jeunesse de
Mme Prune (1905); Les Desenchanlees (1906, Eng. trans, by
C. Bell); La Mart de Philae (1908); Judith Renaudin (Theatre
Antoine, 1904), a five-act historical play based on an earlier

book; and, in collaboration with Emile Vedel, a translation of
King Lear, also produced at the Theatre Antoine in 1904. (E.G.)

LOTSCHEN PASS, or LOTSCHBERG, an easy glacier pass
(8842 ft.) leading from Kandersteg in the Bernese Oberland to
the Lotschen valley in the Valais. It is a very old pass, first
mentioned distinctly in 1352, but probably crossed previously
by the Valaisans who colonized various parts of the Bernese
Oberland. In 1384 and again in 1419 battles were fought on
it between the Bernese and the Valaisans, while in 1698 a mule
path (of which traces still exist) was constructed on the Bernese
slope, though not continued beyond owing to the fear of the
Valaisans that the Bernese would come over and alter their
religion. In 1906 the piercing of a tunnel (83 m. long) beneath
this pass was begun, starting a little above Kandersteg and
ending at Goppenstein near the mouth of the Lotschen valley.
Subsidies were granted by both the confederation and the canton
of Bern. This pass is to be carefully distinguished from the
Lotschenliicke (10,512 ft.), another easy glacier pass which leads
from the head of the Lotschen valley to the Great Aletsch
glacier. (W. A. B. C.)

LOTTERIES. The word lottery1 has no very definite significa-
tion. It may be applied to any process of determining prizes by
lot, whether the object be amusement or gambling or public
profit. In the Roman Saturnalia and in the banquets of aristo-
cratic Romans the object was amusement; the guests received
apophoreta. The same plan was followed on a magnificent scale
by some of the emperors. Nero gave such prizes as a house or
a slave. Heliogabalus introduced an element of absurdity-
one ticket for a golden vase, another for six flies. This custom
descended to the festivals given by the feudal and merchant
princes of Europe, especially of Italy; and it formed a prominent
feature of the splendid court hospitality of Louis XIV. In
the Italian republics of the i6th century the lottery principle was
applied to encourage the sale of merchandise. The lotto of
Florence and the seminario of Genoa are well known, and Venice
established a monopoly and drew a considerable revenue for
the state. The first letters patent for a lottery in France were
granted in 1539 by Francis I., and in 1656 the Italian, Lorenzo
Tonti (the originator of " Tontines ") opened another for the
building of a stone bridge between the Louvre and the Faubourg
St Germain. The institution became very popular in France,
and gradually assumed an important place in the government
finance. The parlements frequently protested against it, but it
had the support of Mazarin, and L. Phelypeaux, comte de
Pontchartrain, by this means raised the expenses of the Spanish
Succession War. Necker, in his Administration des finances,
estimates the public charge for lotteries at 4,000,000 livres per
annum. There were also lotteries for the benefit of religious com-
munities and charitable purposes. Two of the largest were the
Loteries de Piete and Des Enfans Trouvls. These and also the
great Loterie de I'Ecole militaire were practically merged in the
Loterie Royale by the decree of 1776, suppressing all private
lotteries in France. The financial basis of these larger lotteries
was to take -^fths for expenses and benefit, and return ^ths
to the public who subscribed. The calculation of chances had
become a familiar science. It is explained in detail by Caminade
de Castres in Enc. mith. finances, ii. s.v. " Loterie." The
names of the winning numbers in the first drawing were (i)
extrait, (2) ambe, (3) terne, (4) quaterne, (5) quine. After this
there were four drawings called primes gratuites. The extrait
gave fifteen times the price of the ticket; the quine gave one

1 The word " lottery " is directly derived from Ital. lotteria, cf.
Fr. loterie, formed from lotto, lot, game of chance. " Lot " is in
origin a Teutonic word, adopted into Romanic languages. In O. Eng.
it appears as hlot, cf . Dutch lot, Ger. Loos, Dan. lod, &c. The meaning
of the Teutonic root Ueut from which these words have derived is
unknown. Primarily " lot " meant the object, such as a disk or
counter of wood, a pebble, bean or the like, which was drawn or
cast to decide by chance, under divine guidance, various matters,
such as disputes, divisions of property, selection of officers and
frequently as a method of divination in ancient times. From this
original sense the meaning develops into that which falls to a person
by lot, chance or fate, then to any portion of land, &c., allotted to
a person, and hence, quite generally, of a quantity of anything.

LOTTERIES

21

million times the price. These are said to be much more favour-
able terms than were given in Vienna, Frankfort and other
leading European cities at the end of the i8th century. The
Loterie Royale was ultimately suppressed in 1836. Under the law
of the zgth of May 1844 lotteries may be held for the assistance
of charity and the fine arts. In 1878 twelve million lottery
tickets of one franc each were sold in Paris to pay for prizes to
exhibitors in the great Exhibition and expenses of working-men
visitors. The first prize was worth £5000; the second, £4000,
and the third and fourth £2000 each. The Soci6te du Credit
Foncier, and many of the large towns, are permitted to contract
loans, the periodical repayments of which are determined by
lot. This practice, which is prohibited in Germany and England,
resembles the older system of giving higher and lower rates of
interest for money according to lot. Lotteries were suppressed
in Belgium in 1830, Sweden in 1841 and Switzerland in 1865,
but they still figure in the state budgets of Austria-Hungary,
Prussia and other German States, Holland, Spain, Italy and
Denmark. In addition to lottery loans, ordinary lotteries
(occasion lotteries) are numerous in various countries of the con-
tinent of Europe. They are of various magnitude and are
organized for a variety of purposes, such as charity, art, agricul-
ture, church-building, &c. It is becoming the tendency, however,
to discourage private and indiscriminate lotteries, and even state
lotteries which contribute to the revenue. In Austria-Hungary
and Germany, for instance, every year sees fewer places where
tickets can be taken for them receive licenses. In 1904 a
proposal for combining a working-class savings bank with a
national lottery was seriously considered by the Prussian
ministry. The scheme, which owes its conception to August
Scherl, editor of the Berlin Lokalanzeiger, is an endeavour to
utilize the love of gambling for the purpose of promoting thrift
among the working-classes. It was proposed to make weekly
collections from subscribers, in fixed amounts, ranging from
sixpence to four shillings. The interest on the money deposited
would not go to the depositors but would be set aside to form
the prizes. Three hundred thousand tickets, divisible into
halves, quarters and eighths, according to the sum deposited
weekly, would form a series of 12,500 prizes, of a total value
of £27,000. At the same time, the subscriber, while having his
ordinary lottery chances of these prizes, still has to his credit
intact the amount which he has subscribed week by week.

In England the earliest lotteries sanctioned by government
were for such purposes as the repair of harbours in 1569, and the
Virginia Company in 161 2. In the lottery of 1 569, 40,000 chances
were sold at ten shillings each, the prizes being " plate, and certain
sorts of merchandises." In 1698 lotteries, with the exception
of the Royal Oak lottery for the benefit of the Royal Fishing
Company, were prohibited as common nuisances, by which
children, servants and other unwary persons had been ruined.
This prohibition was in the i8th century gradually extended
to illegal insurances on marriages and other events, and to a great
many games with dice, such as faro, basset, hazard, except
backgammon and games played in the royal palace. In spite of
these prohibitions, the government from 1709 down to 1824
annually raised considerable sums in lotteries authorized by
act of parliament. The prizes were in the form of terminable or
perpetual annuities. The £10 tickets were sold at a premium
of say 40% to contractors who resold them in retail (sometimes in
one-sixteenth parts) by " morocco men," or men with red leather
books who travelled through the country. As the drawing ex-
tended over forty days, a very pernicious system arose of insuring
the fate of tickets during the drawing for a small premium of
4d. or 6d. This was partly cured by the Little Go Act of 1802,
directed against the itinerant wheels which plied between the
state lotteries, and partly by Perceval's Act in 1806, which
confined the drawing of each lottery to one day. From 1793 to
1824 the government made an average yearly profit of £346,765.
Cope, one of the largest contractors, is said to have spent £36,000
in advertisements in a single year. The English lotteries were
used to raise loans for general purposes, but latterly they were
confined to particular objects, such as the improvement of

London, the disposal of a museum, the purchase of a picture
gallery, &c. Through the efforts of Lord Lyttleton and others
a strong public opinion was formed against them, and in 1826
they were finally prohibited. An energetic proposal to revive
the system was made before the select committee on metropolitan
improvements in 1830, but it was not listened to. By a unique
blunder in legislation, authority was given to hold a lottery
under an act of 1831 which provided a scheme for the improve-
ment of the city of Glasgow. These " Glasgow lotteries "
were suppressed by an act of 1834. Art Unions were legalized
by the Art Unions Act 1846. The last lottery prominently
before the public in England was that of Dethier's twelfth-cake
lottery, which was suppressed on the 2 7th of December 1860.
As defined at the beginning of this article, the word lottery has a
meaning wide enough to include missing-word competitions,
distributions by tradesmen of prize coupons, sweepstakes, &c.
See Report of Joint Select Committee on Lotteries, ffc. (1908).
The statute law in Scotland is the same as in England. At
common law in Scotland it is probable that all lotteries and raffles,
for whatever purpose held, may be indicted as nuisances. The
art unions are supposed to be protected by a special statute.

United States. — The American Congress of 1776 instituted a
national lottery. Most states at that time legalized lotteries
for public objects, and before 1820 the Virginia legislature
passed seventy acts authorizing lotteries for various public
purposes, such as schools, roads, &c. — about 85% of the
subscriptions being returned in prizes. At an early period (1795)
the city of Washington was empowered to set up lotteries
as a mode of raising money for public purposes; and this
authorization from the Maryland legislature was approved by
an act of the Federal Congress in 1812. In 1833 they were
prohibited in New York and Massachusetts and gradually in the
other states, until they survived only in Louisiana. In that
state, the Louisiana State Lottery, a company chartered in
1868, had a monopoly for which it paid $40,000 to the state
treasury. Its last charter was granted in 1879 for a period of
twenty-five years, and a renewal was refused in 1800. In 1800
Congress forbade the use of the mails for promoting any lottery
enterprise by a statute so stringent that it was held to make it a
penal offence to employ them to further the sale of Austrian
government bonds, issued under a scheme for drawing some
by lot for payment at a premium (see Horner v. United States,
147 United States Reports, 449). This had the effect of com-
pelling the Louisiana State Lottery to move its quarters to
Honduras, in which place it still exists, selling its bonds to a
considerable extent in the Southern States.

Since lotteries have become illegal there have been a great number
of Judicial decisions defining a lottery. In general, where skill or
judgment is to be exercised there is no lottery, the essential element
of which is chance or lot. There are numerous statutes against
lotteries, the reason being given that they " tend to promote a
gambling spirit," and that it is the duty of the state to " protect
the morals and advance the welfare of the people." In New York
the Constitution of 1846 forbade lotteries, and by § 324 of the
Penal Code a lottery is declared " unlawful and a public nuisance."
" Contriving " and advertising lotteries is also penal. The following
have been held illegal lotteries: In New York, a concert, the tickets
for which entitled the holder to a prize to be drawn by lot ; in Indiana,
offering a gold watch to the purchaser of goods who guesses the
number of beans in a bottle; in Texas, selling " prize candy " boxes;
and operating a nickel-in-the-slot machine — so also in Louisiana;
jn Massachusetts, the " policy " or " envelope game," or a " raffle ";
in Kentucky (1905), prize coupon packages, the coupons having to
spell a certain word ( U.S. v. Jefferson, 134 Fed. R. 299) ; in Kansas
(1907) it was held, by the Supreme Court that the gift of a hat-pin
to each purchaser was not illegal as a " gift enterprise," there being
no chance or lot. In Oklahoma (1907) it was held that the making
of contracts for the payment of money, the certainty in value of
return being dependent on chance, was a lottery (Fidelity Fund Co.
v. Vaughan, 90 Pac. Rep. 34). The chief features of a lottery are
" procuring through lot or chance, by the investment of a sum of
money or something of value, some greater amount of money or thing
of greater value. When such are the chief features of any scheme
whatever it may be christened, or however it may be guarded or
concealed by cunningly devised conditions or screens, it is under
the law a lottery " (U.S. v. Wallace, 58, Fed. Rep. 942). In 1894
and 1897 Congress forbade the importation of lottery tickets or

In 1899, setting up or

advertisements into the United States.

22

LOTTI— LOTUS

promoting lotteries in Alaska was prohibited by Congress, and in
1900 it forbade any lottery or sale of lottery tickets in Hawaii. In
Porto Rico lotteries, raffles and gift-enterprises are forbidden (Pena
Code, 1902, § 291).

AUTHORITIES. — Critique hist. pol. mor. econ. et comm. sur les
loteries anc. et mod. spirituettes et temporelles des etats et des eglises
(3 vols., Amsterdam, 1697), by the Bolognese historian Gregorio
Leti; T. Dessaulx, De la passion du jeu depuis les anciens temps
jusqu'a nos jours (Paris, 1779); Endemann, Beitrage zur Geschichte
der Lottrie und zur heutigen Lotterie (Bonn, 1882); Larson, Lottrie
und Volkswirthschaft (Berlin, 1894); J. Ashton, History of English
Lotteries (1893); Annual Report of the American Historical Associa-
tion (1892); Journal of the American Social Science Association
xxxvi. 17.

LOTTI, ANTONIO (1667 ?-i 740), Italian musical composer,
was the son of Matteo Lotti, Kapellmeister to the court of
Hanover. He was born, however, at Venice and as a pupil of
Legrenzi. He entered the Doge's chapel as a boy, and in 1689
was engaged as an alto singer, succeeding later to the posts of
deputy organist (1690), second organist (1692), first organist
(1704), and, finally, in 1736 Maestro di Cappella at St Mark's
church. He was also a composer of operas, and having attracted
the interest of the crown prince of Saxony during his visit to
Venice in 1712, he was invited to Dresden, where he went in
1717. After producing three operas there he was obliged to
return to his duties at Venice in 1719. He died on the sth of
January 1740. Like many other Venetian composers he wrote
operas for Vienna, and enjoyed a considerable reputation outside
Italy. A volume of madrigals published in 1705 contains the
famous In una siepe ombrosa, passed off by Bononcini as his own
in London. Another is quoted by Martini in his Saggio di
Contrappunto. Among his pupils were Alberti, Bassani, Galuppi,
Gasparini and Marcello. Burney justly praises his church music,
which is severe in style, but none the less modern in its grace and
pathos. A fine setting of the Dies Irae is in the Imperial Library
at Vienna, and some of his masses have been printed in the
collections of Proske and Luck.

LOTTO, LORENZO (c. 1480-1556), Italian painter, is variously
stated to have been born at Bergamo, Venice and Treviso,
between 1475 and 1480, but a document published by Dr Bampo
proves that he was born in Venice, and it is to be gathered from
his will that 1480 was probably the year of his birth. Over-
shadowed by the genius of his three great contemporaries, Titian,
Giorgione and Palma, he had been comparatively neglected by
art historians until Mr Bernhard Berenson devoted to him an
" essay in constructive art criticism," which not only restores
to him his rightful position among the great masters of the
Renaissance, but also throws clear light upon the vexed question
of his artistic descent. Earlier authorities have made Lotto a
pupil of Giovanni Bellini (Morelli), of Previtali (Crowe and
Cavalcaselle), of Leonardo da Vinci (Lomazzo), whilst others
discovered in his work the influences of Cima, Carpaccio, Durer,
Palma and Francia. Mr Berenson has, however, proved that he
was the pupil of Alvise Vivarini, whose religious severity and
asceticism remained paramount in his work, even late in his life,
when he was attracted by the rich glow of Giorgione's and
Titian's colour. What distinguishes Lotto from his more famous
contemporaries is his psychological insight into character and
his personal vision — his unconventionally, which is sufficient
to account for the comparative neglect suffered by him when his
art is placed beside the more typical art of Titian and Giorgione,
the supreme expression of the character of the period.

That Lotto, who was one of the most productive painters of his
time, could work for thirty years without succumbing to the
mighty influence of Titian's sumptuous colour, is explained
by the fact that during these years he was away from Venice,
as is abundantly proved by documents and by the evidence of
signed and dated works. The first of these documents, dated
I5°3. proves him to have lived at Treviso at this period. His
earliest authentic pictures, Sir Martin Conway's " Danae "
(about 1498) and the " St Jerome " of the Louvre (a similar
subject is at the Madrid Gallery ascribed to Titian), as indeed
all the works executed before 1509, have unmistakable Vivarin-
esque traits in the treatment of the drapery and landscape, and
cool grey tonality. To this group belong the Madonnas at

Bridgewater House, Villa Borghese, Naples, and Sta Cristina
near Treviso, the Recanati altarpiece, the " Assumption of the
Virgin " at Asolo, and the portrait of a young man at Hampton
Court. We find him at Rome between 1 508 and 1 5 1 2, at the time
Raphael was painting in the Stanza della Signatura. A document
in the Corsini library mentions that Lotto received 100 ducats as
an advance payment for fresco-work in the upper floor of the
Vatican, but there is no evidence that this work was ever executed.
In the next dated works, the "Entombment " at Jesi (1512),
and the " Transfiguration," " St James," and " St Vincent " at
Recanati, Lotto has abandoned the dryness and cool colour of
his earlier style, and adopted a fluid method and a blonde, joyful
colouring. In 1513 we find him at Bergamo, where he had
entered into a contract to paint for 500 gold ducats an altarpiece
for S. Stefano. The picture was only completed in 1516, and is
now at S. Bartolommeo. From the next years, spent mostly at
Bergamo, with intervals in Venice and Jesi in the Marches, date
the Dresden " Madonna," " Christ taking leave of his Mother "
at the Berlin Gallery, the " Bride and Bridegroom " at Madrid,
the National Gallery " Family Group " and portrait of the
Protonothary Giuliano, several portraits in Berlin, Milan and
Vienna, numerous altarpieces in and near Bergamo, the strangely
misnamed " Triumph of Chastity " at the Rospigliosi Palace in
Rome, and the portrait of Andrea Odoni at Hampton Court.
In 1526 or 1527 Lotto returned to Venice, where Titian ruled
supreme in the world of art; and it was only natural that the
example of the great master should have fired him to emulation,
though his experiments in this direction were confined to an
attempt at rivalling the master's rich and ruddy colour-schemes.
Even in the Carmine altarpiece, the " St Nicholas of Bari,"
which is his nearest approach to Titian, he retained his individual-
ized, as opposed to Titian's generalized, expression of emotion.
But it was only a passing phase, and he soon returned to the
cooler schemes of his earlier work. Among his chief pictures
executed in Venice between 1529 and 1540 are the " Christ and
the Adulteress," now at the Louvre, the " Visitation " at the
Jesi Library, the " Crucifixion " at Monte S. Giusto, the Madonna
at the Uffizi, the " Madonna and Saints " at Cingoli, and some
portraits at the Berlin and Vienna museums, the Villa Borghese
and Doria Palace in Rome, and at Dorchester House. He is
again to be found at Treviso from 1 542-1 545, at Ancona in 1 550, the
year in which he entirely lost his voice; and in 1552 he " devoted
his person and all his property to the Holy Virgin of Loreto " and
took up his abode with the monks of that shrine. He died
in 1556. A codex in his own handwriting, discovered in the
archives of Loreto, not only includes a complete statement of
his accounts from about 1539 to his death, but has a most
interesting entry from whkh we gather that in 1540 Lotto
completed the portraits of Martin Luther and his wife. These
portraits could not have been painted from life; they were
presumably executed from some contemporary engraving.
See Lorenzo Lotto, by Bernard Berenson (London, 1901).
LOTTO (Ital. for " lot "), a gambling game usually called Keno
in America, played by any number of persons upon large boards
or cards, each of which is divided into three horizontal rows of
nine spaces, four spaces in each row being left blank and the other
five marked with numbers up to 90. Each card is designated by
a general number. The cards usually lie on the gambling-table,
and a player may buy from the bank as many as he cares to use,
each card being registered or pegged on an exposed table as soon
as bought. Ninety small ivory markers, generally balls flattened
on one side, numbered from i to 90, are placed in a bag and shaken
out one by one, or, more usually, in a so-called keno-goose, a kind
of urn with a spout through which the balls are allowed to roll by
means of a spring. When a number falls out, the banker, or
keno-roller, calls it out distinctly, and each player upon whose
card that number occurs places a mark over it. This is repeated
until one player has all the numbers in one row of his card
covered, upon which he calls out " Keno ! " and wins all the
money staked excepting a percentage to the bank.

LOTUS, a popular name applied to several plants. The lotus
ruits of the Greeks belonged to Zizyphus Lotus, a bush native

LOTUS-EATERS— LOTZE

in south Europe with fruits as large as sloes, containing a mealy
substance which can be used for making bread and also a fer-
mented drink. In ancient times the fruits were an important
article of food among the poor; whence " lotophagi " or lotus-
eaters. Zizyphus is a member of the natural order Rhamnaceae
to which belongs the British buckthorn. The Egyptian lotus
was a water-lily, Nymphaea Lotus; as also is the sacred lotus of
the Hindus, Nelumbium speciosum. The lotus tree, known to
the Romans as the Libyan lotus, and planted by them for shade,
was probably Celtis australis, the nettle-tree (?.».), a southern
European tree, a native of the elm family, with fruits like small
cherries, which are first red and then black. Lotus of botanists
is a genus of the pea-family (Leguminosae) , containing a large
number of species of herbs and undershrubs widely distributed
in the temperate regions of the old world. It is represented in
Britain by L. corniculatus, bird's foot trefoil, a low-growing herb,
common in pastures and waste places, with clusters of small
bright yellow pea-like flowers, which are often streaked with
crimson; the popular name is derived from the pods which when
ripe spread like the toes of a bird's foot.

LOTUS-EATERS (Gr. Auro&ayoi) , a Libyan tribe known
to the Greeks as early as the time of Homer. Herodotus (iv.
177) describes their country as in the Libyan district bordering
on the Syrtes, and says that a caravan route led from it to Egypt.
Victor Berard identifies it with the modern Jerba. When
Odysseus reached the country of the Lotophagi, many of his
sailors after eating the lotus lost all wish to return home. Both
Greeks and Romans used the expression " to eat the lotus "
to denote forgetfulness (cf. Tennyson's poem " The Lotus-
Eaters ").

There has been considerable discussion as to the identification of
the Homeric lotus. Some have held that it is a prickly shrub,
Zizyphus Lotus, which bears a sweet-tasting fruit, and still grows
in the old home of the Lotophagi. It is eaten by the natives, who
also make a kind of wine from the juice. P. Champault (Pheniciens
el Grecs en Italie d'aprks I'0dyss6e,p. 400, note 2), however, maintains
that the lotus was a date; Victor BeVard (Les Pheniciens et I'Odyssee,
1902-1903, ii. 102) is doubtful, but contends that it was certainly a
tree-fruit. If either of these be correct, then the lotus of Od. iv.
603-^04 is quite a different plant, a kind of clover. Now Strabo
(xvii. 8290) calls the lotus rbav nvA. nal #fw. Putting these two
references together with Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi i. 4. 4, R. M.
Henry suggests that the Homeric lotus was really the ir6a of Strabo,
i.e. a kind of clover (Classical Review, December 1906, p. 435).

LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN (1817-1881), German philoso-
pher, was born in Bautzen on the 2ist of May 1817, the son of a
physician. He received his education in the gymnasium of
Zittau under teachers who inspired him with an enduring love
of the classical authors, as we see from his translation of the
Antigone of Sophocles into Latin verse, published when he had
reached middle life. He went to the university of Leipzig
as a student of philosophy and natural sciences, but entered
officially as a student of medicine. He was then only seventeen.
It appears that thus early Lotze's studies were governed by two
distinct interests. The first was scientific, based upon mathe-
matical and physical studies under the guidance of E. H. Weber,
W. Volckmann and G. T. Fechner. The other was his aesthetical
and artistic interest, which was developed under the care of C.
H. Weisse. To the former he owes his appreciation of exact
investigation and a complete knowledge of the aims of science,
to the latter an equal admiration for the great circle of ideas
which had been diffused by the teaching of Fichte, Schelling
and Hegel. Each of these influences, which early in life must
have been familiar to him, tempered and modified the other.
The true method of science which he possessed forced him to
condemn as useless the entire form which Schelling's and Hegel's
expositions had adopted, especially the dialectic method of the
latter, whilst his love of art and beauty, and his appreciation of
moral purposes, revealed to him the existence of a trans-
phenomenal world of values into which no exact science could
penetrate. It is evident how this initial position at once defined
to him the tasks which philosophy had to perform. First there
were the natural sciences, themselves only just emerging from
a confused conception of their true method; especially those

which studied the borderland of physical and mental phenomena,
the medical sciences; and pre-eminently that science which
has since become so popular, the science of biology.

Lotze's first essay was his dissertation De fulurae biologiac
principibus philosophicis, with which he gained (1838) the degree
of doctor of medicine, after having only four months previously
got the degree of doctor of philosophy. Then, secondly, there
arose the question whether the methods of exact science sufficed
to explain the connexion of phenomena, or whether for the ex-
planation of this the thinking mind was forced to resort to some
hypothesis not immediately verifiable by observation, but
dictated by higher aspirations and interests. And, if to satisfy
these we were forced to maintain the existence of a world of
moral standards, it was, thirdly, necessary to form some opinion
as to the relation of these moral standards of value to the forms
and facts of phenomenal existence. These different tasks,
which philosophy had to fulfil, mark pretty accurately the
aims of Lotze's writings, and the order in which they were
published. He laid the foundation of his philosophical system
very early in his Melaphysik (Leipzig, 1841) and his Logik
(1843), short books published while he was still a junior lecturer
at Leipzig, from which university he migrated to Gottingen,
succeeding Herbart in the chair of philosophy. But it was
only during the last decade of his life that he ventured, with
much hesitation, to present his ideas in a systematic and final
form. The two books mentioned remained unnoticed by the
reading public, and Lotze first became known to a larger circle
through a series of works which aimed at establishing in the
study of the physical and mental phenomena of the human
organism in its normal and diseased states the same general
principles which had been adopted in the investigation of in-
organic phenomena. These works were his Allgemeine Pathologic
und Therapie als mechanische Naturwissenscfiaflen (Leipzig,
1842, 2nd ed., 1848), the articles " Lebenskraft " (1843) and
" Seele und Seelenleben " (1846) in Rud. Wagner's Handworter-
buch der Physiologic, his Allgemeine Physiologic des Korper-
lichen Lebens (Leipzig, 1851), and his Medizinische Psychologic
oder Physiologic der Seele (Leipzig, 1852).

When Lotze published these works, medical science was still
much under the influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature.
The mechanical laws, to which external things were subject,
were conceived as being valid only in the inorganic world;
in the organic and mental worlds these mechanical laws were
conceived as being disturbed or overridden by other powers,
such as the influence of final causes, the existence of types,
the work of vital and mental forces. This confusion Lotze,
who had been trained in the school of mathematical reasoning,
tried to dispel. The laws which govern particles of matter in
the inorganic world govern them likewise if they are joined into
an organism. A phenomenon a, if followed by b in the one case,
is followed by the same ft also in the other case. Final causes,
vital and mental forces, the soul itself can, if they act at .all,
only act through the inexorable mechanism of natural laws.
As we therefore have only to do with the study of existing
complexes of material and spiritual phenomena, the changes
in these must be explained in science by the rule of mechanical
laws, such as obtain everywhere in the world, and only by such.
One of the results of these investigations was to extend the
meaning of the word mechanism, and comprise under it all laws
which obtain in the phenomenal world, not excepting the
phenomena of life and mind. Mechanism was the unalterable
connexion of every phenomenon a with other phenomena ft,
c, d, either as following or preceding it; mechanism was the
inexorable form into which the events of this world are cast,
and by which they are connected. The object of those writings
was to establish the all-pervading rule of mechanism. But
the mechanical view of nature is not identical with the material-
istic. In the last of the above-mentioned works the question
is discussed at great length how we have to consider mind, and
the relation between mind and body; the answer is — we have
to consider mind as an immaterial principle, its action, however,
on the body and vice versa as purely mechanical, indicated

LOTZE

by the fixed laws of a psycho-physical mechanism. These
doctrines of Lotze — though pronounced with the distinct and
reiterated reserve that they did not contain a solution of the
philosophical question regarding the nature, origin, or deeper
meaning of this all-pervading mechanism, neither an explanation
how the action of external things on each other takes place
nor yet of the relation of mind and body, that they were merely
a preliminary formula of practical scientific value, itself requiring
a deeper interpretation — these doctrines were nevertheless
by many considered to be the last word of the philosopher who,
denouncing the reveries of Schelling or the idealistic theories
of Hegel, established the science of life and mind on the same
basis as that of material things. Published as they were during
the years when the modern school of German materialism was
at its height,1 these works of Lotze were counted among the
opposition literature which destroyed the phantom of Hegelian
wisdom and vindicated the independent and self-sufficing
position of empirical philosophy. Even philosophers of the
eminence of I. H. Fichte (the younger) did not escape this mis-
interpretation of Lotze's true meaning, though they had his
Metaphysik and Logik to refer to, though he promised in his
Allgemeine Physiologic (1851) to enter in a subsequent work
upon the " bounding province between aesthetics and physi-
ology," and though in his Medizinische Psychologic he had
distinctly stated that his position was neither the idealism of
Hegel nor the realism of Herbart, nor materialism, but that
it was the conviction that the essence of everything is the part
it plays in the realization of some idea which is in itself valuable,
that the sense of an all-pervading mechanism is to be sought
in this, that it denotes the ways and means by which the highest
idea, which we may call the idea of the good, has voluntarily
chosen to realize itself.

The misinterpretations which he had suffered induced Lotze
to publish a small pamphlet of a polemical character (Slreil-
schriften, Leipzig, 1857), in which he corrected two mistakes.
The opposition which he had made to Hegel's formalism had
induced some to associate him with the materialistic school,
others to count him among the followers of Herbart. Lotze
publicly and formally denied that he belonged to the school of
Herbart, though he admitted that historically the same doctrine
which might be considered the forerunner of Herbart's teachings
might lead to his own views, viz. the monadology of Leibnitz.

When Lotze wrote these explanations, he had already given
to the world the first volume of his great work, Mikrokosmus
(vol. i. 1856, vol. ii. 1858, vol. iii. 1864; 3rd ed., 1876-1880).
In many passages of his works on pathology, physiology, and
psychology Lotze had distinctly stated that the method of
research which he advocated there did not give an explanation
of the phenomena of life and mind, but only the means of
observing and connecting them together; that the meaning
of all phenomena, and the reason of their peculiar connexions,
was a philosophical problem which required to be attacked from
a different point of view; and that the significance especially
which lay in the phenomena of life and mind would only unfold
itself if by an exhaustive survey of the entire life of man, in-
dividually, socially, and historically, we gain the necessary
data for deciding what meaning attaches to the existence of
this microcosm, or small world of human life, in the macrocosm
of the universe. This review, which extends, in three volumes,
over the wide field of anthropology, beginning with the human
frame, the soul, and their union in life, advancing to man,
his mind, and the course of the world, and concluding with
history, progress, and the connexion of things, ends with the
same idea which was expressed in Lotze's earliest work, his
Metaphysik. The view peculiar to him is reached in the end as
the crowning conception towards which all separate channels
of thought have tended, and in the light of which the life of man
in nature and mind, in the individual and in society, had been
surveyed. This view can be briefly stated as follows: Every-
where in the wide realm of observation we find three distinct

'See Vogt, Physiologische Briefe (1845-1847); Moleschott, Der
Kreislauf des Lebens (1852) ; Biichner, Kraft and Staff (1855).

regions, — the region of facts, the region of laws and the region
of standards of value. These three regions are separate only in
our thoughts, not in reality. To comprehend the real position
we are forced to the conviction that the world of facts is the
field in which, and that laws are the means by which, those higher
standards of moral and aesthetical value are being realized;
and such a union can again only become intelligible through
the idea of a personal Deity, who in the creation and preservation
of a world has voluntarily chosen certain forms and laws, through
the natural operation of which the ends of His work are gained.
Whilst Lotze had thus in his published works closed the circle
of his thought, beginning with a conception metaphysically
gained, proceeding to an exhaustive contemplation of things
in the light it afforded, and ending with the stronger conviction
of its truth which observation, experience, and life could afford,
he had all the time been lecturing on the various branches of
philosophy according to the scheme of academical instruction
transmitted from his predecessors. Nor can it be considered
anything but a gain that he was thus induced to expound his
views with regard to those topics, and in connexion with those
problems, which were the traditional forms of philosophical
utterance. His lectures ranged over a wide field: he delivered
annually lectures on psychology and on logic (the latter including
a survey of the entirety of philosophical research under the
title Encydopadie der Philosophic), then at longer intervals
lectures on metaphysics, philosophy of nature, philosophy of
art, philosophy of religion, rarely on history of philosophy and
ethics. In these lectures he expounded his peculiar views in
a stricter form, and during the last decade of his life he embodied
the substance of those courses in his System der Philosophic,
of which only two volumes have appeared (vol. i. Logik, ist ed.,
Leipzig, 1874, 2nd ed., 1880; vol. ii. Metaphysik, 1879). The
third and concluding volume, which was to treat in a more
condensed form the principal problems of practical philosophy,
of philosophy of art and religion, never appeared. A small
pamphlet on psychology, containing the last form in which he
had begun to treat the subject in his lectures (abruptly terminated
through his death on the ist of July 1881) during the summer
session of 1881, has been published by his son. Appended to
this volume is a complete list of Lotze's writings, compiled by
Professor Rehnisch of Gottingen.

To understand this series of Lotze's writings, it is necessary to
begin with his definition of philosophy. This is given after his
exposition of logic has established two points, viz. the existence in
our mind of certain laws and forms according to which we connect
the material supplied to us by our senses, and, secondly, the fact that
logical thought cannot be usefully employed without the assump-
tion of a further set of connexions, not logically necessary, but
assumed to exist between the data of experience and observation.
These connexions of a real not formal character are handed to us
by the separate sciences and by the usage and culture of everyday
life. Language has crystallized them into certain definite notions
and expressions, without which we cannot proceed a single step,
but which we have accepted without knowing their exact meaning,
much less their origin. In consequence the special sciences and the
wisdom of common life entangle themselves easily and frequently
in contradictions. A problem of a purely formal character thus
presents itself, viz. this — to try to bring unity and harmony into
the scattered thoughts of our general culture, to trace them to their
primary assumptions and follow them into their ultimate conse-
quences, to connect them all together, to remodel, curtail or amplify
them, so as to remove their apparent contradictions, and to combine
them in the unity of an harmonious view of things, and especially
to investigate those conceptions which form the initial assumptions
of the several sciences, and to fix the limits of their applicability.
This is the formal definition of philosophy. Whether an harmonious
conception thus gained will represent more than an agreement
among our thoughts, whether it will represent the real connexion of
things and thus possess objective not merely subjective value, cannot
be decided at the outset. It is also unwarranted to start with the
expectation that everything in the world should be explained by one
principle^ and it is a needless restriction of our means to expect unity
of method. Nor are we able to start our philosophical investigations
by an inquiry into the nature of human thought and its capacity to
attain an objective knowledge, as in this case we would be actually
using that instrument the usefulness of which we were trying to
determine. The main proof of the objective value of the view we
may gain will rather lie in the degree in which it succeeds in assigning
to every element of culture its due position, or in which it is able to-

LOTZE

appreciate and combine different and apparently opposite tendencies
and interests, in the sort of justice with which it weighs our manifold
desires and aspirations, balancing them in due proportions, refusing
to sacrifice to a one-sided principle any truth or conviction which ex-
perience has proven to be useful and necessary. The investigations
will then naturally divide themselves into three parts, the first of
which de?ls with those to our mind inevitable forms in which we
are obliged to think about things, if we think at all (metaphysics),
the second being devoted to the great region of facts, trying to
apply the results of metaphysics to these, specially the two great
regions of external and mental phenomena (cosmology and psy-
chology), the third dealing with those standards of value from
which we pronounce our aesthetical or ethical approval or dis-
approval. In each department we shall have to aim first of all at
views clear and consistent within themselves, but, secondly, we shall
in the end wish to form some general idea or to risk an opinion how
laws, facts and standards of value may be combined in one compre-
hensive view. Considerations of this latter kind will naturally
present themselves in the two great departments of cosmology and
psychology, or they may be delegated to an independent research
under the name of religious philosophy. We have already mentioned
the final conception in which Lotze's speculation culminates, that of
a personal Deity, Himself the essence of all that merits existence for
its own sake, who in the creation and government of a world has
voluntarily chosen certain laws and forms through which His ends
are to be realized. We may add that according to this view nothing
is real but the living spirit of God and the world of living spirits
which He has created ; the things of this world have only reality in
so far as they are the appearance of spiritual substance, which
underlies everything. It is natural that Lotze, having this great
and final conception always before him, works under its influence
from the very beginning of his speculations, permitting us, as
we progress, to gain every now ana then a glimpse of that inter-
pretation of things which _to him contains the solution of our
difficulties.

The key to Lotze's theoretical philosophy lies in his metaphysics,
to the exposition of which important subject the first and last of
his larger publications have been devoted. To understand Lotze's
philosophy, a careful and repeated perusal of these works is abso-
lutely necessary. The object of his metaphysics is so to remodel
the current notions regarding the existence of things and their
connexions with which the usage of language supplies us as to
make them consistent and thinkable. The further assumption,
that the modified notions thus gained have an objective meaning,
and that they somehow correspond to the real order of the existing
world which of course they can never actually describe, depends
upon a general confidence which we must have in our reasoning
powers, and in the significance of a world in which we ourselves
with all the necessary courses of our thoughts have a due place
assigned. The principle therefore of these investigations is opposed
to two attempts frequently repeated in the history of philosophy,
viz.: (l) the attempt to establish general laws or forms, which the
development of things must have obeyed, or which a Creator must
have followed in the creation of a world (Hegel) ; and (2) the attempt
to trace the genesis of our notions and decide as to their meaning and
value (modern theories of knowledge). Neither of these attempts is
practicable. The world of many things surrounds us; our notions,
by which we manage correctly or incorrectly to describe it, are also
ready made. What remains to be done is, not to explain how such a
world manages to be what it is, nor how we came to form these
notions, but merely this — to expel from the circle and totality of our
conceptions those abstract notions which are inconsistent and jarring,
or to remode| and define them so that they may constitute a consistent
and harmonious view. In this endeavour Lotze discards as useless
and untenable many favourite conceptions of the school, many crude
notions of everyday life. The course of things and their connexion
is only thinkable by the assumption of a plurality of existences, the
reality of which (as distinguished from our knowledge of them) can
be conceived only as a multitude of relations. This quality of
standing in relation to other things is that which gives to a thing its
reality. And the nature of this reality again can neither be con-
sistently represented as a fixed and hard substance nor as an un-
alterable something, but only as a fixed order of recurrence of
continually changing events or impressions. But, further, every
attempt to think clearly what those relations are, what we really
mean, if we talk of a fixed order of events, forces upon us the necessity
of thinking also that the different things which stand in relations or
the different phases which follow each other cannot be merely
externally strung together or moved about by some indefinable
external power, in the form of some predestination or inexorable fate.
The things themselves which exist and their changing phases must
stand in some internal connexion; they themselves must be active
or passive, capable of doing or suffering. This would lead to the view
of Leibnitz, that the world consists of monads, self-sufficient beings,
leading an inner life. But this idea involves the further conception
of Leibnitz, that of a pre-established harmony, by which the Creator
has taken care to arrange the life of each monad, so that it agrees
with that of all others. This conception, according to Lotze, is
neither necessary nor thoroughly intelligible. Why not interpret at
once and render intelligible the common conception originating

in natural science, viz. that of a system of laws which governs the
many things? But, in attempting to make this conception quite
clear and thinkable, we are forced to represent the connexion of
things as a universal substance, the essence of which we conceive as
a system of laws which underlies everything and in its own self
connects everything, but imperceptible, and known to us merely
through the impressions it produces on us, which we call things.
A final reflection then teaches us that the nature of this universal
and all-pervading substance can only be imagined by us as some-
thing analogous to our own mental life, where alone we experience
the unity of a substance (which we call self) preserved in the multi-
tude of its (mental) states. It also becomes clear that only where
such mental life really appears need we assign an independent
existence, but that the purposes of everyday life as well as those of
science are equally served if we deprive the material things outside
of us of an independence, and assign to them merely a connected
existence through the universal substance by the action of which
alone they can appear to us.

The universal substance, which we may call the absolute, is at
this stage of our investigations not endowed with the attributes
of a personal Deity, and it will remain to be seen by further analysis
in how far we are able — without contradiction — to identify it
with the object of religious veneration, in how far that which to
metaphysics is merely a postulate can be gradually brought nearer
to us and become a living power. Much in this direction is said
by Lotze in various passages of his writings; anything complete,
however, on the subject is wanting. Nor would it seem as if it
could be the intention of the author to do much more than point
out the lines on which the further treatment of the subject should
advance. The actual result of his personal inquiries, the great idea
which lies at the foundation of his philosophy, we know. It may
be safely stated that Lotze would allow much latitude to individual
convictions, as indeed it is evident that the empty notion of an
absolute can only become living and significant to us in the same
decree as experience and thought have taught us to realize the
seriousness of life, the significance of creation, the value of the
beautiful and the good, and the supreme worth of personal holiness.
To endow the universal substance with moral attributes, to maintain
that it is more than the metaphysical ground of everything, to say
it is the perfect realization of the holy, the beautiful and the good,
can only have a meaning for him who feels within himself what
real not imaginary values are clothed in those expressions.

We have still to mention that aesthetics formed a principal and
favourite study of Lotze's, and that he has treated this subject also
in the light of the leading ideas of his philosophy. See his essays
Ueber den Begriff der Schonheil (Gottingen, 1845) and Ueber Bedin-
gungen der Kunstschonheit, ibid. (1847); and especially his Geschichte
der Aesthetik in Deutschland (Munich, 1868).

Lotze's historical position is of much interest. Though he dis-
claims being a follower of Herbart, his formal definition of philosophy
and his conception of the object of metaphysics are similar to those
of Herbart, who defines philosophy as an attempt to remodel the
notions given by experience. In this endeavour he forms with Her-
bart an opposition to the philosophies of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel,
which aimed at objective and absolute knowledge, and also to the
criticism of Kant, which aimed at determining the validity of all
human knowledge. But this formal agreement includes material
differences, and the spirit which breathes in Lotze's writings is more
akin to the objects and aspirations of the idealistic school than to the
cold formalism of Herbart. What, however, with the idealists was
an object of thought alone, the absolute, is to Lotze only inadequately
definable in rigorous philosophical language; the aspirations bf the
human heart, the contents of our feelings and desires, the aims of art
and the tenets of religious faith must be grasped in order to fill the
empty idea of the absolute with meaning. These manifestations of
the divine spirit again cannot be traced and understood by reducing
(as Hegel did) the growth of the human mind in the individual, in
society and in history to the monotonous rhythm of a speculative
schematism; the essence and worth which is in them reveals itself
only to the student of detail, for reality is larger and wider than
philosophy; the problem, " how the one can be many," is only solved
for us in the numberless examples in life and experience which
surround us, for which we must retain a lifelong interest and which
constitute the true field of all useful human work. This conviction
of the emptiness of terms and abstract notions, and of the fulness
of individual life, has enabled Lotze to combine in his writings the
two courses into which German philosophical thought had been
moving since the death of its great founder, Leibnitz. We may
define these courses by the terms esoteric and exoteric — the former
the philosophy of the school, cultivated principally at the universities,
trying to systematize everything and reduce all our knowledge to an
intelligible principle, losing in this attempt the deeper meaning of
Leibnitz's philosophy; the latter the unsystematized philosophy of
general culture which we find in the work of the great writers of the
classical period, Lessing, Winkelmann, Goethe, Schiller and Herder,
all of whom expressed in some degree their indebtedness to Leibnitz.
Lotze can be said to have brought philosophy out of the lecture-
room into the market-place of life. By understanding and combining
what was great and valuable in those divided and scattered en-
deavours, he became the true successor of Leibnitz.

LOUBET— LOUDON

The age in which Lotze lived and wrote in Germany was not one
peculiarly fitted to appreciate the position he took up. Frequently
misunderstood, yet rarely criticized, he was nevertheless greatly
admired, listened to by devoted hearers and read by an increasing
circle. But this circle never attained to the unity of a philosophical
school. The real meaning of Lotze's teaching is reached only by
patient study, and those who in a larger or narrower sense call them-
selves his followers will probably feel themselves indebted to him
more for the general direction he has given to their thoughts, for the
tone he has imparted to their inner life, for the seriousness with which
he has taught them to consider even small affairs and practical duties,
and for the indestructible confidence with which his philosophy
permits them to disregard the materialism of science, the scepticism
of shallow culture, the disquieting results of philosophical and
historical criticism.

See E. Pfleiderer, Lotze's philosophische Weltanschauung nach ihren
Grundzugen (Berlin, 1882; 2nd ed., 1884); E. von Hartmann,
Lotze's Philosophic (Leipzig, 1888); O. Caspari, H. Lotze in seiner
Stellung zu der durch Kant begrundeten neuesten Geschichte der Phil-
osophic (Breslau, 1883; 2nd ed., 1894); R. Falckenberg, Hermann
Lotze (Stuttgart, 1901); Henry Jones, A Critical Account of the
Philosophy of Lotze (Glasgow, 1895)7 Paul Lange, Die Lehre vom
Instincte bei Lotze und Darwin (Berlin, 1896); A. Lichtenstein, Lotze
and Wundt (Bern, 1900). (J- T. M.; H. ST.)

LOUBET, SMILE FRANCOIS (1838- ), 7th president of
the French republic, was born on the 3oth of December 1838,
the son of a peasant proprietor at Marsanne (Dr6me), who was
more than once mayor of Marsanne. He was admitted to the
Parisian bar in 1862, and took his doctorate-in-law next year.
He was still a student when he witnessed the sweeping triumph
of the Republican party in Paris at the general election in 1863.
He settled down to the exercise of his profession in Montelimar,
where he married in 1869 Marie Louis Picard. He also inherited
a small estate at Grignan. At the crisis of 1870 he became
mayor of Montelimar, and thenceforward was a steady supporter
of Gambetta's policy. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies in

1876 by Montelimar he was one of the famous 363 who in June

1877 passed the vote of want of confidence in the ministry of
the due de Broglie. In the general election of October he was
re-elected, local enthusiasm for him being increased by the fact
that the government had driven him from the mayoralty.
In the Chamber he occupied himself especially with education,
fighting the clerical system established by the Loi Falloux, and
working for the establishment of free, obligatory and secular
primary instruction. In 1880 he became president of the depart-
mental council in Dr6me. His support of the second Jules
Ferry ministry and his zeal for the colonial expansion of France
gave him considerable weight in the moderate Republican party.
He had entered the Senate in 1885, and he became minister of
public works in the Tirard ministry (December 1887 to March
1888). In 1892 President Sadi Carnot, who was his personal
friend, asked iim to form a cabinet. Loubet held the portfolio
of the interior with the premiership, and had to deal with the
anarchist crimes of that year and with the great strike of
Carmaux, in which he acted as arbitrator, giving a decision
regarded in many quarters as too favourable to the strikers.
He was defeated in November on the question of the Panama
scandals, but he retained the ministry of the interior in the next
cabinet under Alexandra Ribot, though he resigned on its re-
construction in January. His reputation as an orator of great
force and lucidity of exposition and as a safe and honest states-
man procured for him in 1896 the presidency of the Senate, and
in February 1899 he was chosen president of the republic in
succession to Felix Faure by 483 votes as against 279 recorded
by Jules Meline, his only serious competitor. He was marked
out for fierce opposition and bitter insult as the representative
of that section of the Republican party which sought the revision
of the Dreyfus case. On the day of President Faure's funeral
Paul Deroulede met the troops under General Roget on their
return to barracks, and demanded that the general should march
on the filysee. Roget sensibly took his troops back to barracks.
At the Auteuil steeplechase in June the president was struck
on the head with a cane by an anti-Dreyfusard. In that month
President Loubet summoned Waldeck-Rousseau to form a
cabinet, and at the same time entreated Republicans of all
shades of opinion to rally to the defence of the state. By the

efforts of Loubet and Waldeck-Rousseau the Dreyfus affair was
settled, when Loubet, acting on the advice of General Galh'ffet,
minister of war, remitted the ten years' imprisonment to which
Dreyfus was condemned at Rennes. Loubet 's presidency saw
an acute stage of the clerical question, which was attacked
by Waldeck-Rousseau and in still more drastic fashion by the
Combes ministry. The French ambassador was recalled from
the Vatican in April 1905, and in July the separation of church
and state was voted in the Chamber of Deputies. Feeling had
run high between France and England over the mutual
criticisms passed on the conduct of the South African War and
the Dreyfus case respectively. These differences were composed
by the Anglo-French entente, and in 1904 a convention between
the two countries secured the recognition of French claims in
Morocco in exchange for non-interference with the English
occupation of Egypt. President Loubet was a typical example
of the peasant-proprietor class, and had none of the aristocratic,
not to say monarchical, proclivities of President Faure. He
inaugurated the Paris Exhibition of 1900, received the tsar
Nicholas II. in September 1901 and paid a visit to Russia in
1902. He also exchanged visits with King Edward VII.,
with the king of Italy and the king of Spain. The king of Spain's
visit in 1905 was the occasion of an attempt on his life, a bomb
being thrown under his carriage as he was proceeding with his
guest to the opera. His presidency came to an end in January
1906, when he retired into private life.

LOUDON, ERNST GIDEON, FREIHERR VON (1717-1790),
Austrian soldier, was born at Tootzen in Livonia, on the 2nd of
February 1717. His family, of Scottish origin,1 had been settled
in that country since before 1400. His father was a lieutenant-
colonel, retired on a meagre pension from the Swedish service,
and the boy was sent in 1732 into the Russian army as a cadet.
He took part in Field Marshal Miinnich's siege of Danzig in
1734, in the march of a Russian corps to the Rhine in 1735 and
in the Turkish war 1738-1739. Dissatisfied with his prospects
he resigned in 1741 and sought military employment elsewhere.
He applied first to Frederick the Great, who declined his services.
At Vienna he had better fortune, being made a captain in Trenck's
free corps. He took part in its forays and marches, though not
in its atrocities, until wounded and taken prisoner in Alsace.
He was shortly released by the advance of the main Austrian
army. His next active service, still under Trenck, was in the
Silesian mountains in 1745, in which campaign he greatly dis-
tinguished himself as a leader of light troops. He was present
also at Soor. He retired shortly afterwards, owing to his distaste
for the lawless habits of his comrades in the irregulars, and after
long waiting in poverty for a regular commission he was at last
made a captain in one of the frontier regiments, spending the
next ten years in half-military, half-administrative work in the
Carlstadt district. At Bunich, where he was stationed, he built
a church and planted an oak forest now called by his name.
He had reached the rank of lieutenant-colonel when the outbreak
of the Seven Years' War called him again into the field. From
this point began his fame as a soldier. Soon promoted colonel,
he distinguished himself repeatedly and was in 1757 made a
General-feldwacht-meister (major-general of cavalry) and a
knight of the newly founded order of Maria Theresa. In the
campaign of 1758 came his first opportunity for fighting an
action as a commander-in-chief, and he used it so well that
Frederick the Great was obliged to give up the siege of Olmiitz
and retire into Bohemia (action of Dom-stadtl, 3oth of June).
He was rewarded with the grade of lieutenant-field-marshal
and having again shown himself an active and daring com-
mander in the campaign of Hochkirch, he was created a Freiherr
in the Austrian nobility by Maria Theresa and in the peerage
of the Holy Roman Empire by her husband the emperor Francis.
Maria Theresa gave him, further, the grand cross of the order
she had founded and an estate near Kuttenberg in Bohemia.
He was placed in command of the Austrian contingent sent to

1 His name is phonetically spelt Laudon or Laudohn by Germans,
and the latter form was that adopted by himself and his family.
In 1759, however, he reverted to the original Scottish form.

LOUDOUN, EARL OF— LOUDUN

27

join the Russians on the Oder. At Kunersdorf he turned defeat
into a brilliant victory, and was promoted Feldzeugmeister
and made commander-in-chief in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia.
In 1760 he destroyed a whole corps of Frederick's army under
Fouqu6 at Landshut and stormed the important fortress of
Glatz. In 1 760 he sustained a reverse at Frederick's hands in the
battle of Liegnitz (Aug. isth, 1760), which action led to bitter
controversy with Daun and Lacy, the commanders of the main
army, who, Loudon claimed, had left his corps unsupported.
In 1761 he operated, as usual, in Silesia, but he found his Russian
allies as timid as they had been after Kunersdorf, and all attempts
against Frederick's entrenched camp of Bunzelwitz (see SEVEN
YEARS' WAR) failed. He brilliantly seized his one fleeting
opportunity, however, and stormed Schweidnitz on the night of
Sept. 30/October ist, 1761. His tireless activity continued to the
end of the war, in conspicuous contrast with the temporizing
strategy of Daun and Lacy. The student of the later campaigns
of the Seven Years' War will probably admit that there was
need of more aggressiveness than Daun displayed, and of more
caution than suited Loudon's genius. But neither recognized
this, and the last three years of the war are marked by an ever-
increasing friction between the " Fabius " and the " Marcellus,"
as they were called, of the Austrian army.

After the peace, therefore, when Daun became the virtual
commander-in-chief of the army, Loudon fell into the back-
ground. Offers were made, by Frederick the Great amongst
others, to induce Loudon to transfer his services elsewhere.
Loudon did not entertain these proposals, although negotiations
went on for some years, and on Lacy succeeding Daun as president
of the council of war Loudon was made inspector-general of
infantry. Dissensions, however, continued between Loudon
and Lacy, and on the accession of Joseph II., who was intimate
with his rival, Loudon retired to his estate near Kuttenberg.
Maria Theresa and Kaunitz caused him, however, to be made
commander-in-chief in Bohemia and Moravia in 1769. This
post he held for three years, and at the end of this time, con-
templating retirement from the service, he settled again on his
estate. Maria Theresa once more persuaded him to remain in
the army, and, as his estate had diminished in value owing to
agrarian troubles in Bohemia, she repurchased it from him
(1776) on generous terms. Loudon then settled at Hadersdorf
near Vienna, and shortly afterwards was made a field-marshal.
Of this Carlyle (Frederick the Great) records that when Frederick
the Great met Loudon in 1776 he deliberately addressed him
in the emperor's presence as " Herr Feldmarschall." But the
hint was not taken until February 1778.

In 1778 came the War of the Bavarian Succession. Joseph
and Lacy were now reconciled to Loudon, and Loudon and Lacy
commanded the two armies in the field. On this occasion,
however, Loudon seems to have in a measure fallen below his
reputation, while Lacy, who was opposed to Frederick's own
army, earned new laurels. For two years after this Loudon
lived quietly at Hadersdorf, and then the reverses of other
generals in the Turkish War called him for the last time into the
field. Though old and broken in health, he was commander-in-
chief in fact as well as in name, and he won a last brilliant success
by capturing Belgrade in three weeks, 1789. He died within the
year, on the I4th of July at Neu-Titschein in Moravia, still
on duty. His last appointment was that of commander-in-chief
of the armed forces of Austria, which had been created for him
by the new emperor Leopold. Loudon was buried in the grounds
of Hadersdorf. Eight years before his death the emperor
Joseph had caused a marble bust of this great soldier to be
placed in the chamber of the council of war.

His son JOHANN LUDWIG ALEXIUS, Freiherr von Loudon
(1762-1822) fought in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
with credit, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-field-marshal.

See memoir by v. Arneth in AUgemeine deutsche Biographie, s.v.
" Laudon," and life by G. B. Malleson.

LOUDOUN, JOHN CAMPBELL, IST EARL OF (1398-1663),
Scottish politician, eldest son of Sir James Campbell of Lawers,
became Baron Loudoun in right of his wife Margaret, grand-

daughter of Hugh Campbell, ist Baron Loudoun (d. 1622). He
was created earl on the i2th of May 1633, but in consequence
of his opposition to Charles I.'s church policy in Scotland the
patent was stopped in Chancery. In 1637 he was one of the
supplicants against the introduction of the English liturgy;
and with John Leslie, 6th earl of Rothes, he took a leading part
in the promulgation of the Covenant and in the General Assembly
which met at Glasgow in the autumn of 1638. He served under
General Leslie, and was one of the Scottish commissioners at the
Pacification of Berwick in June 1639. In November of that year
and again in 1640 the Scottish estates sent Loudoun with Charles
Seton, 2nd earl of Dunfermline, to London on an embassy to
Charles I. Loudoun intrigued with the French ambassador and
with Thomas Savile, afterwards earl of Sussex, but without much
success. He was in London when John Stewart, earl of Traquair,
placed in Charles's hands a letter signed by Loudoun and six
others and addressed to Louis XIII. In spite of his protest that
the letter was never sent, and that it would in any case be covered
by the amnesty granted at Berwick, he was sent to the Tower.
He was released in June, and two months later he re-entered
England with the Scottish invading army, and was one of the
commissioners at Ripon in October. In the following August
(1641) Charles opened parliament at Edinburgh in person, and
in pursuance of a policy of conciliation towards the leaders of the
Covenant Loudoun was made lord chancellor of Scotland, and
his title of earl of Loudoun was allowed. He also became first
commissioner of the treasury. In 1642 he was sent by the Scottish
council to York to offer to mediate in the dispute between
Charles and the parliament, and later on to Oxford, but in the
second of these instances Charles refused to accept his authority.
He was constantly employed in subsequent negotiations, and in
1647 was sent to Charles at Carisbrooke Castle, but the " Engage-
ment " to assist the king there made displeased the extreme
Covenanters, and Loudoun was obliged to retract his support of
it. He was now entirely on the side of the duke of Argyll and
the preachers. He assisted in the capacity of lord chancellor
at Charles II.'s coronation at Scone, and was present at Dunbar.
He joined in the royalist rising of 1653, but eventually sur-
rendered to General Monk. His estates were forfeited by
Cromwell, and a sum of money settled on the countess and her
heirs. At the Restoration he was removed from the chancellor-
ship, but a pension of £1000 granted him by Charles I. in 1643
was still allowed him. In 1662 he was heavily fined. He died
in Edinburgh on the isth of March 1663.

The earl's elder son, James (d. 1684), and earl of Loudoun, passed
his life out of Great Britain, and when he died at Leiden was suc-
ceeded by his son Hugh (d. 1731). The 3rd earl held various high
positions in England and Scotland, being chosen one of the repre-
sentative peers for Scotland at the union of the parliaments in 1707.
He rendered good service to the government during the rising of
1715, especially at the battle of Sheriff muir, and was succeeded
as 4th earl by his son John (1705-1782), who fought against the
Jacobites in 1745, was commander-in-chief of the British force in
America in 1756 and died unmarried. The title then passed to
James Mure Campbell (d. 1786), a grandson of the 2nd earl, and was
afterwards borne Dy the marquesses of Hastings, descendants of the
5th earl's daughter and heiress, Flora (1780-1840). Again revert-
ing to a female on the death of Henry, 4th marquess of Hastings,
in 1868, it came afterwards to Charles (b. 1855), a nephew of this
marquess, who became nth earl of Loudoun.

LOUDUN, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Vienne, on an eminence overlooking
a fertile plain, 45 m. by rail S.W.of Tours. Pop. (1906) 3931.
It was formerly surrounded by walls, of which a single gateway
and two towers remain. Of the old castle of the counts of Anjou
which was destroyed under Richelieu, the site now forming a
public promenade, a fine rectangular donjon of the 1 2th century
is preserved; at its base traces of Roman constructions have
been found, with fragments of porphyry pavement, mosaics and
mural paintings. The Carmelite convent was the scene of the
trial of Urban Grandier, who was burnt alive for witchcraft in
1634; the old Romanesque church of Sainte Croix, of which he
was cure, is now used as a market. The church of St Pierre-du-
MarchS, Gothic in style with a Renaissance portal, has a lofty
stone spire. There are several curious old houses in the town.

28

LOUGHBOROUGH— LOUIS I.

Theophraste Renaudot (d. 1653), founder of the Gazette de France,
was born at Loudun, where there is a statue of him. The manu-
facture of lace and upholstery trimming and of farm implements
is carried on, and there is a considerable trade in agricultural
products, wine, &c. Loudun (La.ud.unum in ancient times) was
a town of importance during the religious wars and gave its
name in 1616 to a treaty favourable to the Protestants.

LOUGHBOROUGH, a market town and municipal borough in
the Loughborough (Mid) parliamentary division of Leicestershire,
England, near the river Soar and on the Loughborough canal.
Pop. (1901) 21,508. It is no m. N.N.W. of London by the
Midland railway, and is served by the Great Central and a
branch of the London and North- Western railways. The neigh-
bourhood is a rich agricultural district, and to the S.W. lies
the hilly tract known as Charnwood Forest. The church of All
Saints stands on rising ground, and is a conspicuous object for
many miles round; it is of Decorated work, and the tower is
Perpendicular. The other churches are modern. Public build-
ings include the town hall and exchange, town offices, county
hall and free library. The grammar school, founded in 1495
under the charity of Thomas Burton, occupies modern buildings
in pleasant grounds. There is also a girls' grammar school partly
dependent on the same foundation. The principal industry is
hosiery making; there are also engineering, iron and dye works
and bell foundries. The great bell for St Paul's- cathedral,
London, was cast here in 1881. Loughborough was incorporated
in 1888. Area, 3045 acres.

The manor of Loughborough (Lucleburne, Lucteburg, Lughte-
burgh) was granted by William the Conqueror to Hugh Lupus,
from whom it passed to the Despensers. In 1226-1227 when it
belonged to Hugh Despenser he obtained various privileges for
himself and his men and tenants there, among which were
quittance from suits at the county and hundred courts, of sheriffs'
aids and of view of frankpledge, and also a market every Thursday
and a fair on the vigil, day and morrow of St Peter ad vincula.
The market rights were purchased by the town in 1880 from the
trustees of Thomas Cradock, late lord of the manor. Edward II.
visited the manor several times when it belonged to his favourite,
Hugh Despenser the elder. Among the subsequent lords were
Henry de Beaumont and Alice his wife, Sir Edward Hastings,
created Baron Hastings of Loughborough in 1558, Colonel Henry
Hastings, created baron in 1645, and the earls of Huntingdon.
Alexander Wedderburn was created Baron Loughborough in
1780 when he became chief justice of the common pleas. During
the igth century most of the manorial rights were purchased by
the local board. Loughborough was at first governed by a bailiff,
afterwards by a local board, and was finally incorporated in 1888
under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. It has never been
represented in parliament. Lace-making was formerly the chief
industry, but machines for making lace set up in the town by John
Heathcote were destroyed by the Luddites in 1816, and the
manufacture lost its importance. Bell-founding was introduced
in 1840. John Cleveland, the Royalist poet, was born at
Loughborough in 1613, John Howe the painter in 1630 and
Richard Pulteney the botanist in 1730.

See Victoria County History, Leicestershire; W. G. D. Fletcher,
Chapters in the History of Loughborough (1883) ; Sir Thomas Pochin,
" Historical Description of Loughborough " (1770) (vol. viii. of
Bibliotheca topographica Britannica).

LOUGHREA, a market town of Co. Galway, Ireland,
pleasantly situated on the N. shore of Lough Rea, 116 m. W. from
Dublin by a branch from Attymon Junction on the Midland
Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 2815. There are slight
remains of an Early English Carmelite friary dating c. 1300, which
escaped the Dissolution. Loughrea is the seat of the Roman
Catholic bishop of Clonfert, and has a cathedral built in 1900-
1905. A part of the castle of Richard de Burgh, the founder of
the friary, still survives, and there are traces of the town fortifica-
tions. In the neighbourhood are a cromlech and two ruined
towers, and crannogs, or ancient stockaded islands, have been
discovered in the lough. Apart from the surroundings of the
lough, the neighbouring country is peculiarly desolate.

LOUGHTON, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary
division of Essex, England, 113 m. N.N.E. of Liverpool Street
station, London, by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901),
4730. This is one of the villages which has become the centre of
a residential district, and is frequented by holiday-makers from
London, owing to its proximity to the pleasant woodland scenery
of Epping Forest. It lies on the eastern outskirts of the Forest,
near the river Roding. There are several modern churches.
The lordship of the manor was granted to Waltham Abbey.
In the vicinity are large earthworks, probably of British origin,
known as Loughton Camp.

LOUHANS, a town of east-central France in the old province
of Franche-Comte, now capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Saone-et-Loire, 34 m. N.N.E. of Macon by road.
Pop. ( 1 906) ,3216. Its church has a fine to wer of the 1 5th century,
of which the balustrade is carved so as to form the first words
of the Ave Maria. There are also a hospital of the i7th century
with a collection of ancient earthenware, a town-hall of the i8th
century and remains of ramparts of the i6th and i7th century.
The town is the central market of the agricultural plain of Bresse;
chickens form the chief article of commerce. There is also a
large felt-hat manufactory.

LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Prankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig,
Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence — in
the Strassburg oath of 842 — O. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Lays
and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and — through the Angevin
kings— Hungarian Ldjos; cf. Ger. Ludwig or Ludewig, from
O. H. Ger. Hluduwlc, Hludwig, Ludhuwig, M. H. Ger. Ludewic;
Ital. Lodovico), a masculine proper name, meaning " Fame-fight "
or " Famous in fight," from old Frankish Mud, Mod (0. H. Ger.
ftlud, Mod), " fame," and wich (O. H. Ger. wtc., wig, A.S. wig)
" war," " battle " (cf. Gr. KXwoyuaxoj). The name has been
borne by numerous European sovereigns and others, of whom
some are noticed below in the following order: (i) Roman
emperors and Frankish and German kings, (2) kings of Bavaria,
(3) kings of France, (4) kings of Hungary, (5) kings of Naples,
(6) Louis of Nassau. (Louis Philippe, king of the French, is dealt
with separately.)

LOUIS I. (778-840), surnamed the " Pious," Roman emperor,
third son of the emperor Charlemagne and his wife Hildegarde,
was born at Chasseneuil in central France, and crowned king of
Aquitaine in 781. He received a good education; but as his
tastes were ecclesiastical rather than military, the government
of his kingdom was mainly conducted by his counsellors. Louis,
however, gained sound experience in warfare in the defence of
Aquitaine, shared in campaigns against the Saxons and the Avars,
and led an army to Italy in 792. In 794 or 795 he married
Irmengarde, daughter of Ingram, count of Haspen. After the
deaths of his two elder brothers, Louis, at his father's command,
crowned himself co-emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle on the nth of
September 813, and was formally associated in the government
of the Empire, of which he became sole ruler, in the following
January. He earned the surname of " Pious " by banishing
his sisters and others of immoral life from court; by attempting
to reform and purify monastic life; and by showing great
liberality to the church. In October 816 he was crowned
emperor at Reims by Pope Stephen IV.; and at Aix in July
817, he arranged for a division of his Empire among his sons.
This was followed by a revolt of his nephew, Bernard, king of
Italy; but the rising was easily suppressed, and Bernard was
mutilated and killed. The emperor soon began to repent of
this cruelty, and when his remorse had been accentuated by the
death of his wife in 818, he pardoned the followers of Bernard
and restored their estates, and in 822 did public penance at
Attigny. In 819 he married Judith, daughter of Welf I., count
of Bavaria, who in 823 bore him a son Charles, afterwards
called the Bald. Judith made unceasing efforts to secure a
kingdom for her child; and with the support of her eldest
step-son Lothair, a district was carved out for Charles in 829.
Discontent at this arrangement increased to the point of rebellion,
which broke out the following year, provoked by Judith's in-
trigues with Bernard, count of Barcelona, whom she had installed

LOUIS II.— LOUIS III.

as her favourite at court. Lothair and his brother Pippin joined
the rebels, and after Judith had been sent into a convent and
Bernard had fled to Spain, an assembly was held at Compiegne,
when Louis was practically deposed and Lothair became the
real ruler of the Empire. Sympathy was, however, soon aroused
for the emperor, who was treated as a prisoner, and a second
assembly was held at Nimwegen in October 830 when, with
the concurrence of his sons Pippin and Louis, he was restored to
power and Judith returned to court.

Further trouble between Pippin and his father led to the
nominal transfer of Aquitaine from Pippin to his brother
Charles in 831. The emperor's plans for a division of his
dominions then led to a revolt of his three sons. Louis met them
in June 833 near Kolmar, but owing possibly to the influence
of Pope Gregory IV., who took part in the negotiations, he found
himself deserted by his supporters, and the treachery and
falsehood which marked the proceedings gave to the place the
name of Lugenfeld, or the " field of lies." Judith, charged
with infidelity, was again banished; Louis was sent into the
monastery of St Medard at Soissons; and the government of
the Empire was assumed by his sons. The emperor was forced
to confess his sins, and declare himself unworthy of the throne,
but Lothair did not succeed in his efforts to make his father
a monk. Sympathy was again felt for Louis, and when the
younger Louis had failed to induce Lothair to treat the emperor
in a more becoming fashion, he and Pippin took up arms on
behalf of their father. The result was that in March 834 Louis
was restored to power at St Denis; Judith once more returned
to his side and the kingdoms of Louis and Pippin were increased.
The struggle with Lothair continued until the autumn, when
he submitted to the emperor and was confined to Italy. To
make the restoration more complete, a great assembly at Dieden-
hofen declared the deposition of Louis to have been contrary
to law, and a few days later he was publicly restored in the
cathedral of Metz. In December 838 Pippin died, and a new
arrangement was made by which the Empire, except Bavaria,
the kingdom of Louis, was divided between Lothair, now
reconciled to his father, and Charles. The emperor was returning
from suppressing a revolt on the part of his son Louis, provoked
by this disposition, when he died on the 2oth of June 840 on an
island in the Rhine near Ingelheim. He was buried in the church
of St Arnulf at Metz. Louis was a man of strong frame, who
loved the chase, and did not shrink from the hardships of war.
He was, however, easily influenced and was unequal to the govern-
ment of the Empire bequeathed to him by his father. No
sustained effort was made to ward off the inroads of the Danes
and others, who were constantly attacking the borders of the
Empire. Louis, who is also called Le Dtbonnaire, counts as
Louis I., king of France.

See Annales Fuldenlt*; Annales Bertiniani; Thegan, Vita
Hludowici; the Vita Hiudowici attributed to Astronomus; Er-
moldus Nigellus, In honorem Hludowici imperatoris; Nithard,
Hisloriarum libri, all in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scrip-
lores, Bande i. and ii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.) ; E. Muhl-
bacher, Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (Inns-
bruck, 1881); and Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern (Stutt-
gart, 1886) ; B. Simson, Jahrbucher des frankischen Reichs unter
Ludwig dem Frommen (Leipzig, 1874-1876); and E. Dummler,
Geschichte des ostfrdnkischen Keiches (Leipzig, 1887-1888).

(A. W. H.*)

LOUIS II. (825-875), Roman emperor, eldest son of the emperor
Lothair I., was designated king of Italy in 839, and taking up
his residence in that country was crowned king at Rome by Pope
Sergius II. on the isth of June 844. He at once preferred a
claim to the rights of an emperor in the city, which was decisively
rejected; but in 850 he was crowned joint emperor at Rome
by Pope Leo IV., and soon afterwards married his cousin, Engel-
berga, a daughter of King Louis the German, and undertook the
independent government of Italy. He took the field against
the Saracens; quashed some accusations against Pope Leo;
held a diet at Pavia; and on the death of his father in September
855 became sole emperor. The division of Lothair's dominions,
by which he obtained no territory outside Italy, aroused his
discontent, and in 857 he allied himself with Louis the German

against his brother Lothair, king of Lorraine, and King Charles
the Bald. But after Louis had secured the election of Nicholas
I. as pope in 858, he became reconciled with his brother, and
received some lands south of the Jura in return for assistance
given to Lothair in his efforts to obtain a divorce from his wife,
Teutberga. In 863, on the death of his brother Charles, Louis
received the kingdom of Provence, and in 864 came into collision
with Pope Nicholas I. over his brother's divorce. The arch-
bishops, who had been deposed by Nicholas for proclaiming this
marriage invalid, obtained the support of the emperor, who
reached Rome with an army in February 864; but, having
been seized with fever, he made peace with the pope and left
the city. In his efforts to restore order in Italy, Louis met
with considerable success both against the turbulent princes
of the peninsula and against the Saracens who were ravaging
southern Italy. In 866 he routed these invaders, but could not
follow up his successes owing to the want of a fleet. So in
869 he made an alliance with the eastern emperor, Basil I.,
who sent him some ships to assist in the capture of Bari, the
headquarters of the Saracens, which succumbed in 871. Mean-
while his brother Lothair had died in 869, and owing to his
detention in southern Italy he was unable to prevent the partition
of Lorraine between Louis the German and Charles the Bald.
Some jealousy between Louis and Basil followed the victory
at Bari, and in reply to an insult from the eastern emperor
Louis attempted to justify his right to the title " emperor of
the Romans." He had withdrawn into Benevento to prepare
for a further campaign, when he was treacherously attacked
in his palace, robbed and imprisoned by Adelchis, prince of
Benevento, in August 871. The landing of fresh bands of
Saracens compelled Adelchis to release his prisoner a month
later, and Louis was forced to swear he would take no revenge
for this injury, nor ever enter Benevento with an army. Return-
ing to Rome, he was released from his oath, and was crowned a
second time as emperor by Pope Adrian II. on the i8th of May
872. He won further successes against the Saracens, who were
driven from Capua, but the attempts of the emperor to punish
Adelchis were not very successful. Returning to northern Italy,
he died, somewhere in the province of Brescia, on the I2th of
August 875, and was buried in the church of St Ambrose at Milan,
having named as his successor in Italy his cousin Carloman,
son of Louis the German. Louis was an excellent ruler, of
whom it was said " in his time there was great peace, because
every one could enjoy his own possessions."

See Annales Bertiniani, Chronica S. Benedicti Casinensis, both in
the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bande i. and iii.
(Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fpL); E. Muhlbacher, Die Regesten des
Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1881); Th. Sickel,
Acta regum et imperatorum Karolinorum, digesta el enarrata (Vienna,
1867-1868); and E. Dummler, Geschichte des oslfrdnkischen Retches
(Leipzig, 1887-1888). (A. W. H.*)

LOUIS III. (c. 880-928), surnamed the " Blind," Roman
emperor, was a son of Boso, king of Provence or Lower Burgundy,
and Irmengarde, daughter of the emperor Louis II. The
emperor Charles the Fat took Louis under his protection on the
death of Boso in 887; but Provence was in a state of wild
disorder, and it was not until 890, when Irmengarde had secured
the support of the Bavarian king Arnulf and of Pope Stephen V.,
that Louis was recognized as king. In 900, after the death of
the emperor Arnulf, he went to Italy to obtain the imperial
crown. He was chosen king of the Lombards at Pavia, and
crowned emperor at Rome in February 901 by Pope Benedict IV.
He gained a temporary authority in northern Italy, but was
soon compelled by his rival Berengar, margrave of Friuli, to
leave the country and to swear he would never return. In
spite of his oath he went again to Italy in 904, where he secured
the submission of Lombardy; but on the 2ist of July 905 he
was surprised at Verona by Berengar, who deprived him of his
sight and sent him back to Provence, where he passed his days
in enforced inactivity until his death in September 928. He
married Adelaide, possibly a daughter of Rudolph I., king of
Upper Burgundy. His eldest son, Charles Constantine, succeeded
to no more than the county of Vienne.

LOUIS IV.

See Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, Bande ix. and x
(Gottingen, 1862-1886); E. Dummler, Geschichte des ostfrdnkischen
Reichs (Leipzig, 1887-1888); and Gesta Berengarii imperatori
(Halle, 1871); and F. de Gingins-la-Sarra. Memoires pour servir i
I'histoire de Provence et de Bourgogne Jurane (Zurich, 1851).

(A. W. H.*)

LOUIS IV., or V. (c. 1287-1347), surnamed the Bavarian
Roman emperor and duke of Upper Bavaria, was the seconc
son of Louis II., duke of Upper Bavaria and count palatine o:
the Rhine, and Matilda, daughter of the German king Rudolph
I. Having lost his father in 1294 he inherited, jointly with
his elder brother Rudolph, Upper Bavaria and the Palatinate
but passed his time mainly at the court of the Habsburgs in
Vienna, while his early experiences of warfare were gained in
the campaigns of his uncle, the German king Albert I. He was
soon at variance with his brother over their joint possessions
Albert taking the part of Louis in this quarrel, Rudolph promised
in 1301 to admit his brother to a share in the government oi
Bavaria and the Palatinate. When Albert was murdered in
May 1308, Louis became a candidate for the German throne
but his claim was not strongly supported. The new king,
Henry VII., was very friendly with Rudolph, and as the promise
of 1301 had not been carried out, Louis demanded a partition
of their lands. Upper Bavaria was accordingly divided in 1310,
and Louis received the north-western part of the duchy; but
Rudolph refused to surrender any part of the Palatinate. In
1310, on the death of Stephen I., duke of Lower Bavaria, Louis
undertook the guardianship of his two young sons. This led
to a war between the brothers, which lasted till June 1313, when
peace was made at Munich. Many of the nobles in Lower Bavaria,
however, angered at Louis, called in the aid of Frederick I.
(the Fair), duke of Austria; but he was defeated at Gammelsdorf
on the gth of November 1313, a victory which not only led to
peace, but conferred considerable renown on Louis.

In August 1313 the German throne had again become vacant,
and Louis was chosen at Frankfort on the 2oth of October 1314
by a majority of the electors, and his coronation followed at
Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of November. A minority of princes
had, however, supported Frederick of Austria; and a war
followed between the rivals, during which Louis was supported
by the cities and the districts of the middle and lower Rhine.
His embarrassments were complicated by a renewal of the
dispute with his brother; but when this had been disposed of
in 1317 by Rudolph's renunciation of his claims on upper Bavaria
and the Palatinate in consideration of a yearly subsidy, Louis
was able to give undivided attention to the war with Frederick,
and obtained several fresh allies. On the 28th of September
1322 a battle was fought at Mvihldorf, which ended in a complete
victory for Louis, owing mainly to the timely aid of Frederick IV.
of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremburg. Frederick of Austria
was taken prisoner, but the struggle was continued by his brother
Leopold until the latter's death in 1326. Attempts to enable
the two kings to rule Germany jointly failed, and about 1326
Frederick returned to Austria, leaving Louis in undisputed posses-
sion of the country. Before this conclusion, however, a new
enemy had taken the field. Supported by Philip V. of France
in his desire to free Italy entirely from German influence, Pope
John XXII. refused to recognize either Frederick or Louis, and
asserted his own right to administer the empire during a vacancy.
After the battle of Muhldorf Louis sent Berthold of Neifen,
count of Marstetten, into Italy with an army, which soon com-
pelled the papal troops to raise the siege at Milan. The pope
threatened Louis with excommunication unless he resigned his
kingdom within three months. The king thereupon appealed
to a general council, and was placed under the papal ban on
the 23rd of March 1324, a sentence which he answered by pub-
lishing his charges against the pope. In the contest Louis was
helped by the Minorites, who were upholding against John
the principal of clerical poverty, and by the writings of Marsilius
of Padua (who dedicated to Louis his Defensor pacis), William of
Occam, John of Jandun and others. Taking the offensive,
Louis met his Ghibelline supporters at Trent and reached Italy
in March 1327; and in May he received the Lombard crown

at Milan. Although the pope renewed his fulminations Louis
compelled Pisa to surrender, and was hailed with great re-
joicing in Rome. On the i7th of January 1328 he was crowned
emperor in St Peter's by Sciarra Colonna, a Roman noble; and
he answered the continued attacks of Pope John by pronouncing
his deposition, and proclaiming Peter of Corvara pope as Nicholas
V. He then undertook an expedition against John's ally, Robert,
king of Naples, but, disunion among his troops and scarcity
of money and provisions, drove him again to Rome, where,
finding that his exactions had diminished his popularity, he left
the city, and after passing six months at Pisa, returned to
Germany in January 1330. The struggle with the pope was
renewed in Germany, and when a formidable league had been
formed against Louis, his thoughts turned to a reconciliation.
He was prepared to assent to very humiliating terms, and even
agreed to abdicate; but the negotiations, which were prolonged
by further demands on the part of the pope, were interrupted
by his death in December 1334. John's successor, Benedict
XII., seemed more anxious to come to an arrangement, but was
prevented from doing so by the influence of Philip VI. of France.
Overtures for peace were made to Philip, but without success;
and in July 1337 Louis concluded an alliance with Edward
III., king of England, and made active preparations for war.
During these years his attention was also occupied by a quarrel
with John, king of Bohemia, over the possession of Tirol, by a
campaign in Lower Bavaria, and a futile expedition against
Nicholas I., bishop of Constance. But although his position
was shaken by the indifferent success which attended these
campaigns, it was improved when the electors meeting at Rense
in July 1338 banded themselves together to defend their elective
rights, and when the diet at Frankfort confirmed a decree which
declared that the German king did not need the papal appro-
bation to make his election valid.

Louis devoted considerable thought and time to extending
the possessions of the Wittelsbach family, to which he belonged.
Tirol had for some time been a subject of contention between
the emperor and other princes. The heiress of this county,
Margaret Maultasch, had married John Henry, margrave of
Moravia, son of King John of Bohemia. Having quarrelled
with her husband, Margaret fled to the protection of Louis, who
seized the opportunity to declare her marriage void and to unite
ber in 1342 with his son Louis. The emperor also increased his
possessions by his own marriage. In 1322 his first wife, Beatrice,
daughter of Henry III., count of Glogau, had died after thirteen
years of married life, and Louis then married Margaret, daughter
of William III., count of Holland. When her brother, count
William IV., died childless in 1345, the emperor obtained posses-
sion of Holland, Zealand and Friesland. In 1341 he recovered
a portion of the Palatinate, and soon deserted Edward of England
and came to terms with Philip of France*. The acquisition of the
territories, and especially of Tirol, had provided Louis with many
enemies, prominent among whom were John of Bohemia and his
amily, that of Luxemburg. John, therefore, entered into an
alliance with Pope Clement VI. The course of the war which
ensued in Germany was such as to compel the emperor to submit
to humiliating terms, though he stopped short of accepting the
election of Charles, margrave of Moravia (afterwards the emperor
Charles IV.) as German king in July 1346. Charles consequently
attacked Tirol; but Louis, who appeared to have considerable
chances of success, died suddenly at a bear-hunt near Munich
on the nth of October 1347. He was buried in the Frauenkirche
at Munich, where a statue was erected to his memory in 1622
>y Maximilian I., elector of Bavaria, and where a second was
unveiled in 1905. He had seven sons, three of whom were sub-
equently electors of Brandenburg, and ten daughters.

Various estimates have been formed of the character of Louis.
As a soldier he possessed skill as well as bravery, but he lacked
>erseverance and decision in his political relations. At one
ime haughtily defying the pope, at another abjectly craving his
jardon, he seems a very inglorious figure; and the fact that he
emained almost undisturbed in the possession of Germany
n spite of the utmost efforts of the popes, is due rather to the

LOUIS THE GERMAN— LOUIS I.

political and intellectual tendencies of the time than to his own
good qualities. Nevertheless he ruled Bavaria with consider-
able success. He befriended the towns, encouraged trade and
commerce and gave a new system of laws to the duchy. German
took the place of Latin in the imperial charters, and although
not a scholar, the emperor was a patron of learning. Louis was
a man of graceful appearance, with ruddy countenance and
prominent nose.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Many of the authorities for the life and reign of
Louis are found in the Forties rcrum Germanicarum, Bande i. and iv.,
edited by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart, 1843-1868). Among these is the
Vila Ludovici IV., by an unknown author. A number of important
documents are found in the Regesta imperii 1314-1347, edited by
J. F. Bohmer and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1865); Acta imperii selecta,
edited by J. F. Bohmer and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); Urkunden
zur Geschichte des Romerzuges Konigs Ludwigs des Bayern, edited
by I. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1865); Urkundliche Beitrage zur Geschichte
Kaisers Ludwigs IV., edited by C. Hofler (Munich, 1839); Valikan-
ische Urkunden zur Geschichte Kaisers Ludwigs des Bayern, Bande v.
and yi. (Stuttgart, 1877-1888); Vatikanische Akten zur Deutschen
Geschichte in der Zeit Kaisers Ludwigs des Bayern, edited by S.
Riezler (Innsbruck, 1891). In the Forschungen zur Deutschen
Geschichte (Gottingen, 1862-1886), Band xx., is found Urkunden
zur Bairischen und Deutschen Geschichte 1256-1343, edited by S.
Riezler; and in Band xiii. is C. Hautle's Beitrage zum Itinerar
Kaiser Ludwigs.

The following may also be consulted: C. Gewoldus, Defensio
Ludovici IV. contra A. Bzovium (Ingolstadt, 1618); J. G. Herwartus,
Ludovicus IV. imperator defensus (Mainz, 1618); N. Burgundus,
Historia Bavarica sive Ludovicus IV. imperator (Ingolstadt, 1636).
The best modern authorities are F. von Weech, Kaiser Ludwig der
Bayer und Konig Johann von Bohmen (Munich, 1860); S. Riezler,
Die literarischen Widersacher der Pdpste zur Zeit Ludwigs des
Bayern (Leipzig, 187^); C. Muhling, Die Geschichte der Doppelwahl
des Jahres 1314 (Munich, 1882) ; R. Dobner, Die Auseinandersetzung
zwischen Ludwig IV. dem Bayern und Friedrich dem Schonen von
Oesterreich (Gottingen, 1875); W. Altmann, Der Rdmerzug
Ludwigs des Bayern (Berlin, 1886); A. Chroust, Beitrage zur
Geschichte Ludwigs des Bayern und seiner Zeit (Gotha, 1877);
K. Miiller, Der Kampf Ludwigs des Bayern mil der romischen Curie
(Tubingen, 1870-1880); W. Preger, Der Kirchenpolitische Kampf
unter Ludwig dem Bayern (Munich, 1877) ; Sievers, Die politischen
Beziehungen Kaiser Ludwigs des Bayern zu Frankreich (Berlin,
1896); Steinberger, Kaiser Ludwig der Bayer (Munich, 1901); and
Uedine, Ludwig der Bayer und die niederrheinischen Stadte (Fader-
born, 1904). (A. W. H.*)

LOUIS (804-876) surnamed the " German," king of the
East Franks, was the third son of the emperor Louis I. and his
wife Irmengarde. His early years were partly spent at the
court of his grandfather Charlemagne, whose special affection
he is said to have won. When the emperor Louis divided his
dominions between his sons in 817, Louis received Bavaria and
the neighbouring lands, but did not undertake the government
until 825, when he became involved in war with the Slavonic
tribes on his eastern frontier. In 827 he married Emma, daughter
of Welf I., count of Bavaria, and sister of his stepmother Judith;
and he soon began to interfere in the quarrels arising from
Judith's efforts to secure a kingdom for her own son Charles,
and the consequent struggles of Louis and his brothers with the
emperor Louis I. (<?.».). When the elder Louis died in 840 and
his eldest son Lothair claimed the whole Empire, Louis in alliance
with his half-brother, king Charles the Bald, defeated Lothair
at Fontenoy on the 2Sth of June 841. In June 842 the three
brothers met on an island in the Saone to negotiate a peace, and
each appointed forty representatives to arrange the boundaries
of their respective kingdoms. This developed into the treaty
of Verdun concluded in August 843, by which Louis received the
bulk of the lands of the Carolingian empire lying east of the Rhine,
together with a district around Spires, Worms and Mainz, on
the left bank of the river. His territories included Bavaria,
where he made Regensburg the centre of his government,
Thuringia, Franconia and Saxony. He may truly be called the
founder of the German kingdom, though his attempts to main-
tain the unity of the Empire proved futile. Having in 842
crushed a rising in Saxony, he compelled the Abotrites to own
his authority, and undertook campaigns against the Bohemians,
the Moravians and other tribes, but was not very successful
in freeing his shores from the ravages of Danish pirates. At his
instance synods and assemblies were held where laws were

decreed for the better government of church and state. In 853
and the following years Louis made more than one attempt
to secure the throne of Aquitaine, which the people of that
country offered him in their disgust with the cruel misrule of
Charles the Bald. But though he met with sufficient success
to encourage him to issue a charter in 858, dated " the first
year of the reign in West Francia," treachery and desertion
in his army, and the loyalty to Charles of the Aquitanian
bishops brought about the failure of the enterprise, which
Louis renounced by a treaty signed at Coblenz on the 7th of
June 860.

In 855 the emperor Lothair died, and was succeeded in Italy by
his eldest son Louis II., and in the northern part of his kingdom
by his second son, Lothair. The comparative weakness of these
kingdoms, together with the disorder caused by the matrimonial
troubles of Lothair, afforded a suitable opening for the intrigues
of Louis and Charles the Bald, whose interest was increased by
the fact that both their nephews were without male issue.
Louis supported Lothair in his efforts to divorce his wife
Teutberga, for which he received a promise of Alsace, while Charles
opposed the divorce. But in 865 Louis and Charles meeting
near Toul, renewed the peace of Coblenz, and doubtless discussed
the possibility of dividing Lothair's kingdom. In 868 at Metz
they agreed definitely to a partition; but when Lothair died in
869, Louis was lying seriously ill, and his armies were engaged
with the Moravians. Charles the Bald accordingly seized the
whole kingdom; but Louis, having recovered, compelled him
by a threat of war to agree to the treaty of Mersen, which divided
it between the claimants. The later years of Louis were troubled
by risings on the part of his sons, the eldest of whom, Carloman,
revolted in 861 and again two years later; an example that
was followed by the second son Louis, who in a further rising
was joined by his brother Charles. A report that the emperor
Louis II. was dead led to peace between father and sons. The
emperor, however, was not dead, but a prisoner; and as he was
not only the nephew, but also the son-in-law of Louis, that
monarch hoped to secure both the imperial dfgnity and the Italian
kingdom for his son Carloman. Meeting his daughter Engelberga,
the wife of Louis II., at Trent in 872, Louis made an alliance with
her against Charles the Bald, and in 874 visited Italy doubtless
on the same errand. The emperor, having named Carloman
as his successor, died in August 875, but Charles the Bald
reached Italy before his rival, and by persuading Carloman,
when he did cross the Alps, to return, secured the imperial crown.
Louis was preparing for war when he died on the 28th of
September 876 at Frankfort, and was buried at Lorsch, leaving
three sons and three daughters. Louis was in war and peace
alike, the most competent of the descendants of Charlemagne.
He obtained for his kingdom a certain degree of security in face
of the attacks of Normans, Hungarians, Moravians and others.
He lived in close alliance with the Church, to which he was
very generous, and entered eagerly into schemes for the con-
version of his heathen neighbours.

See Annales Fuldenses; Annales Bertiniani; Nithard, Histori-
arum Libri, all in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores,
Bande i. and ii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); E. Dummler,
Geschichte des ostfrdnkischen Reiches (Leipzig, 1887-1888); Th.
Sickel, Die Urkunden Ludwigs des Deutschen (Vienna, 1861-1862);
E. Muhlbacher, Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern
(Innsbruck, 1881) ; and A. Krohn, Ludwig der Deutsche (Saarbrucken,
1872). (A. W. H.*)

LOUIS I., king of Bavaria (1786-1868), son of the then prince,
afterwards duke and elector, Max Joseph of Zweibriicken and his
wife Princess Augusta of Hesse-Darmstadt ( -i 796), was born
at Strassburg on the 25th of August 1786. He received a careful
education at home, afterwards (in 1803) going to the Bavarian
national university of Landshut and to Gottingen. As a young
man he was drawn into the Romantic movement then at its
height; but both the classics and contemporary classical poetry
took hold upon his receptive mind (he visited Goethe in 1827).
He had himself strong artistic tendencies, though his numerous
poems show but little proof of this, and as a patron of the
arts he proved himself as great as any who had ever occupied a

LOUIS I.

German throne, and more than a mere dilettante. His first visit
to Italy, in 1804, had an important influence upon this side of
his development.

But even in Italy the crown prince (his father had become
elector in 1799 and king of Bavaria in 1805) did not forget his
nationality. He soon made himself leader of the small anti-
French party in Bavaria. Napoleon sought in vain to win him
over, and Louis fell more and more out of favour with him.
Napoleon was even reported to have said: " Qui m'empeche
de laisser fusilier ce prince? " Their relations continued to be
strained, although in the campaigns of 1807 and 1809, in which
Bavaria was among the allies of France, Louis won his laurels
in the field.

The crown prince was also averse from a Napoleonic marriage,
and preferred to marry (October 12, 1810) the Princess Therese
of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1792-1854). Three daughters and
four sons were born of this marriage, one of whom succeeded
him as Maximilian II., while another, Luitpold, became prince
regent of Bavaria on the death of Louis II.

During the time that he was crown prince Louis resided chiefly
at Innsbruck or Salzburg as governor of the circle of the Inn and
Salzach. In 1815 he attended the Congress of Vienna, where he
was especially occupied in endeavouring to obtain the restoration
of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany; and later in the year he
was with the allies in Paris, using his influence to secure the
return of the art treasures carried off by the French.

After 1815 also the crown prince maintained his anti-French
attitude, and it was mainly his influence that in 1817 secured the
fall of Montgelas, the minister with French sympathies. Opposed
to absolutism, Louis took great interest in the work of organizing
the Bavarian constitution (1818) and defended it against Metter-
nich and the Carlsbad Decrees (1819); he was also one of the
most zealous of the ardent Philhellenes in Germany at the time.
He succeeded to the crown of Bavaria on the I2th of October
1825, and at once embarked upon a moderate constitutional
policy, in which he found himself in general agreement with the
parliament. Although he displayed a loyal attachment to the
Catholic Church, especially owing to his artistic sympathies,
he none the less opposed all its more exaggerated pretensions,
•especially as represented by the Jesuits, whom he condemned
as un-German. In the year of his accession he abolished an old
edict concerning the censorship. He also furthered in many ways
the internal administration of the state, and especially that of
the finances. His personal tastes, apart from his activities as a
Maecenas, being economical, he endeavoured also to limit public
expenditure, in a way which was not always a benefit to the
country. Bavaria's power of self-defence especially was
weakened by his economies and by his lack of interest in the
military aspect of things.

He was a warm friend of learning, and in 1826 transferred the
university of Landshut to Munich, where he placed it under his
special protection. Prominent scholars were summoned to it,
mostly belonging to the Romantic School, such as Goerres,
Schubert and Schelling, though others were not discouraged.
In the course of his visits to Italy he formed friendships with
famous artists such as Thorwaldsen and Cornelius. He was
especially anxious to obtain works of art, mainly sculpture,
for the famous Munich collections which he started, and in this
he had the advantage of the assistance of the painter Martin
Wagner. He also set on foot movements for excavation and the
collection of works of art in Greece, with excellent results.

Under the influence of the July revolution of 1830, however,
he also began to be drawn into the current of reaction; and
though he still declared himself openly against absolutism, and
never took up such a hostile attitude towards constitutional ideas
as his brother-in-law King Frederick William IV., he allowed
the reactionary system of surveillance which commended itself
to the German Confederation after 1830 to be introduced into
Bavaria (see BAVARIA: History). He continued, on the other
hand, to do much for the economic development of the country.
As a follower of the ideas' of Friedrich List, he furthered
the foundation of the Zollverein in the year 1833 and the

making of canals. Railways he looked upon as a " necessary
evil."

In external politics peace was maintained on the whole after
1825. Temporary diplomatic complications arose between
Bavaria and Baden in connexion with Louis's favourite project
of winning back the part then belonging to Baden of the old
Palatinate, the land of his birth, which was always very dear to
him.

Of European importance was his enthusiasm for the liberation
of Greece from the rule of Turkey. Not only did he erect the
Propylaen at Munich in her honour, but he also helped her in the
most generous way both with money and diplomatic, resources.
And after his second son Otto had become king of Greece in 1832,
Greek affairs became from time to time the central point of his
foreign policy. In 1835 he made a visit to Greece, partly political,
partly inspired by his old interest in art. But his son proved
unequal to his task, and in 1862 was forced to abdicate (see
OTHO, king of Greece). For this unfortunate issue Louis was
not without blame; for from the very first, owing to an
exaggerated idealism and love of antiquity, he had totally
misunderstood the national character of the Greeks and the
problems involved in the attempts to govern them by bureaucratic
methods.

In Bavaria, too, his government became more and more con-
servative, especially after Karl Abel became the head of the
ministry in 1837. The king had not yet, it is true, altogether
committed himself to the clerical ultras, and on the occasion of
the dispute about the bishops in Prussia in the same year had
taken up a wise attitude of compromise. But in Bavaria itself
the strict Catholic party influenced affairs more and more
decisively. For a while, indeed, this opposition did not impair
the king's popularity, due to his amiable character, his extra-
ordinary services in beautifying his capital of Munich, and to his
benevolence (it has been reckoned that he personally received
about 10,000 letters asking for help every year, and that the
money he devoted to charity amounted to about a fifth of his
income). The year 1846, however, brought a change which had
sad consequences. This was due to the king's relations with the
Spanish dancer Lola Montez, who appeared in Munich in October
1846, and soon succeeded by her beauty and wit in fascinating
the king, who was always susceptible to feminine charms. The
political importance of this lay in the fact that the royal mistress
began to use her great influence against the clerical policy of the
Abel ministry. So when the king was preparing the way for
ennobling her, in order to introduce her into court circles, which
were unwilling to receive her, the ministry protested in the
famous memorandum of the nth of February 1847 against the
king's demand for her naturalization as a Bavarian, the necessary
preliminary to her ennoblement. The position was still further
embittered by the fact that, owing to an indiscretion, the
memorandum became known to the public. Thereupon the king,
irritated and outraged, replaced Abel's Clerical ministry by a
more accommodating Liberal one under Zu Rhein under which
Lola Montez without more difficulty became Countess Landsberg.
Meanwhile, the criticism and opposition of the people, and
especially of the students, was turned against the new leader of
the court of Munich. On top of this came the revolutionary
movement of 1848. The king's position became more and more
difficult, and under the pressure of popular opposition he was
forced to banish the countess. But neither this nor the king's
liberal proclamation of the 6th of March succeeded in esta-
blishing peace, and in the capital especially the situation became
increasingly threatening. All this made such a deep impression
on the king, that on the 2oth of March 1848 he abdicated in
favour of his son Maximilian.

He now retired entirely into private life, and continued
to play the Maecenas magnificently, frequently staying at his
villa in Rome, the Villa Malta, and enjoying extraordinary
vigour of mind and body up to the end of his days. His popu-
larity, which had been shaken by the Montez affair, he soon
recovered, especially among artists. To him Munich owes her
finest art collections and most remarkable buildings. The

LOUIS II.

33

monarch's artistic sense led him not only to adorn his house
with a number of works of antique art, but also to study German
medieval art, which he did to good effect. To him Munich owes
the acquisition of the famous Rhenish collection of the Boisser£e
brothers. The king also worked with great zeal for the care
of monuments, and the cathedrals of Spires and Cologne en-
joyed his special care. He was also an unfailing supporter of
contemporary painting, in so far as it responded to his romantic
tendencies, and he gave a fresh impulse to the arts of working
in metal and glass. As visible signs of his permanent services
to art Munich possesses the Walhalla, the Glyptothek, the two
Pinakotheken, the Odeon, the University, and many other
magnificent buildings both sacred and profane. The r61e which
the Bavarian capital now plays as the leading art centre of Ger-
many would have been an impossibility without the splendid
munificence of Louis I.

He died on the 28th of February 1868 at Nice, and on the
9th of March was buried in Munich, amid demonstrations of
great popular feeling.

The chief part of Louis's records is contained in seven sealed
chests in the archives of his family, and by the provisions of
his will these were not to be opened till the year 1918. These
records contain an extraordinarily large and valuable mass of
historical material, including, as one item, 246 volumes of the
king's diary.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Of the numerous pamphlets, especially of the
years 1846-1848, we need only mention here: P. Erdmann, Lola
Montez und die Jesuiten (1847); Geheimbericht iiber Bayern (1847),
published by Fowmicr in Deutsche Revue, vol. 27. See also
F. v. Ritter, Beitrdge zur Regierungsgeschichte Konig Ludwies I.
(1825-1826) (2 vols., 1853-1855); Sepp, Ludwig I. Augustus, Konig
von Bayern und das Zeitalter der Wtedergeburt der Kunste (1869;
2nd ed., 1903); Ottokar Lorenz, Drei Bucher Geschichte (1876; 2nd
ed., 1879); K. Th. v. Heigel, Ludwig I. (1872; 2nd ed., 1888);
" Ludwig I. und Martin Wagner," Neue historische Vortrage (1883);
"Ludwig I.," Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1884); "Ludwig I.
als Freund der Geschichte " and " Kronprinz Ludwig in den Feld-
ziigen von 1807 und 1809," in Historische Vortrage und Studien
(1887); Die Verlegung der Universitat nach Miinchen, Rektoratsrede
(1887); " Ludwig I. und die Munchener Hochschule," Quellen und
Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Bayerns, n.s. (1890); "Ludwig I. als
Erzieher seines Volkes," ib.\ Reidelbach, Ludwig I. und seine
Kunstschopfungen (1887; 2nd ed., 1888); L. Trose, Ludwig I. in
seinen Briefen an seinen Sohn, den Konig Otto von Griechenland
(1891); L. v. Kobell, Unter den vier ersten Konigen Bayerns (1894);
A. Fournier, " Aus den Tagen der Lola Montez," Neue Deutsche
Rundschau (1901); M. Doebere', "Ludwig I. und die deutsche
Frage," Festgabe fur Heigel (1903); E. Fiichs, Lola Montez in der
Karrikatiire (1904) ; L. Brunner, Nurnberg 1848-1840 (1907).

(J. HN.)

LOUIS II., king of Bavaria (1845-1886), son of his predecessor
Maximilian II. and his wife Maria, daughter of Prince William
of Prussia, was born at Nymphenburg on the 25th of August
1845. Together with his brother Otto, three years younger
than himself, Louis received, in accordance with the wishes
of his learned father, a simple and serious education modelled
on that of the German Gymnasien, of which the classical languages
are the chief feature. Of modern languages the crown prince
learnt only French, of which he remained fond all his life. The
practical value of the prince's training was small. It was not
till he was eighteen years old that he received his first pocket-
money, and at that age he had no ideas about money and its
value. Military instruction, physical exercises and sport, in
spite of the crown prince's strong physique, received little
attention. Thus Louis did not come enough into contact with
young men of his own age, and consequently soon developed
a taste for solitude, which was found at an early age to be com-
bined with the romantic tendencies and musical and theatrical
tastes traditional in his family.

Louis succeeded to the throne on the loth of March 1864,
at the age of eighteen. The early years of his reign were marked
by a series of most serious political defeats for Bavaria. In the
Schleswig-Holstein question, though he was opposed to Prussia
and a friend of Duke Frederick VIII. of Augustenburg, he did
not command the material forces necessary effectively to resist
the powerful policy of Bismarck. Again, in the war of 1866,
Louis and his minister von der Pfordten took the side of Austria,

XVII. 2

and at the conclusion of peace (August 22) Bavaria had, in
addition to the surrender of certain small portions of her territory,
to agree to the foundation of the North German Confederation
under the leadership of Prussia. The king's Bavarian patriotism,
one of the few steadfast ideas underlying his policy, was deeply
wounded by these occurrences, but he was face to face with the
inevitable, and on the loth of August wrote a letter of reconcilia-
tion to King William of Prussia. The defeat of Bavaria in 1866
showed clearly the necessity for a reform of the army. Under
the new Liberal ministry of Hohenlohe (December 29, 1866-
February 13, 1870) and under Prauckh as minister of war, a
series of reforms were carried through which prepared for the
victories of 1870. As regards his ecclesiastical policy, though
Lou' 5 remained personally true to the Catholic Church, he strove
for a greater independence of the Vatican. He maintained
friendly relations with Ignaz von Dollinger, the leader of the
more liberal Catholics who opposed the definition of papal
infallibility, but without extending his protection to the anti-
Roman movement of the Old Catholics. In spite of this the
Old Bavarian opposition was so aroused by the Liberalism
of the Hohenlohe ministry that at the beginning of 1870 Louis
had to form a more Conservative cabinet under Count Bray-
Steinburg. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War he
at once took the side of Prussia, and gave orders for mobilization.
In 1871 it was he who offered the imperial crown to the king
of Prussia; but this was not done on his own initiative. Bis-
marck not only determined the king of Bavaria to take the
decisive step which put an end to a serious diplomatic crisis,
but actually drafted the letter to King William which Louis
copied and despatched without changing a word. Louis placed
very few difficulties in the way of the new German Empire under
the leadership of Prussia, though his Bavarian particularism
remained unchanged.

Though up till the beginning of the year 1880 he did not
cease to give some attention to state affairs, the king's interests
lay in quite other spheres. His personal idiosyncrasies had,
in fact, developed meanwhile in a most unhappy direction. His
enthusiasm for all that is beautiful soon led him into dangerous
bypaths. It found its most innocent expression in the earliest
years of his reign when he formed an intimate friendship with
Richard Wagner, whom from May 1864 to December 1865
he had constantly in his company. Louis was entirely possessed
by the soaring ideas of the master, and was energetic in their
realization. He not only established Wagner's material position
at the moment by paying 18,000 gulden of debts for him and
granting him a yearly income of 4000 gulden (afterwards in-
creased to 8000), but he also proceeded to realize the ambitious
artistic plans of the master. A series of brilliant model per-
formances of the Wagnerian music-dramas was instituted in
Munich under the personal patronage of the king, and when
the further plan of erecting a great festival theatre in Munich
for the performance of Wagner's " music of the future " broke
down in the face of the passive resistance of the local circles
interested, the royal enthusiast conceived the idea of building
at Bayreuth, according to Wagner's new principles, a theatre
worthy of the music-dramas. For a time Louis was entirely
under Wagner's influence, the fantastic tendencies of whose
art cast a spell over him, and there is extant a series of emotional
letters of the king to Wagner. Wagner, on the whole, used his
influence in artistic and not in political affairs.1 In spite of this
the opposition to him became permanent. Public opinion
in Bavaria for the most part turned against him. He was
attacked for his foreign origin, his extravagance, his intrigues,
his artistic Utopias, and last but by no means least, for his
unwholesome influence over the king. Louis in the end was
compelled to give him up. But the relations between king
and artist were by no means at an end. In face of the war
which was imminent in 1866, and in the midst of the preparation
for war, the king hastened in May to Triebschen, near Lucerne,

1 It was on Wagner's advice that the king appointed Hohenlohe
prime minister in 1866. See Hohenlohe-Schillingfurst, Prince
Chlodwig zu, under HOHENLOHE. [Eo.J

34

LOUIS II.— LOUIS IV.

in order to see Wagner again.1 In 1868 they were seen together
in public for the last time at the festival performances in Munich.
In 1876 Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen was performed for the
first time at Bayreuth in the presence of the king. Later, in
1 88 1, the king formed a similar friendship with Joseph Kainz
the actor, but it soon came to an end. In January 1867 the
young king became betrothed to Duchess Sophie of Bavaria
(afterwards Duchesse d'Alencon), daughter of Duke Max and
sister of the empress of Austria; but the betrothal was dissolved
in October of the same year.

Though even in his later years he remained interested in lofty
and intellectual pursuits, as may be gathered, apart from his
enthusiasm for art and nature, from his wide reading in history,
serious poetry and philosophy, yet in his private life there became
increasingly marked the signs of moral and mental weakness
which gradually gained the mastery over his once pure and noble
nature. A prominent feature was his blind craving for solitude.
He cut himself off from society, and avoided all intercourse
with his family, even with his devotedly affectionate mother.
With his ministers he came to communicate in writing only.
At the end he was surrounded only by inferior favourites and
servants. His life was now spent almost entirely in his castles
far from the capital, which irked him more and more, or in short
and hasty journeys, in which he always travelled incognito.
Even the theatre he could now only enjoy alone. He arranged
private performances in his castles or in Munich at fabulous
cost, and appointed an official poet to his household. Later
his avoidance of society developed into a dread of it, accom-
panied by a fear of assassination and delusions that he was
being followed.

Side by side with this pathological development his inborn
self-consciousness increased apace, turning more and more to
megalomania, and impelling the weak-willed monarch to those
extraordinary displays of magnificence which can still be admired
to-day in the castles built or altered by him, such as Berg on
the Starnberger See, Linderhof, Herrenchiemsee, Hohensch-
wangau, Neuschwanstein, &c., which are among the most splendid
buildings in Germany. It is characteristic of the extravagance
of the king's ideas that he adopted as his model the style of
Louis XIV. and fell into the habit of imitating the Roi Soldi.
He no longer stayed for any length of time in one castle. Often
he scoured the country in wild nocturnal rides, and madness gained
upon him apace. His mania for buying things and making
presents was comparatively harmless, but more serious matters
were the wild extravagance which in 1880 involved him in
financial ruin, his fits of destructive rage, and the tendency
to the most cruel forms of abnormal vice. None the less, at
the time when the king's mental weakness was increasing, his
character still retained lovable traits — his simple sense of beauty,
his kindliness, and his highly developed understanding of art
and artistic crafts. Louis's love of beauty also brought material
profit to Bavaria.

But the financial and political dangers which arose from the
king's way of life were so great that interference became
necessary. On the 8th of June 1886 medical opinion declared
him to be affected with chronic and incurable madness and he
was pronounced incapable of governing. On the toth of June
his uncle, Prince Luitpold, assumed the regency, and after
violent resistance the late king was placed under the charge
of a mental specialist. On the i3th of June 1886 he met with
his death by drowning in the Starnberger See, together with
his doctor von Gudden, who had unwisely gone for a walk
alone with his patient, whose physical strength was enormous.
The details of his death will never be fully known, as the only
possible eye-witness died with him. An examination of the brain
revealed a condition of incurable insanity, and the faculty
submitted a report giving the terrible details of his malady.
Louis's brother Otto, who succeeded him as king of Bavaria,
was also incurably insane.

_ l Hohenlohe (Denkwiirdigkeiten) comments on the lact that the
king did not even take the trouble to review the troops proceeding
to the war. [En.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — K. v. Heigel, Ludwig II. (1893); Luise v.
Kobell, Unter den vier ersten Konigen Bayerns (1894); C. Buier,
Ludwig II. (1897); Luise v. Kobell, " Wilhelm I. und Ludwig II."
Deutsche Revue, 22; Ludwig II. und die Kunst (1898); Ludwig II.
und Bismarck (1870, 1899); Anonym, Endlich vo'llige Klarheit iiber
den Tod des Konigs Ludwig II. . . . (1900); Freiherr v. Voldern-
dorff, " Aus meiner Hofzeit," in Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte
(1900); Francis Gerard, The Romance of Ludwig II. of Bavaria;
J. Bainville, Louis II. de Baviere (Paris, 1900) ; E. v. Possart, Die
Separatvorstellungen von Ko'nig Ludwig II. (1901); O. Bray-Stein-
burg, Denkwiirdigkeiten (1901); S. Rocke, Ludwig II. und Richard
Wagner (1903); W. Busch, Die Kdmpfe iiber Reichsverfassung und
Kaisertum (1906); Chlodwig Hohenlohe, Denkwiirdigkeiten (2 vols.,
1907) ; A. v. Ruville, Bayern und die Wiederaufrichtung des Deutschen
Reiches (1909); K. A. v. Muller, Bayern im Jahre 1866 und die
Berufung des Fiirsten Hohenlohe (1909); G. Kuntzel, Bismarck und
Bayern in der Zeit der Reichsgriindung (1910); Hesselbarth, Die
Enstehung des deutsch-franzozischen Krieges (1910); W. Strohmayer,
" Die Ahnentafel Ludwigs II. und Ottos I.," Archiv fur Rassen- und
Gesellschaftsbiologie, vol. vii. (1910). (J. HN.)

LOUIS II.* (846-879), king of France, called " le Begue " or
" the Stammerer," was a son of Charles II. the Bald, Roman
emperor and king of the West Franks, and was born on the ist
of November 846. After the death of his elder brother Charles
in 866 he became king of Aquitaine, and in October 877 he
succeeded his father as king of the West Franks, but not as
emperor. Having made extensive concessions to the nobles
both clerical and lay, he was crowned king by Hincmar, arch-
bishop of Reims, on the 8th of December following, and in
September 878 he took advantage of the presence of Pope
John VIII. at the council of Troyes to be consecrated afresh.
After a feeble and ineffectual reign of eighteen months Louis
died at Compiegne on the loth or nth of April 879. The king
is described as " un homme simple et doux, aimant la paix, la
justice et la religion." By his first wife, Ansgarde, a Burgundian
princess, he had two sons, his successors, Louis III. and Carloman;
by his second wife, Adelaide, he had a posthumous son, Charles
the Simple, who also became king of France. (A. W. H.*)

LOUIS III. (c. 863-882), king of France, was a son of Louis
II. and with his brother Carloman succeeded his father as king
in April 879. A strong party, however, cast some doubts upon
the legitimacy of the young princes, as the marriage of their
parents had not been • recognized by the emperor Charles the
Bald; consequently it was proposed to offer the crown to the
East Prankish ruler Louis, a son of Louis the German. But this
plan came to nothing, and in September 879 the brothers were
crowned at Ferrieres by Ansegisus, archbishop of Sens. A few
months later they divided their kingdom, Louis receiving the
part of France north of the Loire. They acted together against
the Northmen, over whom in August 881 they gained a memorable
victory. They also turned against Boso who had been set up
as king in Burgundy and Provence. On the sth of August
882 Louis died at St Denis. He left no sons and Carloman became
sole king. (A. W. H.*)

LOUIS IV. (921-954), king of France, surnamed " d'Outremer "
(Transmarinus), was the son of Charles III. the Simple. In
consequence of the imprisonment of his father in 922, his mother
Odgiva (Eadgyfu), sister of the English king ^Ethelstan, fled
to England with the young Louis — a circumstance to which
he owes his surname. On the death of the usurper Rudolph
(Raoul), Ralph of Burgundy, Hugh the Great, count of Paris,
and the other nobles between whom France was divided, chose
Louis for their king, and the lad was brought over from England
and consecrated at Laon on the igth of June 936. Although
his de facto sovereignty was confined to the town of Laon and
to some places in the north of France, Louis displayed a zeal
beyond his years in procuring the recognition of his authority
by his turbulent vassals. The beginning of his reign was marked
by a disastrous irruption of the Hungarians into Burgundy
and Aquitaine (937). In 939 Louis became involved in a struggle
with the emperor Otto the Great on the question of Lorraine,
the nobles of which district had sworn an oath of fidelity to the
king of France. When Louis married Gerberga, sister of Otto,
and widow of Giselbert, duke of Lorraine, there seemed to be a
1 The emperor Louis I. is counted as Louis I., king of France.

LOUIS V.— LOUIS VI.

35

fair prospect of peace; but the war was resumed, Otto supporting
the rebel lords of the kingdom of France, and peace was not
declared until 942, at the treaty of Vise-sur-Meuse. On the death
of William Longsword, duke of Normandy, who had been
assassinated by Arnulf, count of Flanders, in December 942,
Louis endeavoured to obtain possession of the person of Richard,
the young son and heir of the late duke. After an unsuccessful
expedition into Normandy, Louis fell into the hands of his
adversaries, and was for some time kept prisoner at Rouen
(945), and subsequently handed over to Hugh the Great, who
only consented to release him on condition that he should
surrender Laon. Menaced, however, by Louis' brother-in-law,
Otto the Great, and excommunicated by the council of Ingelheim
(948), the powerful vassal was forced to make submission and
to restore Laon to his sovereign. The last years of the reign
were troubled by fresh difficulties with Hugh the Great and
also by an irruption of the Hungarians into the south of France.
Louis died on the loth of September 954, and was succeeded by
his son Lothair.

The chief authority for the reign is the chronicler FJodoard. See
also Ph. Lauer, La Regne de Louis IV d' Outre- Mer (Paris, 1900) ; and
A. Heil, Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen Otto dem Grossen und
Lttdwig IV. von Frankreich (Berlin, 1904). (R. Po.)

LOUIS V. (967-987), king of France, succeeded his father
Lothair in March 986 at the age of nineteen, and finally embroiled
the Carolingian dynasty with Hugh Capet and Adalberon,
archbishop of Reims. From the absence of any important event
in his one year's reign the medieval chroniclers designated him
by the words " qui nihil fecit," i.e. " le Faineant " or " do-
nothing." Louis died in May 987, his mother Emma being
accused of having poisoned him. He had married Adelaide,
sister of Geoffrey Grisegonelle, count of Anjou, but had no issue.
His heir by blood was Charles, duke of Lower Lorraine, son of
Louis IV., but the defection of the bishops and the treason of
Adalberon (Ascelinus), bishop of Laon, assured the success of
Hugh Capet.

See F. Lot, Les Derniers Carolingiens (Paris, 1891); and the
Recueil des actes de Lothaire et de Louis V, edited by L. Halphen and
F. Lot (1908). (R. Po.)

LOUIS VI. (1081-1137), king of France, surnamed " the Fat,"
was the son of Philip I. of France and Bertha of Holland. He
was also surnamed the "Wide-awake" and " the Bruiser,"
and lost none of his energy when he earned the nickname by
which he is known in history. In 1098 Louis was made a knight,
and about the same time was associated with his father in the
government, which the growing infirmities of Philip left more and
more to his son, in spite of the opposition of Bertrada, the queen,
whose criminal union with Philip had brought the anathema of
the church. From noo to 1108 Louis by his victorious wars on
the English and brigands had secured the army on his side,
while the court supported Bertrada. Unable to make headway
against him in war she attempted to poison him, and contem-
porary chroniclers attributed to this poison the pallor of his face,
which seems to have been in remarkable contrast to his stalwart,
and later his corpulent figure. Louis' reign is one of the most
important in the history of France. He is little less than the
second founder of the Capetian dynasty. When the feeble and
incompetent Philip I. died (29th of July 1108) Louis was faced
by feudal barons as powerful as himself, and ready to rise against
him. He was forced to have himself hurriedly crowned at Orleans,
supported by a handful of vassals and some ecclesiastics. As
king he continued the policy he had followed during the previous
eight years, of securing the roads leading to Paris by putting down
feudal brigands and destroying their strongholds in the lle-de-
France. The castle of the most notorious of these, Hugues du
Puiset, was three times taken and burned by the king's men, but
Hugues was spared to go back each time to his robber life, until
he died on a crusade. In the north, Thomas de Marie, son of
Enguerrand de Coucy, carried on a career of rapine and murder
for almost thirty years before the king succeeded in taking
him prisoner (1130). Twenty-four years of continuous war
finally rooted out the robber barons who lived on the plunder of
the roads leading to Paris: the lords of Montlheri, who com-

manded the roads to Orleans, Melun and the south, those of
Montmorency near St Denis on the north (who had to restore
what they had robbed the abbey of St Denis), those of Le Puiset
toward the west, on the way to Chartres, and many others.
Parallel with this consolidation of his power in the ancestral
domains Louis met energetically the Anglo-Norman danger,
warring with Henry I. of England for twenty-five years. After
the victory of Tinchebray (1106) Louis supported the claims
of William Clito, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, against
Henry I. A ruthless war followed, in which Louis was at times
reduced to the sorest straits. In 1 1 19, at a council held at Reims
under the presidency of Pope Calixtus II., the enemies were
reconciled; but William Clito's claims were not satisfied, and
in 1123 war began again on a larger scale. Henry I. induced the
emperor Henry V. to join in the attack upon France; and, hi?
heir having been drowned in the loss of the " White Ship,"
won the count of Anjou by marrying his only daughter Matilda
to Geoffrey, the Angevin heir (1127). The invasion of Henry V.
was met by something like a national army, which gathered undei
Louis at Reims. " For a few days at least, the lord of the lle-
de-France was truly a king of France " (Luchaire). Suger
proudly gives the list of barons who appeared. Henry V. came
no farther than Metz. Royalty had won great prestige. Even
Theobald, count of Chartres, the king's greatest enemy,
the soul of feudal coalitions, came with his contingent. Shortly
afterwards (1126), Louis was able to overawe the great count
of Aquitaine, William IX., and force his vassal, the count of
Auvergne, to treat justly the bishop of Clermont. In Flanders
Louis interfered upon the assassination of Charles the Good,
He caused the barons to elect as their count in Arras the same
William Clito who claimed Normandy, and who was closely
bound to the king. For a while Louis had Flanders absolutely
at his disposal, but he had hardly left William alone (1127)
when his brutal oppression roused both towns and nobles, who
declared that Louis had no right to interfere in Flanders. The
death of William Clito, and a savage war with his own seneschal,
prevented Louis from effectually resenting this attitude; but
Thierry of Alsace, the new count, consented in 1128 to receive
from Louis the investiture of all his French fiefs, and henceforth
lived on good terms with him. In all his wars — those mentioned
are but a part of them — Louis fought in person. Proud of his
strength, reckless in the charge as on the march, plunging into
swollen rivers, entering blazing castles, he gained the reputa-
tion of a national hero, the protector of the poor, the church, the
peasants and the towns. The communal movement grew during
his reign, and he encouraged it on the fiefs of his vassals in order
to weaken them; but, the title " Father of the Communes " by
which he was known in history is not deserved, though he did
grant some privileges to towns on his domains. Neither was
Louis the author of the movement for the emancipation of the
serfs, as was formerly claimed. His attitude toward the move-
ment was like that of his predecessors and contemporaries,
to favour emancipation when it promised greater chance of
profit, greater scope for exploitation of the peasants; otherwise
to oppose it. He was a great benefactor to the church, aided the
new, reformed monastic congregations of Clteau, Premontrfi
and Fontevrault, and chose his two chief ministers from the
clergy. Etienne de Garlande, whom Louis raised from obscurity
to be archdeacon of Notre Dame at Paris, chancellor and seneschal
of France, was all-powerful with the king from 1108 to 1127.
His relatives monopolized the highest offices of the state. But the
queen Adelaide became his enemy; both Ivo of Chartres and
St Bernard bitterly attacked him; and the king suddenly
stripped him of all his offices and honours. Joining the re-
bellious barons, Etienne then led a bitter war against the king
for three years. When Louis had reduced him to terms he
pardoned him and restored him to the chancellorship (1132),
but not to his old power. Suger (q.v.), administrator of St
Denis, enters the scene toward the close of this reign, but his
great work belongs to the next. Louis VI. died on the ist of
August 1137, just a few days after his son, Louis the Young,
had set out for the far south-west, the Aquitaine which had been

LOUIS VII.— LOUIS VIII.

won by the marriage with Eleanor. His wife was Adelaide,
or Alice, daughter of Humbert II., count of Savoy, by whom
he had seven sons and a daughter.

See A. Luchaire, Louis le Gros, annales de sa vie et son regne (1890),
and the same writer's volume, Les Premiers Capetiens, in E. Lavisse's
Histoire de France. (J. T. S.*)

LOUIS VII. (c. 1121-1180), king of France, son of Louis VI.
the Fat, was associated with his father and anointed by Innocent
II. in 1131. In 1137 he succeeded his father, and in the same
year married at Bordeaux Eleanor, heiress of William II., duke
of Aquitaine. In the first part of his reign he was vigorous and
jealous of his prerogatives, but after his crusade his religiosity
developed to such an extent as to make him utterly inefficient.
His accession was marked by no disturbances, save the risings of
the burgesses of Orleans and of Poitiers, who wished to organize
communes. But soon he came into violent conflict with Pope
Innocent II. The archbishopric of Bourges became vacant,
and the king supported as candidate the chancellor Cadurc,
against the pope's nominee Pierre de la Chatre, swearing upon
relics that so long as he lived Pierre should never enter Bourges.
This brought the interdict upon the king's lands. At the same
time he became involved in a war with Theobald, count of
Champagne, by permitting Rodolphe (Raoul), count of Ver-
mandois and seneschal of France, to repudiate his wif e, Theobald's
niece, and to marry Petronille of Aquitaine, sister of the queen
of France. The war, which lasted two years (1142-44), was
marked by the occupation of Champagne by the royal army
and the capture of ,Vitry, where many persons perished in the
burning of the church. Geoffrey the Handsome, count of Anjou,
by his conquest of Normandy threatened the royal domains,
and Louis VII. by a clever manoeuvre threw his army on the
Norman frontier and gained Gisors, one of the keys of Normandy.
At his court which met in Bourges Louis declared on Christmas
Day 1145 his intention of going on a crusade. St Bernard assured
its popularity by his preaching at Vezelay (Easter 1146), and
Louis set out from Metz in June 1147, on the overland route
to Syria. The expedition was disastrous, and he regained
France in 1149, overcome by the humiliation of the crusade.
In the rest of his reign he showed much feebleness and poor
judgment. He committed a grave political blunder in causing
a council at Beaugency (on the 2ist of March 1152) to annul his
marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, under pretext of kinship,
but really owing to violent quarrels during the crusade. Eleanor
married Henry II. of England in the following May, and brought
him the duchy of Aquitaine. Louis VII. led a half-hearted war
against Henry for having married without the authorization of
his suzerain; but in August 1154 gave, up his rights over
Aquitaine, and contented himself with an indemnity. In 1154
Louis married Constance, daughter of the king of Castile, and
their daughter Marguerite he affianced imprudently by the treaty
of Gisors (1158) to Henry, eldest son of the king of England,
promising as dowry the Vexin and Gisors. Five weeks after the
death of Constance, on the 4th of October 1160, Louis VII.
married Adele of Champagne, and Henry II. to counterbalance
the aid this would give the king of France, had the marriage of
their infant children celebrated at once. Louis VII. gave little
sign of understanding the danger of the growing Angevin power,
though in 1159 he made an expedition in the south to aid
Raymond V., count of Toulouse, who had been attacked by
Henry II. At the same time the emperor Frederick I. in the east
was making good the imperial claims on Aries. When the schism
broke out, Louis took the part of the pope Alexander III.,
the enemy of Frederick, and after two comedy-like failures of
Frederick to meet Louis VII. at Saint Jean de Losne (on the 2gth
of August and the 22nd of September 1162), Louis definitely
gave himself up to the cause of Alexander, who lived at Sens
from 1163101165. Alexander gave the king, in return for his
loyal support, the golden rose. Louis VII. received Thomas
Becket and tried to reconcile him with King Henry II. He
supported Henry's rebellious sons, but acted slowly and feebly,
and so contributed largely to the break up of the coalition
(1173-1174). Finally in 1177 the pope intervened to bring the

two kings to terms at Vitry. By his third wife, Adele, Louis had
an heir, the future Philip Augustus, born on the 2ist of August
1165. He had him crowned at Reims in 1179, but, already
stricken with paralysis, he himself was not able to be present
at the ceremony, and died on the i8th of September 1180. His
reign from the point of view of royal territory and military
power, was a period of retrogression. Yet the royal authority
had made progress in the parts of France distant from the royal
domains. More direct and more frequent connexion was made
with distant feudatories, a result largely due to the alliance of
the clergy with the crown. Louis thus reaped the reward for
services rendered the church during the least successful portion
of his reign.

See R. Hirsch, Studien zur Geschichte Konig Ludwigs VII. von
Frankreich (1892); A. Cartellieri, Philipp II. August von Frankreich
bis zum Tode seines Vaters, 1165-1180 (1891); and A. Luchaire in
E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii. 1st part, pp. 1-81.

(J. T. S.*)

LOUIS VIII. (1187-1226), king of France, eldest son of Philip
Augustus and of Isabella of Hainaut, was born in Paris on the
5th of September 1187. Louis was short, thin, pale-faced,
with studious tastes, cold and placid temper, sober and chaste
in his life. He left the reputation of a saint, but was also a
warrior prince. In 1213 he led the campaign against Ferrand,
count of Flanders; in 1214, while Philip Augustus was winning
the victory of Bouvines, he held John of England in check, and
was victorious at La Roche-aux-Moines. In the autumn of 1215
Louis received from a group of English barons, headed by Geoffrey
de Mandeville, a request to " pluck them out of the hand of this
tyrant " (John). Some 7000 French knights were sent over to
England during the winter and two more contingents followed,
but it was only after twenty-four English hostages had arrived
in Paris that Louis himself prepared to invade England. The
expedition was forbidden by the papal legate, but Louis set out
from Calais on the 2oth and landed at Stonor on the 22nd of
May 1216. In three months he had obtained a strong foothold
in eastern England, and in the end of July he laid siege to Dover,
while part ot his army besieged Windsor with a view to securing
the safety of London. The pretexts on which he claimed the
English crown were set down in a memorandum drawn up by
French lawyers in 1215. These claims — that John had forfeited
the crown by the murder of his nephew, Arthur of Brittany,
and that the English barons had the right to dispose of the vacant
throne— lost their plausibility on the death of King John and the
accession of his infant son as Henry III. in October 1216. The
papal legate, Gualo, who had forbidden the enterprise, had
arrived in England at the same time as Louis. He excom-
municated the French troops and the English rebels, and Henry
III. found a valiant defender in William Marshal, earl of
Pembroke. After the " Fair of Lincoln," in which his army
was defeated, Louis was compelled to resign his pretensions,
though by a secret article of the treaty of Lambeth (September
1217) he secured a small war indemnity. Louis had assisted
Simon de Montfort in his war against the Albigeuses in 1215,
and after his return to France he again joined the crusade.
With Simon's son and successor, Amauri de Montfort, he directed
the brutal massacre which followed the capture of Marmande.
Philip II., suspicious of his son until the close of his life, took
precautions to assure his obedience, narrowly watched his
administration in Artois, which Louis held from his mother
Isabella, and, contrary to the custom of the kings of France,
did not associate his son with him by having him crowned.
Philip Augustus dying on the I4th of July 1223, Louis VIII.
was anointed at Reims on the 6th of August following. He
surrounded himself with councillors whom his father had chosen
and formed, and continued his father's policy. His reign was
taken up with two great designs: to destroy the power of the
Plantagenets, and to conquer the heretical south of France. An
expedition conquered Poitou and Saintonge (1224); in 1226 he
led the crusade against the Albigenses in the south, forced
Avignon to capitulate and received the submission of Languedoc.
While passing the Auvergne on his return to Paris, he was
stricken with dysentery, and died at Montpensier on the 8th of

LOUIS IX.

37

November 1226. His reign, short as it was, brought gains both
to the royal domains and to the power of the crown over the
feudal lords. He had married in 1200 Blanche of Castile,
daughter of Alphonso IX. of Castile and granddaughter of
Henry II. of England, who bore him twelve children; his
eldest surviving son was his successor, Louis IX.

See C. Petit-Dutaillis, £tude sur la vie el le rkgne de Louis VIII.
(Paris, 1894) ; and E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome iii. (1901).

(M. BR.)

LOUIS IX. (1214-1270), king of France, known as Saint Louis,
was born on the 2$th of April 1214, and was baptized at Poissy.
His father, Louis VIII., died in 1226, leaving the first minority
since the accession of the Capetians, but his mother, Queen
Blanche of Castile, proved more than a match for the feudal
nobility. She secured her son's coronation at Reims on the
29th of November 1226; and, mainly by the aid of the papal
legate, Romano Bonaventura, bishop of Porto (d. 1243), and of
Thibaut IV., count of Champagne, was able to thwart the
rebellious plans of Pierre Mauclerc, duke of Brittany, and
Philippe Hurepel, a natural son of Philip Augustus. Mauclerc's
opposition was not finally overcome, however, until 1234.
Then in 1 236 Thibaut, who had become king of Navarre, turned
against the queen, formed an alliance with Brittany, marrying
his daughter without royal consent to Jean le Roux, Mauclerc's
son, and attempted to make a new feudal league. The final
triumph of the regent was shown when the king's army assembled'
at Vincennes. His summons met with such general and prompt
obedience as to awe Thibaut into submission without striking
a blow. Thus the reign of Louis IX. began with royal prerogatives
fully maintained; the kingdom was well under control, and
Mauclerc and Thibaut were both obliged to go on crusade.
But the influence of the strong-willed queen-mother continued
to make itself felt to the close of her life. Louis IX. did not
lack independence of character, but his confidence in his mother
had been amply justified and he always acted in her presence
like a child. This confidence he withheld from his wife, Margaret,
daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Provence, whom he
married at Sens in May 1234. The reign was comparatively
uneventful. A rising of the nobles of the south-west, stirred
up by Isabella, widow of King John of England, and her husband,
Hugh de Lusignan, count of the Marche, upon the occasion of
the investment of Alphonse of Poitiers with the fiefs left him
by Louis VIII. as a result of the Albigensian crusade, reached
threatening dimensions in 1242, but the king's armies easily
overran Count Hugh's territories, and defeated Henry III. of
England, who had come to his aid, at Saintes. Isabella and
her husband were forced to submit, and Raymond VII., count
of Toulouse, yielded without resistance upon the advent of two
royal armies, and accepted the peace of Lorris in January 1243.
This was the last rising of the nobles in Louis's reign.

At the end of 1244, during an illness, Louis took the cross.
He had already been much distressed by the plight of John of
Brienne, emperor at Constantinople, and bought from him the
crown of thorns, parts of the true cross, the holy lance, and the
holy sponge. The Sainte Chapelle in Paris still stands as a
monument to the value of these relics to the saintly king. But
the quarrel between the papacy and the emperor Frederick II.,
in which Louis maintained a watchful neutrality — only interfering
to prevent the capture of Innocent IV. at Lyons — and the
difficulties of preparation, delayed the embarkation until August
1248. His defeat and capture at Mansura, in February 1250,
the next four years spent in Syria in captivity, in diplomatic
intrigues, and finally in raising the fortifications of Caesarea
and Joppa, — these events belong to the history of the crusades
(q.v.). His return to France was urgently needed, as Blanche
of Castile, whom he had left as regent, had died in November
1252, and upon the removal of her strong hand feudal turbulence
had begun to show itself.

This period between his first and second crusades (1254-1269)
is the real age of Saint Louis in the history of France. He imposed
peace between warring factions of his nobility by mere moral
force, backed up by something like an awakened public

opinion. His nobles often chafed under his unrelenting justice
but never dared rebel. The most famous of his settlements
was the treaty of Paris, drawn up in May 1258 and ratified in
December 1259, by which the claims of Henry III. of England
were adjusted. Henry renounced absolutely Normandy, Anjou,
Touraine, Maine and Poitou, and received, on condition of
recognizing Louis as liege suzerain, all the fiefs and domains
of the king of France in the dioceses of Limoges, Cahors and
Perigueux, and the expectation of Saintonge south of the
Charente, and Agenais, if they should fall to the crown of France
by the death of Alphonse of Poitiers. In addition, Louis
promised to provide Henry with sufficient money to maintain
500 knights for two years. This treaty was very unpopular
in France, since the king surrendered a large part of France
that Henry had not won; but Louis was satisfied that the
absolute sovereignty over the northern provinces more than
equalled the loss in the south. Historians still disagree as to
its wisdom. Louis made a similar compromise with the king
of Aragon in the treaty of Corbeil, 1258, whereby he gave up
the claims of kings of France to Roussillon and Barcelona, which
went back to the conquest of Charlemagne. The king of Aragon
in his turn gave up his claims to part of Provence and Languedoc,
with the exception of Narbonne. Louis's position was strikingly
shown in 1264 when the English barons submitted their attempt
to bind Henry III. by the Provisions of Oxford to his arbitration.
His reply in the " Dit " or Mise of Amiens was a flat denial of
all the claims of the barons and failed to avert the civil war.
Louis was more successful in preventing feuds between his own
nobles: between the counts of Brittany and Champagne over
the succession to Navarre; the dauphin of Vienne (Guigues
VII.) and Charles of Anjou; the count of Burgundy and the
count of Chalons; Henry of Luxemburg and the duke of Lorraine
with the count of Bar. Upon the whole he maintained peace
with his neighbours, although both Germany and England were
torn with civil wars. He reluctantly consented to sanction the
conquest of Naples by his brother, Charles, duke of Anjou, and
it is possible that he yielded here in the belief that it was a step
toward another crusade.

On the 24th of March 1267, Louis called to Paris such of his
knights as were not with Charles of Anjou in Naples. No one
knew why he had called them; but when the king in full assembly
proclaimed his purpose of going on a second crusade, few ventured
to refuse the cross. Three years of preparation followed; then
on the ist of July 1270 they sailed from Aigues Mortes for Tunis,
whither the expedition seems to have been directed by the
machinations of Charles of Anjou, who, it is claimed, persuaded
his brother that the key to Egypt and to Jerusalem was that
part of Africa which was his own most dangerous neighbour.
After seventeen days' voyage to Carthage, one month of the
summer's heat and plague decimated the army, and when
Charles of Anjou arrived he found that Louis himself had died
of the plague on the 25th of August 1270.

Saint Louis stands in history as the ideal king of the middle
ages. An accomplished knight, physically strong in spite of
his ascetic practices, fearless in battle, heroic in adversity, of
imperious temperament, unyielding when sure of the justness
of his cause, energetic and firm, he was indeed " every inch a king." .
Joinville says that he was taller by a head than any of his knights.
His devotions would have worn out a less robust saint. He
fasted much, loved sermons, regularly heard two masses a day
and all the offices, dressing at midnight for matins in his chapel,
and surrounded even when he travelled by priests on horseback
chanting the hours. After his return from the first crusade,
he wore only grey woollens in winter, dark silks in summer.
He built hospitals, visited and tended the sick himself, gave
charity to over a hundred beggars daily. Yet he safeguarded
the royal dignity by bringing them in at the back door of the
palace, and by a courtly display greater than ever before in
France. His naturally cold temperament was somewhat
relieved by a sense of humour, which however did not prevent
his making presents of haircloth shirts to his friends. He had no
favourite, nor prime minister. Louis was canonized in 1 297.

LOUIS X.— LOUIS XI.

As a statesman Louis IX. has left no distinct monument.
The famous " £tablissements of St Louis " has been shown
in our own day to have been private compilation. It was a
coulumier drawn up before 1273, including, as well as some royal
decrees, the civil and feudal law of Anjou, Maine and the
Orleanais. Recent researches have also denied Louis the credit
of having aided the communes. He exploited them to the full.
His standpoint in this respect was distinctly feudal. He treated
his clergy as he did his barons, enforcing the supremacy of
royal justice, and strongly opposing the exactions of the pope
until the latter part of his reign, when he joined forces with him
to extort as much as possible from the clergy. At the end of
the reign most of the sees and monasteries of France were in
debt to the Lombard bankers. Finally, the reign of Saint
Louis saw the introduction of the pontifical inquisition into
France.

There are numerous portraits of St Louis, but they are unauthentic
and contradictory. In 1903 M. Salomon Reinach claimed to have
found in the heads sculptured in the angles of the arches of the chapel
at St Germain portraits of St Louis, his brothers and sisters, and
Queen Marguerite, or Blanche, made between 1235 and 1240. This
conjectured portrait somewhat resembles the modern type, which
is based upon a statue of Charles V. once in the church of the Celestins
in Paris, and which Lenoir mistakenly identified as that of Louis IX.
The king had eleven children, six sons and five daughters, among
them being his successor, Philip III., and Robert, count of Clermont,
the ancestor of Henry IV.

The best contemporary accounts of Louis IX. are the famous
Memoirs of the Sire Jean de Joinville (?.».), published by N. de
Wailly for the Soc. de I' Hist, de France, under the title Histoire de
Saint Louis (Paris, 1868), and again with translation (1874) ; English
translation by J. Hutton (1868). See also William of Nangis, Gesta
Ludovici IX., edited by M. Bouquet in vol. xx. of the Recueil des
historiens des Gaules el de la France. Of modern works may be
mentioned C. V. Langlois in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii.,
with references to literature; Frederick Perry, Saint Louis, the Most
Christian King (New York, IQOI); E. J. Davis, The Invasion of
Egypt by Louis IX. of France (1898); H. A. Wallon, Saint Louis et
son temps (1875) ; A. Lecoy de la Marche, Saint Louis (Tours, 1891) ;
and E. Berger, Saint Louis et Innocent IV (Paris, 1893), and Histoire
de Blanche de Castille (1895). See also The Court of a Saint, by
Winifred F. Knox (1909). (J. T. S.*)

LOUIS X. (1289-1316), king of France and Navarre, called
le Hutin or " the Quarreller," was the son of Philip IV. and
of Jeanne of Navarre. He was born at Paris on the 4th of
October 1289, took the title king of Navarre on the death of
his mother, on the 2nd of April 1305, and succeeded Philip IV.
in France on the 29th of November 1314, being crowned at
Reims in August 1315. The origin of his surname is uncertain.
Louis X. is a somewhat indistinct figure among the kings of
France, the preponderating influence at court during his short
reign being that of his uncle, Charles of Valois. The reign
began with reaction against the policy of Philip IV. Private
vengeance was wreaked on Enguerrand de Marigny, who was
hanged, Pierre de Latilli, bishop of Chalons and chancellor,
and Raoul de Presle, advocate of the parlement, who were
imprisoned. The leagues of the lesser country gentry, formed
in 1314 before the accession of Louis, continued to demand
the ancient privileges of the nobility, — tourneys, private wars
and judgment of nobles not by king's officers but by their peers —
and to protest against the direct call by the king of their vassals
to the royal army. Louis X. granted them charters in which
he made apparent concessions, but used evasive formulas which
in reality ceded nothing. There was a charter to the Normans,
one to the Burgundians, one to the Languedocians (1315).
Robert de Bethune, count of Flanders, refused to do homage,
and his French fiefs were declared confiscate by a court of his
peers. In August 1315 Louis X. led an army toward Lille,
but the flooded Lys barred his passage, the ground was so soaked
with rains that the army could not advance, and it was thrown
back, without a battle, on Tournai. Need of money inspired
one famous ordinance of this reign; in 1315 the serfs of the
royal domains were invited to buy their civil liberty, — an in-
vitation which did not meet with great enthusiasm, as the
freedman was merely freed for further exploitation, and Philip V.
was obliged to renew it in 1318. Louis X. died suddenly on
the sth of June 1316. His first wife was Margaret, daughter

of Robert II., duke of Burgundy; she was accused of adultery
and died a prisoner in the chateau Gaillard. By her he had one
daughter, Jeanne, wife of Philip, count of Evreux and king
of Navarre. By his second wife Clemence, daughter of Charles
Martel, titular king of Hungary, he left a posthumous son,
King John I.

See Ch. Dufayard, " La reaction feodale sous les fils de Philippe le
Bel," in Revue historique (1894) ; Paul Lehugeur, Histoire de Philippe
le Long, roi de France (Paris, 1897); and Joseph Petit, Charles de
Valois (Paris, 1900). (J. T. S.*)

LOUIS XI. (1423-1483), king of France, the son of Charles
VII. and his queen, Marie of Anjou, was born on the 3rd of July
1423, at Bourges, where his father, then nicknamed the " King
of Bourges," had taken refuge from the English. At the birth
of Louis XI. part of France was in English hands; when he
was five years old, Joan of Arc appeared; he was just six when
his father was crowned at Reims. But his boyhood was spent
apart from these stirring events, in the castle of Loches, where
his father visited him rarely. John Gerson, the foremost theo-
logian of France, wrote a manual of instructions (still extant)
for the first of his tutors, Jean Majoris, a canon of Reims. His
second tutor, Bernard of Armagnac, was noted for his piety
and humility. If, as has been claimed, Louis owed to them
any of his tendency to prefer the society of the poor, or rather
of the bourgeois, to that of the nobility, their example was his
best lesson in the craft of kingship. In June 1436, when scarcely
thirteen, he was married to Margaret (c. 1425-1445), daughter
of James I. of Scotland, a princess of about his own age, but
sickly and romantic, and in every way his opposite. Three
years after this unhappy marriage Louis entered upon his stormy
political career. Sent by his father in 1439 to direct the defence
of Languedoc against the English, and to put down the brigandage
in Poitou, he was induced by the rebellious nobles to betray
his trust and place himself at the head of the Praguerie (q.v.).
Charles VII. pardoned him this rebellion, due to his ambition
and the seductive proposal of the nobles to make him regent.
The following year he was fighting the English, and in 1443
aided his father to suppress the revolt of the count of Armagnac.
His first important command, however, was in the next year,
when he led an army of from 15,000 to 20,000 mercenaries and
brigands, — the product of the Hundred Years' War, — against
the Swiss of the canton of Basel. The heroism of some two
hundred Swiss, who for a while held thousands of the French
army at bay, made a great impression on the young prince.
After an ineffective siege of Basel, he made peace with the
Swiss confederation, and led his robber soldiers into Alsace to
ravage the country of the Habsburgs, who refused him the
promised winter quarters. Meanwhile his father, making a
parallel campaign in Lorraine, had assembled his first brilliant
court at Nancy, and when Louis returned it was to find the
king completely under the spell of Agnes Sorel. He at first
made overtures to members of her party, and upon their re-
jection through fear of his ambition, his deadly hatred of her and
of them involved the king. The death in 1445 of his wife
Margaret, who was a great favourite of Charles VII., made the
rupture complete. From that year until the death of the king
father and son were enemies. Louis began his rebellious career
by a futile attempt to seduce the cities of Agenais into treason,
and then he prepared a plot to seize the king and his minister
Pierre de Br6z6. Antoine de Chabannes, who was to be the
instrument of the plot, revealed it to Charles, and Louis was
mildly punished by being sent off to Dauphin6 (144?)- He
never saw his father again.

Louis set out to govern his principality as though it were
an independent state. He dismissed the governor; he determined
advantageously to himself the boundaries between his state
and the territories of the duke of Savoy and of the papacy;
and he enforced his authority over perhaps the most unruly
nobility in western Europe, both lay and ecclesiastical. The
right of private warfare was abolished; the bishops were obliged
to give up most of their temporal jurisdiction, the scope of their
courts was limited, and appeals to Rome were curtailed. On

LOUIS XI.

39

the other hand, Louis granted privileges to the towns and con-
sistently used their alliance to overthrow the nobility. He
watched the roads, built new ones, opened markets, protected
the only bankers of the country, the Jews, and reorganized the
administration so as to draw the utmost revenue possible from
the prosperity thus secured. His ambition led him into foreign
entanglements; he made a secret treaty with the duke of Savoy
which was to give him right of way to Genoa, and made arrange-
ments for a partition of the duchy of Milan. The alliance with
Savoy was sealed by the marriage of Louis with Charlotte,
daughter of Duke Lodovico, in 1452, in spite of the formal
prohibition of Charles VII. The king marched south, but
withdrew again leaving his son unsubdued. Four years later,
as Charles came to the Bourbonnais, Louis, fearing for his life,
fled to Flanders to the court of Philip the Good, duke of Bur-
gundy, leaving Dauphine to be definitely annexed to the crown
of France. The policy of the dauphin was reversed, his ten
years' work was undone. Meanwhile he was installed in the
castle of Genappe, in Brabant, where he remained until the death
of his father. For this he waited impatiently five years, keeping
himself posted by spies of every stage of the king's last illness,
and thus laying himself open to the accusation, believed in
by Charles himself, that he had hastened the end by poison, a
charge which modern historians deny.

On the isth of August 1461, Louis was anointed at Reims,
and Philip of Burgundy, as doyen of the peers of France, placed
the crown on his head. For two months Philip acted as though
the king were still his protege. But in the midst of the festivities
with which he was entertaining Paris, the duke found that Louis
ventured to refuse his candidates for office, and on the 24th of
September the new king left abruptly for Touraine. His first
act was to strike at the faithful ministers of Charles VII. Pierre
dc Brez6 and Antoine de Chabannes were captured and im-
prisoned, as well as men of sterling worth like Etienne Chevalier.
But the king's shrewdness triumphed before long over his venge-
ance, and the more serviceable of the officers of Charles VII.
were for the most part soon reinstated, Louis' advisers were
mostly men of the middle class. He had a ready purse for
men of talent, drawing them from England, Scotland, Italy,
Spain and Portugal. Such a motley throng of competent men
had never before been seen at the court of France. Their origin,
their previous crimes or virtues, their avarice or brutality,
were indifferent to him so long as they served him loyally.
Torture and imprisonment awaited them, whether of high or
low degree, if he fancied that they were betraying him. Among
the most prominent of these men in addition to Brez6, Chevalier
and Chabannes, were Tristan Lermite, Jean de Daillon, Olivier
le Dain (the barber), and after 1472, Philippe de Commines,
drawn from the service of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who
became his most intimate adviser and biographer. Surrounded
by men like these Louis fought the last great battle of French
royalty with feudalism.

Louis XI. began his reign with the same high-handed treat-
ment of the nobles which had marked his rule in Dauphind,
going so far as to forbid them to hunt without his permission. He
forced the clergy to pay long-neglected feudal dues, and intrigued
against the great houses of Anjou and Orleans in Italy. The mal-
content nobles soon began to plan revolt. Discharged officers of
Charles VII. like Jean Dunois and John II. duke of Bourbon,
stirred up hostility to the new men of the king, and Francis II.
duke of Brittany was soon embroiled with Louis over an attempt
to assert royal control over that practically independent duchy.
The dissatisfied nobility found their greatest ally in Charles the
Bold, afterwards duke of Burgundy, and in 1465 formed a
" league of public welfare " and declared war on their king.
The nominal head was the king's brother Charles, duke of Berry,
then eighteen years old, a weak character, the tool of the rebels
as he was later the dupe of the king. Every great noble in
France was in the league, except Gaston de Foix — who kept the
south of France for the king, — and the counts of Vend6me and
Eu. The whole country seemed on the verge of anarchy. It
was saved by the refusal of the lesser gentry to rise, and by the

alliance of the king with the citizen class, which was not led
astray by the pretences of regard for the public weal which
cloaked the designs of the leaguers. After a successful campaign
in the Bourbonnais, Louis fought an indecisive battle with the
Burgundians who had marched on Paris at Montlhery, on the
i6th of July 1465, and then stood a short siege in Paris. On the
28th of September he made a truce with Charles the Bold, and
in October the treaties of Conflans and Saint Maur-les-Fosses,
ended the war. The king yielded at all points; gave up the
" Somme towns " in Picardy, for which he had paid 200,000
gold crowns, to Philip the Good, thus bringing the Burgun-
dians close to Paris and to Normandy. Charles, the king's
brother, was given Normandy as an apanage, thus joining
the territories of the rebellious duke of Brittany with those
of Charles the Bold. The public weal was no longer talked
about, while the kingdom was plundered both by royal tax
gatherers and by unsubdued feudal lords to pay the cost of
the war.

After this failure Louis set to work to repair his mistakes. The
duke of Bourbon was won over by the gift of the government
of the centre of France, and Dunois and Chabannes by restoring
them their estates. Two months after he had granted Normandy
to Charles, he took advantage of a quarrel between the duke of
Brittany and his brother to take it again, sending the duke
of Bourbon " to aid " Charles, while Dunois and Chabannes
prepared for the struggle with Burgundy. The death of Duke
Philip, on the isth of June 1467, gave Charles the Bold a free
hand. He gained over Edward IV. of England, whose sister
Margaret he married; but while he was celebrating the wedding
Louis invaded Brittany and detached Duke Francis from
alliance with him. Normandy was completely reduced. The
king had won a great triumph. It was followed by his greatest
mistake. Eager as he always was to try diplomacy instead of
war, Louis sent a gift of 60,000 golden crowns to Charles and
secured a safe conduct from him for an interview. The interview
took place on the 9th of October 1468 at Peronne. News came on
the nth that, instigated by the king of France, the people of
Liege had massacred their bishop and the ducal governor. The
news was false, but Charles, furious at such apparent duplicity,
took Louis prisoner, only releasing him, three days later, on the
king signing a treaty which granted Flanders freedom from
interference from the parlement of Paris, and agreeing to accom-
pany Charles to the siege of his own ally, Liege. Louis made
light of the whole incident in his letters, but it marked the greatest
humiliation of his life, and he was only too glad to find a scapegoat
in Cardinal Jean Balue, who was accused of having plotted the
treason of Peronne. Balue thereupon joined Guillaume de
Harancourt, bishop of Verdun, in an intrigue to induce Charles of
France to demand Champagne and Brie in accordance with the
king's promise to Charles the Bold, instead of distant Guienne
where the king was determined to place him. The discovery of
this conspiracy placed these two high dignitaries in prison (April
1469). Balue (q.v.) spent eleven years in prison quarters, com-
fortable enough, in spite of the legend to the contrary, while
Harancourt was shut up in an iron cage until 1482. Then Louis,
inducing his brother to accept Guienne, — where, surrounded by
faithful royal officers, he was harmless for the time being, — under-
took to play off the Lancastrians against Edward IV. who, as
the ally of Charles the Bold, was menacing the coast of Normandy.
Warwick, the king-maker, and Queen Margaret were aided in the
expedition which in 1470 again placed Henry VI. upon the English
throne. In the autumn Louis himself took the offensive, and royal
troops overran Picardy and the Maconnais to Burgundy itself.
But the tide turned against Louis in 1471. While Edward IV.
won back England by the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury,
Charles the Bold besieged Amiens, and Louis was glad to make
a truce, availing himself of the double dealing of the constable,
the count of Saint Pol, who, trying to win an independent position
for himself in Picardy, refused his aid to Charles unless he would
definitely join the French nobility in another rising against the
king. This rising was to be aided by the invasion of France by
John II. of Aragon, Yolande, duchess of Savoy, and Edward IV.

LOUIS XL

of England, who was to be given the old Plantagenet inheritance.
The country was saved a desperate civil war by the death of the
king's brother, Charles, the nominal head of the coalition, on the
24th of May 1472. Louis' joy on receiving news of this death
knew no bounds. Charles the Bold, who had again invaded
France, failed to take Beauvais, and was obliged to make a
lasting truce. His projects were henceforth to be directed
towards Germany. Louis then forced the duke of Brittany
to make peace, and turned against John V. count of Armagnac,
whose death at the opening of March 1473 ended the power of
one of the most dangerous houses of the south. The first period
of Louis' reign was closed, and with it closed for ever the danger
of dismemberment of France. John of Aragon continued the war
in Roussillon and Cerdagne, which Louis had seized ten years
before, and a most desperate rising of the inhabitants protracted
the struggle for two years. After the capture of Perpignan on the
loth of March 1475, the wise and temperate government of
Imbert de Batarnay and Boffile de Juge slowly pacified the new
provinces. The death of Gaston IV. count of Foix in 1472
opened up the long diplomatic struggle for Navarre, which was
destined to pass to the loyal family of Albret shortly after the
death of Louis. His policy had won the line of the Pyrenees
for France.

The overthrow of Charles the Bold was the second great task
of Louis XI. This he accomplished by a policy much like that
of Pitt against Napoleon. Louis was the soul of all hostile
coalitions, especially urging on the Swiss and Sigismund of
Austria, who ruled Tirol and Alsace. Charles's ally, Edward IV.,
invaded France in June 1475, but Louis bought him off on the
2Qth of August at Picquigny — where the two sovereigns met on
a bridge over the Somme, with a strong grille between them,
Edward receiving 75,000 crowns, and a promise of a pension of
50,000 crowns annually. The dauphin Charles was to marry
Edward's daughter. Bribery of the English ministers was not
spared, and in September the invaders recrossed to England.
The count of Saint Pol, who had continued to play his double
part, was surrendered by Charles to Louis, and executed, as was
also Jacques d'Armagnac, duke of Nemours. With his vassals
terrorized and subdued, Louis continued to subsidize the Swiss
and Rene II. of Lorraine in their war upon Charles. The defeat
and death of the duke of Burgundy at Nancy on the sth of
January 1477 was the crowning triumph of Louis' diplomacy.
But in his eagerness to seize the whole inheritance of his rival,
Louis drove his daughter and heiress, Mary of Burgundy, into
marriage with Maximilian of Austria (afterwards the emperor
Maximilian I.),who successfully defended Flanders after a savage
raid by Antoine de Chabannes. The battle of Guinegate on the
7th of August 1479 was indecisive, and definite peace was
not established until after the death of Mary, when by the treaty
of Arras (1482) Louis received Picardy, Artois and the Boulonnais,
as well as the duchy of Burgundy and Franche Comte. The
Austrians were left in Flanders, a menace and a danger. Louis
failed here and in Spain; this failure being an indirect cause of
that vast family compact which surrounded France later with
the empire of Charles V. His interference in Spain had made
both John II. of Aragon and Henry IV. of Castile his enemies,
and so he was unable to prevent the marriage of their heirs,
Ferdinand and Isabella. But the results of these marriages
could not be foreseen, and the unification of France proved of
more value than the possession of so wide-spread an empire.
This unification was completed (except for Brittany) and the
frontiers enlarged by the acquisition, upon the death of Rene
of Anjou in 1480, of the duchies of Anjou and Bar, and in 1481
of Maine and Provence upon the death of Charles II., count of
Maine. Of the inheritance of the house of Anjou only Lorraine
escaped the king.

Failure in Spain was compensated for in Italy. Without
waging war Louis made himself virtual arbiter of the fate of
the principalities in the north, and his court was always besieged
by ambassadors from them. After the death of Charles the
Bold, Yolande, duchess of Savoy, was .obliged to accept the
control of Louis, who was her brother. In Milan he helped to

place Lodovico il Moro in power in 1479, but he reaped less from
this supple tyrant than he had expected. Pope Sixtus IV.
the enemy of the Medici, was also the enemy of the king of
France. Louis, who at the opening of his reign had denounced
the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438, had played fast and loose with
the papacy. When Sixtus threatened Florence after the Pazzi
conspiracy, 1478, Louis aided Lorenzo dei Medici to form an
alliance with Naples, which forced the papacy to come to terms.

More than any other king of France, Louis XI. was a
" bourgeois king." The upper bourgeois, the aristocracy of
his " good cities," were his allies both against the nobles and
against the artisan class, whenever they revolted, driven to
desperation by the oppressive royal taxes which furnished the
money for his wars or diplomacy. He ruled like a modern
capitalist; placed his bribes like investments in the courts of
his enemies; and, while draining the land of enormous sums,
was pitiless toward the two productive portions of his realm,
the country population and the artisans. His heartlessness
toward the former provoked even an accomplice like Commines
to protest. The latter were kept down by numerous edicts,
tending to restrict to certain privileged families the rank of master
workman in the gilds. There was the paternalism of a Frederick
the Great in his encouragement of the silk industry, — " which
all idle people ought to be made to work at," — in his encourage-
ment of commerce through the newly acquired port of Marseilles
and the opening up of market placed. He even dreamed of a
great trading company " of two hundred thousand livres or
more," to monopolize the trade of the Mediterranean, and
planned to unify the various systems of weights and measures.
In 1479 he called a meeting of two burgesses from each " good
city " of his realm to consider means for preventing the influx
of foreign coin. Impatient of all restraint upon his personal rule,
he was continually in violent dispute with the parlement of
Paris, and made " justice " another name for arbitrary govern-
ment; yet he dreamed of a unification of the local customary
laws (co&tumes) of France. He was the perfect model of a tyrant.
The states-general met but once in his reign, in 1468, and then
no talk of grievances was allowed; his object was only to get
them to declare Normandy inalienable from the crown. They
were informed that the king could raise his revenue without
consulting them. Yet his budgets were enormously greater
than ever before. In 1481 the taille alone brought in 4,600,000
livres, and even at the peaceful close of his reign his whole
budget was 4,655,000 livres — as against 1,800,000 livres at
the close of his father's reign.

The king who did most for French royalty would have made
a sorry figure at the court of a Louis XIV. He was ungainly,
with rickety legs. His eyes were keen and piercing, but a long
hooked nose lent grotesqueness to a face marked with cunning
rather than with dignity. Its ugliness was emphasized by the
old felt hat which he wore, — its sole ornament the leaden figure
of a saint. Until the close of his life, when he tried to mislead
ambassadors as to the state of his health by gorgeous robes,
he wore the meanest clothes. Dressed in grey like a pilgrim,
and accompanied by five or six trustworthy servants, he would
set out on his interminable travels, " ambling along on a good
mule." Thus he traversed France, avoiding all ceremony,
entering towns by back streets, receiving ambassadors in way-
side huts, dining in public houses, enjoying the loose manners
and language of his associates, and incidentally learning at first
hand the condition of his people and the possibilities of using
or taxing them — his needs of them rather than theirs of him.
He loved to win men, especially those of the middle class, by
affability and familiarity, employing all his arts to cajole and
seduce those whom he needed. Yet his honied words easily
turned to gall. He talked rapidly and much, sometimes for
hours at a time, and most indiscreetly. He was not an agreeable
companion, violent in his passions, nervous, restless, and in old
age extremely irascible. Utterly unscrupulous, and without a
trace of pity, he treated men like pawns, and was content only
with absolute obedience.

But this Machiavellian prince was the genuine son of St Louis.

LOUIS XII.— LOUIS XIII.

His religiosity was genuine if degenerate. He lavished presents
on influential saints, built shrines, sent gifts to churches, went
on frequent pilgrimages and spent much time in prayer — employ-
ing his consummate diplomacy to win celestial allies, and
rewarding them richly when their aid secured him any advantage.
St Martin of Tours received 1200 crowns after the capture of
Perpignan. He tried to bribe the saints of his enemies, as he
did their ministers. An unfaltering faith taught him the value
of religion — as a branch of politics. Finally, more in the spirit
of orthodoxy, he used the same arts to make sure of heaven.
When the ring of St Zanobius and the blood of Cape Verde
turtles gave him no relief from his last illness, he showered gifts
upon his patron saints, secured for his own benefit the masses
of his clergy, and the most potent prayers in Christendom, those
of the two most effective saints of his day, Bernardin of Doulins
and Francis of Paolo.

During the last two or three years of his life Louis lived in
great isolation, " seeing no one, speaking with no one, except
such as he commanded," in the chateau of Plessis-les-Tours,
that " spider's nest " bristling with watch towers, and guarded
only by the most trusty servitors. A swarm of astrologers and
physicians preyed upon his fears — and his purse. But, however
foolish in his credulity, he still made his strong hand felt both in
France and in Italy, remaining to the last " the terrible king."
His fervent prayers were interrupted by instructions for the
regency which was to follow. He died on the 3oth of August
1483, and was buried, according to his own wish, without royal
state, in the church at Clery, instead of at St Denis. He left
a son, his successor, Charles VIII., and two daughters.

See the admirable re'sume' by Charles Petit-Dutaillis in Lavisse's
Histotre de France, tome iv. pt. ii. (1902), and bibliographical indi-
cations given there. Michelet's wonderful depiction in his Histotre
de France (livres 13 to 17) has never been surpassed for graphic
word-painting, but it is inaccurate in details, and superseded in
scholarship. Of the original sources for the reign the Lettres de
Louis XI. (edited by Charavay and Vaesen, 8 vols., 1883—1902),
the celebrated Memoires of Philippe de Commines and the Journal
of Jean de Royl naturally come first. The great mass of literature on
the period is analysed in masterly fashion by A. Molinier, Sources
de I histoire de France (tome v. pp. 1-146), and to this exhaustive
bibliography the reader is referred for further research. See also
C. Hare, The Life of Louis XI. (London, 1907). (J. T. S.*)

LOUIS XII. (1462-1515), king of France, was grandson of
Louis of Orleans, the brother of Charles VI., and son of the
poet prince, Charles of Orleans, who, after the battle of Agin-
court, spent twenty-five years of captivity in England. Louis
was duke of Orleans until his accession to the throne, and he
was fourteen years old when Louis XI. gave him the hand of
his second daughter, Joan the Lame. In the first years of the
reign of Charles VIII., Louis made a determined stand against
the government of the Beaujeus, stirred up coalitions of the
feudal nobles against them, and was finally defeated and taken
prisoner at St Aubin du Cormier in 1488. Charles VIII. set
him at liberty in 1491. These successive checks tamed him a
little. In the Italian expedition of 1494 he commanded the
vanguard of the royal army, occupied Genoa, and remained in
the north of Italy, menacing Milan, on which he was already
dreaming of asserting his rights. The children of Charles VIII.
having died in infancy, he became heir-presumptive to the throne,
and succeeded Charles in 1499. Louis was then thirty-six years
old, but he seems to have grown old prematurely. He was
fragile, narrow-shouldered and of a sickly constitution. His
intelligence was mediocre, his character weak, and he allowed
himself to be dominated by his wife, Anne of Brittany, and
his favourite the Cardinal d'Amboise. He was a good king,
full of moderation and humanity, and bent upon maintaining
order and improving the administration of justice. He enjoyed
a genuine popularity, and in 1 506 the estates of Tours conferred
on him the surname of Pere du Peuple. His foreign policy,
which was directed wholly towards Italy, was for the most part
unskilful; to his claims on Naples he added those on Milan,
which he based on the marriage of his grandfather, Louis of
Orleans, with Valentina Visconti. He led in person several
armies into Italy, and proved as severe and pitiless towards

his enemies as he was gentle and clement towards his subjects.
Louis had no children. After his accession he had divorced
his virtuous and ill-favoured queen, Joan, and had married,
in 1499, Anne of Brittany, the widow of Charles VIII. On her
death in January 1514, in order to detach England from the
alliance against him, he married on the 9th of October 1514,
Mary Tudor, sister of Henry VIII. of England (see MARY, queen
of France). He died on the ist of January 1515.

For a bibliography of the printed sources see Henri Hauser, Les
Sources de I' histoire de France, XVI" siecle, vol. I. (Paris, 1906).
The principal secondary authorities are De Maulde, Histoire de
Louis XII. (Paris, 1889-1893); Le Roux de Lincy, Vie de la reine
Anne de Bretagne (Paris, 1860); H. Lemonnier, Les Guerres a' Italic
(Paris, 1903) in the Histoire de France by E. Lavisse. (J. I.)

LOUIS XIII. (1601-1643), king of France, was the son of
Henry IV. and of Marie de' Medici. He became king on his
father's assassination in 1610; but his mother at once seized
the full powers of regent. She determined to reverse the policy
of her husband and to bring France into alliance with Spain
and the Austrian house, upon which power Henry had been
meditating an attack at the time of his death. Two marriages
were designed to cement this alliance. Louis was to marry
Anne of Austria, daughter of the Spanish king, Philip III.,
and the Spanish prince, afterwards Philip IV., himself was to
marry the Princess Elizabeth, the king's sister. Notwith-
standing the opposition of the Protestants and nobles of France,
the queen carried through her purpose and the marriages were
concluded in 1615. The next years were full of civil war and
political intrigue, during which the queen relied upon the
Marshal d'Ancre. Louis XIII. was a backward boy, and his
education had been much neglected. We have the fullest
details of his private life, and yet his character remains some-
thing of a mystery. He was fond of field sports and seemed
to acquiesce in his mother's occupation of power and in the rule
of her favourites. But throughout his life he concealed his
purposes even from his closest friends; sometimes it seems as
if he were hardly conscious of them himself. In 1617 he was
much attached to Charles d'Albert, sieur de Luynes; and with
his help he arrested Marshal d'Ancre, and on his resistance had
him assassinated. From this time to her death the relation
between the king and his mother was one of concealed or open
hostility. The article on FRANCE must be consulted for the
intricate events of the following years.

The decisive incident for his private life as well as for his
reign was the entrance of Cardinal Richelieu, hitherto the
queen's chief adviser, into the king's council in 1624. Hence-
forth the policy of France was directed by Richelieu, who took
up in its main features the system of Protestant alliances and
opposition to the power of Austria and Spain, which had been
begun by Henry IV. and had been interrupted by the queen-
mother during the regency; while he asserted the power of the
crown against all rivals at home. This policy had remarkable
results for the king's private life. It not only brought him into
unremitting conflict with the Protestants and the nobles of
France, but also made him the enemy of his mother, of his brother
Gaston of Orleans, who made himself the champion of the cause
of the nobles, and sometimes even of his wife. It is not easy
to define his relations to Richelieu. He was convinced of his
loyalty and of his genius, and in the end always supported his
policy. But he disliked the friction with his family circle which
this policy produced. In the difficulty with which he expressed
himself and in a certain indecision of character the king was
curiously unlike his father, the frank and impetuous Henry
of Navarre, and his absolute son Louis XIV. He took a great
interest in all the externals of war. He was present, and is
said to have played an important part at the passage of Susa
in 1629, and also eagerly participated in the siege of Rochelle,
which surrendered in the same year. But for the most part
his share in the great events of the reign was a passive one. The
one all-important fact was that he supported his great minister.
There were certain occasions when it seemed as if that support
would be denied. The chief of these was what is known as the
" Day of Dupes " (1630). Then the queen-mother and the king's

LOUIS XIV.

brother passionately attacked the minister, and for a moment
it was believed that Richelieu was dismissed and that the queen-
mother and a Spanish policy had triumphed. But the sequel
only strengthened the power of the minister. He regained his
ascendancy over the king, punished his enemies and forced
Marie de' Medici and Gaston of Orleans to sue for pardon.
In 1631 Gaston fled to Lorraine and the queen-mother to
Brussels. Gaston soon returned, to plot, to fail and to sue for
pardon again and again; but Marie de'Medici ended her life
in exile.

Richelieu's position was much strengthened by these incidents,
but to the end of life he had to struggle against conspiracies
which were designed to deprive him of the king's support, and
usually Gaston of Orleans had some share in these movements.
In 1632 the duke of Montmorency's conspiracy brought its
leader to the scaffold. But the last great effort to overthrow
Richelieu was closely connected with the king. Louis XIII.
had from the beginning of his reign had favourites — young men
for the most part with whom he lived freely and intimately
and spoke of public affairs lightly and unreservedly; and who
in consequence often exaggerated their influence over him.
Henri d'Effiat, marquis de Cinq-Mars, was the last of these
favourites. The king is said to have allowed him to speak
hostilely of Richelieu and even to recall the assassination of
Marshal d'Ancre. Cinq-Mars believed himself secure of the
king's favour. He entered into negotiations with Spain and
was secretly supported by Gaston of Orleans. But Richelieu
discovered his treasonous relations with Spain and by this
means defeated his plot. Louis was reconciled to his minister.
" We have lived too long together to be separated " he is
reported to have said (September 1642). Yet when Richelieu
died in December of the same year he allowed himself to speak
of him in a jealous and satirical tone. He died himself a few
months later (May 1643).

His nature was timid, lethargic and melancholy, and his court
was not marked by the scandals which had been seen under
Henry IV. Yet Mademoiselle de la Fayette and Madame
d'Hautefort and others are said to have been his mistresses.
His brother Gaston survived him, but gave unexpectedly little
trouble during the wars of the Fronde which ensued on the death
of Louis XIII.

The chief source of information on Louis XIII.'s life is to be found
in the contemporary memoirs, of which the chief are: Bassompierre,
Fontenay-Mareuil, Gaston d'Orleans, Montr^sor, Omer Talon.
Richelieu's own Memoirs are chiefly concerned with politics and
diplomacy. Of modern works those most directly bearing on the
king's personal life are R. de Beauchamp, Louis XIII. d aprbs so.
correspondance aiiec le cardinal de Richelieu; G. Hanotaux, Histoire
du cardinal de Richelieu (1893-1896); Rossignol, Louis XIII. avant
Richelieu; M. Topin, Louis XIII. et Richelieu (1876). See too
Professor R. Lodge, Richelieu; J. B. H. R. Capefigue, Richelieu,
Mazarin et la Fronde (1835-1836) ; and Dr J. H. Bridges, Richelieu,
Mazarin and Colbert (1866).

For full bibliography see G. Monod, Bibliographie de I'histoire de
France; Cambridge Modern History, vol. iv. (" The Thirty Years'
War ") ; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire generate, vol. v. (" Guerres
de religion "). '• (A. J. G.*)

LOUIS XIV. (1638-1715), king of France, was born at Saint-
Germain-en-Laye on the sth of September 1638. His father,
Louis XIII., had married Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III.,
king of Spain, in 1615, but for twenty years the marriage
had remained without issue. The childlessness of the king was
a constant threat to the policy of his great minister Richelieu;
for the king's brother and heir, Gaston of Orleans, was a deter-
mined opponent of that policy. The birth of the prince who
was destined to reign as Louis XIV. was therefore hailed as a
triumph, not less important than any of those won by diplomacy
or arms. The death of his father made Louis XIV. king on the
1 4th of May 1643, but he had to wait sixteen years before he
began to rule. Power lay for some time in the hands of the
queen-mother and in those of her minister, Cardinal Mazarin,
who found it difficult to maintain the power of the throne and
the integrity of French territory during the domestic troubles
of the Fronde and the last stages of the Thirty Year's War. The
minister was hated as a foreigner, and the childhood of the king

weakened the royal authority. Twice the court had to flee from
Paris; once when there was a rumour of intended flight the
populace was admitted to see the king in his bed. The memory
of these humiliations played their part in developing later the
autocratic ideas of Louis. Mazarin, in spite of all disadvantages,
triumphed alike over his domestic and his foreign opponents.
The Fronde was at an end by 1653; the peace of Westphalia
(1648) and the peace of the Pyrenees (1659) marked the success
of the arms and of the diplomacy of France. Louis XIV.
was now twenty-one years of age and was anxious to rule as
well as to reign. The peace of the Pyrenees was a decisive
event in his personal history as well as in that of France, for
one of its most important stipulations referred to his marriage.
He had already been strongly attracted to one of the nieces of
Mazarin, but reasons of state triumphed over personal impulse ;
and it was agreed that the new friendship with Spain should
be cemented by the marriage of Louis to his cousin, the Infanta
Maria Theresa. A large dowry was stipulated for; and in
consideration of this the king promised to forgo all claims that
his wife might otherwise possess to the Spanish crown or any part
of its territories. The dowry was never paid, and the king held
himself free of his promise.

The marriage took place at once, and the king entered Paris
in triumph in 1660. Mazarin died in the next year; but so
strong was the feeling that the kings of France could only rule
through a first minister that it was generally expected that
Mazarin would soon have a successor. The king, however, at
once announced his intention of being his own first minister;
and from this resolution he never swerved. Whatever great
qualities he may have lacked he certainly possessed industry and
patience in the highest degree. He built up a thoroughly
personal system of government, and presided constantly over the
council and many of its committees. He was fond of gaiety and
of sport; but neither ever turned him away from the punctual
and laborious discharge of his royal duties. Even the greatest
of his ministers found themselves controlled by the king.
Fouquet, the finance minister, had accumulated enormous
wealth during the late disturbances, and seemed to possess power
and ambition too great for a subject. Louis XIV. found it
necessary almost to conspire against him; he was overthrown
and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. Those who had
most of the king's confidence afterwards were Colbert for home
affairs; Lionne for diplomacy; Louvois for war; but as his
reign proceeded he became more self-confident and more
intolerant of independence of judgment in his ministers.

His court was from the first one of great brilliance. In art
and in literature, the great period, which is usually called by
the king's name, had in some respects passed its zenith when he
began to reign. But France was unquestionably the first state
in Europe both in arms and arts, and within France the authority
of the king was practically undisputed. The nation, proud of
its pre-eminence and weary of civil war, saw in the king its true
representative and the guarantee of its unity and success. Louis
was singularly well fitted by his physical and intellectual gifts
for the role of Grand Monarque and he played it to perfection.
His wife Maria Theresa bore him children but there was no
community of tastes between them, and the chief influence at
court is to be found not in the queen but in the succession
of avowed mistresses. Mademoiselle de la Valliere held the
position from 1662 to 1670; she was then ousted by Madame de
Montespan, who had fiercely intrigued for it, and whose proud
and ambitious temper offered a great contrast to her rival. She
held her position from 1670 to 1679 and then gave place to the
still more famous Madame de Maintenon, who ruled, however,
not as mistress but as wife. The events that brought about this
incident form the strangest episode in the king's private life.
Madame de Maintenon was the widow of the dramatist Scarron,
and first came into relationship with the king as governess to
his illegitimate children. She was a woman of unstained life
and strongly religious temperament; and it was by this that she
gained so great an influence over the king. Through her influence
the king was reconciled to his wife, and, when Maria Theresa

LOUIS XV.

43

died in 1683, Madame de Maintenon shortly afterwards (in 1684)
became the king's wife, though this was never officially declared.
Under her influence the court lost most of its gaiety, and
religion came to exercise much control over the life and the
policy of the king.

The first years of the king's rule were marked by the great
schemes of Colbert for the financial, commercial, industrial
and naval reorganization of France, and in these schemes Louis
took a deep interest. But in 1667 began the long series of wars,
which lasted with little real intermission to the end of the reign
(see FRANCE). In the steps that led to these wars and in their
conduct the egotistic ambition and the vanity of the king played
an important part; though he never showed real military skill
and took no share in any military operations except in certain
sieges. The War of Devolution (cr the Queen's War) in 1667-68
to enforce the queen's claim to certain districts in the Spanish
Netherlands, led to the Dutch War (1672-78), and in both these
wars the supremacy of the French armies was clearly apparent.
The next decade (1678-1688) was the real turning-point in the
history of the reign, and the strength of France was seriously
diminished. The chief cause of this is to be found in the revoca-
tion of the Edict of Nantes. The -church had always opposed
this settlement and had succeeded in altering it in many points.
Now the new religious zeal and the autocratic temper of Louis
XIV. came to the support of the church. The French Huguenots
found their privileges decreased, and then, in 1685, the edict was
altogether withdrawn. The results were ruinous to France. It
was not only that she lost many thousands of her best citizens,
but this blow against Protestantism deprived her of those
Protestant alliances in Europe which had been in the past her
great diplomatic support. Then the English Revolution came
in 1688 and changed England from a wavering ally into the most
determined of the enemies of France.

The war with the Grand Alliance, of which King William III.
was the heart and soul, lasted from 1688 to 1697; and the treaty
of Ryswick, which brought it to an end, deprived France of
certain territories on her frontier. But Louis saw in the Spanish
question a chance of more than making up for this loss. The
Spanish king Charles II. was dying, and the future of the
possessions of Spain was doubtful. The astute diplomacy of
Louis succeeded in winning the inheritance for his grandson
Philip. But this involved France and Europe in an immense
war (1700) and by the peace of Utrecht (1713), though the
French prince retained the Spanish crown, France had again to
make concessions of territory.

Louis XIV. had shown wonderful tenacity of purpose during
this disastrous war, and sometimes a nobler and more national
spirit than during the years of his triumphs. But the condition
of France was terrible. She was burdened with debt; the
reforms of Colbert were ruined; and opposition to the king's
re'gime began to make itself felt. Peace brought some relief to
France, but the last years of the king's life were gloomy in the
extreme. His numerous descendants seemed at one time to
place the succession beyong all difficulty. But his eldest son,
the dauphin, died in April 1711; his eldest grandson the duke of
Burgundy in February 1712; and his great-grandson the duke
of Brittany in March 1712. The heir to the throne was now the
duke of Burgundy's son, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Louis XV.
The king died on the ist of September 1715, after the longest
recorded reign in European history. The judgment of posterity
has not repeated the flattering verdict of his contemporaries;
but he remains the model of a great king in all that concerns the
externals of kingship.

The reign of Louis XIV. is particularly rich in memoirs describing
the life of the court. The chief are Madame de Motteville's memoirs
for the period of the Fronde, and the letters of Madame de S6vign6
and the memoirs of Saint-Simon for the later period. The king's
ideas are best seen in the Memoires de Louis XIV. pour V instruction
du dauphin (edited by Dreyss, 2 yols.). His private life is revealed
in the letters of Madame de Maintenon and in those of Madame,
Duchesse d'Orldans. Of the ordinary historians of France Michelet
is fullest on the private life of the king. Mention may also be made
of Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV. ; P. Cldment, Histoire delavieetde
I' administration de Colbert; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries de lundi. Full

bibliographies of the reign will be found in G. Monod's Bibliographie
de I'histoire de France; vol. v. (" The Age of Louis XIV.") of the
Cambridge Modern History; and vol. vi. (" Louis XIV.") of the
Histoire generate of Lavisse and Rambaud. (A. J. G.*)

LOUIS XV. (1710-1774), king of France, was the great-grand-
son of Louis XIV. and the third son of Louis, duke of Burgundy,
and Marie Adelaide, princess of Savoy. The first son had died
in 1705, and in 1712 the second son, the duke of Brittany, as
well as his father and mother, was carried off by a mysterious
disease. Louis was thus unexpectedly brought into the line
of the succession, and was only five years old when Louis XIV.
died. The dead king had endeavoured by his will to control
the administration even after his death by a carefully selected
council of regency, in which the duke of Orleans should have only
the nominal presidency; but with the help of the parlement
of Paris the arrangement was at once set aside, and the duke
was declared regent with full traditional powers. The duke
had capacity, but his life was so licentious that what influence
he had upon the king was for evil. Fleury, bishop of Frejus,
was appointed his tutor, and the little king was sincerely attached
to him. The king attained his legal majority at the age of
thirteen, shortly before the death of the duke of Orleans. His
first minister was the incapable duke of Bourbon, who in 1725
procured the repudiation of the Spanish princess, to whom the
king had been betrothed, and his marriage to Maria Leszczynska,
daughter of the exiled king of Poland, then resident in Alsace.
In 1726 the duke of Bourbon was displaced by the king's tutor,
Bishop (afterwards Cardinal) Fleury, who exercised almost
absolute power, for the king took little interest in affairs of state.
His administration was successful and peaceful until the year
1734, when a disputed succession in Poland brought about the
interference of France on behalf of the queen's father. France
was unsuccessful in her immediate object, but at the peace of
Vienna (1735) secured the possession of Lorraine. Up to this
point the reign had been prosperous; but from this time on
it is a record of declining national strength, which was not
compensated by some days of military glory. Fleury's great
age (he died still in office at the age of ninety) prevented him
from really controlling the policy of France and of Europe.
In 1740 the war of the Austrian Succession broke out and
France drifted into it as an ally of Frederick of Prussia and
the enemy of England, and of Maria Theresa of Austria.

On Fleury's death in 1743 no one took his place, and the
king professed to adopt the example of Louis XIV. and to
establish a personal autocracy. But he was not strong enough
in will or intellect to give unity to the administration. The
marquis d'Argenson writes that at the council table Louis
" opened his mouth, said little and thought not at all," and
again that " under the appearance of personal monarchy it
was really anarchy that reigned." He had followed too in his
domestic life the example of his predecessors. The queen for
some time seems to have secured his affections, and she bore
him seven children. But soon we hear of the royal mistresses.
The first to acquire notoriety was the duchess of Chateauroux,
the third sister of one family who held this position. She was
at least in part the cause of the only moment of popularity
which the king enjoyed. She urged him to take part personally
in the war. France had just received a humiliating check at
Dettingen, and the invasion of the north-eastern frontier was
feared. The king went to Metz in 1744, and his presence there
did something to ward off the danger. While the nation felt
genuine gratitude for his energy and its success, he was reported
to have fallen dangerously ill. The king, of whom it was said
that the fear of hell was the only part of religion which had
any reality for him, now dismissed the duchess of Chateauroux
and promised amendment. Prayers were offered everywhere
for his recovery, and the country was swept by a delirium of
loyal enthusiasm, which conferred on him the title of Louis le
bien aimi. But his future life disappointed all these hopes.
The duchess of Chateauroux died in the same year, but her place
was taken in 1745 by Madame de Pompadour. This woman
had philanthropic impulses and some real interest in art and

44

LOUIS XVI.

letters; but her influence on public affairs was a fatal one.
She had many rivals during her lifetime and on her death in
1764 she was succeeded by Madame du Barry (q.v.). But
the mention of these three women gives no idea of the degradation
of the king's life. There has doubtless been exaggeration as
to certain details, and the story of his seraglio at the Pare aux
cerfs is largely apocryphal. But it would be difficult to mention
the name of any European king whose private life shows such
a record of vulgar vice unredeemed by higher aims of any kind.
He was not without ambition, but without sufficient tenacity
of purpose to come near to realizing it. To the last he main-
tained the pretence of personal rule, but the machinery of
government fell out of gear, and the disorder of the finances was
never remedied before the revolution of 1789.

The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the war
of the Austrian Succession, brought no gains to France in spite
of her victories at Fontenoy and Raucoux; and the king was
blamed for the diplomatic failure. The interval between this
war and the Seven Years' War (1756) saw that great reversal
of alliances which is sometimes called the " Diplomatic Revolu-
tion "; whereby France repudiated the alliance of Frederick
the Great and joined hands with her old enemy Austria. The
intrigues of Madame de Pompadour played in this change an
important though not a decisive part. It was the cause of
immense disasters to France; for after a promising beginning,
both by land and sea, France suffered reverses which lost her
both India and Canada and deprived her of the leading position
which she had so long held in Europe. Her humiliation was
declared by the peace of Paris (1763).

The article on the history of France (q.v.) shows how there
arose during the last years of Louis XV. 's reign a strong reaction
against the monarchy and its methods. Military success had
given it its strength; and its prestige was ruined by military
failure. In the parlements, provincial and Parisian; in religion
and in literature, a note of opposition is struck which was never
to die until the monarchy was overthrown. France annexed
Corsica in 1 768, but this was felt to be the work of the minister
Chauvelin, and reflected no credit on the king. He died in 1774
of smallpox. If the reign of his predecessor shows us almost
the ideal of personal monarchy we may see in that of Louis
XV. all the vices and errors exemplified which lie in wait for
absolute hereditary rule which has survived the period of its
usefulness,

For the king's life generally see the memoirs of Saint-Simon,
d'Argenson, Villars and Barbier, and for the details of his private life
E. Boutaric, Correspondance secrete de Louis XV.; Madame de
Pompadour's Correspondance published by P. Malassi; Dietric, Les
Mattresses de Louis X V. ; and Fleury, Louis X V. intimes et les petites
mattresses (1909).

For the system of secret diplomacy and organized espionage,
known as the Secret du roi, carried on under the auspices of Louis
XV., see Albert due de Broglie, Le Secret du roi. Correspondance
secrete de Louis XV. avec ses agents diplomatique! 1752-1774 (Paris,
1878) ; and for a general account of the reign, H. Carr6, La France
sous Louis XV. (Paris, 1891). For other works, general and special,
see G. Monod, Bibliographie de la France, and the bibliography in the
Histoire generate of Lavisse and Rambaud, vol. vii., and the Cambridge
Modern History, vol. vi. (A. J. G.*)

LOUIS XVI. (1754-1793), king of France, was the son of Louis,
dauphin of France, the son of Louis XV., and of Marie Joseph
of Saxony, and was born at Versailles on the 23rd of August
1754, being baptized as Louis Augustus. His father's death
in 1765 made him heir to the throne, and in 1770 he was married
to Marie Antoinette, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa.
He was just twenty years old when the death of Louis XV. on the
loth of May 1774 placed him on the throne. He began his reign
under good auspices, with Turgot, the greatest living French
statesman, in charge of the disorganized finances; but in less than
two years he had yielded to the demand of the vested interests
attacked by Turgot's reforms, and dismissed him. Turgot's
successor, Necker, however, continued the regime of reform
until 1781, and it was only with Necker's dismissal that the
period of reaction began. Marie Antoinette then obtained that
ascendancy over her husband which was partly responsible for

the extravagance of the ministry of Calonne, and brought on the
Revolution by the resulting financial embarrassment.1 The
third part of his reign began with the meeting of the states-
general on the 4th of May 1789, which marked the opening of
the Revolution. The revolt of Paris and the taking of the Bastille
on the i4th of July were its results. The suspicion, not without
justification, of a second attempt at a coup d'etat led on the
6th of October to the " capture " of the king and royal family
at Versailles by a mob from Paris, and their transference to the
Tuileries. In spite of the growing radicalism of the clubs, however,
loyalty to the king remained surprisingly strong. When he swore
to maintain the constitution, then in progress of construction, at
the festival of the federation on the I4th of July 1790, he was at
the height of his popularity. Even his attempted flight on the
zoth of June 1791 did not entirely turn the nation against him,
although he left documents which proved his opposition to the
whole Revolution. Arrested at Varennes, and brought back to
Paris, he was maintained as a constitutional king, and took
his oath on the I3th of September 1791. But already a party
was forming in Paris which demanded his deposition. This
first became noticeable in connexion with the affair of the Champ
de Mars on the I7th of July 1791. Crushed for a time the party
gained strength through the winter of 1791-1792. The declara-
tion of war against the emperor Francis II., nephew of Marie
Antoinette, was forced upon the king by those who wished to
discredit him by failure, or to compel him to declare himself
openly an enemy to the Revolution. Their policy proved effec-
tive. The failure of the war, which intensified popular hatred
of the Austrian queen, involved the king; and the invasion of
the Tuileries on the 2oth of June 1792 was but the prelude to
the conspiracy which resulted, on the loth of August, in the
capture of the palace and the " suspension " of royalty by the
Legislative Assembly until the convocation of a national con-
vention in September. On the 2ist of September 1792 the
Convention declared royalty abolished, and in January it tried
the king for his treason against the nation, and condemned him
to death. He was executed on the 2ist of January 1793.

Louis XVI. was weak in character and mentally dull. His
courage and dignity during his trial and on the scaffold has left
him a better reputation than he deserves. His diary shows
how little he understood, or cared for, the business of a king.
Days on which he had not shot anything at the hunt were
blank days for him. The entry on the I4thof July 1789 was
" nothing "I The greater part of his time was spent hunting.
He also amused himself making locks, and a little at masonry.
Awkward and uncourtly, at heart shy, he was but a poor figure-
head for the stately court of France. At first he did not care
for Marie Antoinette, but after he came under her influence,
her thoughtless conduct compromised him, and it was largely
she who encouraged him in underhand opposition to the
Revolution while he pretended to accept it. The only point
on which he had of his own initiative shown a strong objec-
tion to revolutionary measures was in the matter of the civil
constitution of the clergy. A devoted and sincere Roman
Catholic, he refused at first to sanction a constitution for the
church in France without the pope's approval, and after he had
been compelled to allow the constitution to become law he
resolved to oppose the Revolution definitely by intrigues.
His policy was both feeble and false. He was singularly un-
fortunate even when he gave in, delaying his acquiescence until
it had the air of a surrender. It is often said that Louis XVI.
was the victim of the faults of his predecessors. He was also the
victim of his own.

Having lost his elder son in 1789 Louis left two children, Louis
Charles, usually known as Louis XVII., and Marie Th6rese
Charlotte (1778-1851), who married her cousin, Louis, duke of
Angouleme, son of Charles X., in 1799. The "orphan of the
Temple," as the princess was called, was in prison for three years,

1 The responsibility of Marie Antoinette for the policy of the king
before and during the Revolution has been the subject of much
controversy. In general it may be said that her influence on politics
has been much exaggerated. (See MARIE ANTOINETTE.) [Ed.]

LOUIS XVII.

45

during which time she remained ignorant of the fate which had
befallen her parents. She died on the igth of October 1851.
Her life by G. Lenotre has been translated into English by J. L.
May (1908).

See the articles FRENCH REVOLUTION and MARIE ANTOINETTE.
F. X. J. Droz, Histoire du regne de Louis XVI. (3 vols., Paris, 1860),
a sane and good history of the period ; and Arsene Houssaye, Louis
XVI. (Paris, 1891). See also the numerous memoirs of the time,
and the marquis de S6gur's Au couchant de la monarchic, Louis XVI.
et Turgot (1910).

For bibliographies see G. Monod, Bibl. de la France; Lavisse et
Rambaud, Hist. Univ., vols. vii. and viii.; and the Cambridge
Modern History, vol. viii. (R- A.")

LOUIS XVII. (1785-1795?), titular king of France, second son
of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, was born at Versailles
on the 27th of March 1785, was christened the same day Louis
Charles, and given the title of duke of Normandy. Louis
Charles became dauphin on the death of his elder brother on the
4th of June 1789. It is only with his incarceration in the Temple
on the I3th of August 1792, that his history, apart from that of his
parents, becomes of interest. The royal party included, beside
the king and queen, their daughter Marie Therese Charlotte
(Madame Royale), the king's sister Madame Elisabeth, the valet
Clery and others. The prisoners were lodged at first in the smaller
Tower, but were removed to the larger Tower on the 27th of
October. Louis Charles was then separated from his mother
and aunt to be put in his father's charge, except for a few hours
daily, but was restored to the women when Louis was isolated
from his family at the beginning of his trial in December.

On the 2ist of January 1793 Louis became, for the royalists,
king of France, and a week later the comte de Provence arrogated
to himself the title of regent. From that moment began new
plots for the escape of the prisoners from the Temple, the chief
of which were engineered by the Chevalier de Jarjayes,1 the
baron de Batz,2 and the faithful Lady Atkyns.3 On the 3rd of
July the little dauphin was again separated from his mother,
this time to be given into the keeping of the cobbler Antoine
Simon4 who had been named his guardian by the Committee
of General Security. The tales told by the royalist writers of the
barbarous cruelty inflicted by Simon and his wife on the child are
not proven. Marie Jeanne, in fact, took great care of the child's
person, and there is documentary evidence to prove that he had
air and food. But the Simons were obviously grotesquely unfit
guardians for a prince, and they doubtless caused much suffering
to the impressionable child, who was made on occasion to eat and
drink to excess, and learnt the language of the gutter. But the
scenes related by A. de Beauchesne of the physical martyrdom
of the child are not supported by any other testimony, though
he was at this time seen by a great number of people. On the
6th of October Pache, Chaumette, Hebert and others visited
him and secured from him admissions of infamous accusations
against his mother, with his signature to a list of her alleged
crimes since her entry in the Temple, and next day he was con-
fronted with his sister Marie Therese for the last time.

1 F. A. Regnier de Jarjayes (1745-1822). See P. Gaulot, Un
Complot sous la Terreur.

'Jean, baron de Batz (1761-1822), attempted to carry off the
dauphin in 1794. See G. Len&tre, Un Conspirateur royaliste pendant
la Terreur, le baron de Batz (1896).

• Charlotte Walpole (c. 1785-1836), an English actress who married
in 1779 Sir Edward Atkyns, and spent most of her life in France.
She expended large sums in trying to secure the escape of the prisoners
of the Temple. See F. Barbey, A Friend of Marie Antoinette (Eng.
ed. 1906).

4 Antoine Simon (173671794) married Marie Jeanne Aladame,
and belonged to the section of the Cordeliers. They owed their
position to Anaxagoras Chaumette, procureur of the Commune,
and to the fact that Simon had prevented one of the attempts of the
baron de Batz. Simon was sent to the guillotine with Robespierre
in 1794, and two years later Marie Jeanne entered a hospital for in-
curables in the rue de Sevres, where she constantly affirmed the
dauphin's escape. She was secretly visited after the Restoration by
the duchess of Angoulgme. On the i6th of November 1816, she was
interrogated by the police, who frightened her into silence about the
supposed substitution of another child for the dauphin. She died in
1819. See G. Len6tre, Vieilles maisons, vieux papiers (and series,
1903).

Simon's wife now fell ill, and on the I9th of January 1794 the
Simons left the Temple, after securing a receipt for the safe trans-
fer of their prisoner, who was declared to be in good health.
A large part of the Temple records from that time onwards
were destroyed under the Restoration, so that exact knowledge
of the facts is practically impossible. Two days after the
departure of the Simons the prisoner is said by the Restoration
historians to have been put in a dark room which was barricaded
like the cage of a wild animal. The story runs that food was
passed through the bars to the child, who survived in spite of the
accumulated filth of his surroundings. Robespierre' visited
Marie Therese on the nth of May, but no one, according to the
legend, entered the dauphin's room for six months until Barras
visited the prison after the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794).
Barras's account of the visit describes the child as suffering from
extreme neglect, but conveys no idea of the alleged walling in.
It is nevertheless certain that during the first half of 1794 he was
very strictly secluded; he had no special guardian, but was under
the charge of guards changed from day to day. The child made
no complaint to Barras of his treatment, probably because he
feared to do so. He was then cleansed and re-clothed, his room
cleaned, and during the day he was visited by his new attendant,
a Creole and a compatriot of Josephine de Beauharnais, named
Jean Jacques Christophe Laurent (1770-1807), who had from
the 8th of November onwards assistance for his charge from
a man named Gomin. The child was now taken out to walk
on the roof of the Tower. From about the time of Gomin's
entrance the prisoner was inspected, not by delegates of the
Commune, but by representatives of the civil committee of the
48 sections of Paris. The rare recurrence of the same inspectors
would obviously facilitate fraud, if any such were intended.
From the end of October onwards the child maintained an
obstinate silence, explained by Laurent as a determination taken
on the day he made his deposition against his mother. On the
19th of December 1794 he was visited by three commissioners
from the Committee of General Security — J. B. Harmand de la
Meuse, J. B. C. Mathieu and J. Reverchon — who extracted no
word from him. On Laurent's retirement fitienne Lasnewas
appointed on the 3ist of March 1795 to be the child's guardian.
In May 1795 the prisoner was seriously ill, and a doctor, P. J.
Desault, well acquainted with the dauphin, having visited him
seven months earlier, was summoned. Desault died suddenly,
not without suspicion of poison, on the ist of June, and it was
some days before doctors Pelletan and Dumangin were called.
Then it was announced that on the 8th Louis Charles died.
Next day an autopsy was held at which it was stated that a child
apparently about ten years of age, " which the commissioners
told us was the kte Louis Capet's son," had died of a scrofulous
affection of long standing. He was buried on the loth in the
cemetery of Ste Marguerite, but no stone was erected to mark
the spot.

The weak parts of this story are the sudden and unexplained
departure of the Simons; the subsequent useless cruelty of
treating the child like a wild beast and keeping him in a dark
room practically out of sight (unless any doubt of his identity
was possible), while his sister was in comparative comfort;
the cause of death, declared to be of long standing, but in fact
developed with such rapidity; the insufficient excuse provided
for the child's muteness under Gomin's r6gime (he had answered
Barras) and the irregularities in the formalities in attending
the death and the funeral, when a simple identification of the
body by Marie Therese would have prevented any question of
resuscitated dauphins. Both Barras and Harmand de la Meuse

6 In a bulletin dated May 17-24, Paris, and enclosed by Francis
Drake (June 17, 1794) at Milan to Lord Grenville, it is stated (Hist.
MSS. Comm. Fortescue Papers at Dropmore, vol. ii. 576-577) that
Robespierre in the night of 23-24 May fetched the king (the dauphin)
from the Temple and took him to Meudon. " The fact is certain,
although only known to the Committee of Public Safety. It is said
to be ascertained that he was brought back to the Temple the night
of 24-25th, and that this was a test to assure the ease of seizing
him." This police report at least serves to show the kind of rumour
then current.

LOUIS XVII.

are said to have given leave for the brother and sister to see each
other, but the meeting was never permitted. The argument
from the sudden disappearance of persons in a position to know
something of the truth is of a less convincing character. It may
be noted that the more famous of the persons alleged by partisans
of subsequent pretenders to have been hustled out of the world
for their connexion with the secret are the empress Josephine,
the due d'Enghien and the due de Berri.

Immediately on the announcement of the dauphin's death
there arose a rumour that he had escaped. Simien-Despreaux,
one of Louis XVIII. 's own authors, stated at a later period (1814)
that Louis XVII. was living and that among the signatories of
the treaty of April i3th were some who possessed proofs of his
existence; and Eckard, one of the mainstays of the official
account, left among his unpublished papers a statement that
many members of " an assembly of our wise men " obstinately
named Louis XVII. as the prince whom their wishes demanded.
Unfortunately the removal of the child suited the plans of the
comte de Provence (now Louis XVIII. for the Emigres) as well
as it suited the revolutionary government, and no serious attempt
was made by the royal family to ascertain the truth, though
they paid none of the tributes to the memory of the dead king
which might reasonably have been expected, had they been
convinced of his death. Even his sister wore no mourning for
him until she arrived at Vienna and saw that this was ex-
pected of her. In spite of the mass of literature which has
accumulated on the subject, neither his death in the Temple
nor his escape therefrom has been definitely established,
though a very strong presumption is established in favour of
the latter.

Some forty candidates for bis honours were forthcoming
under the Restoration. The most important of these pretenders
were Karl Wilhelm Naundorff and the comte de Richemont.
Naundorff's story rested on a series of complicated intrigues.
According to him Barras determined to save the dauphin in
order to please Josephine Beauharnais, the future empress,
having conceived the idea of using the dauphin's existence
as a means of dominating the comte de Provence in the event
of a restoration. The dauphin was concealed in the fourth storey
of the Tower, a wooden figure being substituted for him. Laurent,
to protect himself from the consequences of the substitution,
replaced the wooden figure by a deaf mute, who was presently
exchanged for the scrofulous child of the death certificate.
The deaf mute was also concealed in the Temple. It was not the
dead child, but the dauphin who left the prison in the coffin,
whence he was extracted by his friends on the way to the
cemetery. Richemont's tale that the woman Simon, who was
genuinely attached to him, smuggled him out in a basket, is
simple and more credible, and does not necessarily invalidate
the story of the subsequent operations with the deaf mute and
the scrofulous patient, Laurent in that case being deceived
from the beginning, but it renders them extremely unlikely.
A third pretender, Eleazar Williams, did not affect to know
anything of his escape. He possessed, he said, no consciousness
of his early years, only emerging from idiocy at the age of thirteen,
when he was living with an Indian family in New York State.
He was a missionary to the Indians when the prince de Joinville,
son of Louis Philippe, met him, and after some conversation
asked him to sign a document abdicating his rights in favour of
Louis Philippe, in return for which he, the dauphin (alias
Eleazar Williams), was to receive the private inheritance which
was his. This Eleazar refused to do. The wildness of this tale
refutes itself.

Richemont (Henri Ethelbert Louis Victor Hebert) was in
prison in Milan for seven years and began to put forward his
claims in Paris in 1828. In 1833 he was again arrested, was
brought to trial in the following year and was condemned to
twelve years' imprisonment. He escaped after a few months and
left the country, to return in 1840. He died at Gleize on the
xoth of August 1853, the name of Louis Charles de France
being inscribed on his tomb until the government ordered its
removal.

Naundorff, or Naundorff, who had arrived from nowhere in
Berlin in 1810, with papers giving the name Karl Wilhelm
Naundorff, in order to escape the persecutions of which he
declared himself the object, settled at Spandau in 1812 as a
clockmaker, and married in 1818 Johanna Einert. In 1822 he
removed to Brandenburg, and in 1828 to Crossen, near Frankfort.
He was imprisoned from 1825 to 1828 for coining, though
apparently on insufficient evidence, and in 1833 came to push his
claims in Paris, where he was recognized as the dauphin by many
persons formerly connected with the court of Louis XVI. Ex-
pelled from France in 1836, the day after bringing a suit against
the duchess of Angouleme for the restitution of the daupnin's
private property, he lived in exile till his death at Delft on the
loth of August 1845, and his tomb was inscribed " Louis XVII.,
roi de France et de Navarre (Charles Louis, due de Normandie)."
The Dutch authorities who had inscribed on his death certificate
the name of Charles Louis de Bourbon, due de Normandie (Louis
XVII.) permitted his son to bear the name de Bourbon, and when
the family appealed in 1850-1851, and again in 1874, for the
restitution of their civil rights as heirs of Louis XVI. no less an
advocate than Jules Favre pleaded their cause. Of all the pre-
tenders Naundorff has the best case. He was certainly not the
Jew of Prussian Poland which his enemies declared him to be,
and he has to this day a circle of devoted adherents. Since he
was sincerely convinced of his own rights, it is surprising that
he put forward no claim hi 1814.

If the dauphin did escape, it seems probable that he perished
shortly afterwards or lived in a safe obscurity. The account of
the substitution in the Temple is well substantiated, even to
the names of the substitutes. The curious imbroglio deceived
royalists and republicans alike. Lady Atkyns was trying by
every possible means to get the dauphin out of his prison when
he was apparently already in safe hands, if not outside the Temple
walls. A child was in fact delivered to her agents, but he was a
deaf mute. That there was fraud, and complicated fraud, in the
guardians of the dauphin may be taken as proved by a succession
of writers from 1850 onwards, and more recently by Frederic
Barbey, who wisely attempts no ultimate solution. When the
partisans of Richemont or Naundorff come to the post-Temple
careers of their heroes, they become in most cases so uncritical
as to be unconvincing.

The official version of the dauphin's history as accepted under the
Restoration was drawn up by Simien Despreaux in his uncritical
Louis XVII. (1817), and is found, fortified by documents, in M.
Eckard's Memoires historiques sur Louis XVII. (1817) and in A. de
Beauchesne's Louis XVII., sa vie, son agonie, sa mart. Captivitt
de la famille royale au Temple (2 vpls., 1852, and many subsequent
editions), containing copies of original documents, and essential to
the study of the question, although its sentimental pictures of the
boy martyr can no longer be accepted. L. de la Sicotiere, " Les faux
Louis XVII.," in Revue des questions historiques (vol. xxxii., 1882),
deals with the pretenders Jean Marie Hervagault, Mathurin Bruneau
and the rest ; see also Dr Cabanes, Les Marts mysterieuses de I'histoire
(1901), and revised catalogue of the J. Sanford Saltus collection of
Louis XVII. books (New York, 1908). Catherine Welch, in The
Little Dauphin (1908) gives a r6sum6 of the various sides of the
question.

Madame Royale's own account of the captivity of the Temple
was first printed with additions and suppressions in 1817, and often
subsequently, the best edition being that from her autograph text
by G. Len&tre, La Fille de Louis XVI., Marie Therese Charlotte de
France, duchesse d'Angouleme, le Temple, I'echange, I'exil (1907).
There are two collections of writings on the subject : Marie Therese
de France, compiled (1852) by the marquis de Pastoret, and com-

C rising beside the memoir written by Marie Th6rese herself, articles
y M. de Montbel, Sainte-Beuve, J. Lemoine, La GueYonniere and
extracts from Joseph Weber's memoirs ; and Memoires de Marie
Therese duchesse d'Angouleme, comprising extracts from the narra-
tives of Charles Goret (Man Temoignage, 1852), of C. F. Beaulieu
(Memoire adressee a la nation, 1795), of L. G. Michaud (Opinion
d'un Francais, 1795) and of Mme de Tourzel (Memoires 1883).
Cf . A. Lanne, La Saiur de Louis X VII., and the articles on " Madame
Royale," on the " Captivit6 de la famille royale au Temple " and on
the " Mise en libertd de Madame " in M. Tourneux's BiUiographie
de I'histoire de Paris pendant la revolution franc.aise (vol. iv., 1906,
and vol. i., 1890).

Naundorff.— for the case of Naundorff see his own narrative,
Abrege de I'histoire des infortunes du Dauphin (London, 1836;
Eng. trans., 1838); also Modeste Gruau de la Barre, Intrigues

LOUIS XVIII.

47

devoilees ou Louis XVII. ... (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1846-1848);
O. Friedrichs, Correspondance intime et inedite de Louis XVII.
(Naundorff) 1834-1838 (2 vols., 1904); Plaidoirie de Jules Favre
devant la cour d'appel de Paris pour Us heritiers de feu Charles-
Guillaume Naundorff (1874); H. Provins, Le Dernier roi legilime
de France (2 vols., the first of which consists of destructive criticism
of Beauchesne and his followers, 1889) ; A. Lanne, " Louis XVII. et le
secret de la Revolution," Bulletin mensuel (1893 et seq.) of the Societe
des etudes sur la question Louis XVII., also La Legitimite (Bordeaux,
Toulouse, 1883-1898). See further the article " Naundorff ' in
M. Tourneux, Bibl. de la ville de Paris pendant la Revolution, vol. iv.
(1906).

Williams. — J. H. Hanson, The Lost Prince: Facts tending to
prove the Identity of Louis XVII. of France and the Rev. Eleazer
Williams (London and New York, 1854).

De Richemont. — Memoires du due de Normandie,fils de Louis XVI.,
ecrits et publics par lui-meme (Paris, 1831), compiled, according to
Querard, by E. T. Bourg, called Saint Edme; Morin de Gueriviere,
Quelques souvenirs . . . (Paris, 1832); and J. Suvigny, La Restaura-
tion convaincue . . . ou preuves de I' existence du fils de Louis X VI.
(Paris, 1851).

The widespread interest taken in Louis XVII. is shown by the fact
that since 1905 a monthly periodical has appeared in Pans on this
subject, entitled Revue historique de la question Louis XVII., also by
the promised examination of the subject by the Societe d'Histoire
contemporaine. (M. BR.)

LOUIS XVIII. (Louis LE DESIRE) (1755-1824). Louis-
Stanislas-Xavier, comte de Provence, third son of the dauphin
Louis, son of Louis XV., and of Maria Josepha of Saxony, was
born at Versailles on the I7th of November 1755. His education
was supervised by the devout due de la Vauguyon, but his own
taste was for the writings of Voltaire and the encyclopaedists.
On the 1 4th of May 1771 took place his marriage with Louise-
Marie-Josephine of Savoy, by whom he had no children. His
position at court was uncomfortable, for though ambitious and
conscious of possessing greater abilities than his brother (Louis
XVI.), his scope for action was restricted; he consequently
devoted his energies largely to intrigue, especially against
Marie Antoinette, whom he hated.1 During the long absence
of heirs to Louis XVI., " Monsieur," as heir to the throne, courted
popularity and took an active part in politics, but the birth of
a dauphin (1781) was a blow to his ambitions.2 He opposed
the revival of the parlements, wrote a number of political
pamphlets,3 and at the Assembly of Notables presided, like the
other princes of the blood, over a bureau, to which was given the
name of the Comite des sages; he also advocated the double
representation of the tiers. At the same time he cultivated
literature, entertaining poets and writers both at the Luxembourg
and at his chateau of Brunoy (see Dubois-Corneau, Le Comte de
Provence a Brunoy, 1909), and gaining a reputation for wit by
his verses and mots in the salon of the charming and witty
comtesse de Balbi, one of Madame's ladies, who had become
his mistress,4 and till 1793 exerted considerable influence over
him. He did not emigrate after the taking of the Bastille, but,
possibly from motives of ambition, remained in Paris. Mirabeau
thought at one time of making him chief minister in his projected
constitutional government (see Corr. de Mirabeau et La March, ed
Bacourt, i. 434, 436, 442), but was disappointed by his caution
and timidity. The a/aire Favras (Dec. 1789) aroused great
feeling against Monsieur, who was believed by many to have
conspired with Favras, only to abandon him (see Lafayette's
Mems. and Corr. of Mirabeau). In June 1791, at the time of the

1 See Arneth and Geffroy, Corr. de Marie-Therese avec le comte de
Mercy-Argenteau, vol. i., " Mercy to Maria Theresa, June 22nd
1771," also i. 261, ii. 186, 352, 393. Marie Antoinette says (ii. 393)
" . . . a un caractere tres faible, il joint une marche souterraine, et
quelquefois tres basse."

1 See his letters to Gustavus III. of Sweden in A. Geffroy, Gustave
III et la cour de France, vol. ii. appendix.

1 Two pamphlets at least are ascribed to him: " Les Mannequins
conte ou histoire, comme Ton youdra " (against Turgot; anon.
Paris, 1776) and " Description historique d'un monstre symbolique
pris vivant sur les bords du lac Fagua, pres de Santa-Fe, par les soms
de Francisco Xaveiro de Neunris " (against Calonne; Paris, 1784^
(A. Debidour in La Grande Encyclopedic).

4 It has frequently been alleged that his relations with Mme di
Balbi, and indeed with women generally, were of a platonic nature
De Reiset (La Comtesse de Balbi, pp. 152-161) produces evidence to
disprove this assertion.

flight to Varennes, Monsieur also fled by a different route,
and, in company with the comte d'Avaray'— who subsequently
replaced Mme de Balbi as his confidant, and largely influenced
lis policy during the emigration — succeeded in reaching Brussels,
where he joined the comte d'Artois and proceeded to Coblenz,
which now became the headquarters of the emigration.

Here, living in royal state, he put himself at the head of
the counter-revolutionary movement, appointing ambassadors,
soliciting the aid of the European sovereigns, and especially
of Catherine II. of Russia. Out of touch with affairs in France
and surrounded by violent anti-revolutionists, headed by
Calonne and the comte d'Artois, he followed an entirely selfish
policy, flouting the National Assembly (see his reply to the
summons of the National Assembly, in Daudet, op. cit. i. 96),
Issuing uncompromising manifestoes (Sept. 1791, Aug. 1792, &c.),
and obstructing in every way the representatives of the king and
queen.8 After Valmy he had to retire to Hamm in Westphalia,
where, on the death of Louis XVI., he proclaimed himself regent;
from here he went south, with the idea of encouraging the
royalist feeling in the south of France, and settled at Verona,
where on the death of Louis XVII. (8th of June 1795) he took
the title of Louis XVIII. At this time ended his liaison with
Mme de Balbi, and the influence of d'Avaray reached its height.
From this time onward his life is a record of constant wanderings,
negotiations and conspiracies. In April 1796 he joined Conde's
army on the German frontier, but was shortly requested to leave
the country, and accepted the hospitality of the duke of Bruns-
wick at Blanckenberg till 1797, when, this refuge being no longer
open to him, the emperor Paul I. permitted him to settle at
Mittau in Courland, where he stayed till 1801. All this time
he was in close communication with the royalists in France, but
was much embarrassed by the conflicting policy pursued by the
comte d'Artois from England, and was largely at the mercy
of corrupt and dishonest agents.7 At Mittau was realized his
cherished plan of marrying Madame Royale, daughter of Louis
XVI., to the due d'Angouleme, elder son of the comte d'Artois.
From Mittau, too, was sent his well-known letter to Bonaparte
(1799) calling upon him to play the part of Monk, a proposal
contemptuously refused (E. Daudet, Hist, de Immigration, ii.
371, 436) , though Louis in turn declined to accept a pension from
Bonaparte, and later, in 1803, though his fortunes were at their
lowest ebb, refused to abdicate at his suggestion and accept
an indemnity.

Suddenly expelled from Mittau in 1801 by the capricious
Paul I., Louis made his way, in the depth of winter, to Warsaw,
where he stayed for three years. All this time he was trying
to convert France to the royalist cause, and had a " conseil
royal " in Paris, founded at the end of 1799 by Royer-Collard,
Montesquiou and Clermont-Gallerande, the actions of which
were much impeded by the activity of the rival committee of
the comte d'Artois (see E. Daudet, op. cit. ii., and Remade,
Bonaparte et les Bourbons, Paris, 1899), but after 1800, and still
more after the failure of the royalist conspiracy of Cadoudal,
Pichegru and Moreau, followed by the execution of the due
d'Enghien (March 1804), and the assumption by Napoleon of
the title of emperor (May 1804), the royalist cause appeared
quite hopeless. In September 1804 Louis met the comte d'Artois
at Calmar in Sweden, and they issued a protest against Napoleon's
action, but being warned that he must not return to Poland, he
gained permission from Alexander I. again to retire to Mittau.
After Tilsit, however (1807), he was again forced to depart, and
took refuge in England, where he stayed first at Gosfield in Essex,
and afterwards (1809 onwards) at Hartwell in Buckinghamshire.

• Antoine-Louis-Francois de Besiade, comte, afterwards due,
d'Avaray. In spite of his loyalty and devotion, the effect of his
influence on Louis XVIII. may be gathered from a letter of J. de
Maistre to Blacas, quoted by FJ. Daudet, Hist, de I'emigration, ii._ 1 1 :
" celui cjui n'a pu dans aucun pays abprder aucun homme politique
sans 1'ahener n'est pas fait pour les affaires."

• See KlinckowstrSm, Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France.
Fersen says (i. 7), " Monsieur ferait mieux seul, mais il est entiere-
ment subjugue par 1'autre " (i.e. the comte d'Artois, who was in
turn under the influence of Calonne). See Daudet, op. cit. vol. i.

7 See E. Daudet, La Conjuration de Pichegru (Paris, 1901).

LOUIS XVIII.

In 1810 his wife died, and in 1811 d'Avaray died, his place as
favourite being taken by the comte de Blacas.1 After Napoleon's
defeats in 1813 the hopes of the royalists revived, and Louis
issued a fresh manifesto, in which he promised to recognize the
results of the Revolution. Negotiations were also opened with
Bernadotte, who seemed willing to support his cause, but was
really playing for his own hand.

In March 1814 the Allies entered Paris, and thanks to Talley-
rand's negotiations the restoration of the Bourbons was effected,
Louis XVIII. entering Paris on the 2nd of May 1814, after issuing
the declaration of St Ouen, in which he promised to grant the
nation a constitution (pctroyer une charte). He was now nearly
sixty, wearied by adversity, and a sufferer from gout and obesity.
But though clear-sighted, widely read and a good diplomatist,
his impressionable and sentimental nature made him too subject
to personal and family influences. His concessions to the
reactionary and clerical party of the emigres, headed by the
comte d'Artois and the duchesse d' Angouleme, aroused suspicions
of his loyalty to the constitution, the creation of his Maison
militaire alienated the army, and the constant presence of Blacas
made the formation of a united ministry impossible. After
the Hundred Days, during which the king was forced to flee to
Ghent, the dismissal of Blacas was made one of the conditions
of his second restoration. On the 8th of July he again entered
Paris, " in the baggage train of the allied armies," as his enemies
said, but in spite of this was received with the greatest enthusiasm 2
by a people weary of wars and looking for constitutional govern-
ment. He was forced to retain Talleyrand and Fouche in his
first ministry, but took the first opportunity of ridding himself
of them when the elections of 1815 assured him of a strong
royalist majority in the chamber (the chambre introwiable,
a name given it by Louis himself). At this time he came into
contact with the young comte (afterwards due) Decazes, prefect
of the police under Fouche, and minister of police in Richelieu's
ministry, who now became his favourite and gained his entire
confidence (see E. Daudet, Louis XVIII. et le due Decazes).
Having obtained a ministry in which he could trust, having
as members the due de Richelieu and Decazes, the king now
gave it his loyal support and did his best to shield his ministers
from the attacks of the royal family. In September 1816,
alarmed at the violence of the chambre introwiable, he was
persuaded to dissolve it. An attempt on the part of the
Ultras to regain their ascendancy over the king, by conniving
at the sudden return of Blacas from Rome to Paris,* ended in
failure.

The events and ministerial changes of Louis XVIII. 's reign
are described under the article FRANCE: History, but it may be
said here that the king's policy throughout was one of prudence
and common sense. His position was more passive than active,
and consisted in giving his support as far as possible to the

1 Pierre-Louis-Casimir, comte (afterwards due) de Blacas d'Aulps,
was as rigidly royalist as d'Avaray, but more able. E. Daudet, Hist,
de V emigration, i. 458, quotes a judgment of him by J. de Maistre:
" II est ne homme d'etat et ambassadeur."

2 See account by Decazes in E. Daudet, Louis XVIII. et le due
Decazes, pp. 48-49, and an interesting " secret and confidential "
letter of Castlereagh to Liverpool (July 8, 1815) in the unpublished
Foreign Office records: "The king sent for the duke and me this
evening to the Thuilleries. . . . We found him in a state of great
emotion and exaltation at the reception he had met with from his
subjects, which appears to have been even more animated than on his
former entrance. Indeed, during the long audience to which we were
admitted, it was almost impossible to converse, so loud were the
shouts of the people in the Thuilleries Gardens, which were full,
though it was then dark. Previous to the king's dismissing us, he
carried the duke and me to the open window. Candles were then
brought, which enabled the people to see the king with the duke
by his side. They ran from all parts of the Gardens, and formed a
solid mass of an immense extent, rending the air with acclamations.
The town is very generally illuminated, and I understand from men
who have traversed the principal streets that every demonstration
of joy was manifested by the inhabitants."

* It is as yet not proved that Blacas returned from his embassy
in response to a summons from the Ultras. But whether it was on
his _ own initiative or not, there can be no doubt as to the hopes
which they built on his arrival (see Daudet, Louis XVIII. et le due
Decazes.

ministry of the day. While Decazes was still in power, the king's
policy to a large extent followed his, and was rather liberal and
moderate, but after the assassination of the due de Berry (1820),
when he saw that Decazes could no longer carry on the govern-
ment, he sorrowfully acquiesced in his departure, showered
honours upon him, and transferred his support to Richelieu,
the head of the new ministry. In the absence of Decazes a new
favourite was found to amuse the king's old age, Madame du
Cayla (Zoe Talon, comtesse du Cayla), a protegee of the vicomte
Sosthene de la Rochefoucauld and consequently a creature of
the Ultras. As the king became more and more infirm, his power
of resistance to the intrigues of the Ultras became weaker. The
birth of a posthumous son to the due de Berry (Sept. 1820), the
death of Napoleon (5th of May 1821) and the resignation of
Richelieu left him entirely in their hands, and after Villele had
formed a ministry of a royalist character the comte d'Artois
was associated with the government, which passed more and
more out of the king's hands. He died on the i6th of September
1824, worn out in body, but still retaining flashes of his former
clear insight and scepticism. The character of Louis XVIII.
may be summed up in the words of Bonaparte, quoted by Sorel
(L'Europe et la Rev. Jr. viii. 416 footnote), " C'est Louis XVI.
avec moins de franchise et plus d'esprit. " He had all the Bourbon
characteristics, especially their love of power, combined with a
certain nobility of demeanour, and a consciousness of his dignity
as king. But his nature was cold, unsympathetic and calculating,
combined with a talent for intrigue, to which was added an
excellent memory and a ready wit. An interesting judgment
of him is contained in Queen Victoria's Letters, vol. i., in a letter
of Leopold I., king of the Belgians, to the queen before her
accession, dated the i8th of November 1836, "Poor Charles X.
is dead. . . . History will state that Louis XVIII. was a most
liberal monarch, reigning with great mildness and justice to
his end, but that his brother, from his despotic and harsh disposi-
tion, upset all the other had done and lost the throne. Louis
XVIII. was a clever, hard-hearted man, shackled by no principle,
very proud and false. Charles X. an honest man, a kind friend,"
&c. &c. This seems fairly just as a personal estimate, though
it does not do justice to their respective political roles.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There is no trustworthy or complete edition of
the writings and correspondence of Louis XVIII. The Memoires
de Louis XVIII. recueillis et mis en ordre par M. le due de D. . . .
(12 vols., Paris, 1832-1833) are compiled by Lamothe-Langon, a
well-known compiler of more or less apocryphal memoirs. From
the hand of Louis XVIII. are: Relation d'un voyage a Bruxelles et a
Coblentz, 1791 (Paris, 1823, with dedication to d'Avaray); and
Journal de Marie-Therese de France, duchesse d' Angouleme, corrige et
annote par Louis XVIII., ed. Imbert de St Amand (Paris, 1896).
Some of his letters are contained in collections, such as Lettres
d'Artwett; correspondence politique et privee de Louis XVIII., roi
de France (Paris, 1830; letters addressed to d'Avaray) ; Lettres et
instructions de Louis XVIII. au comte de Saint-Priest, ed. Barante
(Paris, 1845) ; Talleyrand et Louis XVIII., corr. pendant le congres de
Vienne, 1814-181;, ed. Pallain (1881 ; trans., 2 vols., 1881); see also
the corr. of Castlereagh, Metternich, J. de Maistre, the Wellington
Dispatches, &c., and such collections as Corr. diplomatique de Pozzo
di Borgo avec le comte de Nesselrode (2 vols., 1890-1897), the corre-
spondence of C. de Remusat, Villele, &c. The works of E. Daudet
are of the greatest importance, and based on original documents;
the chief are: La Terreur Blanche (Paris, 1878) ; Hist, de la restaura-
tion 1814-1830 (1882) ; Louis XVIII. et le due Decazes (1899) ; Hist,
de ^emigration, in three studies: (i.) Les Bourbons et la Russie (1886),
(ii.) Les Emigres et la seconde coalition (1886), (iii.) Coblenz, 1780-1793
(1890). Developed from these with the addition of much further
material is his Hist, de Immigration (3 vols., 1904-1907). Also based
on original documents is E. Romberg and A. Malet, Louis X VIII. et
les cent-jours a Gand (1898). See also G. Stenger, Le Retour des
Bourbons (1908) ; Cte. L. de Remade, Bonaparte et les Bourbons.
Relations secrets des agents du cte. de Provence sous le consulat (Paris,
1899). For various episodes, see Vicomte de Reiset, La Comtesse
de Balbi (Paris, 1908; contains a long bibliography, chiefly of
memoirs concerning the emigration, and is based on documents);
J. B. H. R. Capefigue, La Comtesse du Cayla (Paris, 1866) ; J. Turquan,
Les Favorites de Louis X VIII. (Paris, 1900) ; see also the chief
memoirs of the period, such as those of Talleyrand, Chateaubriand,
Guizot, due de Broglie, Villele, Vitrolles, Pasquier, the comtesse de
Boigne (ed. Nicoullaud, Paris, 1907), the Vicomte L. F. Sosthene
de la Rochefoucauld (15 vols., Paris, 1861-1864); anc< the writings
of Benjamin Constant, Chateaubriand, &c.

LOUIS I.— LOUIS II.

49

General Works. — See the histories of France, the Emigration, the
Restoration and especially the very full bibliographies to chapters
i., ii. and iii. of Cambridge Modern History, and Lavisseand Rambaud,
Hist, generate, vol. x. (C. B. P.)

LOUIS I. (1326-1382), called " the great," king of Hungary
and Poland, was the third son of Charles Robert, king of Hungary,
and Elizabeth, daughter of the Polish king, Ladislaus Lokietek.
In 1342 he succeeded his father as king of Hungary and was
crowned at Szekesfehervar on the 2ist of July with great en-
thusiasm. Though only sixteen he understood Latin, German
and Italian as well as his mother tongue. He owed his relatively
excellent education to the care of his mother, a woman of pro-
found political sagacity, who was his chief counsellor in diplo-
matic affairs during the greater part of his long reign. Italian
politics first occupied his attention. As a ruler of a rising
great power in search of a seaboard he was the natural adversary
of the Venetian republic, which already aimed at making the
Adriatic a purely Venetian sea and resented the proximity of
the Magyars in Dalmatia. The first trial of strength began in
I34S, when the city of Zara placed herself under the protection
of Hungary and was thereupon invested by the Venetians.
Louis fought a battle beneath the walls of Zara (July ist, 1346),
which has been immortalized by Tintoretto, but was defeated
and compelled to abandon the city to the republic. The struggle
was renewed eleven years later when Louis, having formed, with
infinite trouble, a league of all the enemies of Venice, including
the emperor, the Habsburgs, Genoa and other Italian towns,
attacked his maritime rival with such vigour that she sued for
peace, and by the treaty of Zara (February i8th, 1358) ceded
most of the Dalmatian towns and renounced the title of duke
of Dalmatia and Croatia, hitherto borne by the doge. Far
more important than the treaty itself was the consequent volun-
tary submission of the independent republic of Ragusa to the
suzerainty of the crown of St Stephen the same year, Louis,
in return for an annual tribute of 500 ducats and a fleet, under-
taking to defend Ragusa against all her enemies. Still more
glorious for Hungary was Louis's third war with Venice (1378-
1381), when he was again aided by the Genoese. At an early
stage of the contest Venice was so hardly pressed that she offered
to do homage to Hungary for all her possessions. But her
immense resources enabled her to rally her forces, and peace
was finally concluded between all the powers concerned at the
congress of Turin (1381), Venice virtually surrendering Dalmatia
to Louis and undertaking to pay him an annual tribute of 7000
ducats. The persistent hostility of Venice is partially attribut-
able to her constant fear lest Louis should inherit the crown
of Naples and thus threaten her trade and her sea-power from
two sides simultaneously. Louis's younger brother Andrew
had wedded Joanna, grand-daughter and heiress of old King
Robert of Naples, on whose death, in 1343, she reigned in her
own right, refused her consort any share in the government,
and is very strongly suspected of having secured his removal
by assassination on the night of the ipth of September 1345.
She then married Prince Louis of Taranto, and strong in the
double support of the papal court at Avignon and of the Venetian
republic (both of whom were opposed to Magyar aggrandisement
in Italy) questioned the right of Louis to the two Sicilies, which
he claimed as the next heir of his murdered brother. In 1347,
and again in 1350, Louis occupied Naples and craved per-
mission to be crowned king, but the papal see was inexorable
and he was compelled to withdraw. The matter was not decided
till 1378 when Joanna, having made the mistake of recognizing
the antipope Clement VII., was promptly deposed and ex-
communicated in favour of Prince Charles of Durazzo, who had
been brought up at the Hungarian court. Louis, always in-
exhaustible in expedients, determined to indemnify himself
in the north for his disappointments in the south. With the
Habsburgs, Hungary's natural rivals in the west, Louis generally
maintained friendly relations. From 1358 to 1368, however,
the restless ambition of Rudolph, duke of Austria, who acquired
Tirol and raised Vienna to the first rank among the cities of
Europe, caused Louis great uneasiness. But Louis always

preferred arbitration to war, and the peace congresses of Nagys-
zombat (1360) and of Pressburg (1360) summoned by him
adjusted all the outstanding differences between the centra)
European powers. Louis's diplomacy, moreover, was materially
assisted by his lifelong alliance with his uncle, the childless
Casimir the Great of Poland, who had appointed him his suc-
cessor; and on Casimir's death Louis was solemnly crowned king
of Poland at Cracow (Nov. 17, 1370). This personal union
of the two countries was more glorious than profitable. Louis
could give little attention to his unruly Polish subjects and
was never very happy among them. Immovably entrenched
behind their privileges, they rendered him only the minimum
of service; but he compelled their representatives, assembled at
Kassa, to recognize his daughter Maria and her affianced husband,
Count Sigismund of Brandenburg, as their future king and
queen by locking the gates of the city and allowing none to leave
it till they had consented to his wishes (1374). Louis is the first
European monarch who came into collision with the Turks.
He seems to have arrested their triumphant career (c. 1372),
and the fine church erected by him at Maria-Zell is a lasting
memorial of his victories. From the first he took a just view
of the Turkish peril, but the peculiar local and religious difficul-
ties of the whole situation in the Balkans prevented him from
dealing with it effectually (see HUNGARY, History). Louis died
suddenly at Nagyszombat on the loth of September 1382. He
left two daughters Maria and Jadwiga (the latter he destined
for the throne of Hungary) under the guardianship of his widow,
the daughter of the valiant ban of Bosnia, Stephen Kotromanic,
whom he married in 1353, and who was in every way worthy
of him.

See Rationes Collectorum Pontif. in Hungaria, 1281-1375 (Buda-
pest, 1887) ; Dano Gruber, The Struggle of Louis I. with the Venetians
for Dalmatia (Croat.) (Agram, 1903); Antal Por, Life of Louis the
Great (Hung.) (Budapest, 1892); and History of the Hungarian
Nation (Hung.) (vol. 3, Budapest, 1895). (R. N. B.)

LOUIS II. (1506-1526), king of Hungary and Bohemia, was
the only son of Wladislaus II., king of Hungary and Bohemia,
and the French princess Anne of Candale. Prematurely born
at Buda on the ist of July 1506, it required all the resources of
medical science to keep the sickly child alive, yet he developed
so precociously that at the age of thirteen he was well bearded
and moustached, while at eighteen his hair was silvery white.
His parts we're good and he could speak and write six languages
at a very early age, but the zeal of his guardians and tutors
to make a man of him betimes nearly ruined his feeble con-
stitution, while the riotous life led by him and his young consort,
Maria of Austria, whom he wedded on the I3th of January 1522,
speedily disqualified him for affairs, so that at last he became
an object of ridicule at his own court. He was crowned king of
Hungary on the 4th of June 1508, and king of Bohemia on the
nth of May 1509, and was declared of age when he succeeded
his father on the nth of December 1521. But during the greater
part of his reign he was the puppet of the magnates and kept
in such penury that he was often obliged to pawn his
jewels to get proper food and clothing. His guardians, Cardinal
Bakocz and Count George of Brandenburg- Anspach, shamefully
neglected him, squandered the royal revenues and distracted
the whole kingdom with their endless dissensions. Matters
grew even worse on the death of Bakdcz, when the magnates
Istvan Bathory, Jinos Zapolya and Istvan Verboczy fought
each other furiously, and used the diets as their tools. Added to
these troubles was the ever-present Turkish peril, which became
acute after the king, with insensate levity, arrested the Ottoman
envoy Berham in 1521 and refused to unite with Suleiman in a
league against the Habsburgs. Nevertheless in the last ex-
tremity Louis showed more of manhood than any of his coun-
sellors. It was he who restored something like order by interven-
ing between the magnates and the gentry at the diet of 1525.
It was he who collected in his camp at Tolna the army of 25,000
men which perished utterly on the fatal field of Mohacs on
the 29th of August 1526. He was drowned in the swollen
stream of Csele on his flight from the field, being the second

50

prince of the house of Jagiello who laid down his life for
Hungary.

See Rerum Hungaricarum libri (vol. 2, ed. Ferencz Toldy, Buda-
pest, 1867) ; and Jozsef Podhradczky, King Louis (Hung.) (Budapest,
i860). (R. N. B.)

LOUIS, the name of three kings of Naples, members of the
house of Anjou.

Lotus I., duke of Anjou and count of Maine (1339-1384), was
the second son of John II., king of France, and was born at
Vincennes on the 23rd of July 1339. Having been given the
duchy of Anjou in 1356 he led a wing of the French army at the
battle of Poitiers and was sent to England as a hostage after the
conclusion of the treaty of Bretigny in 1360, but he broke his
parole in 1363 and so brought about King John's return into
captivity. He took part in the war against England which was
renewed in 1369, uniting the rival houses of Foix and Armagnac
in the common cause, and in other ways rendering good service
to his brother, King Charles V. Anjou's entrance into the
troubled politics of Italy was one result of the papal schism
which opened in 1378. Anxious to secure the support of France,
the antipope Clement VII. persuaded the queen of Naples,
Joanna I., to name Louis as her heir, and about the same time
the death of Charles V. (September 1380) placed the duke in
the position of regent of France. Neglecting France to prosecute
his ambitions in Italy, he collected money and marched on
Naples; but although helped by Amadeus VI., count of Savoy,
he was unable to drive his rival, Charles, duke of Durazzo, from
Naples. His army was destroyed by disease and Louis himself
died at Biseglia, near Bari, on the zoth of September 1384,
leaving two sons, his successor, Louis II., and Charles, duke of
Calabria.

Louis II., duke of Anjou (1377-1417), born at Toulon on the
7th of October 1377, took up the struggle for Naples after his
father's death and was crowned king by Clement VII. in 1389.
After carrying on the contest for some years his enemies prevailed
and he was compelled to take refuge in France, where he took
part in the intestine strife which was desolating that kingdom.
A few years later he made other attempts to secure the kingdom
of Naples, which was now in the possession of Ladislas, a son of
his father's foeman, Charles of Durazzo, and he gained a victory
at Roccoserra in May 1411. Soon, however, he was again driven
back to France, and after sharing anew in the civil wars of his
country he died at Angers on the 29th of April 141.7. His wife
was Yolande, a daughter of John I., king of Aragon, and his
son was his successor, Louis III.

Louis III., duke of Anjou (1403-1434), born on the 2Sth of
September 1403, made in his turn an attempt to conquer Naples.
This was in 1420, and he had met with considerable success in his
task when he died at Cosenza on the isth of November 1434. In
1424 Louis received from King Charles VII. the duchy of Touraine.

Another titular king of Naples of this name was Louis, a son of
Philip, prince of Taranto. In 1346 he became the husband of
Joanna I., queen of Naples, and in 1352 he was crowned king.
After making an attempt to conquer Sicily he died on the 26th
of May 1362.

LOUIS (893-911), surnamed the " Child," king of the Franks,
son of the emperor Arnulf, was born at Ottingen, designated by
Arnulf as his successor in Germany in 897, and crowned on the
4th of February 900. Although he never received the imperial
crown, he is sometimes referred to as the emperor Louis IV. His
chief adviser was Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz; and during his
reign the kingdom was ravaged by Hungarians and torn with
internal strife. He appears to have passed his time in journeys
from place to place, and in 910 was the nominal leader of an
expedition against the Hungarians which was defeated near
Augsburg. Louis, who was the last of the German Carolingians,
died in August or September 911 and was buried at Regensburg.

See Regino von Prum, " Chronicon," in the Monumenta Ger-
maniae historica. Scriptores, Band i. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826);
E. Dummler, Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1887-
1888) ; O. Dietrich, Beitrage zur Geschichte Arnolfs von Karnthen und
Ludwigs des Kindes (Berlin, 1890) ; and E. Miihlbacher, Die Regesten
des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1881).

(A. W. H.*)

LOUIS— LOUIS, J. D.

LOUIS OF NASSAU (1538-1574), son of William, count of
Nassau, and Juliana von Stolberg, and younger brother of
William the Silent, took an active part in the revolt of the Nether-
lands against Spanish domination. He was one of the leaders
of the league of nobles who signed the document known as " the
Compromise " in 1566, and a little later was a member of the
deputation who presented the petition of grievances called " the
Request " to the regent, Margaret of Parma. It was on this
occasion that the appellation of " the Beggars " (les Gueux) was
first given to the opponents of King Philip's policy. On the
arrival of Alva at Brussels, Count Louis, with his brother
William, withdrew from the Netherlands and raised a body of
troops in defence of the patriot cause. In the spring of 1568
Louis invaded Friesland, and at Heiligerlee, on the 23rd of May,
completely defeated a Spanish force under Count Aremberg, who
was killed. Alva then advanced to meet the invaders with a
large army, and at Jemmingen (July 21), with very slight loss,
annihilated the levies of Louis, who himself escaped by swimming
from the field across an estuary of the Ems. He now joined the
army of his brother William, which had in October to beat a
hasty retreat before Alva's superior skill. Then Louis, in
company with his brothers William and Henry, made his way
across the French frontier to the camp of the Huguenot leader,
Admiral Coligny. Louis took an active part in the campaign
and fought heroically at Jarnac and Moncontour. In 1572
Louis, not deterred by previous disaster, raised a small force in
France, and, suddenly entering Hainaut, captured Mons (May 23).
Here he was besieged by Don Frederick of Toledo, Alva's natural
son, who blockaded all approach to the town. William made an
attempt to relieve his brother, but failed, and Mons had to
surrender (September 17). Louis, who was sick with fever, with-
drew to his ancestral home, Dillenburg, to recruit his health,
and then once more to devote his energies to the raising of money
and troops for another invasion of the Netherlands. In the hope
of drawing away the Spaniards from the siege of Leiden by a
diversion in the south, Louis, with his brothers John and Henry,
at the head of a force of mixed nationalities and little discipline,
crossed the frontier near Maastricht, and advanced as far as the
Mookerheide near Nijmwegen. Here he was attacked by a body
of Spanish veterans under an experienced leader, Sancho d'Avila,
and speedily routed. In the disorderly flight both Louis and his
younger brother Henry, refusing to abandon the field, lost their
lives. Their bodies were never recovered. Thus perished at the
age of thirty-six one of the most chivalrous and gifted of a gallant
band of brothers, four of whom laid down their lives in their
country's cause.

See P. J. Blok, Lodewijk von Nassau, 1538-1574 (The Hague,
1689), and the Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii. chs. vi. and vii.,
and bibliography (1904); also A. J. Van der Aa, Biographisch
woordenboek der Nederlanden (22 vols., Haarlem, 1852-1878).

LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837), French
statesman and financier, was born at Toul (Meurthe) on the
I3th of November 1755. At the outbreak of the Revolution the
abbe Louis (he had early taken orders) had already some reputa-
tion as a financial expert. He was in favour of the constitutional
movement, and on the great festival of federation (July 14, 1790)
he assisted Talleyrand, then bishop of Autun, to celebrate
mass at the altar erected in the Champ de Mars. In 1792,
however, he emigrated to England, where he spent his time
studying English institutions and especially the financial system
of Pitt. Returning to France on the establishment of the
Consulate he served successively in the ministry of war, the
council of state, and in the finance department in Holland and
in Paris. Made a baron of the empire in 1809 he nevertheless
supported the Bourbon restoration and was minister of finance
in 1814-1815. Baron Louis was deputy from 1815 to 1824 and
from 1827 to 1832. He resumed the portfolio of finance in 1815,
which he held also in the Decazes ministry of 1818; he was
the first minister of finance under the government of Louis
Philippe, and held the same portfolio in 1831-1832. In 1832 he
was made a peer of France and he died on the 26th of August
1837-

LOUIS PHILIPPE I.

LOUIS PHILIPPE I., king of the French (1773-1850), was the
eldest son of Louis Philip Joseph, duke of Orleans (known
during the Revolution as Philippe Egalite) and of Louise Marie
Adelaide de Bourbon, daughter of the due de Penthievre, and
was born at the Palais Royal in Paris on the 6th of October 1773.
On his father's side he was descended from the brother of Louis
XIV., on his mother's from the count of Toulouse, "legitimated "
son of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan. The legend that
he was a supposititious child, really the son of an Italian police
constable named Chiapponi, is dealt with elsewhere (see MARIA
STELLA, countess of Newborough). The god-parents of the duke
of Valois, as he was entitled till 1785, were Louis XVI. and Queen
Marie Antoinette; his governess was the famous Madame de
Genlis, to whose influence he doubtless owed many of the qualities
which later distinguished him: his wide, if superficial knowledge,
his orderliness, and perhaps his parsimony. Known since 1785
as the due de Chartres, he was sixteen at the outbreak of the
Revolution, into which — like his father — he threw himself with
ardour. In 1790 he joined the Jacobin Club, in which the
moderate elements still predominated, and was assiduous in
attendance at the debates of the National Assembly. He thus
became a persona grata with the party in power; he was already
a colonel of dragoons, and in 1792 he was given a command in
the army of the North. As a lieutenant-general, at the age
of eighteen, he was present at the cannonade of Valmy (Sept.
20) and played a conspicuous part in the victory of Jemappes
(Nov. 6).

The republic had meanwhile been proclaimed, and the due
de Chartres, who like his father had taken the name of Egalitl,
posed as its zealous adherent. Fortunately for him, he was too
young to be elected deputy to the Convention, and while his
father was voting for the death of Louis XVI. he was serving
under Dumouriez in Holland. He shared in the disastrous day
of Neerwinden (March 1 8, 1 793) ; was an accomplice of Dumouriez
in the plot to march on Paris and overthrow the republic, and
on the 5th of April escaped with him from the enraged soldiers
into the Austrian lines. He was destined not to return to France
for twenty years. He went first, with his sister Madame Adelaide ,
to Switzerland where he obtained a situation for a few months
as professor in the college of Reichenau under an assumed name,1
mainly in order to escape from the fury of the emigres. The
execution of his father in November 1793 had made him duke
of Orleans, and he now became the centre of the intrigues of the
Orleanist party. In 1795 he was at Hamburg with Dumouriez,
who still hoped to make him king. With characteristic caution
Louis Philippe refused to commit himself by any overt preten-
sions, and announced his intention of going to America; but
in the hope that something might happen in France to his
advantage, he postponed his departure, travelling instead
through the Scandinavian countries as far north as Lapland.
But in 1796, the Directory having offered to release his mother
and his two brothers, who had been kept in prison since the Terror,
on condition that he went to America, he set sail for the United
States, and in October settled in Philadelphia, where in February
1797 he was joined by his brothers the due de Montpensier and
the comte de Beaujolais. Two years were spent by them in
travels in New England, the region of the Great Lakes, and of the
Mississippi; then the news of the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire
decided them to return to Europe. They returned in 1800, only
to find Napoleon Bonaparte's power firmly established. Imme-
diately on his arrival, in February 1800, the duke of Orleans,
at the suggestion of Dumouriez, sought an interview with the
comte d'Artois, through whose instrumentality he was reconciled
with the exiled king Louis XVIII., who bestowed upon his brothers
the order of the Saint Esprit. The duke, however, refused to
join the army of Conde and to fight against France, an attitude
in which he persisted throughout, while maintaining his loyalty
to the king.2 He settled with his brothers at Twickenham, near

1 As M. Chabaud de la Tour. He was examined as to his fitness
before being appointed. Gruyer, p. 165.

1 This at least was his own claim and the Orleanist view. The
matter became a question of partisan controversy, the legitimists
asserting that he frequently offered to serve against France, but that

London, where he lived till 1807 — for the most part in studious
retirement.

On the i8th of May 1807 the due de Montpensier died at
Christchurch in Hampshire, where he had been taken for change
of air, of consumption. The comte de Beaujolais was ill of the
same disease and in 1808 the duke took him to Malta, where he
died on the 29th of May. The duke now, in response to an
invitation from King Ferdinand IV., visited Palermo where,
on the 25th of November 1809 he married Princess Maria
Amelia, the king's daughter. He remained in Sicily until the
news of Napoleon's abdication recalled him to France. He was
cordially received by Louis XVIII.; his military rank was
confirmed, he was named colonel-general of hussars, and such
of the vast Orleans estates as had not been sold were restored
to him by royal ordinance. The object may have been, as
M. Debidour suggests, to compromise him with the revolutionary
parties and to bind him to the throne; but it is more probable
that it was no more than an expression of the good will which
the king had shown him ever since 1800. The immediate effect
was to make him enormously rich, his wealth being increased
by his natural aptitude for business until, after the death of his
mother in 1821, his fortune was reckoned at some £8,000,000.

Meanwhile, in the heated atmosphere of the reaction, his
sympathy with the Liberal opposition brought him again under
suspicion. His attitude in the House of Peers in the autumn
of 1815 cost him a two years' exile to Twickenham; he courted
popularity by having his children educated en bourgeois at the
public schools; and the Palais Royal became the rendezvous
of all the leaders of that middle-class opinion by which he was
ultimately to be raised to the throne.

His opportunity came with the revolution of 1830. During
the three "July days" the duke kept himself discreetly in the
background, retiring first to Neuilly, then to Raincy. Meanwhile,
Thiers issued a proclamation pointing out that a Republic would
embroil France with all Europe, while the duke of Orleans,
who was " a prince devoted to the principles of the Revolution"
and had " carried the tricolour under fire " would be a " citizen
king " such as the country desired. This view was that of the
rump of the chamber still sitting at the Palais Bourbon, and
a deputation headed by Thiers and Laffitte waited upon the
duke to invite him to place himself at the head of affairs. He
returned with them to Paris on the 3Oth, and was elected by the
deputies lieutenant-general of the realm. The next day, wrapped
in a tricolour scarf and preceded by a drummer, he went on foot
to the H6tel de Ville — the headquarters of the republican party —
where he was publicly embraced by Lafayette as a symbol that
the republicans acknowledged the impossibility of realizing
their own ideals and were prepared to accept a monarchy based
on the popular will. Hitherto, in letters to Charles X., he had
protested the loyalty of his intentions,3 and the king now nomi-
nated him lieutenant-general and then, abdicating in favour of
his grandson the comte de Chambord appointed him regent.
On the 7th of August, however, the Chamber by a large majority
declared Charles X. deposed, and proclaimed Louis Philippe
"King of the French, by the grace of God and the will of the
people."

The career of Louis Philippe as King of the French is dealt
with elsewhere (see FRANCE: History). Here it must suffice
to note something of his personal attitude towards affairs and
the general effects which this produced. For the trappings
of authority he cared little. To conciliate the revolutionary

his offers were contemptuously refused. A. Debidour in the article
" Louis-Philippe " in La Grande Encydopidie supports the latter
view; but see Gruyer, La Jeunesse, and E. Daudet, Une reconcilia-
tion de famille en 1800," in the Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 15,
!9°5. P- 3°i- M. Daudet gives the account of the interview left by
the comte d'Artois, and he also makes it clear that Louis Philippe,
while protesting his loyalty to the head of his house, did not disguise
his opinion that a Restoration would only be possible if the king
accepted the essential changes made by the Revolution.

' To say that these protestations were hypocritical is to assume too
much. Personal ambition doubtless played a part; but he must
have soon realized that the French people had weaned of " legitim-
ism " and that a regency in the circumstances was impossible.

LOUISBURG— LOUISE OF PRUSSIA

passion for equality he was content to veil his kingship for a
while under a middle-class disguise. He erased the royal lilies
from the panels of his carriages; and the Palais Royal, like the
White House at Washington, stood open to all and sundry who
cared to come and shake hands with the head of the state. This
pose served to keep the democrats of the capital in a good
temper, and so leave him free to consolidate the somewhat
unstable foundation of his throne and to persuade his European
fellow-sovereigns to acknowledge in him not a revolutionary
but a conservative force. But when once his position at home
and abroad had been established, it became increasingly clear
that he possessed all the Bourbon tenaciousness of personal
power. When a " party of Resistance " came into office with
Casimir-Perier in March 1831, the speech from the throne
proclaimed that " France has desired that the monarchy should
become national, it does not desire that it should be powerless ";
and the migration of the royal family to the Tuileries symbolized
the right of the king not only to reign but to rule. Republican
and Socialist agitation, culminating in a series of dangerous
risings, strengthened the position of the king as defender of
middle-class interest; and since the middle classes constituted
the pays Itgal which alone was represented in Parliament, he
came to regard his position as unassailable, especially after the
suppression of the risings under Blanqui and Barbes in 1839.
Little by little his policy, always supported by a majority in
a house of representatives elected by a corrupt and narrow
franchise, became more reactionary and purely dynastic. His
position in France seeming to be unassailable, he sought to
strengthen it in Europe by family alliances. The fact that his
daughter Louise was the consort of Leopold I., king of the
Belgians, had brought him into intimate and cordial relations
with the English court, which did much to cement the entente
cordiale with Great Britain. Broken in 1840 during the affair
of Mehemet Ali (q.v.) the entente was patched up in 1841 by
the Straits Convention and re-cemented by visits paid by
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to the Chateau d'Eu in 1843
and 1845 and of Louis Philippe to Windsor in 1844, only to be
irretrievably wrecked by the affair of the " Spanish marriages,"
a deliberate attempt to revive the traditional Bourbon policy
of French predominance in Spain. If in this matter Louis
Philippe had seemed to sacrifice the international position of
France to dynastic interests, his attempt to re-establish it by
allying himself with the reactionary monarchies against the
Liberals of Switzerland finally alienated from him the French
Liberal opinion on which his authority was based. When, in
February 1848, Paris rose against him, he found that he was
practically isolated in France.

Charles X., after abdicating, had made a dignified exit from
France, marching to the coast surrounded by the cavalry,
infantry and artillery of his Guard. Louis Philippe was less
happily situated. Escaping with the queen from the Tuileries
by a back entrance, he made his way with her in disguise to
Honfleur, where the royal couple found refuge in a gardener's
cottage. They were ultimately smuggled out of the country
by the British consul at Havre as Mr and Mrs Smith,1 arriving
at Newhaven " unprovided with anything but the clothes they
wore." They settled at Claremont, placed at their disposal by
Queen Victoria, under the incognito of count and countess of
Neuilly. Here on the 26th of August 1850, Louis Philippe died.

The character of Louis Philippe is admirably traced by Queen
Victoria in a memorandum of May 2, 1855, in which she com-
pares him with Napoleon III. She speaks of his " vast know-
ledge upon all and every subject," and " his great activity of
mind." He was, unlike Napoleon, " thoroughly French in char-
acter, possessing all the liveliness and talkativeness of that
people." But she also speaks of the " tricks and over-reachings "
practised by him, " who in great as well as in small things took a
pleasure in being cleverer and more cunning than others, often
when there was no advantage to be gained by it, and which was,

1 There is a vivid account in Mr Featherstonhaugh to Lord Pal-
merston, Havre, March 3, 1848, in The Letters of Queen Victoria
(pop. ed., ii. 156).

unfortunately, strikingly displayed in the transactions connected
with the Spanish marriages, which led to the king's downfall,
and ruined him in the eyes of all Europe " (Letters, pop. ed.,
iii. 122).

Louis Philippe had eight children. His eldest son, the popular
Ferdinand Philippe, duke of Orleans (b. 1810), who had married
Princess Helena of Mecklenburg, was killed in a carriage accident
on the I3th of July 1842, leaving two sons, the comte de Paris
and the due de Chartres. The other children were Louise,
consort of Leopold I., king of the Belgians; Marie, who married
Prince Alexander of Wurttemberg and died in 1839; Louis
Charles, due de Nemours; Clementine, married to the duke of
Coburg-Kohary; Francois Ferdinand, prince de Joinville;
Henri Eugene, due d'Aumale (q.v.); Antoine Philippe, due de
Montpensier, who married the Infanta, younger sister of Queen
Isabella of Spain.

AUTHORITIES. — F. A. Gruyer, La Jeunesse du roi Louis-Philippe,
d'apres les pourtraits et des tableaux (Paris, 1909), edition de luxe,
with beautiful reproductions of portraits, miniatures, &c. ; Marquis
de Flers, Louis-Philippe, vie anecdotique, 1773-1850 (Paris, 1891);
E. Daudet, Hist, de Immigration (3 yols., Paris, 1886^1890). Of
general works on Louis Philippe's reign may be mentioned Louis
Blanc, Hist, de Dix Ans, 1830^-1840 (5 vols., Paris, 1841-1844),
from the republican point of view; J. O. d'Haussonville, Hist, de
la pplitique exterieure de la monarchie de juillet, 1830^184.8 (2 vols.,
Paris, 1850); V. de Nouvion, Hist, de Louis-Philippe (4 vols., Paris,
1857-1861) ; F. Guizot, France under Louis Philippe, 1841-1847 (Eng.
trans., 1865); Karl Hillebrand, Geschichte Frankreichs von der
Thronbesteigung Louis Philippes, 1830-1841 (2 yols., Gotha, 1877-
1879); V. du Bled, Hist, de la monarchie de juillet (2 vols., Paris,
1887); P. Thureau-Dangin, Hist, de la monarchie de juillet (Paris,
1887, &c.); A. Malet, " La France sous la monarchie de juillet," in
Lavisse and Rambaud's Hist. Generale, vol. x. ch. x. (Paris, 1898);
G. Weill, La France sous la monarchie de juillet (Paris, 1902) ; Emile
Bourgeois, " The Orleans Monarchy," ch. xv. of vol. x., and " The
Fall of Constitutionalism in France," ch. ii. of vol. xi. of the Cambridge
Modern History (Cambridge, 1907 and 1909). Further works will
be found in the bibliographies attached by M. Bourgeois to his
chapters (vol. x. p. 844, vol. xi. p. 874; the latter including works
on the revolution of 1848 and the Second Republic). -To the list of
published correspondence and memoirs there mentioned may be
added the Chronique of the duchesse de Dino (Paris, 1909).

Louis Philippe himself published the Journal du due de Chartres,
1700-1791; Man Journal, evenements de 1815 (2 vols., 1849);
Discours, allocutions et reponses de S. M. Louis-Philippe, 1830-
1846 ; and after his death was issued his Correspondence, memoire et
discours inedits (Paris, 1863). (W. A. P.)

LOUISBURG, a town and port of entry of Cape Breton county,
Nova Scotia, Canada, on the Sydney & Louisburg railway,
39 m. from Sydney. Pop. (1901) r$88. Under the French
rtgime, Louisburg was second only to Quebec. A fortress was
erected at enormous expense, and the city was the centre of the
cod-fisheries. The fortress was, however, captured in 1 745 by the
American colonists, under Sir William Pepperrell (1696-1759),
assisted by the British fleet, and again in 1758 by a British land
and sea force under General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) and
Admiral Boscawen. The jealousy of the British settlement of
Halifax led to its almost utter destruction, and only a few case-
mates now remain. Under English rule a fishing village grew up
on the other side of the harbour, and has now become the winter
shipping port of the Dominion Coal Company. The harbour is
deep, spacious and open all the year round, though occasionally
blocked by drift ice in the spring.

LOUISE [AUGUSTE WlLHELMINE AMALIE LUISE] (1776-1810),

queen of Prussia, was born on the loth of March 1776 in Hanover,
where her father, Prince Charles of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, was
field-marshal of the household brigade. Her mother was a
princess of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1793 Louise met at Frankfort
the crown prince of Prussia, afterwards King Frederick William
III., who was so fascinated by her beauty, and by the nobleness
of her character, that he asked her to become his wife. They
were married on the 24th of December of the same year. As
queen of Prussia she commanded universal respect and affection,
and nothing in Prussian history is more pathetic than the dignity
and unflinching courage with which she bore the sufferings
inflicted on her and her family during the war between Prussia
and France. After the battle of Jena she went with ther husband

LOUISE OF SAVOY— LOUISIANA

53

to Konigsberg, and when the battles of Eylau and Friedland
had placed Prussia absolutely at the mercy of France, she made
a personal appeal to Napoleon at his headquarters in Tilsit, but
without success. Early in 1808 she accompanied the king from
Memel to Konigsberg, whence, towards the end of the year, she
visited St Petersburg, returning to Berlin on the 23rd of December
1809. During the war Napoleon attempted to destroy the queen's
reputation, but the only effect of his charges in Prussia was to
make her more deeply beloved. On the igth of July 1810 she
died in her husband's arms, while visiting her father in Strelitz.
She was buried in the garden of the palace at Charlottenburg,
where a mausoleum, containing a fine recumbent statue by
Rauch, was built over her grave. In 1840 her husband was
buried by her side. The Louise Foundation (Luisenstift) for the
education of girls was established in her honour, and in 1814
Frederick William III. instituted the Order of Louise (Luisen-
orden). In 1880 a statue of Queen Louise was erected in the
Thiergarten at Berlin.

See F. Adami, Luise, Konigin von Preussen (7th ed., 1875);
E. Engel, Konigin Luise (1876) ; A. Kluckhohn, Luise, Konigin von
Preussen (1876); Mommsen and Treitschke, Konigin Luise (1876);
in English, Hudson, Life and Times of Louisa, Queen of Prussia
(1874); G. Horn, Das Buck von der Koniein Luise (Berlin, 1883);
A. Lonke, Konigin Luise von Preussen (Leipzig, 1903); H. von
Petersdorff, " Konigin Luise," Frauenleben, Bd. i. (Bielefeld, 1903,
and ed., 1904).

LOUISE OF SAVOY (1476-1531), duchess of AngoulSme,
mother of Francis I. of France, was daughter of a cadet of the
house of Savoy, Philip, count of Bresse, afterwards duke of
Savoy. Through her mother, Marguerite de Bourbon, she was
niece of Pierre de Bourbon, sire de Beaujeu, afterwards duke of
Bourbon. At the age of twelve she was married to Charles of
Valois, count of Angouleme, great-grandson of King Charles V.
The count died in 1496, leaving her the mother of two children,
Marguerite (b. 1492) and Francis (b. 1494). The accession of
Louis XII., who was childless, made Francis of Angouleme the
heir-presumptive to the throne of France. Louise brought her
children to the court, and received Amboise as her residence.
She lived henceforth in fear lest Louis should have a son; and
in consequence there was a secret rivalry between her and the
queen, Anne of Brittany. Finally, her son became king on the
ist of January 1515 by the death of Louis XII. From him
Louise received the county of Angouleme, which was erected
into a duchy, the duchy of Anjou, and the counties of Maine
and Beaufort. She was then given the title of "Madame."
From 1515 to her death, she took the chief share in the govern-
ment. The part she played has been variously judged, and is
not yet completely elucidated. It is certain that Louise had a
clear head, practical good sense and tenacity. In the critical
situation after the battle of Pavia (1525) she proved herself
equal to the emergency, maintained order in the kingdom, and
manoeuvred very skilfully to detach Henry VIII. of England
from the imperial alliance. But she appears to have been pas-
sionate, exceedingly rapacious and ever careful of her own
interest. In her malignant disputes with the constable de
Bourbon on the question of his wife's succession, she goaded
him to extreme measures, and her rapacity showed itself also
in her dealings with the surintendant des finances, J. de Beaune,
baron de Samblancay (d. 1527), who diverted the money intended
for the French soldiers in Italy into the coffers of the queen,
and suffered death in consequence. She died in 1531, and
Francis reunited to the crown her domains, which comprised
the Bourbonnais, Beaujolais, Auvergne, la Marche, Angoumois,
Maine and Anjou.

There is extant a Journal of Louise of Savoy, the authenticity of
which seems certain. It consists of brief notes — generally very
exact and sometimes ironical — which go as far as the year 1522.
The only trustworthy text is that published by Guichenon in his
Histoire gen&alogique de la maison de Savoie (ed.of 1778-1780, vol. iv.).

See Poesies de Francois I" et de Louise de Savoie . . ., ed. by
Champollion-Figeac (1847) ; De Maulde, Louise de Savoie et Francois
I" (1895); G. Jacqueton, La Politique exterieure de Louise de
Savoie . . . (1892); H. Hauser, " Etude critique sur le Journal de
Louise de-Savoie," in the Revue historique, vol. 86 (1904).

LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO, a chain of islands in the Pacific
Ocean, extending south-eastward from the easternmost promon-
tory of New Guinea, and included in the Australian territory of
Papua (British New Guinea). The islands number over eighty,
and are interspersed with reefs. They are rich in tropical forest
products, and gold has been discovered on the chief island,
Tagula or South-east (area 380 sq. m.) and on Misima or St
Aignan. The natives are of Papuan type, and practise can-
nibalism. The islands were probably observed 'by Torres in
1606, but were named by L. A. de Bougainville in 1768 after
Louis XV.

LOUISIANA, one of the Southern States of the United States
of America, lying on the N. coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Begin-
ning on the N., its boundary follows eastward the parallel of 33°
N., separating Louisiana from Arkansas; then descends the
Mississippi river, separating it from the state of Mississippi,
southward to 31° ; passes eastward on this parallel to the Pearl
river, still with the state of Mississippi on the E. ; and descends
this river to the Gulf. On the W. the Sabine river, from the
Gulf to 32° N., and, thence to the parallel of 33°, a line a little W.
of (and parallel to) the meridian of 94° W., separate Louisiana
from Texas. Including islands in the Gulf, the stretch of
latitude is approximately 4° and of longitude 5°. The total area
is 48,506 sq. m., of which 3097 sq. m. are water surface (including
1060 sq. m. of landlocked coastal bays called "lakes"). The
coast line is about 1 500 m.

Physical Features. — Geologically Louisiana is a very recent
creation, and belongs to the " Coastal Plain Province." Most of
the rocks or soils composing its surface were formed as submarine
deposits; the easternmost and southernmost parts are true river
deposits. These facts are the key to the state's chorography. The
average elevation of the state above the sea is only about 75 ft.,
and practically the only parts more than 400 ft. high are hills in
Sabine, Claiborne and Vernon parishes. The physiographic features
are few and very simple. The essential elements are five * : diluvial
plains, coast marshes, prairies, " bluffs " and " pine-hills " (to use
the local nomenclature). These were successive stages in the geo-
logic process which has created, and is still actively modifying, the
state. They are all seen, spread from N. to S., west of the Mississippi,
and also, save only the prairies, in the so-called " Florida parishes "
E. of the Mississippi.

These different elements in the region W. of the Mississippi are
arranged from N. to S. in the order of decreasing geologic age and
maturity. Beginning with elevations of about 400 ft. near the
Arkansas line, there is a gentle slope toward the S.E. The northern
part can best be regarded as a low plateau (once marine sediments)
sloping southward, traversed by the large diluvial valleys of the
Mississippi, Red and Ouachita rivers, and recut by smaller tributaries
into smaller plateaus and rather uniform flat-topped hills. The
" bluffs " (remnants of an eroded plain formed of alluvion deposits
over an old, mature and drowned topography) run through the
second tier of parishes W. of the Mississippi above the Red river.
Below this river prairie areas become increasingly common, con-
stituting the entire S.W. corner of the state. They are usually only
20 to 30 ft. above the sea in this district, never above 70, and are
generally treeless except for marginal timber along the sluggish,
meandering streams. One of their peculiar features — the sandy
circular " mounds," 2 to 10 ft. high and 20 to 30 or even 50 ft. in
diameter, sometimes surmounted by trees in the midst of a treeless
plain and sometimes arranged in circles and on radii, and decreasing
in size with distance from the centre of the field — has been variously
explained. The mounds were probably formed by some gentle
eruptive action like that exhibited in the " mud hills " along the
Mississippi below New Orleans; but no explanation is generally
accepted. The prairies shade off into the coast marshes. This
fringe of wooded swamp and sea marsh is generally 20 to 30, but in
places even 50 and 60 m. in width. Where the marsh is open and
grassy, flooded only at high tides or in rainy seasons, and the ground
firm enough to bear cattle, it is used as range. Considerable tracts
have also been diked and reclaimed for cotton, sugar and especially
for rice culture. The tidal action of the gulf is so slight and the
marshes are so low that perfect drainage cannot be obtained through
tide gates, which must therefore be supplemented by pumping
machinery when rains are heavy or landward winds long prevail.
Slight ridges along the streams and bayous which traverse it, and
occasional patches of slightly elevated prairie, relieve in a measure
the monotonous expanse. It is in and along the borders of this
coast swamp region that most of the rice and much of the sugar cane

1 A sixth, less characteristic, might be included, viz. the " pine
flats," generally wet, which are N. of Lake Pontchartrain, between
the alluvial lands and the pine hills, and, in the S.E. corner of the
state, between the hills and the prairie.

54

LOUISIANA

of the state are grown. Long bar-like " islands " (conspicuous high
land rising above the marsh and prairie) — Orange, Petite Anse,
Grand Cote, Cote Blanche and Belle Isle — offer very interesting
topographical and geological problems. " Trembling prairies "-
land that trembles under the tread of men or cattle-^-are common
near the coast. Most of the swamp fringe is reclaimable. The
marshes encroach most upon the parishes of St Charles, Orleans and
Plaquemines. In St Charles the cultivable strip of land along the
river is only about 3 m. wide. In Orleans the city of New Orleans
occupies nearly all the high ground and encroaches on the swamps.
In Plaquemines there is practically no cultivable land below Forts
Jackson and St Philip, and above there is only a narrow strip.

The alluvial lands include the river flood plains. The principal
rivers are the Mississippi, which flows nearly 600 m. through and
along the border of the state, the Red river, the Ouachita (or Washita),
Sabine and Pearl; all except the last are navigable at all stages of
the water. There are many " bayous," several of which are of great
importance, both for navigation and for drainage. They may be
characterized as secondary outlets of the rivers or flood distributaries.
Among them are Bayou Teche, Bayou Plaquemine, Atchafalaya
Bayou,1 Bayou Lafourche and Bayou Boeuf. Almost all secondary
water-courses, particularly if they have sluggish currents, are known
as bayous. Some might well be called lakes, and others rivers. The
alluvial portion of the state, especially below the mouth of the Red
river, is an intricate network of these bayous, which, before their
closure by a levee system, served partially, in time of flood, to carry
off the escaping surplus of river waters. They are comparatively in-
active at all seasons; indeed, the action of the tides and back-waters
and the tangle of vegetation in the sombre swamps and forests
through which they run, often render their currents almost im-
perceptible at ordinary water. Navigable waters are said to pene-
trate all but four of the parishes of the state, their total length
approximating 3800 m.

Each of the larger streams, as well as a large proportion of the
smaller ones, is accompanied by a belt of bottom land, of greater or
less width, lyirrg low as regards the stream, and liable to overflow
at times of high water. These flood plains form collectively what
is known as the alluvial region, which extends in a broad belt down
the Mississippi, from the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico,
and up the Ouachita and its branches and the Red river to and
beyond the limits of the state. Its breadth along the Mississippi
within Louisiana ranges from 10 to 50 or 60 m., and that along the
Red river and the Ouachita has an average breadth of 10 m. Through
its great flood-plain the Mississippi river winds upon the summit of
a ridge formed by its own deposits. In each direction the country
falls away in a succession of minor undulations, the summits of the
ridges being occupied by the streams and bayous. Nearly all of
this vast flood-plain lies below the level of high water in the Missis-
sippi, and, but tor the protection afforded by the levees, every con-
siderable rise of its waters would inundate vast areas of fertile and
cultivated land. The low regions of Louisiana, including the alluvial
lands and the coast swamps, comprise about 20,000 sq. m., or nearly
one-half the area of the state. The remainder consists of the uplands
of prairie and forest.

The alluvial region of the state in 1909 was mainly protected
against overflow from the Mississippi river by 754 m. of levee on the
Mississippi river within the state, and 84 m. on the Mississippi river,
Cypress and Amos Bayou in Arkansas, forming part of the general
system which extends through other states, 1000 m. up to the
highlands about the junction of the Ohio river. The state and the
national government co-operate in the construction and maintenance
of this system, but the Federal government did not give material aid
(the only exception being the grant of swamp lands m 1850) until the
exceptionally disastrous flood in 1882. For about a century and a
half before that time, levee building had been undertaken in a more
or less spasmodic and tentative way, first by riparian proprietors,
then by local combinations of public and private interests, and
finally by the state, acting through levee districts, advised by a
Board of Engineers. The Federal government, after its participation
in the work, acted through a Board of Engineers, known as the
" Mississippi River Commission." The system of 754 m. of Missis-
sippi river levees, within the state, was built almost entirely after
1866, and represents an expenditure of about $43,000,000 for
primary construction alone; of this sum,, the national government
contributed probably a third (the state expended about $24,000,000
on levees before the Civil War). Some of the levees, especially those
in swampy regions where outlet bayous are closed, are of extra-
ordinary solidity and dimensions, being 20 to 40 ft. high, or even
more, across streams or bayous — formerly outlets — with bases of
8 or 10 ft. to one of height. The task of maintenance consists almost
entirely in closing the gaps which occur when the banks on which
the levees are built cave into the river. Levee systems on some of
the interior or tributary rivers, aggregating some 602 m., are ex-
clusively built and maintained by the state. Louisiana also contri-
butes largely to the 84 m. of levee in Arkansas, necessary to its
security from overflow. The improvement of bayous, channels, the

'The original channel of the Red river. It has been so useful in
relieving the Mississippi of floods, that the Red river may possibly
be permanently diverted again into the bayou artificially.

construction of canals and the drainage of swamp lands also contri-
bute to the protection of the state.

The lakes are mainly in three classes. First come the coast
lagoons, many of which are merely land-locked salt-water bays,
the waters of which rise and fall with the tides. Of this class are
Pontchartrain, Borgne, Maurepas and Sabine. These are simply
parts of the sea which have escaped the filling-in process carried on
by the great river and the lesser streams. A second class, called
"ox-bow" lakes, large in numbers but small in area, includes
ordinary cut-off meanders along the Mississippi and Red rivers. A
third class, those upon the Red river and its branches, are caused
mainly by the partial stoppage of the water above Shreveport by
the "raft," a mass of drift such as frequently gathers in western
rivers, which for a distance of 45 m. almost completely closed the
channel until it was broken up by government engineers. These
lakes are much larger at flood season than at other times, and have
been much reduced in size by the cutting of a channel through the
raft. Lakes of this class are sometimes formed by the choking of
the mouth of feeble tributaries by silt deposited by the Red river
where the currents meet.

Mineral Resources. — Mineral resources are few, but important.
In the Tertiary region are found small quantities of iron ore and an
indifferent brown coal. The important mineral products are salt,
sulphur, petroleum and natural gas. The deposit of rock salt on
Petite Anse Island, in the coast swamp region, has been extensively
worked since its discovery during the Civil War. The deposit is in
places loco ft. thick, and yields salt of extraordinary purity (some-
times 99 % pure). There are large deposits also on Orange Island
(in places at least 1800 ft. thick), on Week's Island, on Belle Isle
and probably beneath the intervening marshes. In 1907 Louisiana
ranked sixth among the salt-producing states of the country (after
New York, Michigan, Ohio, Kansas and California), its output being
valued at $226,892, only a few hundred dollars more than that of
Texas. Near Lake Charles, at Sulphur, are very extraordinary
sulphur deposits. The beds lie several (for the most part four to six)
hundred feet underground and are of disputed origin. Many regard
them as products of an extinct volcano; according to others they
are of vegetable origin (they are found in conjunction with gypsum).
They were discovered before 1870 by searchers after petroleum,
but their exploitation remained in the experimental stage until about
1900. The sulphur is dissolved by superheated water forced down •
pipes, and the water with sulphur in solution is forced upward by
not air pressure through other pipes; the sulphur comes, 99 % pure,
to the surface of the ground, where it is cooled in immense bins,
and then broken up and loaded directly upon cars for shipment.
These mines divide with the Sicilian mines the control of the sulphur
market of the world. The value of the sulphur taken from the mines
of Louisiana in 1907 was a little more than $5,000,000. Evidences
of petroleum were discovered long ago, in the very field where in
recent years the Beaumont and Vinton wells were bored. In 1909
Jennings was the chief field in Louisiana, lesser fields being at
Welsh, Anse la Butte, Caddo and Vinton. The Jennings field, one
of the greatest in the United States, produced up to and including
1907 more than 26,000,000 barrels of high-grade oil, twelve-thir-
teenths of which came from an area of only 50 acres, one well pro-
ducing a tenth of the entire output. In 1907 the state produced
5,000,221 barrels of petroleum, valued at $4,063,033. Natural gas
is found in Caddo parish, about 20 m. N. of Shreveport. The
depth of the wells is from 840 to 2150 ft.; two wells completed in
1907 had a daily capacity estimated at 35,000,000 to 50,000,000 ft.
Shreveport, Oil City, Blanchard, Mooringsport, Bossier City and
Texarkana are supplied with natural gas by pipe lines from this field.
Kaolin is found in the state; in 1907 the total value of all clay
products was $928,579.

Climate. — The climate is semi-tropical and exceptionally equable
over large areas. In the S. and S.E. the equable temperature is
largely the effect of the network of bays, bayous and lakes, and
throughout the state the climate is materially influenced by the pre-
vailing southerly winds from the Gulf of Mexico. Some daily varia-
tion in the temperature of adjoining localities is caused by a dark
soil in the one and a light soil in the other, but the differences of mean
annual temperature are almost wholly due to differences of latitude
and elevation. The mean annual temperature for a period of nineteen
years (Jan. 1888 to Dec. 1906) ranged from 70° F. at Port Eads, in
the extreme S.E., to 65° F. at Lake Providence, in the N.E. The
mean temperature of July, the hottest month, is comparatively
uniform over the state, varying only from 81° to 83°; the mean for
January, the coldest month, varies from 46° in the extreme north
to 56° in the extreme south. Even in the coldest localities eight or
nine months are wholly free from frost, and in the coast parishes
frost occurs only a few days in each year. Rainfall is usually heavy
in the S.E., but it decreases toward the N.W. As much as 85-6 in.
have fallen within a year at New Orleans, but in this locality the
average for a year is about 57-6 in.; at Shreveport the average is
46 in., and for the entire state it is 55 in. Much more rain falls in
summer than in any other season, but in some parts the heaviest
rainfall is in the spring and in others in the winter. A light fall of
snow is not uncommon in the northern parishes, but in the southern
part of the state snow falls not oftener than once in three to five
years. Hailstorms are infrequent everywhere, but especially so

Longitude West 92° of Greenwich

Lower course of the

Mississippi

Scale, 1:1,140,000

English Mile*
5 "> 20

tchartrain

GULF

MEXICO

£* - ,^3 Pi. Chico

^Breton

Pt. La Forttino

LOU [SIANA

Scale. 1:1,700,000

Parish Seats
Parish Boundaries
Railways
Canals ...

Emery W*Utff sc.

LOUISIANA

55

in the south. Only a fourth to a half of the days of the different
months are wholly or partly clear even in the north, and in the same
district the monthly means of relative humidity vary from 65 to 70.

Fauna. — The entire state is included within the Austro-riparian
life zone; the higher portions fall within the Carolinian area and the
lower portions, including the Gulf and the Mississippi embayment
almost to the N.E. corner of the state, constitute a special semi-
tropical region. The native fauna of the state resembles in its
general features that of the other Gulf states. The feral fauna was
once rather varied. Black bears, wolves and deer are^ not yet
extinct, and more rarely a " wild cat " (lynx) or " panther " (puma)
is seen in the swamps. Of smaller mammals, raccoons, squirrels and
opossums are very common. Every bayou contains alligators;
and reptiles of various species, such as turtles, lizards, horned toads,
rattlesnakes and moccasins are abundant. Shrimps, frogs (of great
commercial importance), terrapin, clams and oysters are common.
Only in very recent years have oysters, though plentiful, become of
competitive importance in the national market; they are greatly
favoured by state protective legislation. In 1904 a state oyster
commission was created to supplant the independent control by the
parishes. An important boundary dispute with Mississippi arose
over beds lying near the state line. The state leases the beds at a
low annual rental in tracts (limited for each person, firm or corpora-
tion to loco acres), and draws from them a considerable revenue.
The avifauna is varied and abundant, comprising eagles, vultures
(protected by law), hawks, owls, pelicans, cranes, turkeys, geese,
" partridges (called quail or " Bob White " elsewhere), ducks, &c.,
besides numerous smaller species, many of which are brilliant of
plumage but harsh of voice.

Flora. — Heavy rainfall, high temperature and fertile soil combine
to cover the greater part of the state, and particularly the alluvial
regions and the coast swamps, with a most luxuriant subtropical
vegetation, both arborescent and herbaceous. Louisiana is justly
celebrated for the beauty and fragrance of its flowers. The range of
temperature is not sufficient to give the variety of annual wild flowers
of more northern climates; nevertheless flowers cover the bottom
lands and uplands in great profusion. The upland flora is the more
diversified. Flowering annuals are mainly aquatic. Water lilies,
water hyacinths, which are an obstruction in many streams, and
irises in rich variety give colour to the coast wastes and sombre
bayous. Notable among the flora are roses, japonicas, hibiscus
shrubs of various species, poinsettias, tea olives, crepe myrtle,
jasmines, magnolias, camellias, oleanders, chrysanthemums, ger-
aniums and plumbagos. The value and variety of the timber are
very great. Much of the river swamp region is covered with cypress
trees festooned with Spanish moss. The most common species in
the alluvial regions and, to a less degree, in the drier portions of the
swamps and in the stream bottoms of the prairies are various oaks,
black, sweet and tupelo gum, holly, cotton-wood, poplar, magnolia
sweet bay, the tulip tree, catalpa, black walnut, pecans, hickories,
ash, beech and short-leaf pine. On drier and higher soils are the
persimmon, sassafras, red maple, elm, black haw, hawthorn, various
oaks (in all 10 species occur), hickories and splendid forests of long-
leaf and loblolly yellow pine.

Forestry. — These forests are the greatest and finest of their kind
remaining in the United States. In 1898 it was estimated by Henry
Gannett (followed by the Federal census of 1900) that the timbered
area covered 28,300 sq. m. Professor C. S. Sargent estimated in
1884 that the stand of short-leaf and long-leaf pines aggregated
respectively 21,625 and 26,558 million feet. The timber product
of 1900 ($17,294,444) was almost ten times that of 1880 ($1,764,640) ;
and in 1905 the product value ($35,192,374) was more than twice
that of 1900. Nevertheless, in 1900 the cypress forests remained
practically untouched, only slight impression had been made upon
the pine areas, and the hard-wood forests, except that they had been
culled of their choicest oak, remained in their primal state (U.S.
census). Between 1900 and 1905 furniture factories and planing
mills became somewhat important. Pond pine occurs only near the
Pearl river. Curly pine is fairly abundant. The eastern pine belt is
composed of the long-leaf pine, interspersed with some loblolly. It
covers an area of about 3900 sq. m. The south-western pine belt
contains the heaviest growth of long-leaf pine timber in the world,
covering an area of about 4200 sq. m., and occasionally interspersed
with short-leaf pine. The short-leaf growth is especially heavy in
the north-western portion of the state, while the long-leaf is found
mainly in large masses N. and S. of the Red river around Alexandria
as a centre. The cypress forests of the alluvial and overflowed
lands in the S. of the state are among the largest and the most
heavily timbered known. The hard-woods are found in the river
bottoms throughout the state.

Agriculture and Soils. — Agriculture is the chief industry of the
state. In 1900 26-2% of the land was in farms, and of this
area about two-fifths was improved. The size of the average
farm decreased in the two preceding decades from 171-3 to 95-4
acres. The percentage of farms operated by owners (i.e. owners,
part owners, owners and tenants, and managers) fell from 64-8
to 42-1% from 1880 to 1900, and the percentage operated by

cash tenants increased from 13-8 in 1880 to 24-9 in 1900, and by
share tenants from 21-5 in 1880 to 33-0 in 1900; the percentage
of farms operated by white farmers was 49-8 in 1900. The value
of farm property, $198,536,906 in 1900, increased 79-8% in the
preceding decade. The value of live stock in the latter year
was $28,869,506. The total value of all farm products in 1899
was $72,667,302, of which $59,276,092 was the value of the
distinctive crops — cotton, sugar and rice. The state bureau of
agriculture in 1903 estimated that of the total area 14-9 millions
of acres were timber land, 5-7 millions pasture and marsh, and
5-0 millions cultivated farm land.

In the N. there are many sandy districts in the uplands, also
sandy clays; in the " second bottoms " of the streams fertile
sandy loams; abundant tertiary marls in the north-central
region; some gypsum in the cretaceous " islands "; and some
fossiliferous marls with decomposed limestones. The prairies of
south-western Louisiana have much yellow marl underlying them.
Alluvial soil and bluff, the location of which has been indicated,
are of primary agricultural importance. Reclaimed marsh-land
and fresh alluvium (the so-called " front-lands " on rivers and
bayous) are choice soil for Indian corn, sugar-cane, perique
tobacco, semi-tropical fruits and cotton. The bluff lands are
simply old alluvium now well drained and above all floods.
The prairies of the S.W. are devoted almost exclusively to rice.
On the hills yellow-leaf tobacco can be grown. Cereals and
forage plants can be successfully grown everywhere, and varied
and profitable agriculture is possible even on the " pine-barrens "
or uplands of the N.; but more intelligent and more intensive
farming is necessary than that practised by the average " piney-
woods " farmer. The alluvial section of lower Louisiana is
mostly devoted to sugar, and farther northward to Indian corn
and cotton.

Cotton is the principal crop. In 1907 Louisiana ranked eighth in
acreage of cotton (1,622,000 acres) among the states of the United
States, and in 1907-1908 the cotton crop (675,428 bales) was eighth
among the crops of the states. The average yield per acre varies
from about -45 to -75 bale according to the season. In good seasons
and exceptional localities the yield may approach a bale per acre,
as in Assumption parisli, and in the Mississippi valley at the junction
of Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas. For many years there has
been a reaction against the all-cotton farming system. In general,
the small cotton farmer was at the mercy of the commission merchant,
to whom he mortgaged his crops in advance; but this evil has
lessened, and in some districts the system of advancing is either non-
existent or very slightly developed.

In 1907-1908 all the sugar produced from cane grown in the United
States came from Louisiana (335,000 long tons) and Texas (12,000
tons) ; in the same year cane sugar from Hawaii amounted to
420,000 tons, from Porto Rico to 217,000 tons and from the Philip-
pines to 135,000 tons; and the total yield of beet sugar from the
United States was 413,954 tons. Of all the cane grown, an amount
between one-sixth and one-quarter — and that the best — must be
reserved for seed every other year, and this is a great handicap to
the state in competing with other cane regions and with the sugar
beet. Of the total sugar consumption of the country in 1899-1904
Louisiana produced somewhat more than a fifteenth. Since about
1880 there have been central factories, and their increase has been a
very prominent factor in the development of the industry, as it has
been in Cuba. Though very much of the region S. of the Red river
is fairly well suited to sugar-growing, it is stilltrue that sugar cannot,
over much of this area, be grown to so great advantage as other
crops. Its hold upon the delta region is, however, almost un-
challenged, especially since the rice farmers have found in the prairie
lands that excel the delta for their purposes. Sugar is grown also
in St Landry and the eastern part of Attakapas— ^a name formerly
loosely applied to what are now St Mary, Iberia, Vermilion, St
Martin and Lafayette parishes. Though introduced with success
from Santo Domingo about the middle of the '8th century, the sugar
industry practically dates from 1796, when Etienne Bore first suc-
ceeded in crystallizing and clarifying the syrup. Steam motive
power was first introduced on the plantations in 1822. The average
product of the ten seasons i894-iox>4 was 299,745 tons. A state
sugar experiment station is maintained at Audubon Park in New
Orleans, its work embracing the development of seedlings, the
improvement of cane varieties, the study of fungus diseases of the
cane, the improvement of mill methods and the reconciliation of
such methods (for example, the use of sulphur as a bleaching and
clarifying agent) with the requirements of " pure food " laws.
Good work has also been done by the Audubon sugar school of the
state university, founded " for the highest scientific training in the
growing of sugar cane and in the technology of sugar manufacture."

LOUISIANA

Tobacco might be grown profitably over a large part of the state,
but in reality very little is grown. The strong, black perique of the
delta — cultivated very generally in the lower alluvial region before
the Civil War, but now almost exclusively in St James parish — is a
famous leaf, grown since early colonial times. Bright or yellow
plug and smoking leaf are grown on the pine uplands and pine
flats," and a small amount of cigar tobacco on the flats, prairies
and " bluffs." The total value of the tobacco crop of 35,000 ft in
1907 was only $10,000, an amount exceeded by each of the other
24 tobacco-growing states, and the crop was about one-twentieth
of i % of the product of the whole United States.

Rice farming, which had its beginning immediately after the Civil
War and first became prominent in the 'seventies, has developed
enormously since 1880. From 1879 to 1899 the product increased
twenty-five fold. Formerly the grain was raised by preference in
the river bottoms, which still yield, almost invariably, the earliest
rice of the season and perhaps the finest. The " buckshot clays " of
the backlands, which are so stiff that they can scarcely be ploughed
until flooded and softened, and are remarkably retentive of moisture,
are ideal rice soil ; but none of the alluvial lands has an underlying
hardpan, and they cannot as a rule be drained sufficiently to make
the use of heavy harvesting machinery possible. In 1880 the prairies
of the S.W. were opened to settlement by the railway. These prairies
are traversed by ridges, which facilitate irrigation, and are underlaid
by an impervious subsoil, which facilitates both effective storage
and drainage. Thus the use of machinery became possible, and this
revolutionized the entire industry. The year 1884 may be taken as
the initial date of the new period, and the grain is now harvested
exactly as is wheat in the west-central states. Previously the grain
had ordinarily been cut with sickles and harvested by hand. The
farms were also small, usually from 5 to 10 acres. They are now
very much larger. All the prairies district — the centre of which is
Crowley — is becoming one great rice field. Some rice also is grown
on the lowlands of the Mississippi valley, notably in Plaquemines,
Jefferson and Lafourche parishes. In the decade 1881-1890 Louis-
iana produced about half of the total yield of the country, and from
1891 to 1900 about five-sevenths. In 1904 and 1906 the Louisiana
crop, about one-half of the total yield of the country, was larger
than that of any other state; but in 1905 and in 1907 (6,192,955 Ib
and 7,378,000 Ib respectively) the Louisiana crop was second in size
to that of Texas. Carolina and Honduras rices were practically
the only varieties until after 1896. Since that time select Japanese
species, chosen for superior milling qualities, have been widely intro-
duced, as the market prejudice in favour of head rice made the large
percentage of broken rice a heavy handicap to the farmers. Hun-
dreds of varieties have been tested by the state and federal agri-
cultural experiment stations. A strong tendency to run to red rice
(hardier, but not so marketable) has been a second great difficulty to
overcome.

Irrigation is almost entirely confined to rice farms. In the prairie
region there is abundant water at depths of 100 to 400 ft. beneath
the surface, but this was little used for irrigation for the first few
years of the development of this field, when water was pumped from
the streams and canals. In 1902 nearly one-eighth of the acreage
irrigated was by systems supplied from wells. The irrigated rice
area increased 92-9% from 1899 to 1902, and the construction cost
of irrigation works ($4,747,359 in 1902; $12.25 P61" irrigated acre)
87-7 % in the same years. This increase was almost wholly in the
prairie parishes. Of the total irrigated area for rice of 387,580 acres
m 1902, 310,670 acres were in the parishes of Calcasieu, Acadia and
Vermilion. In the Mississippi valley water is taken from the river
by flumes in the levees or by siphons. The danger of floods and the
difficulty of drainage make the extension of the practice unprofitable,
and the opening of the prairies has made it unnecessary.

Many of the fruits of warm-temperate and semi-tropical lands,
whether native or exotic, including oranges, olives, figs, grape-fruit,
kumquats and pomegranates are cultivated. Oranges are grown
especially on the coast. There are many fine groves on the Mississippi
below New Orleans. The fig is a common door-yard tree as in other
Gulf and South Atlantic states, and is never killed down by frost.
Louisiana produced in 1899 only a fifth as great a value in sub-
tropic fruits as Arizona and Texas combined. Orchard fruits are
fairly varied, but, compared with other states, unimportant; and
the production of small fruits is comparatively small, the largest
crop being strawberries. Oranges and pears are seriously damaged
by insect and fungus pests. The total value of fruit products in
1899 was $412,933. Among nuts the native pecan is exceptionally
abundant, the product (637,470 ft in 1899) being much greater than
that of any other state save Texas.

The total value of cereal products in 1899 was $14,491,796, in-
cluding Indian corn valued at $10,327,723 and rice valued at
$4,044,489; in 1907 it was more than $27,300,000, including Indian
corn valued at $19,600,000, rice valued at $7,378,000 and oats valued
at $223,000. Indian corn is grown only for home use. Dairying
interests are not largely developed, and in Texas and the adjoining
states the " Texas fever " and " charbon " have done, great damage
to cattle. Forage crops are little grown, though soil conditions are
favourable. Cowpeas are a common fertilizer. Garden trucking
is very slightly developed, but has been successful where it has
been tried. The state maintains a crop pest commission, the

duties of which include the inspection of all nursery stock sold in
the state.

Manufactures. — The state's manufacturing interests have
during the last few decades grown greatly in importance. From
1890 to 1900 the capital invested, the cost of materials used and
the value of output (in 1900 , $121,181,683) increased respectively
225-4, 147-3 an<l I09 6%. The value of the factory products
in 1900 was $111,397,919; in 1905 it was $186,379,592. Slightly
above one-half of the product of 1900 was from New Orleans,
and in 1905 about 45-4%. A constitutional amendment of 1902
exempted from parochial and municipal taxes between 1900 and
1 910 practically all factories and mines in the state, employing at
least five hands. Manufacturing industries are for the most
part closely related to the products of the soil, about two-thirds of
the value of all manufactures in 1900 and in 1905 being repre-
sented by sugar and molasses refining, lumber and timber
products, cotton-seed oil and cake, and rice cleaned and polished.

Rice is milled at New Orleans, Crowley, Abbeville, Gayden,
Jennings and Lake Charles. Ramie fibre and jute are available for
coarse cloth; cotton weaving is almost non-existent. The lumber
industry is centred chiefly in Calcasieu parish. Lake Charles, West-
lake, Bogalusa, Bon Ami, Carson, Fisher, Fullerton, Leesville,
Oakdale and Pickering were the leading sawmill towns of the state
in 1908. Of the rarer woods particular mention may be made of
curly pine, yielding a wood of beautiful figure and polish ; magnolia,
hard, close-grained, of fine polish and of great lasting qualities; and
cypress, light, strong, easily worked and never-rotting. The
timber cut of 1000 was officially stated as 1,214,387 M. ft. B.M.,of
which two-thirds were of yellow pine and most of the remainder of
cypress. In some localities, especially in the " Florida parishes,"
small quantities of rosin and turpentine are taken from the long-leaf
pine, but this industry was unimportant in Louisiana before 1908.
Sawdust, slabs, stumps and large quantities of logs are wasted.
Other manufactures with a product value in 1905 of between
$4,000,000 and $1,000,000 were: bags (not paper); foundry and
machine-shop products; planing-mill products; railway cars,
construction and repairs; malt liquors; men's clothing; cooperage;
food preparations; roasted and ground coffee and spice; fertilizers;
cigars and cigarettes; cotton goods; and manufactured ice.

Communications. — The length of railway in the state was 1 740 m. in
1890 and 4943-55 m. at the end of 1908. By the state constitution
of 1898 and by amendments of 1902 and 1904 tax exemptions for ten
years were granted to newly-built railroads completed before 1909.
The principal roads are the Missouri Pacific (St Louis, Iron Mountain
& Southern, New Orleans & North-western and St Louis, Watkins &
Gulf), the Southern Pacific (Morgan's Louisiana & Texas Railroad &
Steamship Co. and the Louisiana Western), the Texas & Pacific, the
Kansas City Southern, the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific, the
Louisiana Railway & Navigation Co., the Yazoo & Mississippi
Valley, the Illinois Central, and the Louisiana & Arkansas. The
Illinois Central, the first railway giving Louisiana connexion with
the north, and of immense importance in the trade of New Orleans,
has only about 100 m. of double track in the state. The problem of
inland waterways has always been a most important one in northern,
eastern and southern Louisiana, where there are systems of improved
bayous, lakes and canals which, with the levees, make this region
something like Holland, on a greater scale. Many bayous are con-
vertible by improvement into excellent drainage and irrigation canals.
The canal system is especially well developed in the parishes of the
Mississippi delta, where, at the close of 1907, there were about 50 m.
of these waterways of decided commercial importance. They serve
the trade of Lake Pontchartrain and the Florida parishes, the
lumber, coal, fish, oyster and truck trade of New Orleans, and to
some extent are the highway of a miscellaneous coasting trade.
The most important canal is probably the new Atchafalaya Bay
canal (14 ft. deep), opened in 1907, connecting the Atchafalaya river
and Morgan City with the Gulf of Mexico. In 1907 active prelimin-
ary work was begun on the Louisiana section of a great interstate
inland waterway projected by the national government between the
Mississippi and Rio Grande rivers, almost parallel to the Gulf Coast
and running through the rice and truck-farm districts from the
Teche to the Mermenton river (92 m.). The competition of the
water lines is felt by all the railways, and the importance of water
transportation is rapidly increasing. A state railroad commission,
organized in 1899, has power to regulate railway, steamer, sleeping-
car, express, telephone and telegraph rates within the state. Foreign
commerce is almost wholly centred at New Orleans.

Population. — The population of the state increased in the
ten decades from 1810 to 1910 successively by 100-4, 4°'6>
63-4, 46-9, 36-7, 2-7, 29-3, 19-0, 23-S and 19-9%. In 1910 it
was 1,656,388 (36-5 per sq. m.).1 In 1900 47-1% was of negro

»The population was 76,556 in 1810; I534°7 in 182°; 215,739
in 1830; 352,411 in 1840; 517,762 in 1850; 708,002 in 1860; 726,915
in 1870; 939,946 in 1880; 1,118,588 in 1890; and 1,381,825 in 1900.

LOUISIANA

57

blood, as compared with 51-5 in 1890. In 1910 there were nine
cities with more than 5000 inhabitants each: New Orleans (339,
075); Shreveport (28,015); Baton Rouge (14,897), the capital;
Lake Charles (11,449); Alexandria (11,213); Monroe (10,209);
New Iberia (7449); Morgan (547?); Crowley (5099). The urban
element is larger than in any other southern state, owing to the
large population of New Orleans. The Acadians (see I History
below) to-day are settled mainly in St Mary, Acadia and Ver-
milion parishes; lesser numbers are in Avoyelles and St Landry;
and some are scattered in various other parishes. The parishes
of St Mary, Iberia, Vermilion, St Martin and Lafayette are known
as the Attakapas country from an Indian name. A colony of
Germans sent over by John Law to the Arkansas removed to the
Mississippi above New Orleans, and gave to its bank the name of
the "German Coast," by which it is still known. In recent years
there has been an immigration of Italians into Louisiana, which
seems likely to prove of great social and economic importance.
The industrial activity of the state has required more labour than
has been available. The negroes have moved more and more from
the country to the towns, where they easily secure work at good
wages. Owing to the inadequate supply of labour two important
immigration leagues of business men were formed in 1004 and 1005,
and in 1907 the state government began officially to attempt
to secure desirable foreign immigration, sending agents abroad
to foster it. Roman Catholics greatly predominate among
religious denominations, having in 1906 477,774 members out
of a total of 778,901 for all denominations; in the same year
there were 185,554 Baptists, 79,464 Methodists, 9070 Protestant
Episcopalians and 8350 Presbyterians.

Administration. — Since the admission of the state to the Union
in 1812 there have been eight state constitutions (not counting
that of 1 86 1 ) admirably illustrating — and not less the Territorial
government preceding them — the development of American
democracy and the problems connected with the negroes.
Under the Territorial government the legislative officers were not
at first elective. The "parishes" date from 1807; they were
based on an earlier Spanish division for religious purposes —
whence the names of saints in parish nomenclature. The con-
stitution of 1812 allowed the General Assembly to name the
governor from the two candidates receiving the highest number
of votes; gave the governor large powers of appointment,
even of local functionaries; and required a property qualifica-
tion for various offices, and even for voters. The constitution of
1845 made the popular suffrage final in the choice of the governor,
abolished property qualifications, and began to pare executive
powers for the benefit of the General Assembly or the people.
From it dates also the constitutional recognition of the public
schools. In 1852 even the judges of the supreme court were
placed among the officers chosen by popular vote. The con-
stitutions of 1864 and 1868 were of importance primarily as
bearing on negro status and national politics. That of 1879
showed a profound distrust of legislative action, bred of recon-
struction experiences. Nearly all special legislation was for-
bidden. The last constitution (1898, with 26 amendments 1898-
1906), unlike all others after that of 1812, was not submitted to
the people for ratification.

Under this constitution sessions of the General Assembly are bi-
ennial (meeting the second Monday in May in even-numbered years)
and are limited to sixty days. The number of senators is fixed by
the constitution at 39; the number of representatives is to be
not more than 1 16 or less than 98. Any elector is eligible for election
as a representative if he has been a citizen of the state for five years
and a resident of the district or parish from which he is elected for
two years immediately preceding the_ election; a change of residence
from the district or parish from which he was elected vacates the
seat of a representative or senator. A senator must be at least 25
years of age. Members of the legislature are elected for four years.
Revenue or appropriation bills originate in the House of Repre-
sentatives, but may be amended by the Senate. Contingent appro-
priations are forbidden, and the constitution contains a long list
of subjects on which special laws may not be passed. The chief
executive officers have four-year terms, neither the governor nor the
treasurer being eligible for immediate re-election. The governor
must be at least 30 years old and must have been a citizen of the
United States and a resident of the state for 10 years next preceding
his election. Within five days after the passage of any bill by the

General Assembly he may veto this measure, which then becomes a
law only if passed by a two-thirds vote of all members elected to
each house of the General Assembly. The lieutenant governor (and
then the secretary of state) succeeds to the office of governor if the
governor is removed, dies or leaves the state. The five judges of
the supreme court of the state are elected by the people for
a term of twelve years. The supreme court is almost with-
out exception a court of appeal with jurisdiction in cases involving
at least $2000, in cases of divorce, in suits regarding adoption,
legitimacy and custody of children and as regards the legality and
constitutionality of taxes, fines, &c. The supreme court appoints
courts of appeal to judge cases involving less than $2000. The
constitution prohibits lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets.

The suffrage clauses are of particular interest, as they accomplish
the practical disfranchisement of the negroes. The constitution
requires that a voter must (in addition to other qualifications) either
be able to show conclusively ability to read and write, or be the
owner of property within the state assessed at not less than $300,
on which, if personalty, all taxes are paid. But it excepts from
these requirements — thus letting down the bars for illiterate whites
excluded with negroes by the foregoing clauses — persons who were
entitled to vote in some state on or before the 1st of January 1867
(i.e. before the adoption of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amend-
ments of the United States Constitution) ; also the sons or grandsons
of such voters, not under 21 years of age, on the I2th of May 1898;
and males of foreign birth who have resided in the state for five years
next preceding the date of application for registration and who
were naturalized prior to 1898. The constitution provides that no
person less than 60 years of age shall be permitted to vote unless he
has paid an annual poll-tax of one dollar for the two years next
preceding the year in which he offers to vote. Convicts not pardoned
with an explicit restoration of suffrage privileges are disfranchised— a
rare clause in the United States. Suffrage was by this constitution
first extended to women tax-payers in questions ' submitted to the
tax-payers, as such." The creation of a railroad commission was
ordered and the preparation of a code of criminal law.

The Louisiana Board of Levee Commissioners was organized in
1 865. The state board of health was the first one effectively organized
(1855) in the United States. It encountered many difficulties,
and until the definite proof of the stegomyia hypothesis of yellow-
fever inoculation made by the United States army surgeons in Cuba
in iqoo, the greatest problem seemed insoluble. Since that time
conditions of health in New Orleans have been revolutionized (in
1907 state control of maritime quarantine on the Mississippi was
supplanted by that of the national government), and smaller cities
and towns have been stimulated to take action by her example.
Sanitary institutes are held by the state board at various towns each
year for the instruction of the public. Boards of appraisers and
equalization oversee the administration of the tax system; the cost
of collection, owing to the fee system for payment of collectors,
was higher than in any other state of the Union until 1907, when the
fees were greatly reduced. The state assessment in 1901 totalled
$301,215,222 and in 1907 was $508,000,000. Schools and levees
absorb about half of all revenues, leaving half for the payment of
interest on the state debt (bonded debt on 1st of April 1908,
$11,108,300) and for expenses of government. A general primary
election law for the selection, by the voters, of candidates for state
office came into effect in 1906.

Law. — Louisiana has been peculiar among the states of the
Union in the history of the development of its legal system.
In Louisiana alone (as the state is known to-day), out of all the
territory acquired from France as the Louisiana Purchase in
1803, was the civil law so established under French and Spanish
rule that it persisted under American dominion. In all the other
states formed from the Purchase, the civil law, never existent
practically, was early expressly abrogated, and the common law
of England established in its place. After O'Reilly established
his power in 1769 (see History, below), the Spanish law was
supreme. All the old codes of the Peninsula, as well as the laws
of the Indies and special royal decrees and schedules, were in
force in the colony. The United States left the task of altering
the laws to the people, as far as there was no conflict between
them and the Constitution of the United States and fundamental
American legal customs. Copies of the Spanish codes were very
rare, and some of them could not be had in the colonies. Dis-
cussions of the Roman Institute and Pandects were common in
the deliberations of the courts. Great confusion prevailed in the
first years of American dominion owing to the diversities of
languages and the grafting of such Anglo-Saxon institutions as
the jury upon the older system. A provisional code of judicial
procedure, prepared by Edward Livingston, was in effect in
1805 to 1825. The earliest digest, completed in 1808, was mainly
a compilation of Spanish laws. The project of the Code Napolton,

LOUISIANA

however — the code itself not being available in Louisiana,
though promulgated in France in 1804 — was used by the com-
pilers in the arrangement and substance of their work; and the
French traditions of the colony, thus illustrated, were naturally
introduced more and more into the organic commentaries and
developments that grew up around the Code Napoleon. This
evolution was little marked, so similar in large parts were the
systems of France and Spain (although in other parts, due to
the Gothic element in the Spanish, they were very different) — a
similarity which explains the facility with which O'Reilly and
his successors introduced the Spanish laws after 1769. The
Louisiana code of 1808 was not, however, exhaustive; and the
courts continued to go back to the old Spanish sources whenever
the digest was inconclusive. Thus so late as 1819, when the
legislature ordered the compilation of such parts of King Alfonso's
Siete Partidas (the most common authority in the colony) as
were considered in force, this compilation filled a considerable
volume. In 1821 the legislature authorized Livingston to prepare
the " Livingston Code " of criminal law and procedure, completed
in 1824 (in French and English) and published in 1833, but never
adopted by the state. In 1825 legislative sanction was given to
the greater part of a civil code prepared by a commission (in-
cluding Livingston) appointed in 1821, and the French element
became steadily more important. In its present form the law
shows plainly the Latin and English elements. English law has
largely moulded, for example, criminal and commercial law and
the law of evidence; the development of the law of corporations,
damages, prohibitions and such extraordinary remedies as the
mandamus has been very similar to that in other states; while
in the fusion of law and equity, and the law of successions,
family relations, &c., the civil law of Spain and France has
been unaffected.

Education. — Schooling was very scant before the creation of the
public schools in 1854. Very little was done for education in the
French and Spanish period, although the Spanish governors made
commendable efforts in this regard; the first American Territorial
legislature began the incorporation of feeble " colleges " and
" academies." To some of these the state gave financial aid
($1,613,898) before 1845. The public schools were flourishing at the
outbreak of the Civil War. War and reconstruction threw upon
them the new burden of the black children. The constitution of
1879 was illiberal in this respect, but a healthier public opinion soon
prevailed. The money given by the state to the public schools is
distributed among the parishes according to their school population,
and the constitution of 1898 set a generous minimum to such aid.
An annual poll-tax is also collected For the schools from every adult
male. Local taxes, besides, are imposed, and these are becoming
heavier. The parishes retain primary control of the schools. In-
stitutes, summer schools and rural libraries have been introduced.
The salaries of white teachers advanced from a monthly average of
$38.87 in 1903 to $61.84 in I9°6- The average attendance of en-
rolled black and white pupils is practically identical, but the enrol-
ment of whites (about 52 % in 1902) is somewhat higher and that
of the blacks about a third lower than their ratio in the population.
The school term for white children is much longer than for negroes,
and white teachers are paid much better salaries — in 1906 the
average monthly salary of a negro teacher was $29.15. The total
enrolment is very low. But progress is now being made very rapidly
in the improvement of the educational system. Higher schools
include: the State University and Agricultural and Mechanical
College (1860) at Baton Rouge (q.v.) ; Tulane University of Louisiana
(1864) in New Orleans; Jefferson College (1864; Roman Catholic)
at Convent; the College of the Immaculate Conception (1847;
Roman Catholic) in New Orleans; St Charles College (1835; Roman
Catholic) at Grand Couteau; St Joseph's . College (1849; Roman
Catholic) at Baton Rouge; the following colleges for women — Silli-
man Collegiate Institute (1852; Presbyterian) at Clinton, Mansfield
Female College (1854; Methodist Episcopal, South) at Mansfield,
the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for women (a part of
Tulane University) in New Orleans and the Louisiana Female
College (1856; Baptist) at Keatchie; the State Normal School of
Louisiana (1884) at Natchitoches and the New Orleans Normal and
Training School ; the South-western Louisiana Industrial Institute
at Lafayette; the Louisiana Industrial Institute at Ruston; and,
among schools for negroes, the Peabody State Normal and Industrial
School at Alexandria and New Orleans University (1873; Methodist
Episcopal), Luther College (Evangelical Lutheran), Leland Uni-
versity (1870; Baptist), Straight University (Congregational) and
Southern University (1883; aided by the state), all in New Orleans.

Charitable and Penal Institutions. — The State Board of Charities
and Correction, for which the constitution of 1898 first made pro-

vision, and which was organized under an act of 1904, is composed of
six members, appointed by the governor for six years, with the
governor as ex-officio chairman. The members of the board serve
gratuitously, but elect a salaried secretary. The board has no ad-
ministrative or executive power, but makes annual inspections of
all public charitable, correctional or reformatory institutions, all
private institutions which receive aid from, or are used by municipal
or parochial authorities, and all private asylums for the insane;
and reports annually to the governor on the actual condition of the
institutions. Any suggestions as to improvements in institutions
must be approved by the majority of the governing body of that
institution before they may be put into effect. The charitable
institutions include two charity hospitals — at New Orleans (1832)
and Shreveport; an Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Hospital, a Hotel
Dieu, the Touro Infirmary and a Home for Incurables, all at New
Orleans; an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb (for whites — there is
no state provision for negro deaf and dumb) and an Institute for
the Blind, both at Baton Rouge; an Insane Hospital at Jackson
and another at Pineville; and the Louisiana Retreat for the Insane
at New Orleans. At Monroe there is a State Reform School, and at
New Orleans a Coloured Industrial Home and School. There is
also a state home for disabled Confederate soldiers at New Orleans
on Bayou St John. The State Penitentiary is at Baton Rouge, and
a House of Detention at New Orleans; and there are parish prisons.
State convicts, and all places in which they are confined or employed,
are under the supervision of a Board of Control appointed by the
governor. This board may allow commutation or diminution of
sentence for good behaviour, meritorious services or exemplary
conduct. The leasing or hiring of state convicts is prohibited by
the constitution, but parish convicts may be hired or leased for farm
and factory work, work on roads and levees, and other public under-
takings. Such convicts are classified according to physical ability
and a minimum rate is fixed for their hire, for not more than ten
hours a day. Many state convicts are employed in levee con-
struction, and there are convict farms at Angola, Hope, Oakley and
Monticello.

History. — The early history of Louiiiana belongs to the
romance of American history. It is possible that the mouth of
the Mississippi was discovered in 1519 by Alonso Alvarez de
Pineda, but this interpretation of his vague manuscript remains
conjectural; and that it was discovered by the expedition of
Panfilo de Narvaez cannot be established. That Hernando de
Soto entered the borders of the present state of Louisiana, and
that his burial place in the Mississippi was where that river takes
the waters of the Red, are probable enough, but incapable of
conclusive proof. Survivors of de Solo's expedition, however,
descended the Mississippi to its mouth in 1542. Spain set up no
claim to the region, and when Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle,
came down the river in 1682 from the French possessions to the
north, he took possession in the name of France, which hereby
gained her first title to the vast drainage basin of the Mississippi.
In honour of Louis XIV. the new possession was named "Louis-
iana " — a name then and until 1812 applied to a much larger
area than that of the present state. La Salle attempted to settle
a colony in 1684, but missed the Mississippi's mouth and landed
in Texas, where he was murdered in 1687 by some of his followers.
In 1697, after Ryswick, Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville (1662-1706)
was chosen to lead another colony, which reached the Gulf coast
early in 1699. Soon after Iberville had built Fort Maurepas
(near the present city of Biloxi, Mississippi) in 1699, a fort was
erected on the Mississippi river about 40 m. above the mouth.

This was the earliest settlement in what is now the state of
Louisiana. It was unhealthy and unprosperous. From 1712 to
1717 " Louisiana," or the French possessions of the Mississippi
valley, was held by Antoine Crozat (1655-1738) as a private
grant from the king. It proved as great a drain upon his purse
as it had proved to the crown, and he willingly parted with it to
the so-called " Western Company," afterwards incorporated with
the great Company of the Indies. The head of this company
was John Law, who, after spreading glowing accounts of the new
land, launched his famous " Mississippi scheme " (see LAW,
JOHN. The company accomplished much for the colony of
Louisiana. Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville (1680-
1768), a brother of Iberville, was sent out as governor. For
forty years he was the life of the colony. One of his first acts
was to found the city of New Orleans on its present site in 1718.
In this same year seven vessels were sent from France with stores
and immigrants; eleven followed during the next year. Five

LOUISIANA

59

hundred negroes from the Guinea coast were imported in 1719,
and many hundreds more soon followed. The Law company
eventually came to an end fatal to its creditors in France, but
its misfortunes did not check the prosperity of " Louisiana."
The company retained its grant of the colony until 1731, when it
reverted to the crown. Meantime New Orleans had become the
seat of government in 1722. In 1766 an official census showed a
total population of 5552. The years of royal rule were uneventful.
Cotton culture began in 1740, and sugar-cane was successfully
introduced from Santo Domingo by the Jesuits in 1751. Tafia
rum and a waxy, sticky sugar syrup subsequently became
important products; but not until the end of the century were
the means found to crystallize sugar and so give real prosperity
to the industry.

By a secret treaty of the 3rd of November 1762, " Louisiana "
was transferred from France to Spain. This treaty was not made
public for a year and a half, and Spain did not take fuU possession
of the colony until 1769. By a treaty between Spain and France
on the one hand and Great Britain and Portugal on the other,
signed at Paris in February 1763, all that portion lying E. of the
Mississippi river, the Iberville river, and Lakes Maurepas and
Pontchartrain was ceded to Great Britain. The international
interests thus created, and others that sprang from them, heavily
burdened the diplomacy, and even threatened the safety 'of the
United States after they were placed in possession of the eastern
bank of the Mississippi down to 31° in 1783.

The news of the cession of the colony to Spain roused strong
discontent among the colonists. Antonio de Ulloa (1716-1795),
a distinguished Spanish naval officer and scholar, came to New
Orleans in 1766 to take possession for his king. Merchants,
people, and many civil officers held toward him from the begin-
ning a hostile attitude; the military, especially, refused to pass
into the Spanish service as stipulated in the treaty; and Ulloa
was compelled to continue in an ambiguous and anomalous
position — which his lack of military force probably first com-
pelled him to assume — ruling the colony through the French
governor, Philippe Aubry (who loyally supported him through-
out), without publicly exhibiting his powers. The fear of
Spanish commercial laws powerfully stimulated resistance to
the transfer, and though Ulloa made commercial and monetary
concessions, they were not sufficient. When the colonists found
protests at Paris unavailing, they turned to the idea of inde-
pendence, but sought in vain the armed support of the British at
Pensacola. Nevertheless they compelled Ulloa to leave the colony
or exhibit his credentials. He took his leave in November 1768.
The open resistance by the colonists (October 1768) was a care-
fully planned revolt. There is no doubt that the men who led
the Creole opposition contemplated independence, and this
gives the incident peculiar interest. In the summer of 1769
Alejandro O'Reilly came to New Orleans with a strong military
force (3600 troops). Beginning his rule with an affability that
allayed suspicions and securing from Aubry proofs against the
popular leaders, he invited them to a reception and arrested
them while they were his guests. Five were put to death and
others were imprisoned at Havana. O'Reilly put down the
rebellion with determination and in accord with the instructions
of his king. Regarded without republican sympathies, and in
the light of 18th-century doctrines of allegiance, his acts, however
severe, in no way deserve the stigma of cruelty ordinarily put
upon them. He was liberal and enlightened in his general rule.

Among the incidents of these troubled years was the arrival
in Louisiana (after 1765) of some hundreds of French exiles from
Acadia, who made their homes in the Attakapas country. There
their descendants live to-day, still somewhat primitively, and
still in somewhat of the glamour thrown over land and people
by the Evangdine of Longfellow.

On the i8th of August 1769 Louisiana was formally transferred
to Spain. Spanish law and Spanish tongue replaced the French
officially, but the colony remained essentially French. The
Spanish rulers made efforts to govern wisely and liberally, show-
ing great complaisance, particularly in heeding the profit of the
colony, even at the expense of Spanish colonial commercial

regulations. The judicial system was much improved, a better
grade of officials became the rule, many French Creoles were
appointed to office, intermarriages of French and Spanish and
even English were encouraged by the highest officials, and in
general a liberal and conciliatory policy was followed, which
made Louisiana under Spanish rule quiet and prosperous. Ber-
nardo de Galvez (1756-1794), a brilliant young officer of twenty-
one, when he became the governor of the colony, was one of the
most liberal of the Spanish rulers and of all the most popular.
During the American War of Independence he gave valuable
aid to the United States; and when Spain finally joined in the
war against Great Britain, Galvez, in a series of energetic and
brilliant campaigns (1779-1781), captured all the important
posts in the British colony of West Florida. The chief interest
of the Spanish period lies in the advance of settlement in the
western territories of the United States, the international in-
trigues— British, French and Spanish — involving the future of
the valley, the demand of the United States for free navigation
on the Mississippi, and the growing consciousness of the supreme
importance of the river and New Orleans to the Union. With
the Spanish governor Estevan Miro, who succeeded Galvez
in 1785, James Wilkinson of Kentucky, arrested at New Orleans
with a flat-boat of supplies in 1787, intrigued, promising him
that Kentucky would secede from the United States and would
join the Spanish; but Wilkinson was unsuccessful in his efforts
to carry out this plan. In 1794 Spain, hard pressed by Great
Britain and France, turned to the United States, and by the
treaty of 1794 the Mississippi river was recognized by Spain as
the western boundary of the United States, separating it from
Louisiana, and free navigation of the Mississippi was granted
to citizens of the United States, to whom was granted for three
years the right " to deposit their merchandise and effects in the
port of New Orleans, and to export them from thence without
paying any other duty than a fair price for the hire of the stores."
At the expiration of the three years the Spanish governor refused
the use of New Orleans as a place of deposit, and contrary to
the treaty named no other port in its place. Spanish rule,,
however, came unexpectedly to an end by the retrocession of
Louisiana to France in 1800; and French dominion gave way
in turn in 1803 — as the result of a chain of events even more
unexpected, startling, and for the United States fortunate —
to the rule of the last-named country. On the 3Oth of November
1803 the representatives of the French republic received formal
possession from the Spanish governor, and on the 2oth of Decem-
ber lower Louisiana was transferred to the United States. (See
LOUISIANA PURCHASE.)

By an Act of Congress of the 25th of March 1804,* that portion
of the Louisiana Purchase S. of 33° was organized as the Territory
of Orleans, and was given a government less democratic than
might otherwise have been the case, because it was intended
to prepare gradually for self-government the French and Spanish
inhabitants of the territory, who desired immediate statehood.
The foreign slave-trade was forbidden by this organic act.
English was made the official language. The introduction of
English law, and the changes made in the judicial and legal
systems of Louisiana after 1804 have already been described.

The machinations of Aaron Burr are of interest in connexion
with Louisiana annals, and likewise the settlement and revolu-
tionizing of West Florida by Americans. In November 1811
a convention met at New Orleans and framed a constitution under
which, on the 3oth of April 1812, the Territory of Orleans became
the state of Louisiana. A few days later the portion of West
Florida between the Mississippi and Pearl rivers (the present
" Florida Parishes ") was included in its boundaries, making
them as they are to-day. In this same year the first steamboat
reached New Orleans. It descended the Ohio and Mississippi
from Pittsburg, whence there had already been a thriving river
trade to New Orleans for about thirty years. During the War
of 1812 a decisive victory was won by the American forces at
Chalmette, near New Orleans, on the 8th of January 1815. Up

* Other acts bearing on Territorial government are those of the
3ist of October 1803 and the 23rd of March 1805.

6o

LOUISIANA

to 1860 the development of the state in population, agriculture
and commerce was very rapid. Donaldsonville was the (nominal)
capital in 1825-1831, Baton Rouge in 1849-1864 and again after
1882. At other times New Orleans has been the capital, and
here too have always been various state offices which in other
states ordinarily are in the state capital.

By an ordinance of secession passed on the 26th of January
1 86 1, Louisiana joined the Confederate States. In the first year
there was very little military activity in the state, but in April
1862 Admiral D. G. Farragut, with a powerful fleet, ascended
the Mississippi past Forts Jackson and St Philip, which defended
the approach to New Orleans, and a military force under General
B. F. Butler occupied that city The navigation of the river
being secured by this success and by later operations in the
north ending in July 1863 with the capture of Vicksburg and Port
Hudson, the state was wholly at the mercy of the Union armies.
The intervening months were signalized by the capture of Baton
Rouge in May 1862 — the Confederates vainly attempting to
recapture it in August. Later, in April 1864, the Confederates
under General Richard Taylor won a success against the Unionists
under General N. P. Banks at Sabine Cross Roads near Mansfield
and were themselves repulsed at Pleasant Hill, these battles
being incidental to a campaign undertaken by the Union forces
to crush opposition in western Louisiana. A large portion of the
state was occupied by them in 1862-1865. There were various
minor skirmishes in 1862 and 1863 (including the capture of the
Federal camp at Berwick Bay in June 1863).

As early as December 1862 the Union military government,
at President Lincoln's direction, had ordered elections for
Congress, and the men chosen were admitted in February 1863.
In March 1864 also a state government to supersede the military
rule was established under the president's auspices. By 1863
two parties had arisen among the loyal classes: one of radicals,
who demanded the calling of a constitutional convention and
the abolition of slavery; the other of conservatives. The former
prevailed, and by a convention that assembled in April 1864
a constitution was framed closely following that of 1852 but
repudiating the debt incurred by Louisiana as one of the Con-
federate states and abolishing slavery. Two-thirds of the
delegates were from New Orleans. The legislature was ordered
to establish free schools for the blacks, and was empowered to
give them the suffrage: neither of these provisions, however,
was carried out. The extent of the Union control is shown
by the fact that the legislature of 1864 represented half of the
area and two-thirds of the population of the state. The army
stood at the back of the new government, and by the end of
1864 Louisiana was apparently " reconstructed." But in 1864
the opposition of Congress to presidential reconstruction had
clearly developed, so that the electoral votes of Louisiana (like
those of Tennessee) for president were not counted. By the
spring of 1866 the ex-Confederates had succeeded in gaining
possession of most of the local government and most of the
state offices, although not of the governorship. The Republican
party naturally became extremely radical. The radicals wished
to have negro suffrage in order to get possession of the govern-
ment. They, therefore, wanted still another constitutional
convention. A clause in the constitution of 1864 provided for
the reconvening of the convention in certain circumstances,
but this clause referred only to necessities prior to the establish-
ment of a government, and had therefore determined. Neverthe-
less, the radicals, because it was impossible to call a convention
through the medium of the state government, took advantage
of this clause to reconvoke the old convention at New Orleans.
The day set was the 3Oth of July 1866. The ex-Confederate
party determined to prevent the gathering, but the idea of
interference by force seems to have been abandoned. A street
riot was precipitated, however, incidental to a procession of
armed negroes; the metropolitan police fired upon the assembled
convention; and altogether some 200 persons, mostly negroes,
were killed. This incident raised the crucial question of national
politics in 1866: namely, whether the states reconstructed by
the president should not again be reconstructed.

This being settled affirmatively, Louisiana was reconstructed
with vigour. A constitution of 1868 gave suffrage to the blacks,
and disfranchised all whites made ineligible to office under the
proposed Fourteenth Amendment to the national Constitution,
and also (practically) those who had by word, pen or vote
defended secession. Then the state ratified the Fourteenth
Amendment, and was declared readmitted to the Union in July
1868. Probably no other southern state suffered equally with
Louisiana from the corruption of " carpet-bag," " scalawag,"
negro legislatures. For four years (1868-1872) the government
expenses increased to ten times their normal volume, taxation
was enormously increased, and about $57,000,000 of debt was
created. But a quarrel broke out among the Republicans
(1872), the result of which was the installation of two governors
and legislatures, one supported by the Democrats and Liberal
Republicans and the other by the radical Republicans, the former
being certainly elected by the people. The rivalry of these
two state governments, clashes of arms, the recognition by the
Federal authorities of the radical Republican government
(Pinchback and Kellogg, successively governors) followed. One
historic clash in New Orleans (on the I4th of September 1874)
between the " White League " (" White Man's Party") and the
Republican police is commemorated by a monument, and the
day is regarded by Louisianans as a sort of state independence-
day. Finally, in 1876, Francis Tillon Nicholls (b. 1834), a
Democrat, was chosen governor, but the Republican candidate,
S. B. Packard, claimed the election, and with a Republican
legislature for a time occupied the State House. In the national
election of 1876 there were double returns (Republican: 75,315
for Hayes and 70,508 for Tilden; and Democratic: 83,723 for
Tilden and 77,174 for Hayes) from Louisiana, which, as was
the case with the double electoral returns from Florida, Oregon
and South Carolina, were adjudicated by the Electoral Commis-
sion in favour of the Republican electors voting for Hayes.
Civil war being threatened within the state President Hayes
sent to Louisiana a commission composed of Wayne McVeagh,
Gen..J. R. Hawley, Charles B. Lawrence, J. M. Harlan, and
John C. Brown, ex-Governor of Tennessee, which was instructed
to promote " an acknowledgment of one government within
the state." The rival legislatures united, organizing under the
Nicholls government, which the commission found was upheld
by public opinion. The president ordered the withdrawal of
Federal troops from the capitol on the 2oth of April 1877, and
the white party was thus left in control.

After 1877 the state prospered markedly in all material
respects. Of subsequent political events perhaps the most
notable, besides the practical disfranchisement of the negroes,
are those connected with the Louisiana State Lottery Company
(1868-1893). For the renewal of its privileges in 1890 the
company finally agreed to give the state $1,250,000 yearly, and
despite strenuous opposition by a powerful party the legislature
voted a renewal, but this measure was vetoed by the governor.
The United States government, however, forbade lotteries the
use of the mails, and the company withdrew its offers. The
constitution of 1898 prohibits lotteries and the sale of lottery
tickets within the state. In 1891 the lynching of eleven Italians
at New Orleans gave rise to grave difficulties involving Italy,
the United States, and the state of Louisiana. Since 1900 a
white Republican Party has made some headway in Louisiana
politics, but in national and state elections the state has been
uninterruptedly and overwhelmingly Democratic since 1877.

GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA '

French Domination 1682-1762.
A. le Moyne, Sieur de Sauyolle (died in office) .
J. B. le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville
M. de Muys, appointed 1707, died en route,
Bienville continuing to serve.

Lamothe Cadillac

Sieur de Bienville, acting governor .

De I'fipinay

Sieur de Bienville . ....

1699-1701
1701-1713

1713-1716
1716-1717
1717-1718
1718-1724

1 Terms of actual service in Louisiana ; Gayarre is the authority
for the French and Spanish period.

LOUISIANA

61

Boisbriant, ad interim 1724-1726

Perier I/26-I733

Sieur de Bienville I733~I743

Marquis de Vaudreuil I743~!753

L. Billouart, Chevalier de Kerlerec . . . 1753-1763

D'Abbadie 1763-1765

Philippe Aubry 1765-1769

Spanish Domination 1762 (/7<5p)-i#oj.

1766-1768
. 1769-1770
. 1770-1777

. 1777-1785
. 1785-1791
30 Dec. 1791-1797
1797-1799

Antonio de Ulloa1

Alejandro O'Reilly* ....

Luis de Unzaga

Bernardo de Galvez' ....

Estevan Miro (ad interim 1785-1786)

F. L. Hector, Baron de Carondelet .

M. Gayoso de Lemos (died in office)

Francisco Bouligny, Jos6 M. Vidal, acting mili-
tary and civil-political governors . . 1799

Sebastian de Casa Calvo de la Puerta, Marquis

de Casa Calvo 1799-1801

Juan M. de Salcedo 1801-1803

French Domination 1800-1803.*

Laussat, Colonial Prefect . . 30 Nov.-2O Dec. 1803
American Domination since 1803.

Territorial Period.

William C. C. Claiborne (appointed 1803) . 1804-1812

Statehood Period.

William C. C. Claiborne, Democratic Republican 1812-1816

Jacques Viller6, Democratic Republican . . 1816-1820
Thomas B. Robertson, Democratic Republican

(resigned) 1820-1822

Henry S. Thibodaux, Democratic Republican

(acting) 1822-1824

Henry S. Johnson, Democratic Republican . 1824-1828
Pierre Derbigny, Democratic Republican (died

in office) 1828-1829

Armand Beauvais and Jacques Dupr6 (acting) 1829-1831

Andre B. Roman, Whig 1831-1835

Edward D. White, Whig 1835-1839

Andre B. Roman, Whig 1839-1843

Alfred Mouton, Whig 1843-1846

Isaac Johnson, Democrat 1846-1850

Joseph Walker, Democrat 1850-1853

Paul O. Hubert, Democrat 1853-1856

Robert C. Wickliffe, Democrat .... 1856-1860

Thomas O. Moore, Democrat . . • . . 1860-1862

George F. Shepley, Military Governor . . 1862-1864

Henry W. Allen, Confederate .... 1864-1865

Michael Hahn, Unionist and Military . . 1864-1865

James M. Wells, Democrat (acting). . . 1865-1867

Benjamin F. Flanders, Military. . . . 1867

Joshua Baker, Military 1867-1868

Henry C. Warmoth, Republican . . 1868-1873
Pinckney B. S. Pinchback, Republican (acting) 1873
John McEnery,' Democrat-Liberal Republican 1873
William P. Kellogg, Radical Republican . . 1873-1877
Stephen B. Packard,6 Radical Republican (con-
testant) 1877

Francis T. Nicholls, Democrat . . . . 1877-1880

Louis A. Wiltz, Democrat (died in office) . 1880-1881
Samuel D. McEnery, Democrat (Lieutenant-

Governor, succeeded) 1881-1884

Samuel D. McEnery, Democrat. . . . 1884-1888

Francis T. Nicholls, Democrat . . . . 1888-1892

Murphy J. Foster, Democrat .... 1892-1900

William W. Heard, Democrat .... 1900-1904

Newton C. Blanchard, Democrat . . . 1904-1008

Jared Y. Sanders,7 Democrat .... 1908

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Compare the bibliography under NEW ORLEANS
and consult also the following. For general description : The Geology

and Agriculture of Louisiana (Baton Rouge, Agric. Exper. Station,
pts. 1-6, 1892-1902); also publications of U.S. Geological Survey,

e.g. Water Supply and Irrigation Papers, No. 101, "Underground
Waters of Southern Louisiana." For fauna and flora: publications
of U.S. Biological Survey (Department of Agriculture, Biblio-
graphies). For climate: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Climate
and Crop Service, Louisiana series (monthly). For soil and agri-

1 Did not openly assume power or supersede Aubry.
1 Captain-general charged to establish order and settle Unzaga as
governor.

* At first, till 1779, only acting governor.

4 Actual exercise of power 20 days.

5 Counted out by partisan returning-board and not recognized by
U.S. government.

• Not recognized by U.S. government.

7 Elected U.S. Senator 1910; accepted, but afterward withdrew.

culture: the above state geological report and material on irrigation
in publications of the U.S. Geological Survey and in the U.S. Census
publications; also Commissioners of Agriculture of the State of
Louisiana, Annual Report (Baton Rouge, biennial until 1899);
State Agricultural Society, Proceedings (annual); Louisiana State
University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Bulletin of the
Agricultural Experiment Station and Biennial Report of same (Baton
Rouge); U.S. Department of Agriculture, various publications of
the divisions of botany, agrostology, pomology, forestry, farmers'
bulletins, &c. For manufactures and other industries: primarily the
publications of the national Census, 1900, and preceding decades.
For commerce and communications: Railroad Commissioners of
Louisiana, Annual Report (New Orleans, 1900 ff.); U.S. Interstate
Commerce Commission, Statistics of Railways (annual, Washington) ;
on river navigation and river improvements, especially of the
Mississippi, an enormous mass of material in the Annual Reports of
the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army (consult Index to Reports of same,
1866-1900, 3 vols., Washington, 1902, and cp. article on MISSISSIPPI
RIVER) ; on river commerce see U.S. Census of 1880, vol. 4 (report
on steam navigation of the United States by T. C. Purdy), and
Census of 1800 (report on transportation by T. J. Vivian; Rivers
of the Mississippi Valley). For population: various national cen-
suses and Bulletins of the Bureau of Census, 1900, e.g. No. 8, " Negroes
in the United States " ; on the Acadians, In Acadia, The Acadians in
Song and Story (New Orleans, 1893; compiled by M. A. Johnston).
For pictures of Creole life and traits, George W. Cable, The Creoles
of Louisiana (New York, 1884), and his later writings; but Mr
Cable's views of the Creoles are very unpopular in Louisiana; for
other views of them, and for a guide to the English and Creole litera-
ture of Louisiana, consult Alcee Fortier, Louisiana Studies — Litera-
ture, Customs and Dialects, History and Education (New Orleans,
1894). For administration: see reports of the various executive
officers of the state (Baton Rouge) ; the various constitutions are
printed in the report of the Secretary of State, as well as in B. Perley
Poore's Constitutions (2 vols., Washington, 1877); a special account
of the government of the territorial period may be found in D. Y.
Thomas, History of Military Government in Newly Acquired Territory
of the United States (Columbia University Studies in History, Econo-
mics and Public Law, vol. xx. No. 2, 1904); for the Civil War and
Reconstruction period compare below, also American Historical
Association, Annual Report, 1892; (for courts during Civil War);
also John R. Ficklen, History and Civil Government of Louisiana
(Chicago, New York, c. 1899), a brief and popular account; on
education, in addition to the Biennial Reports of the Board of
Education, consult annual reports of the U.S. Commissioner of
Education.

For history : the standard work is that of Charles E. A. Gayarre,
coming down to the war, based on deep and scholarly research, and
greatly altered in successive editions. The style is that of the classic
school, that of Prescott and Motley, full of colour, characterization
and spirit. The editions are as follows: Romance of the History of
Louisiana (New York, 1837, 1848); Histoire de la Louisiane (2 vols.,
Nouvelle Orleans, 1846-1847); Louisiana: its Colonial History and
Romance (N.Y., 1851); Louisiana: its History as a French Colony,
Third Series of Lectures (N.Y., 1852); then, based upon the preced-
ing, History of Louisiana: The French Domination (2 vols., N.Y..
1854) and The Spanish Domination (N.Y., 1854); The American
Domination (N. Y., 1867); and third edition (4 vols., New Orleans,
1 885). More important for the recent period is Alcee Fortier, AHistory
of Louisiana (N.Y., 4 vols., 1904) devoting two volumes to American
domination. The History and General Description of New France
of P. F. X. de Charlevoix (best ed. by J. G. Shea, New York, 1866,
6 vols.) is a famous old work, but now negligible. Judge F. X.
Martin's History of Louisiana (2 vols., New Orleans, 1827-1829,
later ed. by J. F. Condon, continued to 1861, New Orleans, 1882)
is also valuable and supplements Gayarr6. Le Page du Pratz,
author of Histoire de la Louisiane (3 vols., Paris, 1758; 2 vols.,
London, 1763), was the first historian of Louisiana. Berquin-
Duvallon, Vue de la colonie espagnole du Mississippi (Paris, 1805;
published in English under the name of John Davis, New \ork,
1806); L. N. Baudry de Lozieres, Voyage a la Louisiane (Paris,
1802) and Second Voyage a la Louisiane (Paris, 1803) may be
mentioned among the travels just preceding, and A. Stoddard,
Sketches of Louisiana (New York, 181 1), among those just following
the establishment of American dominion. The Histoire de la
Louisiane, et de la cession de colonie par la France aux Etats-Unis
(Paris, 1829; in English, Philadelphia, 1830) by Barbe-Marbois
has great importance in diplomatic history. The rarest and most
valuable of early memoirs and much archive material are embodied
in Benj. F. French's Historical Collections of Louisiana (5 series, N.Y.,
1846-1853) and Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida,
New Series (N.Y., 1869, 1875). Documentary materials on the
greater " Louisiana " between the Gulf of Mexico and Canada will
be found in the Jesuit Relations, edited by R. G. Thwaites (Cleveland,
1896 ff.); and on early voyages in Pierre Margry, Decouvertes et
etablissements des Francais (6 vols., Paris, 1870-1888). John G.
Shea published an edition of Louis Hennepin's Description of Louisi-
ana. . . . Translated from the Edition of 1683, &c. (New York, 1880).
On this greater "Louisiana" the student should also consult_the
works of Francis Parkman. And see publications of the Louisiana

LOUISIANA— LOUISIANA PURCHASE

Historical Society (New Orleans). Of brief general histories there is
that of J. R. Ficklen above cited, another by the same author in
collaboration with Grace King (New Orleans, 1902) and another
(more valuable) by Albert Phelps (Boston, 1905), in the American
Commonwealth Series. For the Reconstruction period see biblio-
graphy under UNITED STATES.

LOUISIANA, a city of Pike county, Missouri, U.S.A., situated
below the mouth of the Salt river, on the western bank of the
Mississippi, about 90 m. N. of St. Louis. Pop. (1900) 5131, in-
cluding 1075 negroes and 161 foreign-born; (1910) 4454; there
is also a considerable suburban population. Louisiana is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and the Chicago & Alton
railways, and by several lines of river steamboats. The river is
spanned here by a railway bridge. The city is laid out fairly
regularly in the river valley and on bluffs along the river, and
has attractive residential districts, commanding good views.
It has very active and varied industries, and is a trade centre
for a large grain- and fruit-producing and stock-raising region,
and has one of the largest nurseries in the United States.
Louisiana was laid out in 1818, was the county-seat from that
date until 1825, was incorporated as a town in 1845 and was
chartered as a city in 1849.

LOUISIANA PURCHASE, a large portion of the area of the
United States of America, purchased from the French Republic
in 1803. The territory to which France held explorer's title
originally included the entire valley of the Mississippi (see
LOUISIANA) ; but the " Louisiana " which was ceded by her to
Spain in 1762 (England refusing it, preferring the Floridas),
retroceded to France in iSoo,1 and ceded by Napoleon to the
United States — in violation of his pledge to Spain that he would
not alienate the province — embraced only the portion W. of
the river and the island of New Orleans on the E. (and, as might
be claimed with some show of argument, West Florida to the
Perdido river).

With the settlement of the trans- Alleghany region, the freedom
of the Mississippi had become of vital importance to the western
settlements, and Spain had recognized these interests in her
treaty with the United States of 1795, by guaranteeing freedom
of navigation and the privilege of deposit at New Orleans.
The transfer of Louisiana from a weak neighbour to so powerful
and ambitious a state as France was naturally unwelcome to the
United States, and Robert R. Livingston, the American minister
in Paris, was instructed by Secretary-of-State Madison to
endeavour to prevent the consummation of the retrocession;
or, should that be irrevocable, to endeavour to buy the Floridas
(either from France, if they had passed with Louisiana, or through
her goodwill from Spain) — or at least West Florida — and if
possible New Orleans, so as to give the United States a secure
position on the Mississippi, and insure the safety of her commerce.
The United States was also trying to collect claims of her
merchants for spoliations by French cruisers during the late
war between France and Great Britain. In his preliminary
propositions Livingston lightly suggested to Talleyrand a cession
of Louisiana to satisfy these claims; following it with the
more serious demand that France should pledge observance of
the Spanish concession to the Mississippi trade. This pledge
Napoleon readily gave. But during these negotiations a sus-
pension by the Spanish governor of the right of deposit aroused
extreme apprehension in America and resulted in warlike votes
in Congress. Of these, and of London reports of a British
expedition against New Orleans preparing in anticipation of the
imminent rupture of the peace of Amiens, Livingston made
most capable use; and pressed for a cession of West Florida,
New Orleans and Louisiana north of the Arkansas river. But
without New Orleans Louisiana was of little present worth, and
Napoleon — the collapse of whose American colonial schemes
seemed involved in his failure in Santo Domingo, who was
persuaded he could not hold Louisiana against Great Britain,
and who was already turning from projects of colonial empire

1 By the treaty of San Ildefonso, signed the 1st of October 1800.
This was never ratified by Charles IV. of Spain, but the treaty of
Madrid of the aist of March 1801, which confirmed it, was signed
by him on the isth of October 1802.

toward his later continental policy — suddenly offered to Living-
ston the whole of the province. Livingston disclaimed wanting
the part below the Arkansas. In even mentioning Louisiana he
had gone outside his instructions. At this stage James Monroe
became associated with him in the negotiations. They were
quickly closed, Barbe Marbois acting for Napoleon, and by
three conventions signed on the 3<Dth of April 1803 the American
ministers, without instructions, boldly accepted for their country
a territory approximately 1,000,000 sq. m. in area — about five
times the area of continental France. For this imperial domain,
perhaps the richest agricultural region of the world, the United
States paid 60,000,000 francs ($11,250,000) outright, and
assumed the claims of her citizens against France to the extent
of 20,000,000 francs ($3,750,000) additional; the interest
payments incidental to the final settlement raising the total
eventually to $27,267,622, or about four cents an acre.

Different writers have emphasized differently the various
factors in this extraordinary diplomatic episode. Unquestion-
ably the western people were ready to war for the navigation
of the Mississippi; but, that being guaranteed, it seems certain
that France might peaceably have taken and held the western
shore. The acquisition was not a triumph of American diplomacy,
but a piece of marvellous diplomatic good fortune; for the
records abundantly prove, as Madison said, that the cause of
success was a sudden policy of Napoleon, forced by European con-
tingencies. Livingston alone of the public men concerned showed
indubitably before the event a conception of the feasibility
and desirability of the acquisition of a vast territory beyond
the Mississippi. Jefferson had wished to buy the Floridas,
but alarmed by the magnitude of the cession, declared his
belief that the United States had no power to acquire Louisiana.
Though such strict construction of the constitution was a
cardinal dogma of the Democratic party, this dogma was
abandoned outright in practice, Jefferson finding " but one
opinion as to the necessity of shutting up the constitution "
(or amending it, which was not done) and seeking justification
of the means in the end. The Federalist party, heretofore
broad-constructionists, became strict-constructionists under
the temptation of factious politics, and a very notable political
struggle was thus precipitated — notable among other things for
strong expressions of sectionalism. The net result was the
establishment of the doctrine of " implied powers " in interpret-
ing the constitution; a doctrine under which the Supreme
Court presently found power to acquire territory implied in the
powers to wage war and make peace, negotiate treaties, and
" dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting
the territory or other property belonging to the United States."

The exact limits of the acquisition were not definitely drawn.
The French archives show that Napoleon regarded the Rio
Grande as the W. boundary of the territory of which he was
to take possession, and the United States up to 1819 ably
maintained the same claim. She also claimed all West Florida
as part of Louisiana — which, in the usage of the second half
of the i8th century, it apparently was not. When she acquired
the Floridas in 1810-1821 she abandoned the claim to Texas.
The line then adopted between the American and Spanish
possessions on the W. followed the Sabine river from the Gulf
of Mexico to the parallel of 32° N., ran thence due N. to the
Red river, followed this to the meridian of 100° W. and this
line N. to the Arkansas river, thence along this to its source,
thence N. to the parallel of 42°, and along this line to the Pacific.
Such is the accepted description of the W. boundary of the
Louisiana Purchase — waiving Texas — thus retrospectively deter-
mined, except that that boundary ran with the crest of the Rocky
Mountains N. of its intersection with the parallel of 42°. No
portion of the Purchase lay west of the mountains, although for
some years after 1870 the official maps of the United States
government erroneously included Oregon as so acquired — an
error finally abandoned by 1900.

On the 2oth of December 1803, at New Orleans, the United
States took possession of the lower part of the province, and
on the gth of March 1804, at St Louis, of the upper. The entire

LOUISVILLE

region then contained possibly 80,000 residents. The treaty of
cession required the incorporation of Louisiana in the Union, and
the admission of its inhabitants, " as soon as possible, according
to the principles of the Federal Constitution, to the enjoyment
of all the rights, advantages and immunities of citizens of the
United States." By act of the 26th of March 1804 the region
below 33° N. was organized as the Territory of Orleans (see
LOUISIANA), and that above as the District of Louisiana. The
region above 33°, renamed in 1805 the Territory of Louisiana,
and in 1812 the Territory of Missouri, was divided as time went
on into many Indian reservations, territories and states. Thus
were carved from the great domain of the Purchase Louisiana,
Missouri, Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, North and South Dakota,
Nebraska and Oklahoma in their entirety, and much the greatest
part of Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. There is
justification for the saying of Thiers that the United States
were " indebted for their birth and for their greatness " — at least
for an early assurance of greatness — " to the long struggle
between France and England." The acquisition of so vast a
territory proved thus of immense influence in the history of the
United States. It made it possible for them to hold a more
independent and more dignified position between France and
England during the Napoleonic wars; it established for ever
in practice the doctrine of implied powers in the interpretation
of the Federal Constitution; it gave the new republic a grand
basis for material greatness; assured its dominance in North
America; afforded the field for a magnificent experiment in
expansion, and new doctrines of colonization; fed the national
land hunger; incidentally moulded the slavery issue; and
precipitated its final solution.

It is generally agreed that after the Revolution and the Civil
War, the Louisiana Purchase is the greatest fact in American
history. In 1904 a world's fair, the Louisiana Purchase Exposi-
tion, was held at St Louis in commemoration of the cession.
After one hundred years the wilderness then acquired had
become the centre of the power and wealth of the Union. It
contained in 1903 15,000,000 inhabitants, and its taxable wealth
alone was four hundred times the fifteen millions given to
Napoleon.

AUTHORITIES. — The official literature is in the American State
Papers, Foreign Relations, vol. 2, and Public Lands, vol. 2; diplo-
matic papers reprinted in House Document 431, 5?th Congress, 2nd
Session (1903); to which add the Histoire de la Louisiane et de la
cession (Paris, 1820; Eng. trans., Philadelphia, 1830), by Frangois
Barbe-Marbois. This book abounds in supposed " speeches ' of
Napoleon, and " sayings " by Napoleon and Livingston that would
have been highly prophetic in 1803, though no longer so in 1829.
They have been used liberally and indiscnminatingly by the most
prominent American historians. See also T. Donaldson, The Public
Domain, House Miscellaneous Document 45, pt. 4, 47th Congress,
2nd Session. For the boundary discussions by J. Q. Adams and
Don L. de Onis, 1818-1819, American State Papers, Foreign Relations,
vol. 4; also in Onis's Official Correspondence between Don Luis de
Onis . . . and John Quincy Adams, &c. (London, 1818), or Memoria
sobre las negociaciones entre Espana y los Estados Unidos que dieron
motive al tratado de 1819 (Madrid, 1820). See also discussion and
map in U.S. Census, /poo. Bulletin 74; and the letters of Thomas
Jefferson, James Madison, Rufus King and other statesmen of the
time. By far the best general account of the diplomacy is in Henry
Adams's History of the United States, vols. I and 2 ; and of Western
conditions and American sentiment in J. B. McMaster's History of
the United States, vols. 2 and 3. Consult also Justin Winsor, Narra-
tive and Critical History, vol. 7; and various valuable periodical
articles, especially in the American Historical Review, by F. I.
Turner and others. Reference may be made to B. Hermann, The
Louisiana Purchase (Washington, 1898), and Theodore Roosevelt's
Winning of the West, vol. 4. Of the various special but popular
accounts (by J. K. Hosmer, Ripley Hitchcock, R. Blanchard, K. E.
Winship, &c.), not one is worthy of its subject, and all contain various
inaccuracies.

LOUISVILLE, the largest city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Jefferson county, on the Ohio river, no m. by
rail and 130 m. by water S.W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 161,129;
(1900) 204,731, of whom 21,427 were foreign-born (including
12,383 Germans and 4198 Irish) and 39,139 were negroes;
(1910 census) 223,928.

Louisville occupies 40 sq. m. of a plain, about 70 sq. m. in
extent, about 60 ft. above the low-water mark of the river,

and nearly enclosed by hills. The city extends for 8 m. along the
river (spanned here by three bridges), which falls 26 ft. in 2 m.,
but for 6 m. above the rapids spreads out into a beautiful sheet
of quiet water about i m. wide. The streets intersect at right '
angles, are from 60 to 120 ft. wide, and are, for the most part,
well-shaded. The wholesale district, with its great tobacco
warehouses, is largely along Main Street, which runs E. and W.
not far from the river; and the heart of the shopping district is
along Fourth Street in the dozen blocks S. of Main Street.
Adjoining the shopping district on the S. is the old residence
section; the newer residences are on "The Highlands" at the
E. end and also at the W. end. The city is served by the Balti-
more & Ohio South-Western, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the
Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Louisville,
Henderson & St Louis, the Illinois Central, the Chicago, Indiana
& Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
the Southern and the Louisville & Nashville railways; by steam-
boat lines to Memphis, Cairo, Evansville, Cincinnati and Pitts-
burg; by an extensive system of inter-urban electric lines;
and by ferries to Jeffersonville and New Albany, Indiana, two
attractive residential suburbs.

Many of the business houses are old-fashioned and low.
The principal public buildings are the United States government
building, the Jefferson county court house and the city hall.
In front of the court house stands a bronze statue of Thomas
Jefferson, designed by Moses Ezekiel (b. 1844), and inside of the
court house a marble statue of Henry Clay by Joel T. Hart (1810-
1870). There are few or no large congested tenement-house
districts; most of the wage-earners own their own homes or rent
cottages. Louisville has an extensive park system, most of
which was acquired after 1889 and is on the outskirts. From
the heart of the city South Parkway, 150 ft. wide, extends S.
6 m. to the entrance to Iroquois Park (670 acres) on a wooded bill.
At the E. end of Broadway is Cherokee Park (nearly 330 acres),
near which is the beautiful Cave Hill Cemetery, containing the
grave of George Rogers Clark, the founder of the city, and the
graves of several members of the family of George Keats, the
poet's brother, who lived in Louisville for a time; and at the
W. end of Broadway, Shawnee Park (about 170 acres), with a
long sandy river beach frequented by bathers. Central Park
occupies the space of two city squares in the old fashionable
residence districts. Through the efforts of a Recreation League
organized in 1901 a few playgrounds are set apart for children.
Louisville is a noted racing centre and has some fine tracks; the
Kentucky Derby is held here annually in May.

The United States government has a marine hospital, and a
life-saving station at the rapids of the river. The state has a
school for the blind, in connexion with which is the American
Printing House for the Blind. There are state hospitals and
many other charitable institutions.

The principal educational institutions are the university of
Louisville, which has a College of Liberal Arts (1007), a law
department (1847), and a medical department (1837) — with
which in 1907 were consolidated the Hospital College of Medicine
(1873), the Medical Department of Kentucky University (1898),
the Louisville Medical College (1869), and the Kentucky School
of Medicine (1850); the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary
(1859); the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky,
which was formed in 1901 by the consolidation of the Theological
Seminary of the Presbyterian Church at Danville (1853) and
the Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1893); the
Louisville College of Pharmacy (1871), and the LouisvQle College
of Dentistry (1887), a department of Central University. There
are many musical clubs, and a spring festival for which a local
chorus furnishes the nucleus, is held annually. The Louisville
Public Library was established in 1902, and 1904 acquired the
library, the small museum (containing the Troost collection of
minerals) and the art gallery of the Polytechnic Society of Louis-
ville (1878), which for many years had maintained the only public
library in the city. The principal newspapers are the Courier
Journal (Democratic, morning), the Herald (Republican,
morning), the Evening Post (Independent Democratic), and the

LOULE— LOURDES

Times (Democratic, evening). The Courier Journal is one of the
most influential newspapers in the South. Henry Watterson
became editor in 1868, when the Courier (1843), established and
owned by Walter N. Haldeman, was consolidated with the
Journal (1830), of which Watterson had become editor in 1867,
and with the Democrat (1844).

The richness of the surrounding country in agricultural produce,
timber, coal and iron, and its transport facilities have made Louis-
ville a large commercial and manufacturing centre. The leaf-
tobacco market is the largest in the world, most of the leaf-tobacco
produced in Kentucky, which in 1900 was 34-9% of the entire crop
of the United States, being handled in Louisville; the city's trade
in whisky, mules and cement * is notably large, and that in pork,
wheat, Indian corn, coal and lumber is extensive. The total value
of the manutactured products increased from $54,515,226 in 1890
to $78,746,390 in 1900 or 44-4%, and between 1900 and 1905 the
value of the factory-made product increased from $66,110,474 to
$83,204,125, an increase of 25-9%. Large quantities of fine
bourbon whisky are distilled here; in 1905 the value of the factory
product of the city was $3,878,004. The most valuable manu-
facture in the same year was smoking and chewing tobacco (especi-
ally plug tobacco) and snuff valued at $11,635,367— which product
with that of cigars and cigarettes ($1,225,347) constituted 15-5%
of the value of the factory products of the city. Other important
manufactures in 1905 were: packed meats, particularly pork;
men's clothing, especially " Kentucky jeans"; flour and grist mill
products; cotton-seed oil and cake; leather, especially sole leather;
foundry and machine shop products; steam-railway cars; cooper-
age; malt liquors; carriages and wagons, especially farm wagons;
and carriage and wagon materials; agricultural implements,
especially ploughs; and plumbers' supplies, including cast-iron gas
and water pipes. Besides, there were many other manufactures.

The city's water-supply is taken from the Ohio river a few miles
above the city limits, and purified by large filtering plants. Nearly
all the capital stock of the water-works company is owned by the
municipality.

Louisville is governed under a charter of 1893, which is in the form
of an act of the state legislature for the government of cities of the
first class (Louisville is the only city of the first class in the state).
The mayor is elected for four years, and appoints, subject to the
approval of the board of aldermen, the controller and the members
of the two principal executive boards — the board of public works
and the board of public safety. The legislative power is vested in
a general council composed of 12 aldermen and 24 councilmen.
Both aldermen and councilmen serve without pay, and are elected
on a general ticket for a term of two years; not more than two
councilmen may be residents of the same ward, but there is no such
limitation in regard to aldermen. The treasurer, tax-receiver,
auditor, judge of the police court, clerk of the police court, members
of the board of school trustees (l from each legislative district)
and members of the park commission are elected by popular vote;
the assessor, by the general council. The duration of franchises
given by the city is limited to 20 years.

History. — The site of the city was probably visited by La Salle
in 1669 or 1670. In July 1773, Captain Thomas Bullitt,2 acting
under a commission from the College of William and Mary,
surveyed a tract of 2000 acres, lying opposite the Falls of the
Ohio, and laid out a town site upon this tract. Colonel William
Preston, county surveyor of Fincastle county, within which the
2ooo-acre tract lay, refused to approve Captain Bullitt's survey,
and had the lands resurveyed in the following year, nevertheless
the tract was conveyed in December 1773 by Lord Dunmore
to his friend Dr John Connolly, a native of Lancaster county,
Pennsylvania, who had served in the British army, as com-
mander of Fort Pitt (under Dunmore's appointment), was an
instigator of Indian troubles which culminated in the Battle of
Point Pleasant, and was imprisoned from 1775 until nearly the
close of the War of American Independence for attempting under
Dunmore's instructions to organize the " Loyal Foresters," who

1 Louisville cement, one of the best-known varieties of natural
cement, was first manufactured in Shipping Port, a suburb of Louis-
ville, in 1829 for the construction of the Louisville & Portland
Canal ; the name is now applied to all cement made in the Louisville
District in Kentucky and Indiana. There is a large Portland
cement factory just outside the, city.

'Captain Thomas Bullitt (1730-1778), a Virginian, commanded
a company under Washington at Great Meadows (July 4, 1754),
was in Braddock's disastrous expedition in 1755, and after the defeat
of Major James Grant in 1758 saved his disorganized army by a
cleverly planned attack upon the pursuers. He became Adjutant-
General of Virginia after the peace of 1763, and took part in the
movements which forced Lord Dunmore to leave Norfolk. Subse-
quently he served in South Carolina under Colonel Lee.

were to be sent against the rebellious colonists in the West. The
city of Louisville was laid out on the upper half of this Connolly
tract. It is possible that there was a settlement on what was
afterward called Corn Island (which has now practically dis-
appeared), at the Falls of the Ohio, as early as 1775; in May
1778, General George Rogers Clark, while proceeding, by way
of the Ohio river, against the British posts in the Illinois terri-
tory, landed on this island and built block-houses for his stores
and cabins for about twenty families of emigrants who had
come with him. These emigrants (or the greater part of them)
removed to the mainland in the winter of 1778-1779, and estab-
lished themselves in a fort built within the present limits of Louis-
ville. A town government was organized by them in April 1779,
the settlement at this time being known as " the Falls of the
Ohio." On the i4th of May 1780, the legislature of Virginia, in
response to a petition of the inhabitants, declared that Connolly
had forfeited his title, and incorporated the settlement under
the name of Louisville, in recognition of the assistance given to
the colonies in the War of Independence by Louis XVI. of France.
In 1828 Louisville was chartered as a city; in 1851 it received a
second city charter; in 1870, a third; and in 1893, a fourth.
The city's growth was greatly promoted by the introduction of
successful steam navigation on the Ohio in 1811 and still further
by the opening of the canal around the rapids (generally called
the " Falls of the Ohio "). This canal, which is 2\ m. in length
and is known as the Louisville and Portland canal, was author-
ized by the legislature in 1825 and was opened in December 1830;
between 1855 and 1872 Congress made appropriations for
enlarging it, and in 1874 it passed entirely under Federal
control. The first railway to serve the city, the Louisville
& Frankfort, was completed in 1851. The 6th of August is
locally known as " Bloody Monday "; on this day in 1855 some
members of the Know Nothing Party incited a riot that resulted
in the loss of several lives and of considerable property. In
March 1890 a tornado caused great loss in life and property in
the city. General Clark made his home in Louisville and the
vicinity after his return from the Illinois country in 1779.
Louisville was also the early home of the actress Mary Anderson;
John James Audubon lived here in 1808-1812; and 5 m. E. of
the city are the old home and the grave (with a monument) of
Zachary Taylor.

See Reuben T. Durrett, The Centenary of Louisville (Louisville,
1893), being No. 8 of the Filson Club Publications; J. S. Johnston
(ed.), Memorial History of Louisville (Chicago, 1896) ; and L. V.
Rule, " Louisville, the Gateway City to the South," in L. P. Powell's
Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900).

LOUL£, a town of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro
(formerly the province of Algarve); beautifully situated in an
inland hilly district, 10 m N.N.W. of the seaport of Faro and
5 m. from Sao Joao da Venda on the Lisbon-Faro railway.
Pop. (1900) 22,478. Apart from Lisbon, Oporto and Braga,
Louie is the most populous town in the kingdom. It is sur-
rounded by walls and towers dating from the Moorish period.
The neighbouring church of Nossa Senhora da Piedade is a
favourite resort of pilgrims. Basket-making is the principal
industry; leather, porcelain and various products of the palm,
agave and esparto grass are also manufactured.

LOURDES, a town of south-western France in the department
of Hautes- Pyrenees, at the foot of the Pyrenees, 12 m. S.S.W.
of Tarbes on the main line of the Southern railway between- that
town and Pau. Pop. (1906) 7228. Lourdes is divided into an
old and a new town by the Gave de Pau, which at this point
leaves the valley of Argeles and turns abruptly to the west. The
old quarter on the right bank surrounds on three sides a scarped
rock, on which stands the fortress now used as a prison. Its large
square keep of the i4th century is the chief survival of feudal
times. Little is left of the old fortifications except a tower of
the I3th or i4th century, surmounting a gateway known as the
Tour de Garnabie. The old quarter is united with the new town
by a bridge which is continued in an esplanade leading to the
basilica, the church of the Rosary and the Grotto, with its spring
of healing water. The present fame of Lourdes is entirely
associated with this grotto, where the Virgin Mary is believed

LOURENgO MARQUES

in the Roman Catholic world to have revealed herself repeatedly
to a peasant girl named Bernadette Soubirous in 1858. A statue
of the Virgin stands on a rock projecting above the grotto, the
walls of which are covered with crutches and other votive offer-
ings; the spot, which is resorted to by multitudes of pilgrims
from all quarters of the world, is marked by a basilica built above
the grotto and consecrated in 1876. In addition the church of
the Rosary, a rich building in the Byzantine style, was erected
in front of and below the basilica from 1884 to 1889. Not far
from the grotto are several other caves, where prehistoric
remains have been found. The Hospice de Notre-Dame de
Douleurs is the chief of the many establishments provided for
the accommodation of pilgrims.

Lourdes is a fortified place of the second class; and is the seat
of the tribunal of first instance of the arrondissement of Argeles.
There are marble and slate quarries near the town. The pastures
of the neighbourhood support a breed of Aquitaine cattle, which is
most highly valued in south-western France.

The origin of Lourdes is uncertain. From the gth century
onwards it was the most important place in Bigorre, largely
owing to the fortress which is intimately connected with its
history. In 1360 it passed by the treaty of Bretigny from
French to English hands, and its governor was murdered by
Gaston Phoebus viscount of Beam, for refusing to surrender it
to the count of Anjou. Nevertheless the fortress did not fall
into the possession of the French till 1406 after a blockade of
eighteen months. Again during the wars of religion the castle
held out successfully after the town had been occupied by the
troops of the Protestant captain Gabriel, count of Montgomery.
From the reign of Louis XIV. to the beginning of the igth
century the castle was used as a state prison. Since the visions
of Bernadette Soubirous, their authentication by a commission of
enquiry appointed by the bishop of Tarbes, and the authorization
by the pope of the cult of Our Lady of Lourdes, the quarter on
the left bank of the Gave has sprung up and it is estimated that
600,000 pilgrims annually visit the town. The chief of the
pilgrimages, known as the national pilgrimage, takes place in
August.

Several religious communities have been named after Our
Lady of Lourdes. Of these one, consisting of sisters of the third
order of St Francis, called the Congregation of Our Lady of
Lourdes (founded 1877), has its headquarters in Rochester,
Minnesota. Another, the Order of Our Lady of Lourdes, was
founded in 1883 for work in the archdiocese of New Orleans.

See G. Mares, Lourdes et ses environs (Bordeaux, 1894) ; Fourcade,
L' Apparition de la grotte de Lourdes (Paris, 1862) and L' Apparition
. . . consideree au point de vue de I' art Chretien (Bordeaux, 1862);
Boissarie, Lourdes, histoire medicale (Paris, 1891); Bertrin, Hist.
critique des tenements de Lourdes (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), written
under authority of the bishop of Tarbes; H. Lasserre, Miraculous
Episodes of Lourdes (London, 1884, tr.); R. F. Clarke, Lourdes and
its Miracles (ib., 1889) and Medical Testimony to the Miracles (ib.,
1892); D. Barbe1, Lourdes hier, aujourd'hui, demain (Paris, 1893;
Eng. trans, by A. Meynell, London, 1894); J. R. Gasquet, The Cures
at Lourdes (London, 1895); Les Pelerinages de Lourdes. Cantiques,
insignes, costumes (Lourdes, 1897); W. Leschner, The Origin of
Lourdes (London, loop). Zola's Lourdes (Paris, 1894), a criticism
from the sceptical point of view, in the form of a realistic novel,
has called forth many replies from the Catholic side.

LOURENCO MARQUES, capital of Portuguese East Africa,
or Mozambique, on the north bank of the Espirito Santo or
English river, Delagoa Bay, and 396 m. by rail via Pretoria
from Johannesburg. Pop. (1904) 9849, of whom 4691 were
Europeans and 1690 Asiatics. The town is situated close to
the mouth of the river in 25° 53' S. and 32° 30' E., and is built
upon a low-lying spit of sand, formerly surrounded by swamps.
The streets are regularly laid out and adorned by several fine
buildings. The principal thoroughfare, the Avenida Aguiar,
2 m. long goes from the centre of the town to Reuben Point.
The harbour is well equipped with piers, quays, landing sheds
and electric cranes, which enable large steamers to discharge
cargoes direct into the railway trucks. The depth of water at
low tide is 1 8 ft. The streets are lit by electricity and there is
an electric tramway system 7 m. in extent. At Reuben Point,
which marks the spot where the English river enters the bay,

xvu. 3

are the lighthouse, barracks and the private residences of the
wealthy citizens. At its mouth the English river is about
2 m. across. Lourenco Marques is the nearest seaport to the
Rand gold mines. The port is 8374 m. from Southampton via
Cape Town and 7565 m. via the Suez canal. It is served by
British, Portuguese and German liners, the majority of the
goods imported being shipped at Southampton, Lisbon or
Hamburg. Over 50% of the import trade of Johannesburg
is with Lourenoo Marques. Great Britain and British possessions
take some 40% of the import trade, Portugal, Germany, Norway,
Sweden and America coming next in order. Most of the imports,
being forwarded to the Transvaal, figure also as exports. The
chief articles of import are food-stuffs and liquors, iron, mineral
oils, inks and dyes, timber and live stock. These all form part
of the transit trade. There is practically no export trade by sea
save in coal, which is brought chiefly from the collieries at
Middelburg in the Transvaal. At Port Matolla, 20 m. from the
town, on the river of that name, one of the feeders of the English
river, is a flourishing timber trade. The average value of the
total trade of Lourenco Marques for the five years 1897-1899
and 1902-1903 (1900 and 1901 being years during which trade
was disorganized by the Anglo-Boer War) was over £3,500,000.
In 1905 the value of the trade of the port was £5,682,000; of
this total the transit trade was worth over £4,500,000 and the
imports for local consumption £1,042,000. The retail trade, and
trade with the natives, is almost entirely in the hands of Indians.
The chief import for local consumption is cheap wine from
Portugal, bought by the Kaffirs to the extent of over £500,000
yearly. These natives form the bulk of the Africans who work
in the Rand gold mines.

Lourenco Marques is named after a Portuguese navigator,
who with a companion (Antonio Calderia) was sent in 1544 by
the governor of Mozambique on a voyage of exploration. They
explored the lower courses of the rivers emptying their waters
into Delagoa Bay, notably the Espirito Santo. The various
forts and trading stations which the Portuguese established,
abandoned and reoccupied on the north bank of the river were
all called Lourenco Marques. The existing town dates from
about 1850, the previous settlement having been entirely de-
stroyed by the natives. In 1871 the town was described as a poor
place, with narrow streets, fairly good flat-roofed houses,
grass huts, decayed forts and rusty cannon, enclosed by a wall
6 ft. high then recently erected and protected by bastions at
intervals. The growing importance of the Transvaal led, how-
ever, to greater interest being taken in Portugal in the port.
A commission was sent by the Portuguese government in 1876
to drain the marshy land near the settlement, to plant the blue
gum tree, and to build a hospital and a church. It was not,
however, until the end of the igth century that any marked
development took place in the town, and up to 1903 cargo had
to be discharged in tugs and lighters.

In 1873-1877 Mr Burgers, president of the Transvaal, en-
deavoured, unsuccessfully, to get a railway built from Pretoria
to Delagoa Bay. In 1878-1879 a survey was taken for a line
from Lourenco Marques to the Transvaal, and in 1883 the Lisbon
cabinet granted to Colonel Edward McMurdo, an American
citizen, a concession — which took the place of others which had
lapsed — for the building of a railway from Lourenco Marques
to the Transvaal frontier, the Boer government having agreed
(1883) to continue the line to Pretoria. Under this concession
Colonel McMurdo formed in London in 1887 a company — the
Delagoa Bay and East African Railway Company — to construct
the line. Meantime a secret agreement had been come to
between President Kruger and Portugal for the concession to
the Transvaal of a "steam tramway" parallel to the projected
railway, should the company not complete the line in the time
specified. The company, however, built the line to the frontier
shown on the Portuguese maps of 1883 within the time limit,
the railway being opened on the I4th of December 1888. The
frontier by this date had been fixed at Komati Poort, 5 m.
farther from the coast. Portugal had previously agreed to grant
the company " a reasonable extension of time " to complete

66

LOUSE— LOUTH

the line if the frontier should be traced farther inland than shown
on the 1883 maps. The Lisbon government required the exten-
sion to Komati Poort to be completed in eight months (five of
which were in the rainy season), an impossible stipulation. The
railway not being finished, the Portuguese seized the line on the
25th of June 1889 and cancelled the concession. Portugal in
so doing acted, to all appearance, under pressure from the
Transvaal. Great Britain and America at once protested,
Portugal admitted the illegality of her act and consented to
refer the amount of compensation to the decision of three Swiss
jurists. This was in 1890, when Portugal paid £28,000 on
account. It was not until the 29th of March 1900 that the award
was made known. The arbitrators ordered Portugal to pay —
in addition to the £28,000 — a sum, including interest, of £950,000.
The damages were promptly paid. Meantime the railway had
been continued from Komati Poort and was opened for through
traffic to Pretoria on the 8th of July 1895. In 1906-1910
another railway (47 m. long) was built from Lourenfo Maiques
due west to the Swaziland frontier, being a link in a new line
to shorten the distance by rail between the Rand and the sea
by some 60 m.

See also DELAGOA BAY and the authorities there cited. The text
of the railway arbitration award was published in French at Berne
in 1900. Annual reports on the trade of Lourenco Marques are issued
by the British Foreign Office.

LOUSE (O. Eng. lAs, cf. Du. Ms, Ger. Laus, Dan. and Swed.
lus), a term applied to small wingless insects, parasitic upon
birds and mammals, and belonging strictly speaking to the order
Anoplura, often included among the Hemiptera, though the term
is frequently extended to the bird-lice constituting the sub-
order Mallophaga, formerly included among the Neuroptera.
Both agree in having nothing that can be termed a metamor-
phosis; they are active from the time of their exit from the
egg to their death, gradually increasing in size, and undergoing
several moults or changes of skin. The true lice (or Anoplura)
are found on the bodies of many Mammalia, and occasion by
their presence intolerable irritation. The number of genera
is few. Two species of Pediculus are found on the human body,
and are known ordinarily as the head-louse (P. capitis) and the
body-louse (P. vestimenti); P. capitis is found on the head,
especially of children. The eggs, laid on the hairs, and known
as " nits," hatch in about eight days, and the lice are full grown
in about a month. Such is their fecundity that it has been
asserted that one female (probably of P. vestimenti) may in
eight weeks produce five thousand descendants. Want of
cleanliness favours their multiplication in a high degree — the
idea once existed, and is probably still held by the very ignorant,
that they are directly engendered from dirt. The irritation is
caused by the rostrum of the insect being inserted into the skin,
from which the blood is rapidly pumped up. A third human
louse, known as the crab-louse (Phthirius pubis) is found amongst
the hairs on other parts of the body, particularly those of the
pubic region, but probably never on the head. The louse of
monkeys is now generally considered as forming a separate
genus (Pedicinus), but the greater part of those infesting domestic
and wild quadrupeds are mostly grouped in the large genus
Haematopinus, and very rarely is the same species found on
different kinds of animals.

The bird-lice (Mallophaga) are far more numerous in species,
although the number of genera is comparatively small. With
the exception of the genus Trichodectes, the various species of
which are found on mammalia, all infest birds (as their English
names implies) (see BIRD-LOUSE). Louse-infestation is known
as phthiriasis in medical and veterinary terminology.

AUTHORITIES. — The following works are the most important:
Denny, Monographia Anoplurorum Britanniae (London, 1843);
Giebel, Insecta Epizoa (which contains the working-up of Nitzsch's
posthumous materials; Leipzig, 1874); van Beneden, Animal
Parasites (London, 1876); Piaget, Les Ptdiculines (Leiden, 1880);
M£gnin, Les Parasites et les maladies parasitaires (Paris, 1880);
Neumann, Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Domesticated Animals
(1892); Osborn, Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the
Lower Animals (Washington, 1891 ; U.S. Dept. Agr.) ; Enderlein,
" Lause-Studien," Zoo/. Anz. xxviii. (1904).

LOUTH, a maritime county in the province of Leinster, Ireland,
bounded N.E. by Carlingford Bay and Co. Down, E. by the
Irish Sea, S.W. by Meath, and N.W. by Monaghan and Armagh.
It is the smallest county in Ireland, its area being 202,731 acres
or about 3 1 7 sq. m. The greater part of the surface is undulating,
with occasionally lofty hills; in the north-east, on the borders
of Carlingford Lough, there is a mountain range approaching
2000 ft. in height. Many of the hills are finely wooded, and
.towards the sea the scenery, in the more elevated districts, is
strikingly picturesque. With the exception of the promontory
of Clogher Head, which rises abruptly to a height of 180 ft.,
the coast is for the most part low and sandy. The narrow and
picturesque Carlingford Lough is navigable beyond the limits
of the county, and Carlingford and Greenore are well-known
watering-places on the county Louth shore. The Bay of Dundalk
stretches to the town of that name and affords convenient shelter.
The principal rivers, the Fane, the Lagan, the Clyde and the Dee,
flow eastwards. None of these is navigable, but ,the Boyne,
which forms the southern boundary of the county, is navigable
for large vessels as far as Drogheda.

Almost all this county is occupied by an undulating lowland of
much-folded Silurian shales and fine-grained sandstones; but
Carboniferous Limestone overlies these rocks north and east of
Dundalk. Dolerite and gabbro, in turn invaded by granite, have
broken through the limestone north of Dundalk Bay, and form a
striking and mountainous promontory. There is now no doubt
that these rocks, with those on the adjacent moorland of Slieve
Gullion, belong to the early Cainozoic igneous series, and may be
compared with similar masses in the Isle of Skye. A raised beach
provides a flat terrace at Greenore. Lead ore has been worked in
the county, as in the adjacent parts of Armagh and Monaghan.

In the lower regions the soil is a very rich deep mould, admirably
adapted both for cereals and green crops. The higher mountain
regions are covered principally with heath. Agriculture generally
is in an advanced condition, and the farms are for the most part well
drained. The acreage of tillage is but little below that of pasture.
Oats, barley, flax, potatoes and turnips are all satisfactorily culti-
vated. Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry represent the bulk of the
live stock. Linen manufactures are of some importance. The deep-
sea and coast fishery has its headquarters at Dundalk, and the salmon
fisheries at Dundalk (Castletown river) and Drogheda (river Boyne).
These fisheries, together with oyster beds in Carlingford Lough, are
of great value. The county is traversed from S. to N. by the Great
Northern railway, with a branch westward from Dundalk ; while the
same town is connected with the port of Greenore by a line owned
by the London & North-Western railway of England. From
Greenore the London & North-Western railway passenger steamers
run regularly to Holyhead. The town of Ardee is served by a branch
from the Great Northern line at Dromin.

The population (71,914 in 1891; 65,820 in 1901) decreases at
about an average rate, and a considerable number of the inhabitants
emigrate. Of the total population about 92 % are Roman Catholics.
The principal towns are Dundalk (pop. 13,076), Drogheda (12,760)
and Ardee (1883). The county includes six baronies and sixty-four
parishes. Assizes are held at Dundalk and quarter sessions at Ardee,
Drogheda and Dundalk. Louth was represented by two county and
ten borough members in the Irish parliament; the two present
divisions are the north and south, each returning one member. The
county is in the Protestant dioceses of Armagh and Clogher and the
Roman Catholic diocese of Armagh.

The territory which afterwards became the county Louth
was included in the principality of Uriel, Orgial or Argial, which
comprehended also the greater part of Meath, Monaghan and
Armagh. The chieftain of the district was conquered by John
de Courcy in 1183, and Louth or Uriel was among the shires
generally considered to have been created by King John, and
peopled by English settlers. Until the time of Elizabeth it
was included in the province of Ulster. County Louth is rich
in antiquarian remains. There are ancient buildings of all dates,
and spears, swords, axes of bronze, ornaments of gold, and other
relics have been discovered in quantities. Among Druidical
remains is the fine cromlech of Ballymascanlan, between Dundalk
and Greenore. Danish raths and other forts are numerous.
It is said that there were originally twenty religious houses in
the county. Of the remains of these the most interesting are at
Monasterboice and Mellifont, both near Drogheda. At the
former site are two churches, the larger dating probably from the
9th century, the smaller from the i3th; a fine round tower,
no ft. in height, but 'not 'quite perfect; and three crosses, two
of which, 27 and 15 ft. in height respectively, are adorned with

LOUTH— LOUVER

67

moulding, sculptured figures and tracery, and are among the
finest in Ireland. At Mellifont are the remains of the first
Cistercian monastery founded in Ireland, in 1142, with a massive
gatehouse, an octagonal baptistery and chapter-house. Carling-
ford and Drogheda have monastic remains, and at Dromiskin is
a round tower, in part rebuilt. Ardee, an ancient town, incorpor-
ated in 1376, has a castle of the I3th century. At Dunbar a
charter of Charles II. (1679) gave the inhabitants the right to
elect a sovereign. Louth, si m. S.W. from Dundalk, is a decayed
town which gave its name to the county, and contains ruins of an
abbey to which was attached one of the most noted early schools
in Ireland.

LOUTH, a market-town and municipal borough in the E.
Lindsey or Louth parliamentary division of Lincolnshire,
England, on the river Lud, 141 J m. N. of London by the Grimsby
branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 9518.
By a canal, completed in 1763, there is water communication
with the Humber. The Perpendicular church of St James,
c6mpleted about 1515, with a spire 300 ft. in height, is one of the
finest ecclesiastical buildings in the county. Traces of a building
of the I3th century are perceptible. There are a town hall, a
corn exchange and a market-hall, an Edward VI. grammar
school, which is richly endowed, a commercial school founded
in 1676, a hospital and several almshouses. Thorpe Hall is a
picturesque building dated 1584. In the vicinity are the ruins
of a Cistercian abbey (Louth Park). The industries include
the manufacture of agricultural implements, iron-founding,
brewing, malting, and rope and brick-making. The town is
governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
2749 acres.

Louth (Lud.es, Loweth) is first mentioned in the Domesday
record as a borough held, as it had been in Saxon times, by the
bishop of Lincoln, who had a market there. The see retained
the manor until it was surrendered by Bishop Holbeach to
Henry VIII., who granted it to Edward, earl of Lincoln, but it
was recovered by the Crown before 1 562. Louth owed much of its
early prosperity to the adjacent Cistercian abbey of Louth Park,
founded in 1 139 by Alexander bishop of Lincoln. The borough
was never more than prescriptive, though burgesses were
admitted throughout the middle ages and until 1711, their sole
privilege being freedom from tolls. The medieval government
of the town was by the manor court under the presidency of the
bishop's high steward, the custom being for the reeve to be
elected by eighteen ex-reeves. The original parish church was
built about 1170. During the I3th and I4th centuries nine
religious gilds were founded in the town. Fear of confiscation of
the property of these gilds seems to have been one of the chief
local causes of the Lincolnshire Rebellion, which broke out here
in 1536. The disturbance began by the parishioners seizing
the church ornaments to prevent their surrender. The bishop's
steward, who arrived to open the manorial court for the election
of a reeve, agreed to ride to ask the king the truth about the
jewels, but this did not satisfy the people, who, while showing
respect to a royal commission, seized and burnt the papers of the
bishop's registrar. After swearing several country gentlemen to
their cause, the rebels dispersed, agreeing to meet on the following
day under arms. Edward VI. in 1551 incorporated Louth under
one warden and six assistants, who were to be managers of the
school founded by the same charter. This was confirmed in 1564
by Elizabeth, who granted the manor of Louth to the corporation
with all rights and all the lands of the suppressed gilds at an
annual fee-farm rent of £84. James I. gave the commission of
the peace to the warden and one assistant in 1605; a further
charter was obtained in 1830. Louth has never been a parlia-
mentary borough. The markets said to have been held from
ancient times and the three fairs on the third Sunday after
Easter and the feasts of St Martin and St James were confirmed
in 1551. Louth was a seat of the wool trade as early as 1297; the
modern manufactures seem to have arisen at the end of the i8th
century, when, according to the charter of 1830, there was a great
increase in the population, manufactures, trade and commerce
of the town.

See E. H. R. Tatham, Lincolnshire in Roman Times (Louth,
1902) ; Richard W. Goulding, Louth Old Corporation Record* (Louth,
1891).

LOUVAIN (Flem. Leuven), a town of Belgium hi the province
of Brabant, of which it was the capital in the I4th century
before the rise of Brussels. Pop. (1004)42,194. Local tradition
attributes the establishment of a permanent camp at this spot
to Julius Caesar, but Louvain only became important in the
nth century as a place of residence for the dukes of Brabant.
In 1356 Louvain was the scene of the famous Joyeuse Entrfe
of Wenceslas which represented the principal charter of Brabant.
At that time it had a population of at least 50,000 and was very
prosperous as the centre of the woollen trade in central Belgium.
The gild of weavers numbered 2400 members. The old walls
of Louvain were 4^ m. in circumference, and have been replaced
by boulevards, but within them there is a considerable extent of
cultivated ground. Soon after the Joyeuse Entree a serious feud
began between the citizens and the patrician class, and eventually
the duke threw in his lot with the latter. After a struggle of
over twenty years' duration the White Hoods, as the citizens
called themselves, were crushed. In 1379 they massacred
seventeen nobles in the town hah1, but this crinte brought down
on them the vengeance of the duke, to whom in 1383 they made
the most abject and complete surrender. With this civil strife the
importance and prosperity of Louvain declined. Many weavers
fled to Holland and England, the duke took up his residence in the
strong castle of Vilvorde, and Brussels prospered at the expense
of Louvain. What it lost in trade it partially recovered as a seat
of learning, for in 1423, Duke John IV. of Brabant founded there
a university and ever since Louvain University has enjoyed the
first place in Belgium. It has always prided itself most on its
theological teaching. In 1679 the university was established in
the old Cloth Workers' Hall, a building dating from 1317, with
long arcades and graceful pillars supporting the upper storeys.
The library contains 70,000 volumes and some 500 manuscripts.
Attached to the university are four residential colleges at which
the number of students average two thousand. In the i6th
century when the university was at the height of its fame it
counted six thousand.

The most remarkable building in Louvain is the Hotel de
Ville, one of the richest and most ornate examples of pointed
Gothic in the country. If less ornate than that of Oudenarde
it is more harmonious in its details. It was the work of Mathieu
de Layens, master mason, who worked at it from 1448 to 1463.
The building is one of three storeys each with ten pointed
windows forming the fafade facing the square. Above is a
graceful balustrade behind which is a lofty roof, and at the
angles are towers perforated for the passage of the light. The
other three sides are lavishly decorated with statuary. The
interior is not noteworthy.

Opposite the H6tel de Ville is the fine church of St Pierre,
in the form of a cross with a low tower to which the spire
has never been added. The existing edifice was built on the
site of an older church between 1425 and 1497. It contains
seven chapels, in two of which are fine pictures by Dierich Bouts
formerly attributed to Memling. Much of the iron and brass
work is by Jean Matseys. There is also an ancient tomb, being
the monument of Henry I., duke of Brabant, who died in
1235. There are four other interesting churches in Louvain,
viz. Ste Gertrude, St Quentin, St Michael and St Jacques.
In the last-named is a fine De Grayer representing St Hubert.
Some ruins on a hill exist of the old castle of the counts of
Louvain whose title was merged in the higher style of the dukes
of Brabant.

LOUVER, LOUVRE or LUFFER, in architecture, the lantern
built upon the roof of the hall in ancient times to allow the smoke
to escape when the fire was made on the pavement in the middle
of the hall. The term is also applied to the flat overlapping
slips of wood, glass, &c., with which such openings are closed,
arranged to give ventilation without the admission of rain.
Openings fitted with louvers are now utilized for the purposes of
ventilation in schools and manufactories.

68

LOUVET, J.— LOUVIERS

The word has been derived from the French Vouvert, the " open"
space. This, Minsheu's guess, is now generally abandoned. The
Old French form, of which the English is an adaptation, was lover
or lovier. The medieval Latin lodium, lodarium, is suggested as the
ultimate origin. Du Cange (Clossarium, s.v. " lodia ") defines it as
lugurium, i.e. a small hut. The English form " louvre " is due to a
confusion with the name of the palace in Paris. The origin of that
name is also unknown; louverie, place of wolves, is one of the
suggestions, the palace being supposed to have originally been a
hunting-box (see PARIS).

LOUVET, JEAN (c. 1370-*:. 1440), called the president of
Provence, occupied the position of president of the Chambre des
Comptes at Aix in 1415. Towards the end of that year he
went to Paris with Louis II. of Anjou, king of Sicily, attached
himself to the dauphin Charles, and after having been chief
steward of the household to Queen Isabella he turned against her.
He was one of the principal agents of the Armagnac party, and
became the most influential adviser of Charles VII. during the
first years of his reign. But his rapacity gained him enemies,
and when the constable Arthur, earl of Richmond, attained a
preponderating influence over Charles VII. Louvet retired to
his captaincy of Avignon. He still remained a personage of
importance in his exile, and played an influential part even in
his last years.

See Vallet de Viriville in the Nouvelle Biographic generate, and G. du
FresnedeBeaucourt,.HM/0i>edeQtar/es VII. (1881-1891). (J. V.*)

LOUVET DE COUVRAI, JEAN BAPTISTS (1760-1797),
French writer and politician, was born in Paris on the i2th of
June 1760, the son of a stationer. He became a bookseller's
clerk, and first attracted attention with a not very moral novel
called Les Amours du chevalier de Faublas (Paris, 1787-1789).
The character of the heroine of this book, Lodoiska, was taken
from the wife of a jeweller in the Palais Royal, with whom he
had formed a liaison. She was divorced from her husband in
1792 and married Louvet in 1793. His second novel, £milie
de Varmont, was intended to prove the utility and necessity
of divorce and of the marriage of priests, questions raised by
the Revolution. Indeed all his works were directed to the ends
of the Revolution. He attempted to have one of his unpublished
plays, L'Anobli conspirateur, performed at the Theatre Francais,
and records naively that one of its managers, M. d'Orfeuil,
listened to the reading of the first three acts " with mortal
impatience," exclaiming at last: " I should need cannon in
order to put that piece on the stage." A " sort of farce " at the
expense of the army of the emigres, La Grande Revue des armies
noire et blanche, had, however, better success: it ran for twenty-
five nights.

Louvet was, however, first brought into notice as a politician
by his Paris justifie, in reply to a "truly incendiary" pamphlet
in which Mounier, after the removal of the king to Paris in
October 1789, had attacked the capital, " at that time blameless,"
and argued that the court should be established elsewhere.
This led to Louvet's election to the Jacobin Club, for which, as he
writes bitterly in his Memoirs, the qualifications were then
" a genuine civisme and some talent." A self-styled philosophe
of the true revolutionary type, he now threw himself ardently
into the campaign against " despotism " and " reaction," i.e.
against the moderate constitutional royalty advocated by
Lafayette, the Abbe Maury and other " Machiavellians." On
the asth of December 1791 he presented at the bar of the
Assembly his Petition contre les princes, which had " a prodigious
success in the senate and the empire." Elected deputy to
the Assembly for the department of Loiret, he made his first
speech in January 1792. He attached himself to the Girondists,
whose vague deism, sentimental humanitarianism and ardent
republicanism he fully shared, and from March to November
1792 he published, at Roland's expense, a bi-weekly journal-
affiche, of which the title, La Sentinelle, proclaimed its mission
to be to " enlighten the people on all the plots " at a time when,
Austria having declared war, the court was " visibly betraying
our armies." On the loth of August he became editor of the
Journal des debats, and in this capacity, as well as in the Assembly,
made himself conspicuous by his attacks on Robespierre, Marat
and the other Montagnards, whom he declares he would have

succeeded in bringing to justice in September but for the poor
support he received from the Girondist leaders. It is more
probable, however, that his ill-balanced invective contributed
to their ruin and his own; for him Robespierre was a " royalist,"
Marat " the principal agent of England," the Montagnards
Orleanists in masquerade. His courageous attitude at the
trial of Louis XVI., when he supported the " appeal to the
people," only served still further to discredit the Girondists.
He defended them, however, to the last with great courage, if
with little discretion; and after the crisis of the 3ist of May
1793 he shared the perils of the party who fled from Paris (see
GIRONDISTS). His wife, " Lodoiska," who had actively co-
operated in his propaganda, was also in danger.

After the fall of Robespierre, he was recalled to the Convention,
when he was instrumental in bringing Carrier and the others
responsible for the Noyades of Nantes to justice. His influence
was now considerable; he was elected a member of the Committee
of the Constitution, president of the Assembly, and member of
the Committee of Public Safety, against the overgrown power
of which he had in earlier days protested. His hatred of the
Mountain had not made him reactionary; he was soon regarded
as one of the mainstays of the " Jacobins," and La Sentinelle
reappeared, under his auspices, preaching union among re-
publicans. Under the Directory (1795) he was elected a member
of the Council of Five Hundred, of which he was secretary, and
also a member of the Institute. Meanwhile he had returned to
his old trade and set up a bookseller's shop in the Palais Royal.
But, in spite of the fact that he had once more denounced the
Jacobins in La Sentinelle, his name had become identified with
all that the combative spirits of the jeunesse doree most disliked;
his shop was attacked by the "young men" with cries of
" A has la Loupe, a bas la belle Lodoiska, a has les gardes du corps
de Louvet I" he and his wife were insulted in the streets and the
theatres: " A bas les Louvets et les Louvetanls!" and he was
compelled to leave Paris. The Directory appointed him to the
consulship at Palermo, but he died on the 25th of August 1797
before taking up his post.

In 1795 Louvet published a portion of his Memoirs under the title
of Quelques notices pour I'histoire et le recit de mes perils depuis le 31
mat 1^93. They were mainly written in the various hiding-places
in which Louvet rook refuge, and they give a vivid picture of the
sufferings of the proscribed Girondists. They form an invaluable
document for the study of the psychology of the Revolution; for
in spite of their considerable literary art, they are artless in their
revelation of the mental and moral state of their author, a character-
istic type of the honest, sentimental, somewhat hysterical and wholly
unbalanced minds nurtured on the abstractions of the philosophes.
The first complete edition of the Memoires de Louvet de Couvrai,
edited, with preface, notes and tables, by F. A. Aulard, was published
at Paris in 1889.

LOUVIERS, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Eure, 17^ m. S.S.E. of
Rouen by road. Pop. (1906) 9449. Louviers is pleasantly situated
in a green valley surrounded by wooded hills, on the Eure, which
here divides into several branches. The old part of the town,
built of wood, stands on the left bank of the river; the more
modern portions, in brick and hewn stone, on the right. There
are spacious squares, and the place is surrounded by boulevards.
The Gothic church of Notre-Dame has a south portal which
ranks among the most beautiful works of the kind produced
in the isth century; it contains fine stained glass of the isth
and 1 6th centuries and other works of art. The h6tel-de-ville,
a large modern building, contains a museum and library. The
chief industry is cloth and flannel manufacture. There are
wool-spinning and fulling mills, thread factories and manu-
factories of spinning and weaving machinery, and enamel ware;
leather-working, dyeing, metal-founding and bell-founding
are also carried on. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and
has a court of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a chamber
of arts and manufactures, and a council of trade arbitrators.

Louviers (Lovera) was originally a villa of the dukes of Normandy
and in the middle ages belonged to the archbishops of Rouen; its
cloth-making industry first arose in the beginning of the I3th
century. It changed hands once and again during the Hundred
Years' War, and from Charles VII. it received extensive privileges,

LOUVOIS, MARQUIS DE— LOVAT,

BARON

69

and the title of Louviers le Franc for the bravery of its inhabitants
in driving the English from Pont de 1'Arche, Verneuil and Harcourt.
It passed through various troubles successively at the period of the
League of the Public Weal under Louis XL, in the religious wars
(when the parlement of Rouen sat for a time at Louviers) and in the
wars of the Fronde.
See G. Petit, Hist, de Louviers (Louviers, 1877).

LOUVOIS, FRANCOIS MICHEL LE TELLIER, MARQUIS DE
(1641-1691), French statesman, war minister of Louis XIV.,
was born at Paris on the i8th of January 1641. His father,
Michel le Tellier (q.v.), married him to an heiress, the marquise
de Courtenvaux, and instructed him in the management of state
business. The young man won the king's confidence, and in 1666
he succeeded his father as war minister. His talents were per-
ceived by Turenne in the war of Devolution (1667-68), who gave
him instruction in the art of providing armies. After the peace
of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louvois devoted himself to organizing the
French army. The years between 1668 and 1672, says Camille
Rousset, " were years of preparation, when Lionne was labouring
with all his might to find allies, Colbert to find money, and
Louvois soldiers for Louis." The work of Louvois in these years
is bound up with the historical development of the French army
and of armies in general (see ARMY). Here need only be men-
tioned Louvois's reorganization of the military orders of merit,
his foundation of the H6tel des Invalides, and the almost forcible
enrolment of the nobility and gentry of France, in which Louvois
carried out part of Louis's measures for curbing the spirit of
independence by service in the army or at court. The success
of his measures is to be seen in the victories of the great war of
1672-78. After the peace of Nijmwegen Louvois was high in
favour, his father had been made chancellor, and the influence of
Colbert was waning. The ten years of peace between 1678 and
1688 were distinguished in French history by the rise of Madame
de Maintenon, the capture of Strassburg and the revocation of
the Edict of Nantes, in all of which Louvois bore a prominent
part. The surprise of Strassburg in 1681 in time of peace was not
only planned but executed by Louvois and Monclar. A saving
clause in the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which provided
for some liberty of conscience, if not of worship, Louvois sharply
annulled with the phrase " Sa majeste veut qu'on fasse sentir
les dernieres rigueurs a ceux qui ne voudront pas se faire de sa
religion." He claimed also the credit of inventing the dragon-
nades, and mitigated the rigour of the soldiery only in so far as
the licence accorded was prejudicial to discipline. Discipline,
indeed, and complete subjection to the royal authority was the
political faith of Louvois. Colbert died in 1683, and had been
replaced by Le Pelletier, an adherent of Louvois, in the controller-
generalship of finances, and by Louvois himself in his ministry
for public buildings, which he took that he might be the minister
able to gratify the king's two favourite pastimes, war and build-
ing. Louvois was able to superintend the successes of the first
years of the war of the League of Augsburg, but died suddenly of
apoplexy after leaving the king's cabinet on July 16, 1691.
His sudden death caused a suspicion of poison. Louvois was one
of the greatest of the rare class of great war ministers. French
history can only point to Carnot as his equal. Both had to
organize armies out of old material on a new system, both were
admirable contrivers of campaigns, and both devoted themselves
to the material well-being of the soldiers. In private life and
in the means employed for gaining his ends, Louvois was un-
scrupulous and shameless.

The principal authority for Louvois's life and times is Camille
Rousset's Histoire de Louvois (Paris, 1872), a great work founded
on the 900 volumes of his despatches at the Depot de la Guerre.
Saint Simon from his class prejudices is hardly to be trusted, but
Madame de Sevigne throws many side-lights on his times. Testament
politique de Louvois (1695) is spurious.

LOUYS, PIERRE (1870- ), French novelist and poet, was
born in Paris on the loth of December 1870. When he was
nineteen he founded a review, La Conque, which brought him
into contact with the leaders of the Parnassians, and counted
Swinburne, Maeterlinck, Mallarm6 and others among its con-
tributors. He won notoriety by his novel Aphrodite (1896),
which gave a vivid picture of Alexandrian morals at the

beginning of the Christian era. His Chansons de Bililis, roman
lyrique (1894), which purported to be a translation from the
Greek, is a glorification of Sapphic love, which in subject-matter
is objectionable in the highest degree; but its delicate decadent
prose is typical of a modern French literary school, and some
of the " songs " were set to music by Debussy and others. Later
books are: La Femme et le pantin (1898); Les Aventures du roi
Pausole (1900); Sanguines (1903); Archipel (1906). Louys
married in 1899 Louise de Heredia, younger daughter of the poet.
LOVAT, SIMON FRASER, I2TH BARON (c. 1667-1747), Scottish
chief and Jacobite intriguer, was born about 1667 and was the
second son of Thomas Fraser, third son of the 8th Lord Lovat.
The barony of Lovat dates from about 1460, in the person of
Hugh Fraser, a descendant of Simon Fraser (killed at Halidon
Hill in 1338) who acquired the tower and fort of Lovat near
Beauly, Inverness-shire, and from whom the clan Fraser was
called " Macshimi" (sons of Simon). Young Simon was educated
at King's College, Aberdeen, and his correspondence afterwards
gives proof, not only of a command of good English and idiomatic
French, but of such an acquaintance with the Latin classics as
to leave him never at a loss for an apt quotation from Virgil or
Horace. Whether Lovat ever felt any real loyalty to the Stuarts
or was actuated by self-interest it is difficult to determine, but
that he was a born traitor and deceiver there can be no doubt.
One of his first acts on leaving college was to recruit three hundred
men from his clan to form part of a regiment in the service of
William and Mary, in which he himself was to hold a command, —
his object being to have a body of well-trained soldiers under his
influence, whom at a moment's notice he might carry over to
the interest of King James. Among other outrages in which he
was engaged about this time was a rape and forced marriage
committed on the widow of the zoth Lord Lovat with the view
apparently of securing his own succession to the estates; and it
is a curious instance of influence that, after being subjected by
him to horrible ill-usage, she is said to have become seriously
attached to him. A prosecution, however, having been instituted
against him by Lady Lovat's family, Simon retired first to his
native strongholds in the Highlands, and afterwards to France,
where he found his way in July 1 702 to the court of St Germain.
In 1699, on his father's death, he assumed the title of Lord Lovat.
One of his first steps towards gaining influence in France seems
to have been to announce his conversion to the Catholic faith.
He then proceeded to put the project of restoring the exiled
family into a practical shape. Hitherto nothing seems to have
been known among the Jacobite exiles of the efficiency of the
Highlanders as a military force. But Lovat saw that, as they
were the only part of the British population accustomed to the
independent use of arms, they could be at once put in action
against the reigning power. His plan therefore was to land
five thousand French troops at Dundee, where they might reach
the north-eastern passes of the Highlands in a day's march, and
be in a position to divert the British troops till the Highlands
should have time to rise. Immediately afterwards five hundred
men were to land on the west coast, seize Fort William or Inver-
lochy, and thus prevent the access of any military force from the
south to the central Highlands. The whole scheme indicates
Lovat's sagacity as a military strategist, and his plan was
continuously kept in view in all future attempts of the Jacobites,
and finally acted on in the outbreak of 1745. The advisers of
the Pretender seem to have been either slow to trust their
coadjutor or to comprehend his project. At last, however,
he was despatched (1703) on a secret mission to the Highlands to
sound those of the chiefs who were likely to rise, and to ascertain
what forces they could bring into the field. He found, however,
that there was little disposition to join the rebellion, and he
then apparently made up his mind to secure his own safety by
revealing all that he knew to the government of Queen Anne.
He persuaded the duke of Queensberry that his rival, the duke
of Atholl, was in the Jacobite plot, and that if Queensberry
supported him he could obtain evidence of this at St Germain.
Queensberry foolishly entered into the intrigue with him against
Atholl, but when Lovat had gone to France with a pass from

7o

LOVE-BIRD— LOVEDALE

Queensberry the affair was betrayed to Atholl by Robert
Ferguson, and resulted in Queensberry's discomfiture. The
story is obscure, and is complicated by partisanship on either
side; but Lovat was certainly playing a double game. His
agility, however, was not remunerative. On returning to Paris
suspicions got afloat as to Lovat's proceedings, and he was
imprisoned in the castle of Angouleme. He remained nearly
ten years under supervision, till in November 1714 he made
his escape to England. For some twenty-five years after this
he was chiefly occupied in lawsuit? for the recovery of his estates
and the re-establishment of his fortune, in both of which objects
he was successful. The intervals of his leisure were filled up by
Jacobite and Anti-Jacobite intrigues, in which he seems to have
alternately, as suited his interests, acted the traitor to both
parties. But he so far obtained the confidence of the government
as to secure the appointments of sheriff of Inverness and of colonel
of an independent company. His disloyal practices, however,
soon led to his being suspected; and he was deprived of both his
appointments. When the rebellion of 1745 broke out, Lovat
acted with characteristic duplicity. He represented to the
Jacobites — what was probably in the main true — that though
eager for their success his weak health and advanced years
prevented him from joining the standard of the prince in person,
while to the Lord President Forbes he professed his cordial
attachment to the existing state of things, but lamented that his
son, in spite of all his remonstrances, had joined the Pretender,
and succeeded in taking with him a strong force from the clan
of the Frasers. The truth was that the lad was unwilling to go,
but was compelled by his father. Lovat's false professions of
fidelity did not long deceive the government, and after the
battle of Culloden he was obliged to retreat to the Highlands,
after seeing from a distant height his castle of Dounie burnt by
the royal army. Even then, broken down by disease and old age,
carried on a litter and unable to move without assistance, his
mental resources did not fail; and in a conference with several
of the Jacobite leaders he proposed that they should raise a body
of three thousand men, which would be enough to make their
mountains impregnable, and at length force the government to
give them advantageous terms. The project was not carried out,
and Lovat, after enduring incredible hardships in his wanderings,
was at last arrested on an island in Loch Morar. He was conveyed
in a litter to London, and after a trial of five days sentence of
death was pronounced on the igth of March 1747. His execution
took place on the gth of April. His conduct to the last was
dignified and even cheerful. Just before submitting his head to
the block he repeated the line from Horace —

" Dulce et decorum est pro patria tnori."

His son SIMON FRASER, Master of Lovat (1726-1782) (not to
be confused with another Simon Fraser who saw somewhat
similar service and was killed in 1777 at the battle of Saratoga),
was a soldier, who at the beginning of the Seven Years' War
raised a corps of Fraser Highlanders for the English service,
and at the outbreak of the American War of Independence raised
another regiment which took a prominent part in it. He fought
under Wolfe in Canada, and also in Portugal, and rose to be a
British major-general. The family estates were restored to him,
but the title was not revived till 1837. On his death without
issue, and also of his successor, his half-brother Archibald
Campbell Fraser (1736-1815), the Lovat estates passed to the
Frasers of Strichen, Aberdeenshire. The i6th Baron Lovat
(b. 1871) raised a corps of mounted infantry (Lovat's Scouts)
in the Boer war of 1899-1902.

See Memoirs of Lord Lovat (1746 and 1767); J. Hill Burton, Life
of Simon, Lord Lovat (1847); J. Anderson, Account of the Family of
Frizell or Fraser (Edinburgh, 1825); A. Mackenzie, History of the
Frasers of Lovat (Inverness, 1896); Mrs A. T. Thomson, Memoirs of
the Jacobites (1845-6); and W. C. Mackenzie, Simon Fraser, Lord
Lovat (1908).

LOVE-BIRD, a name somewhat indefinitely bestowed, chiefly
by dealers and their customers, on some of the smaller short-
tailed parrots, from the affection which examples of opposite sexes
exhibit towards each other. By many ornithologists the birds

thus named, brought almost entirely from Africa and South
America, have been retained in a single genus, Psittacula, though
those belonging to the former country were by others separated
as Agapornis. This separation, however, was neither generally
approved nor easily justified, until Garrod (Proc. Zool. Society,
1874, p. 593) assigned good anatomical ground, afforded by the
structure of the carotid artery, for regarding the two groups
as distinct, and thus removed the puzzle presented by the
geographical distribution of the species of Psittacula in a large
sense, though Huxley (op. cit. 1868, p. 319) had suggested one
way of meeting the difficulty. As the genus is now restricted,
only one of the six species of Psittacula enumerated in the
Nomenclator Avium of Sclater and Salvin is known to be found
outside the Neotropical Region, the exception being the Mexican
P. cyanopygia, and not one of the seven recognized by the same
authors as forming the nearly allied genus Urochroma. On the
other hand, of Agapornis, from which the so-called genus Polio-
psitta can scarcely be separated, five if not six species are known,
all belonging to the Ethiopian Region, and all but one, A . cana
(which is indigenous to Madagascar, and thence has been widely
disseminated), are natives of Africa. In this group probably
comes also Psittinus, with a single species from the Malayan
Subregion. One of the birds most commonly called love-birds,
but with no near relationship to any of the above, being a long-
tailed though very small parrot, is the budgerigar (Melopsittacus
undulalus) now more familiar in Europe than most native birds,
as it is used to " tell fortunes " in the streets, and is bred by
hundreds in aviaries. Its native country is Australia. (A. N.)

LOVEDALE, a mission station in the Victoria East division
of the Cape province, South Africa. It lies 1720 ft. above the
sea on the banks of the Tyumie (Chumie) tributary of the
Keiskama river, some 2 m. N. of Alice, a town 88 m. N.W. by
rail of East London. The station was founded in 1824 by the
Glasgow Missionary Society and was named after Dr John Love,
one of the leading members of, and at the time secretary to, the
society. The site first chosen was in the Ncera valley. But in
1834 the mission buildings were destroyed by the Kaffirs.
On rebuilding, the station was removed somewhat farther
north to the banks of the Tyumie. In 1846 the work at Lovedale
was again interrupted, this time by the War of the Axe (see
CAPE COLONY: History). On this occasion the buildings were
converted into a fort and garrisoned by regular troops. Once
more, in 1850, the Kaffirs threatened Lovedale and made an
attack on" the neighbouring Fort Hare,1 built during the previous
war.

Until 1841 the missionaries had devoted themselves almost
entirely to evangelistic work; in that year the Lovedale
Missionary Institute was founded by the Rev. W. Govan, who,
save for brief intervals, continued at its head until 1870. He
was then succeeded by the Rev. James Stewart (1831-1905), who
had joined the mission in 1867, having previously (1861-1863),
and partly in company with David Livingstone, explored the
Zambezi regions. To Stewart, who remained at the head of the
institute till his death, is due the existing organization at Love-
dale. The institute, in addition to its purely church work — in
which no sectarian tests are allowed— provides for the education
of natives of both sexes in nearly all branches of learning (Stewart
discontinued the teaching of Greek and Latin, adopting English
as the classic); it also takes European scholars, no colour dis-
tinction being allowed in any department of the work. The
institute gives technical training in many subjects and maintains
various industries, including such diverse enterprises as farming
and printing-works. It also maintains a hospital. The school
buildings rival in accommodation and completeness those of
the schools in large English cities. The sum paid in fees by
scholars (of whom fully nine-tenths were Kaffirs) in the period
1841-1908 was £84,000. The educational and industrial methods
initiated at Lovedale have been widely adopted by other

1This fort was named after Colonel John Hare (d. 1846) of
the 27th Regiment, from 1838 lieutenant-governor of the eastern
provinces and commander of the first division of the field force in
the War of the Axe.

LOVELACE— LOVER, SAMUEL

missionary bodies. Lovedale is now a branch of the work of
the United Free Church of Scotland.

See R. Young, African Wastes Reclaimed and Illustrated in the
Story of the Lovedale Mission (London, 1902); J. Stewart, Lovedale,
Past and Present (London, 1884), and Dawn in the Dark Continent
(London, 1903) ; J. Wells, Stewart of Lovedale (London, 1908).

LOVELACE, RICHARD (1618-1658), English poet, was born
at Woolwich in 1618. He was a scion of a Kentish family,
and inherited a tradition of military distinction, maintained
by successive generations from the time of Edward III. His
father, Sir William Lovelace, had served in the Low Countries,
received the honour of knighthood from James I., and was killed
at Grolle in 1628. His brother, Francis Lovelace, the " Colonel
Francis " of Lucasta, served on the side of Charles I., and de-
fended Caermarthen in 1644. His mother's family was legal;
her grandfather had been chief baron of the exchequer. Richard
was educated at the Charterhouse and at Gloucester Hall,
Oxford, where he matriculated in 1634. Through the request
of one of the queen's ladies on the royal visit to Oxford he was
made M.A., though only in his second year at the university.
Lovelace's fame has been kept alive by a few songs and the
romance of his career, and his poems are commonly spoken
of as careless improvisations, and merely the amusements of an
active soldier. But the unhappy course of his life gave him
more leisure for verse-making than opportunity of soldiering.
Before the outbreak of the civil war in 1642 his only active
service was in the bloodless expedition which ended in the
Pacification of Berwick in 1640. On the conclusion of peace he
entered into possession of the family estates at Bethersden,
Canterbury, Chart and Halden in Kent. By that time he was
one of the most distinguished of the company of courtly poets
gathered round Queen Henrietta, who were influenced as a school
by contemporary French writers of vers de socUte. He wrote a
comedy, The Scholar, when he was sixteen, and a tragedy,
The Soldier, when he was twenty-one. From what he says of
Fletcher, it would seem that this dramatist was his model, but
only the prologue and epilogue to his comedy have been preserved.
When the rupture between king and parliament took place,
Lovelace was committed to the Gatehouse at Westminster for
presenting to the Commons in 1642 a petition from Kentish
royalists in the king's favour. It was then that he wrote his
most famous song, " To Althea from Prison." He was liberated,
says Wood, on bail of £40,000 (more probably £4000), and
throughout the civil war was a prisoner on parole, with this
security in the hands of his enemies. He contrived, however,
to render considerable service to the king's cause. He provided
his two brothers with money to raise men for the Royalist army,
and befriended many of the king's adherents. He was especially
generous to scholars and musicians, and among his associates in
London were Henry Lawes and John Gamble, the Cottons, Sir
Peter Lely, Andrew Marvell and probably Sir John Suckling.
He joined the king at Oxford in 1645, and after the surrender
of the city in 1646 he raised a regiment for the service of the
French king. He was wounded at the siege of Dunkirk, and with
his brother Dudley, who had acted as captain in his brother's
command, returned to England in 1648. It is not known
whether the brothers took any part in the disturbances in Kent
of that year, but both were imprisoned at Petre House in Alders-
gate. During this second imprisonment he collected and revised
for the press a volume of occasional poems, many if not most of
which had previously appeared in various publications. The
volume was published in 1649 under the title of Lucasta, his
poetical name — contracted from Lux Casta — for a lady rashly
identified by Wood as Lucy Sacheverell, who, it is said, married
another during his absence in France, on a report that he had
died of his wounds at Dunkirk. The last ten years of Lovelace's
life were passed in obscurity. His fortune had been exhausted
in the king's interest, and he is said to have been supported by
the generosity of friends. He died in 1658 " in a cellar in Long-
acre," according to Aubrey, who, however, possibly exaggerates
his poverty. A volume of Lovelace's Posthume Poems was
published in 1659 by his brother Dudley. They are of inferior
merit to his own collection.

The world has done no injustice to Lovelace in neglecting all but
a few of his modest offerings to literature. But critics often do him
injustice in dismissing him as a gay cavalier, who dashed off his
verses hastily and cared little what became of them. It is a mistake
to class him with Suckling; he has neither Suckling's easy grace
nor his reckless spontaneity. We have only to compare the version
of any of his poems in Lucasta with the form in which it originally
appeared to see how fastidious was his revision. In many places it
takes time to decipher his meaning. The expression is often elliptical,
the syntax inverted and tortuous, the train of thought intricate and
discontinuous. These faults — they are not of course to be found in
his two or three popular lyrics, " Going to the Wars," " To Althea
from Prison," ' The Scrutiny " — are, however, as in the case of his
poetical master, Donne, the faults not of haste but of over-elabora-
tion. His thoughts are not the first thoughts of an improvisatore,
but thoughts ten or twenty stages removed from the first, and they
are generally as closely packed as they are far-fetched.

His poems were edited by W. C. Hazlitt in 1864.

LOVELL, FRANCIS LOVELL, VISCOUNT (1454-1487), sup-
porter of Richard III., was son of John, 8th Baron Lovell. As
a young man he served under Richard of Gloucester in the
expedition to Scotland in 1480. After the death of Edward
IV. he became one of his patron's strongest supporters. He
had been created a viscount on the 4th of January 1483, and
whilst still Protector Richard made him Chief Butler. As soon
as Richard became king, Lovell was promoted to be Lord
Chamberlain. Lovell helped in the suppression of Buckingham's
rebellion, and as one of Richard's most trusted ministers was
gibbeted in Collingbourne's couplet with Catesby and Rat cliff e: —
" The catte, the ratte and Lovell our dogge

Rulyth all England under a hogge."

He had command of the fleet which was to have stopped Henry
Tudor's landing in 1485, but fought for Richard at Bosworth
and after the battle fled to sanctuary at Colchester. Thence
he escaped next year to organize a dangerous revolt in York-
shire. When that failed he fled to Margaret of Burgundy in
Flanders. As a chief leader of the Yorkist party he had a
foremost part in Lambert Simnel's enterprise. With John de
la Pole, earl of Lincoln, he accompanied the pretender to Ireland
and fought for him at Stoke on the i6th of June 1487. He was
seen escaping from the battle, but was never afterwards heard
of; Bacon relates that according to one report he lived long
after in a cave or vault (Henry VII., p. 37, ed. Lumby). More
than 200 years later, in 1708, the skeleton of a man was found in
a secret chamber in the family mansion at Minster Lovell in
Oxfordshire. It is supposed that Francis Lovell had hidden
himself there and died of starvation.

Collingbourne's couplet is preserved by Fabyan, Chronicle, p. 672.
For the discovery at Minster Lovell see Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. i.
and 5th ser. x. (C. L. K.)

LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868), Irish novelist, artist, song-
writer and musician, was born in Dublin on the 24th of February
1797. His father was a stockbroker. Lover began life as an
artist, and was elected in 1828 a member of the Royal Hibernian
Academy — a body of which two years afterwards he became
secretary. He acquired repute as a miniature painter, and a
number of the local aristocracy sat to him for their portraits.
His love for music showed itself at an early age. At a dinner
given to the poet Tom Moore in 1818 Lover sang one of his own
songs, which elicited special praise from Moore. One of his best-
known portraits was that of Paganini, which was exhibited at
the Royal Academy. He attracted attention as an author by
his Legends and Stones of Ireland (1832), and was one of the first
writers for the Dublin University Magazine. He went to London
about 1835, where, among others, he painted Lord Brougham
in his robes as lord chancellor. His gifts rendered him popular
in society; and he appeared often at Lady Blessington's evening
receptions. There he sang several of his songs, which were,
so well received that he published them (Songs and Ballads,
1839). Some of them illustrated Irish superstitions, among
these being " Rory O'More," " The Angel's Whisper," " The
May Dew " and " The Four-leaved Shamrock." In 1837 appeared
Rory O'More, a National Romance, which at once made him a
reputation as a novelist; he afterwards dramatized it for the
Adelphi Theatre, London. In 1842 was published his best-known
work, Handy Andy, an Irish Tale. Meanwhile his pursuits had

LOVERE— LOWE, SIR H.

affected his health; and .in 1844 he gave up writing for some
time, substituting instead public entertainments, called by him
" Irish Evenings," illustrative of his own works. These were
successful both in Great Britain and in America. In addition
to publishing numerous songs of his own, Lover edited a collec-
tion entitled The Lyrics of Ireland, which appeared in 1858.
He died on the 6th of July 1868. Besides the novels already
mentioned he wrote Treasure Trove (1844), and Metrical Tales
and Other Poems (1860).

His Life was written in 1874 by Bayle Bernard.

LOVERE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Bergamo, at the north-west end of the Lago d' Iseo, 522 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3306. It is a picturesque town,
the houses having the overhanging wooden roofs of Switzerland
united with the heavy stone arcades of Italy, while the situation
is beautiful, with the lake in front and the semicircle of bold
mountains behind. The church of Santa Maria in Valvendra,
built in 1473, has frescoes by Floriano Ferramola of Brescia
(d. 1528). The Palazzo Tadini contains a gallery of old pictures,
some sculptures by Benzoni and Canova, and a zoological collec-
tion. Lovere possesses a silk-spinning factory, and the Stabli-
mento Metallurgico Gregorini, a large iron-work and cannon
foundry, employs 1600 workmen. Lovere is reached by steamer
from Sarnico at the south end of the lake, and there is a steam
tramway through the Val Camonica, which is highly cultivated,
and contains iron- and silk-works. From Cividate, the terminus,
the road goes on to Edolo (2290 ft.), whence passes lead into
Tirol and the Valtellina.

LOW, SETH (1850- ), American administrator and edu-
cationist, was born in Brooklyn, New York, on the i8th
of January 1850. He studied in the Polytechnic Institute of
Brooklyn and in Columbia University, where he graduated in
1870. He became a clerk (1870) and then a partner (1875) in
his father's tea and silk-importing house, A. A. Low & Brothers,
which went out of business in 1888. In 1878 he organized, and
became president of, the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities. In
1882-1886 he was mayor of the city of Brooklyn, being twice
elected on an independent ticket; and by his administration of
his office he demonstrated that a rigid " merit " civil-service
system was practicable — in September 1884 the first municipal
civil-service rules in the United Service were adopted in Brooklyn.
He was president of Columbia University from 1890 to 1901,
and did much for it by his business administration, his liberality
(he gave $1,000,000 for the erection of a library) and his especial
interest in the department of Political Science. In his term
Columbia became a well-organized and closely-knit university.
Its official name was changed from Columbia College to Columbia
University. It was removed to a new site on Morningside
Heights, New York City. The New York College for the Training
of Teachers became its Teachers' College of Columbia; a Faculty
of Pure Science was added; the Medical School gave up its
separate charter to become an integral part of the university;
Barnard College became more closely allied with the university;
relations were entered into between the university and the
General, Union and Jewish theological seminaries of New York
City and with Cooper Union, the Metropolitan Museum of Fine
Arts and the American Museum of Natural History; and its
faculty and student body became less local in character. Dr
Low was a delegate to the Hague Peace Conference in 1899. He
was prominent among those who brought about the chartering
of Greater New York in 1897, and in this year was an unsuccessful
candidate, on an independent ticket, for mayor of New York
City; in 1900, on a fusion ticket, he was elected mayor and
served in 1901-1903.

LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- ), American artist and writer
on art, was born at Albany, New York, on the 3ist of May 1853.
In 1873 he entered the atelier of J. L. Ger6me in the Ecole des
Beaux Arts at Paris, subsequently joining the classes of Carolus-
Duran, with whom he remained until 1877. Returning to New
York, he became a member of the Society of American Artists
in 1878 and of the National Academy of Design in 1890. His
pictures of New England types, and illustrations of Keats, brought

him into prominence. Subsequently he turned his attention to
decoration, and executed panels and medallions for the Waldorf-
Astoria Hotel, New York, a panel for the Essex County Court
House, Newark, New Jersey, panels for private residences and
stained-glass windows for various churches, including St Paul's
Methodist Episcopal Church, Newark, N.J. He was an in-
structor in the schools of Cooper Union, New York, in 1882-
1885, and in the school of the National Academy of Design in
1889-1892. Mr Low, who is known to a wider circle as the
friend of R. L. Stevenson, published some reminiscences, A
Chronicle of Friendships, 187 3-1 goo (1908). In 1909 he
married Mary (Fairchild), formerly the wife of the sculptor
MacMonnies.

LOWBOY, a small table with one or two rows of drawers, so
called in contradistinction to the tallboy, or double chest of
drawers. Both were favourite pieces of the i8th century, both
in England and America; the lowboy was most frequently used
as a dressing-table, but sometimes as a side-table. It is usually
made of oak, walnut or mahogany, with brass handles and
escutcheons. The more elegant examples of the Chippendale
period have cabriole legs, claw-and-ball feet and carved knees,
and are sometimes sculptured with the favourite shell motive
beneath the centre drawer.

LOW CHURCHMAN, a term applied to members of the Church
of England or its daughter churches who, while accepting the
hierarchical and sacramental system of the Church, do not
consider episcopacy as essential to the constitution of the Church,
reject the doctrine that the sacraments confer grace ex opere
operato (e.g. baptismal regeneration) and lay stress on the Bible
as the sole source of authority in matters of faith. They thus
differ little from orthodox Protestants of other denominations,
and in general are prepared to co-operate with them on equal
terms.

The name was used in the early part of the i8th century as
the equivalent of " Latitudinarian," i.e. one who was prepared to
concede much latitude in matters of discipline and faith, in
contradistinction to " High Churchman," the term applied to
those who took a high view of the exclusive authority of the
Established Church, of episcopacy and of the sacramental
system. It subsequently fell into disuse, but was revived in the
1 9th century when the Tractarian movement had brought the
term " High Churchman " into vogue again in a modified sense,
i.e. for those who exalted the idea of the Catholic Church and the
sacramental system at the expense both of the Establishment
and of the exclusive authority of Scripture. " Low Churchman "
now became the equivalent of " Evangelical," the designation of
the movement, associated with the name of Simeon, which laid the
chief stress on the necessity of personal " conversion." " Lati-
tudinarian " gave place at the same time to " Broad Churchman,"
to designate those who lay stress on the ethical teaching of the
Church and minimize the value of orthodoxy. The revival of
pre-Reformation ritual by many of the High Church clergy led
to the designation " ritualist " being applied to them in a some-
what contemptuous sense; and " High Churchman " and
" Ritualist " have often been wrongly treated as convertible
terms. Actually many High Churchmen are not Ritualists,
though they tend to become so. The High Churchman of the
" Catholic " type is further differentiated from the " old-
fashioned High Churchman " of what is sometimes described as
the " high and dry " type of the period anterior to the Oxford
Movement.

LOWE, SIR HUDSON (1760-1844), English general, was the
son of an army surgeon, John Lowe, and was born at Galway
on the 28th of July 1769. His mother was a native of that
county. His childhood was spent in various garrison towns
but he was educated chiefly at Salisbury grammar school. He
obtained a post as ensign in the East Devon Militia before his
twelfth year, and subsequently entered his father's regiment,
the soth, then at Gibraltar (1787) under Governor- General
O'Hara. After the outbreak of war with France early in 1793,
Lowe saw active service successively in Corsica, Elba, Portugal
and Minorca, where he was entrusted with the command of a

LOWE— LOWELL, A. L.

73

battalion of Corsican exiles, called The Corsican Rangers. With
these he did good work in Egypt in 1800-1801. After the peace
of Amiens, Lowe, now a major, became assistant quartermaster-
general; but on the renewal of war with France in 1803 he was
charged, as lieutenant-colonel, to raise the Corsican battalion
again and with it assisted in the defence of Sicily. On the
capture of Capri he proceeded thither with his battalion and a
Maltese regiment; but in October 1808 Murat organized an
attack up'on the island, and Lowe, owing to the unsteadiness of
the Maltese troops and the want of succour by sea, had to agree
to evacuate the island. The terms in which Sir William Napier
and others have referred to Lowe's defence of Capri are unfair.
His garrison consisted of 1362 men, while the assailants numbered
between 3000 and 4000. In the course of the year 1809 Lowe
and his Corsicans helped in the capture of Ischia and Procida, as
well as of Zante, Cephalonia and Cerigo. For some months he
acted as governor of Cephalonia and Ithaca, and later on of
Santa Maura. He returned to England in 1812, and in January
1813 was sent to inspect a Russo-German legion then being
formed, and he accompanied the armies of the allies through the
campaigns of 1813 and 1814, being present at thirteen important
battles. He won praise from Blucher and Gneisenau for his
gallantry and judgment. He was chosen to bear to London the
news of the first abdication of Napoleon in April 1814. He was
then knighted and became major-general; he also received decora-
tions from the Russian and Prussian courts. Charged with the
duties of quartermaster-general of the army in the Netherlands in
1814-1815, he was about to take part in the Belgian campaign when
he was offered the command of the British troops at Genoa; but
while still in the south of France he received (on the ist of August
1815) news of his appointment to the position of custodian of
Napoleon, who had surrendered to H.M.S. " Bellerophon " off
Rochefort. Lowe was to be governor of St Helena, the place of
the ex-emperor's exile.

On his arrival there at Plantation House he found that
Napoleon had already had scenes with Admiral Cockburn, of
H.M.S. " Northumberland," and that he had sought to induce
the former governor, Colonel Wilks, to infringe the regulations
prescribed by the British government (see Monthly Review,
January 1901). Napoleon and his followers at Longwood
pressed for an extension of the limits within which he could move
without surveillance, but it was not in Lowe's power to grant this
request. Various matters, in some of which Lowe did not evince
much tact, produced friction between them. The news that
rescue expeditions were being planned by the Bonapartists in the
United States led to the enforcement of somewhat stricter
regulations in October 1816, Lowe causing sentries to be posted
round Longwood garden at sunset instead of at 9 P.M. This was
his great offence in the eyes of Napoleon and his followers. Hence
their efforts to calumniate Lowe, which had a surprising success.
O'Meara, the British surgeon, became Napoleon's man, and lent
himself to the campaign of calumny in which Las Cases and
Montholon showed so much skill. In one of the suppressed
passages of£his Journal Las Cases wrote that the exiles had to
" reduce to a system our demeanour, our words, our sentiments,
even our privations, in order that we might thereby excite a
lively interest in a large portion of the population of Europe, and
that the opposition in England might not fail to attack the
ministry." As to the privations, it may be noted that Lowe
recommended that the government allowance of £8000 a year
to the Longwood household should be increased by one-half.
The charges of cruelty brought against the governor by O'Meara
and others have been completely refuted; and the most that can
be said against him is that he was occasionally too suspicious
in the discharge of his duties. After the death of Napoleon in
May 1821, Lowe returned to England and received the thanks
of George IV. On the publication of O'Meara's book he resolved
to prosecute the author, but, owing to an unaccountable delay,
the application was too late. This fact, together with the reserved
behaviour of Lowe, prejudiced the public against him, and the
government did nothing to clear his reputation. In 1825-1830
he commanded the forces in Ceylon, but was not appointed

to the governorship when it fell vacant in 1830. In 1842 he
became colonel of his old regiment, the soth; he also received
the G.C.M.G. He died in 1844.

See W. Forsyth, History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St Helena
(3 vols., London, 1853); Gourgaud, Journal inedite de Sainte-
Helene (1815-1818; 2 vols., Paris, 1899); R. C. Seaton, Napoleon's
Captivity in relation to Sir Hudson Lowe (London, 1903) ; Lieut.-Col.
Basil Jackson, Notes and Reminiscences of a Staff-Officer (London,
1903); the earl of Rosebery, Napoleon; the Last Phase (London
1900); J. H. Rose, Napoleonic Studies (London, 1904). (J- HL. R.)

L6WE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED (1796-1869), German
composer, was born at Lobejiin, near Halle, on the 3oth of
November 1796, and was a choir-boy at Kothen from 1807
to 1809, when he went to the Franke Institute at Halle, studying
music with Turk. The beauty of Lowe's voice brought him
under the notice of Madame de Stae'l, who procured him a pension
from Jer6me Bonaparte, then king of Westphalia; this stopped
in 1813, on the flight of the king. He entered the University
of Halle as a theological student, but was appointed cantor at
Stettin in 1820, and director of the town music in 1821, in which
year he married Julie von Jacob, who died in 1823. His second
wife, Auguste Lange, was an accomplished singer, and they
appeared together in his oratorio performances with great success.
He retained his office at Stettin for 46 years, when, after a stroke
of paralysis, he was somewhat summarily dismissed. He
retired to Kiel, and died on the 2oth of April 1869. He undertook
many concert tours during his tenure of the post at Stettin,
visiting Vienna, London, Sweden, Norway and Paris. His
high soprano voice (he could sing the music of the " Queen
of Night " in Die Zauberflote as a boy) had developed into a
fine tenor. Lowe was a voluminous composer, and wrote five
operas, of which only one, Die drei WUnsche, was performed
at Berlin in 1834, without much success; seventeen oratorios,
many of them for male voices unaccompanied, or with short
instrumental interludes only; choral ballads, cantatas, three
string quartets, a pianoforte trio; a work for clarinet and piano,
published posthumously; and some piano solos. But the
branch of his art by which he is remembered, and in which he
must be admitted to have attained perfection, is the solo ballad
with pianoforte accompaniment. His treatment of long narrative
poems, in a clever mixture of the dramatic and lyrical styles,
was undoubtedly modelled on the ballads of Zumsteeg, and has
been copied by many composers since his day. His settings of
the " Erlkonig " (a very early example), " Archibald Douglas,"
"Heinrich der Vogler," "Edward" and "Die Verfallene
Mtihle," are particularly fine.

LOWELL, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1856- ), American
educationalist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts on the I3th
of December 1856, the great-grandson of John Lowell, the
" Columella of New England," and on his mother's side, a grand-
son of Abbott Lawrence. He graduated at Harvard College
in 1877, with highest honours in mathematics; graduated at
the Harvard Law School in 1880; and practised law in 1880-
1897 in partnership with his cousin, Francis Cabot Lowell
(b. 1855), with whom he wrote Transfer of Stock in Corporations
(1884). In 1897 he became lecturer and in 1898 professor of
government at Harvard, and in 1909 succeeded Charles William
Eliot as president of the university. In the same year he was
president of the American Political Science Association. In
1900 he had succeeded his father, Augustus Lowell (1830-
1901), as financial head of the Lowell Institute of Boston. He
wrote Essays on Government (1889), Governments and Parties in
Continental Europe (2 vols., 1896), Colonial Civil Service (1900;
with an account by H. Morse Stephens of the East India College
at Haileybury), and The Government of England (2 vols., 1008).

His brother, PERCIVAL LOWELL (1855- ), the well-known
astronomer, graduated at Harvard in 1876, lived much in Japan
between 1883 and 1893, and in 1894 established at Flagstaff,
Arizona, the Lowell Observatory, of whose Annals (from 1898)
he was editor. In 1902 he became non-resident professor of
astronomy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He
wrote several books on the Far East, including Choson (1885),
The Soul of the Far East (1886), Noto, an Unexplored Corner

74

LOWELL, C. R.— LOWELL, J. R.

of Japan (1891), and Occult Japan (1895), but he is best known
for his studies of the planet Mars — he wrote Mars (1895), Mars
and Its Canals (1907), and Mars, the Abode of Life (1908) — and
his contention that the " canals " of Mars are a sign of life and
civilization on that planet (see MARS). He published The
Evolution of Worlds in 1909.

LOWELL, CHARLES RUSSELL (1835-1864), American
soldier, was born on the 2nd of January 1835 in Boston, Massa-
chusetts. His mother, Anna Cabot Jackson Lowell (1819-1874),
a daughter of Patrick Tracy Jackson, married Charles Russell
Lowell, a brother of James Russell Lowell; she wrote verse and
books on education. Her son graduated at Harvard in 1854,
worked in an iron mill in Trenton, New Jersey, for a few months
in 1855, spent two years abroad, and in 1858-1860 was local
treasurer of the Burlington & Missouri river railroad. In 1860
he took charge of the Mount Savage Iron Works, in Cumberland,
Maryland. He entered the Union army in June 1861 (commission
May 14) as captain of the 3rd (afterwards 6th) U.S. cavalry;
on the isth of April 1863 he became colonel of the 2nd Massa-
chusetts cavalry; he was wounded fatally at Cedar Creek on
the 1 9th of October 1864, when he was promoted brigadier-
general of U.S. Volunteers, and died on the next day at Middle-
town, Va. Lowell married in October 1863, Josephine Shaw
(1843-1905), a sister of Colonel R. G. Shaw. Her home when
she was married was on Staten Island, and she became deeply
interested in the social problems of New York City. She was a
member of the State Charities Aid Society, and from 1877 to
1889 was a member of the New York State Board of Charities,
being the first woman appointed to that board. She founded
the Charity Organization Society of New York City in 1882,
and wrote Public Relief and Private Charity (1884) and Industrial
Arbitration and Conciliation (1893).

See Edward E. Emerson (ed.), The Life and Letters of Charles
Russell Lowell (Boston, 1907).

LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL (1819-1891), American author
and diplomatist, was born at Elmwood, in Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, en the 22nd of February 1819, the son of Charles
Lowell (i 782-I86I).1 On his mother's side he was descended from
the Spences and Traills, who made their home in the Orkney
Islands, his great-grandfather, Robert Traill, returning to England
on the breaking out of hostilities in 1775. He was brought up
in a neighbourhood bordering on the open country, and from
his earliest years he found a companion in nature; he was
also early initiated into the reading of poetry and romance,
hearing Spenser and Scott in childhood, and introduced to old
ballads by his mother. He had for schoolmaster an Englishman
who held by the traditions of English schools, sc that before he
entered Harvard College he had a more familiar acquaintance
with Latin verse than most of his fellows — a familiarity which
showed itself later in his mock-pedantic accompaniment to
The Biglow Papers and his macaronic poetry. He was a wide
reader, but a somewhat indifferent student, graduating at
Harvard without special honours in 1838. During his college
* course he wrote a number of trivial pieces for a college magazine,
and shortly after graduating printed for private circulation
the poem which his class asked him to write for their graduation
festivities.

He was uncertain at first what vocation to choose, and vacil-
lated between business, the ministry, medicine and law. He
decided at last to practise law, and after a course at the Harvard
law school, was admitted to the bar. While studying for his
profession, however, he contributed poems and prose articles
to various magazines. He cared little for the law, regarding
it simply as a distasteful means of livelihood, yet his experiments
in writing did not encourage him to trust to this for support.
An unhappy adventure in love deepened his sense of failure,
but he became betrothed to Maria White in the autumn of
1840, and the next twelve years of his life were deeply affected
by her influence. She was a poet of delicate power, but also
possessed a lofty enthusiasm, a high conception of purity and
justice, and a practical temper which led her to concern herself

1 See under LOWELL, JOHN.

in the movements directed against the evils of intemperance
and slavery. Lowell was already looked upon by his companions
as a man marked by wit and poetic sentiment; Miss White
was admired for her beauty, her character and her intellectual
gifts, and the two became thus the hero and heroine among a
group of ardent young men and women. The first-fruits of this
passion was a volume of poems, published in 1841, entitled
A Year's Life, which was inscribed by Lowell in a veiled dedica-
tion to his future wife, and was a record of his new emotions
with a backward glance at the preceding period of depression
and irresolution. The betrothal, moreover, stimulated Lowell
to new efforts towards self-support, and though nominally
maintaining his law office, he threw his energy into the establish-
ment, in company with a friend, Robert Carter, of a literary
journal, to which the young men gave the name of The Pioneer.
It was to open the way to new ideals in literature and art, and
the writers to whom Lowell turned for assistance — Hawthorne,
Emerson, Whittier, Poe, Story and Parsons, none of them
yet possessed of a wide reputation — indicate the acumen of the
editor. Lowell himself had already turned his studies in dramatic
and early poetic literature to account in another magazine,
and continued the series in The Pioneer, besides contributing
poems; but after the issue of three monthly numbers, beginning
in January 1843, the magazine came to an end, partly because
of a sudden disaster which befell Lowell's eyes, partly through
the inexperience of the conductors and unfortunate business
connexions.

The venture confirmed Lowell in his bent towards literature.
At the close of 1843 he published a collection of his poems, and
a year later he gathered up certain material which he had printed,
sifted and added to it, and produced Conversations on some of
the Old Poets. The dialogue form was used merely to secure
an undress manner of approach to his subject; there was no
attempt at the dramatic. The book reflects curiously Lowell's
mind at this time, for the conversations relate only partly to
the poets and dramatists of the Elizabethan period; a slight
suggestion sends the interlocutors off on the discussion of current
reforms in church and state and society. Literature and reform
were dividing the author's mind, and continued to do so for the
next decade. Just as this book appeared Lowell and Miss White
were married, and spent the winter and early spring of 1845
in Philadelphia. Here, besides continuing his literary contribu-
tions to magazines, Lowell had a regular engagement as an
editorial writer on The Pennsylvania Freeman, a fortnightly
journal devoted to the Anti-Slavery cause. In the spring of
1845 the Lowells returned to Cambridge and made their home
at Elmwood. On the last day of the year their first child,
Blanche, was born, but she lived only fifteen months. A second
daughter, Mabel, was born six months after Blanche's death,
and h'ved to survive her father; a third, Rose, died an infant.
Lowell's mother meanwhile was living, sometimes at home, some-
times at a neighbouring hospital, with clouded mind, and his
wife was in frail health. These troubles and a narrow income
conspired to make Lowell almost a recluse in these days, but
from the retirement of Elmwood he sent forth writings which
show how large an interest he took in affairs. He contributed
poems to the daily press, called out by the Slavery question;
he was, early in 1846, a correspondent of the London Daily News,
and in the spring of 1848 he formed a connexion with the National
Anti-Slavery Standard of New York, by which he agreed to furnish
weekly either a poem or a prose article. The poems were most
frequently works of art, occasionally they were tracts; but
the prose was almost exclusively concerned with the public
men and questions of the day, and forms a series of incisive,
witty and sometimes prophetic diatribes. It was a period with
him of great mental activity, and is represented by four of his
books which stand as admirable witnesses to the Lowell of 1848,
namely, the second series of Poems, containing among others
" Columbus," " An Indian Summer Reverie," " To the Dande-
lion," " The Changeling "; A Fable for Critics, in which, after
the manner of Leigh Hunt's The Feast of lite Poets, he charac-
terizes in witty verse and with good-natured satire American

LOWELL, J. R.

75

contemporary writers, and in which, the publication being anony-
mous, he included himself; The Vision of Sir Launfal, a
romantic story suggested by the Arthurian legends — one of his
most popular poems; and finally The Biglow Papers.

Lowell had acquired a reputation among men of letters and
a cultivated class of readers, but this satire at once brought
him a wider fame. The book was not premeditated; a single
poem, called out by the recruiting for the abhorred Mexican
war, couched in rustic phrase and sent to the Boston Courier,
had the inspiriting dash and electrifying rat-tat-tat of this
new recruiting sergeant in the little army of Anti-Slavery re-
formers. Lowell himself discovered what he had done at the
same time that the public did, and he followed the poem with
eight others either in the Courier or the Anti-Slavery Standard.
He developed four well-defined characters in the process — a
country farmer, Ezekiel Biglow, and his son Hosea; the Rev.
Homer Wilbur, a shrewd old-fashioned country minister; and
Birdofredum Sawin, a Northern renegade who enters the army,
together with one or two subordinate characters; and his
stinging satire and sly humour are so set forth in the vernacular
of New England as to give at once a historic dignity to this
form of speech. (Later he wrote an elaborate paper to show
the survival in New England of the English of the early I7th
century.) He embroidered his verse with an entertaining
apparatus of notes and mock criticism. Even his index was
spiced with wit. The book, a caustic arraignment of the course
taken in connexion with the annexation of Texas and the war
with Mexico, made a strong impression, and the political philo-
sophy secreted in its lines became a part of household literature.
It is curious to observe how repeatedly this arsenal was drawn
upon in the discussions in America about the " Imperialistic "
developments of 1900. The death of Lowell's mother, and the
fragility of his wife's health, led Lowell, with his wife, their
daughter Mabel and their infant son Walter, to go to Europe
in 1851, and they went direct to Italy. The early months of
their stay were saddened by the death of Walter in Rome, and
by the news of the illness of Lowell's father, who had a slight shock
of paralysis. They returned in November 1852, and Lowell
published some recollections of his journey in the magazines,
collecting the sketches later in a prose volume, Fireside Travels.
He took some part also in the editing of an American edition
of the British Poets, but the low state of his wife's health kept
him in an uneasy condition, and when her death (27th October
1853) released him from the strain of anxiety, there came with
the grief a readjustment of his nature and a new intellectual
activity. At the invitation of his cousin, he delivered a course
of lectures on English poets before the Lowell Institute in Boston
in the winter of 1855. This first formal appearance as a critic
and historian of literature at once gave him a new standing
in the community, and was the occasion of his election to the
Smith Professorship of Modern Languages in Harvard College,
then vacant by the retirement of Longfellow. Lowell accepted
the appointment, with the proviso that he should have a year
of study abroad. He spent his time mainly in Germany, visiting
Italy, and increasing his acquaintance with the French, German,
Italian and Spanish tongues. He returned to America in the
summer of 1856, and entered upon his college duties, retaining
his position for twenty years. As a teacher he proved himself
a quickener of thought amongst students, rather than a close
and special instructor. His power lay in the interpretation of
literature rather than in linguistic study, and his influence over
his pupils was exercised by his own fireside as well as in the
relation, always friendly and familiar, which he held to them
in the classroom. In 1856 he married Miss Frances Dunlap,
a lady who had since his wife's death had charge of his daughter
Mabel.

In the autumn of 1857 The Atlantic Monthly was established,
and Lowell was its first editor. He at once gave the magazine
the stamp of high literature and of bold speech on public affairs.
He held this position only till the spring of 1861, but he continued
to make the magazine the vehicle of his poetry and of some
prose for the rest of his life; his prose, however, was more

abundantly presented in the pages of The North American
Review during the years 1862-1872, when he was associated with
Mr Charles Eliot Norton in its conduct. This magazine especially
gave him the opportunity of expression of political views during
the eventful years of the War of the Union. It was in The
Atlantic during the same period that he published a second
series of The Biglow Papers. Both his collegiate and editorial
duties stimulated his critical powers, and the publication in the
two magazines, followed by republication in book form, of a
series of studies of great authors, gave him an important place
as a critic. Shakespeare, Dryden, Lessing, Rousseau, Dante,
Spenser, Wordsworth, Milton, Keats, Carlyle, Thoreau, Swinburne,
Chaucer, Emerson, Pope, Gray — these are the principal subjects
of his prose, and the range of topics indicates the catholicity of
his taste. He wrote also a number of essays, such as " My Garden
Acquaintance," " A Good Word for Winter," " On a Certain
Condescension in Foreigners," which were incursions into the
field of nature and society. Although the great bulk of his
writing was now in prose, he made after this date some of his
most notable ventures in poetry. In 1868 he issued the next
collection in Under the Willows and other Poems, but in 1865
he had delivered his " Ode recited at the Harvard Commemora-
tion," and the successive centennial historical anniversaries
drew from him a series of stately odes.

In 1877 Lowell, who had mingled so little in party politics
that the sole public office he had held was the nominal one of
elector in the Presidential election of 1876, was appointed by
President Hayes minister resident at the court of Spain. He
had a good knowledge of Spanish language and literature, and
his long-continued studies in history and his quick judgment
enabled him speedily to adjust himself to these new relations.
Some of his despatches to the home government were published
in a posthumous volume — Impressions of Spain. In 1880 he
was transferred to London as American minister, and remained
there till the close of President Arthur's administration in the
spring of 1885. As a man of letters he was already well known
in England, and he was in much demand as an orator on public
occasions, especially of a literary nature; but he also proved
himself a sagacious publicist, and made himself a wise interpreter
of each country to the other. Shortly after his retirement from
public life he published Democracy and other Addresses, all of
which had been delivered in England. The title address was an
epigrammatic confession of political faith as hopeful as it was
wise and keen. The close of his stay in England was saddened
by the death of his second wife in 1885. After his return to
America he made several visits to England. His public life had
made him more of a figure in the world; he was decorated with
the highest honours Harvard could pay officially, and with
degrees of Oxford, Cambridge, St Andrews, Edinburgh and
Bologna. He issued another collection of his poems, Heartsease
and Rue, in 1888, and occupied himself with revising and re-
arranging his works, which were published in ten volumes in
1890. The last months of his life were attended by illness, and
he died at Elmwood on the i2th of August 1891. After his
death his literary executor, Charles Eliot Norton, published a
brief collection of his poems, and two volumes of added prose,
besides editing his letters.

The spontaneity of Lowell's nature is delightfully disclosed
in his personal letters. They are often brilliant, and sometimes
very penetrating in their judgment of men and books; but the
most constant element is a pervasive humour, and this humour,
by turns playful and sentimental, is largely characteristic of his
poetry, which sprang from a genial temper, quick in its sympathy
with nature and humanity. The literary refinement which
marks his essays in prose is not conspicuous in his verse, which
is of a more simple character. There was an apparent conflict
in him of the critic and the creator, but the conflict was superficial.
The man behind both critical and creative work was so genuine,
that through his writings and speech and action he impressed
himself deeply upon his generation in America, especially upon
the thoughtful and scholarly class who looked upon him as
especially their representative. This is not to say that he was

LOWELL, J.— LOWELL

a man of narrow sympathies. On the contrary, he was demo-
cratic in his thought, and outspoken in his rebuke of whatever
seemed to him antagonistic to the highest freedom. Thus,
without taking a very active part in political life, he was recog-
nized as one of the leaders of independent political thought.
He found expression in so many ways, and was apparently so
inexhaustible in his resources, that his very versatility and the
ease with which he gave expression to his thought sometimes
stood in the way of a recognition of his large, simple political
ideality and the singleness of his moral sight.

WRITINGS. — The Works of James Russell Lowell, in ten volumes
(Boston and New York, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1890); edition de
luxe, 61 vols. (1904); Latest Literary Essays and Addresses (1891);
The Old English Dramatists (1892); Conversations on some of the
Old Poets (Philadelphia, David M'Kay; reprint of the volume pub-
lished in 1843 and subsequently abandoned by its author, 1893);
The Power of Sound: a Rhymed Lecture (New York, privately
printed, 1896); Lectures on English Poets (Cleveland, The Rowfant
Club, 1899).

MEMOIRS. — Letters of James Russell Lowell, edited by Charles
Eliot Norton, in two volumes (New York, Harper & Brothers,
1899); Life of James Russell Lowell (2 vols.), by Horace E. Scudder
(Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1901); James Russell Lowell and his
Friends (Boston, 1899), by Edward Everett Hale. (H. E. S.*)

LOWELL, JOHN (1743-1802), American jurist, was born in
Newburyport, Massachusetts, on the i7th of June 1743, and
was a son of the Reverend John Lowell, the first pastor of
Newburyport, and a descendant of Perceval Lowle or Lowell
( 1 57 1-1665) i wno emigrated from Somersetshire to Massachusetts
Bay in 1639 and was the founder of the family in New England.
John Lowell graduated at Harvard in 1760, was admitted to the
bar in 1763, represented Newburyport (1776) and Boston (1778)
in the Massachusetts Assembly, was a member of the Massa-
chusetts Constitutional .Convention of 1770-1780 and, as a
member of the committee appointed to draft a constitution,
secured the insertion of the clause, " all men are born free and
equal," which was interpreted by the supreme court of the state
in 1783 as abolishing slavery in the state. In 1781-1783 he
was a member of the Continental Congress, which in 1782 made
him a judge of the court of appeals for admiralty cases; in
1784 he was one of the commissioners from Massachusetts to
settle the boundary line between Massachusetts and New York;
in 1780-1801 he was a judge of the U.S. District Court of Massa-
chusetts; and from 1801 until his death in Roxbury on the
6th of May 1802 he was a justice of the U.S. Circuit Court
for the First Circuit (Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts
and Rhode Island).

His son, JOHN LOWELL (1769-1840), graduated at Harvard in
1786, was admitted to the bar in 1789 (like his father, before he
was twenty years old), and retired from active practice in 1803.
He opposed French influence and the policies of the Democratic
party, writing many spirited pamphlets (some signed " The
Boston Rebel," some " The Roxbury Farmer "), including:
The Antigallican (1797), Remarks on the Hon. J. Q. Adams's
Review of Mr Ames's Works (1809), New England Patriot,
being a Candid Comparison of the Principles and Conduct of the
Washington and Jefferson Administrations (1810), Appeals to the
People on the Causes and Consequences of War with Great Britain
(181 1) and Mr Madison's War (181 2). These pamphlets contain
an extreme statement of the anti-war party and defend impress-
ment as a right of long standing. After the war Lowell abandoned
politics, and won for himself the title of " the Columella of New
England " by his interest in agriculture — he was for many years
president of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society. He was a
benefactor of the Boston Athenaeum and the Massachusetts
General Hospital.

Another son of the first John Lowell, FRANCIS CABOT LOWELL
(1775-1817), the founder in the United States of cotton manu-
facturing, was born in Newburyport on the 7th of April 1775,
graduated at Harvard in 1793, became a merchant in Boston,
and, during the war of 1812, with his cousin (who was also
his brother-in-law), Patrick Tracy Jackson, made use of the
knowledge of cotton-spinning gained by Lowell in England
(whither he had gone for his health in 1810) and devised a power

loom. Experiments were successfully carried on at Waltham in
1814. Lowell worked hard to secure a protective tariff on cotton
goods. The city of Lowell, Massachusetts, was named in his
honour. He died in Boston on the loth of August 1817.

CHARLES LOWELL (1782-1861), brother of the last named,
was born in Boston, graduated at Harvard in 1800, studied law
and then theology, and after two years in Edinburgh and one year
on the Continent was from 1806 until his death pastor of the
West Congregational (Unitarian) Church of Boston, a charge
in which Cyrus A. Bartol was associated with him after 1837.
Charles Lowell had a rare sweetness and charm, which reappeared
in his youngest son, James Russell Lowell (<?.».).«

Francis Cabot Lowell's son, JOHN LOWELL (1790-1836), was
born in Boston, travelled in India and the East Indies on business
in 1816 and 1817, in 1832 set out on a trip around the world, and
on the 4th of March 1836 died in Bombay. By a will made, said
Edward Everett, " on the top of a palace of the Pharaohs,"
he left $237,000 to establish what is now known as the Lowell
Institute (?.».).

See the first lecture delivered before the Institute, Edward
Everett's A Memoir of Mr John Lowell, Jr. (Boston, 1840).

A grandson of Francis Cabot Lowell, EDWARD JACKSON
LOWELL (1845-1894), graduated at Harvard in 1867, was
admitted to the Suffolk county (Mass.) bar in 1872, and practised
law for a few years. He wrote The Hessians and the Other German
Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War (1884),
The Eve of the French Revolution (1892) and the chapter, " The
United States of America 1775-1782 : their Political Relations
with Europe," in vol. vii. (1888) of Winsor's Narrative and
Critical History of America.

LOWELL, a city and one of the county-seats (Cambridge
being the other) of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
situated in the N.E. part of the county at the confluence of the
Concord and Merrimack rivers, about 25 m. N.W. of Boston.
Pop. (1890) 77,696; (1900) 94,969, of whom 40,974 were foreign-
born (14,674 being French Canadian, 12,147 Irish, 4485
English Canadian, 4446 English, 1203 Greek, 1099 Scotch);
(1910 census), 106,294. Lowell is served by the Boston &
Maine and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and
by interurban electric lines. The area of Lowell is 14-1 sq. m.,
much the larger part of which is S. of the Merrimack. The city
is irregularly laid out. Its centre is Monument Square, in
Merrimack Street, where are a granite monument to the first
Northerners killed in the Civil War, Luther C. Ladd and A. O.
Whitney (both of Lowell), whose regiment was mobbed in
Baltimore on the igth of April 1861 while marching to Wash-
ington; and a bronze figure of Victory (after one by Rauch in
the Valhalla at Ratisbon), commemorating the Northern triumph
in the Civil War. The Lowell textile school, opened in 1897,
offers courses in cotton manufacturing, wool manufacturing,
designing, chemistry and dyeing, and textile engineering;
evening drawing schools and manual training in the public
schools have contributed to the high degree of technical perfec-
tion in the factories. The power gained from the Pawtucket
Falls in the Merrimack river has long been found insuffi-
cient for these. A network of canals supplies from 14,000 to
24,000 h.p.; and a small amount is also furnished by the Concord
river, but about 26,000 h.p. is supplied by steam. In factory
output ($46,879,212 in 1905; $41,202,984 in 1900) Lowell
ranked fifth in value in 1905 and fourth in 1900 among the
cities of Massachusetts; more than three-tenths of the total
population are factory wage-earners, and nearly 19% of the
population are in the cotton mills. Formerly Lowell was called
the " Spindle City " and the " Manchester of America," but
it was long ago surpassed in the manufacture of textiles by FalJ
River and New Bedford: in 1905 the value of the cotton product
of Lowell, $19,340,925, was less than 60% of the value of cotton
goods made at Fall River. Woollen goods made in Lowell in 1905
were valued at $2,579,363; hosiery and knitted goods, at
$3,816,964; worsted goods, at $1,978,552. Carpets and textile
machinery are allied manufactures of importance. There are
other factories for machinery, patent medicines, boots and shoes,

LOWELL INSTITUTE — LOWENSTEIN

77

perfumery and cosmetics, hosiery and rubber heels. Lowell was
the home of the inventor of rubber heels, Humphrey O'Sullivan.

The founders of Lowell were Patrick Tracy Jackson (1780-
1847), Nathan Appleton (1779-1861), Paul Moody (1770-1831)
and the business manager chosen by them, Kirk Boott (1790-
1837). The opportunity for developing water-power by the
purchase of the canal around Pawtucket Falls (chartered for
navigation in 1792) led them to choose the adjacent village
of East Chelmsford as the site of their projected cotton mills;
they bought the Pawtucket canal, and incorporated in 1822
the Merrimack Manufacturing Company; in 1823 the first cloth
was actually made, and in 1826 a separate township was formed
from part of Chelmsford and was named in honour of Francis
Cabot Lowell, who with Jackson had improved Cartwright's
power loom, and had planned the mills at Waltham. In 1836
Lowell was chartered as a city. Lowell annexed parts of Tewks-
bury in 1834, 1874, 1888 and 1906, and parts of Dracut in 1851,
1874 and 1879. Up to 1840 the mill hands, with the exception
of English dyers and calico printers, were New England girls.
The " corporation," as the employers were called, provided
from the first for the welfare of their employees, and Lowell
has always been notably free from labour disturbances.

The character of the early employees of the mills, later largely
displaced by French Canadians and Irish, and by immigrants from
various parts of Europe, is clearly seen in the periodical, The Lowell
Offering, written and published by them in 1840-1845. This
monthly magazine.orgamzed by the Rev. Abel Charles Thomas (1807-
1880), pastor of the First Universalist Church, was from October
1840 to March 1841 made up of articles prepared for some of the
many improvement circles or literary societies; it then became
broader in its scope, received more spontaneous contributions, and
from October 1842 until December 1845 was edited by Harriot F.
Curtis (1813-1889), known by her pen name, " Mina Myrtle," and
by Harriet Farley (1817-1907), who became manager and proprietor,
and published selections from the Offering under the titles Shells
from the Strand of the Sea of Genius (1847) and Mind among the
Spindles (1849), with an introduction by Charles Knight. In 1854
she married John Intaglio Donlevy (d. 1872). Famous contributors
to the Offering were Harriet Hanson (b. 1825) and Lucy Larcom
(1824-1893). Harriet Hanson wrote Early Factory Labor in New
England (1883) and Loom and Spindle (1898), an important contri-
bution to the industrial and social history of Lowell. She was
prominent in the anti-slavery and woman suffrage agitations in
Massachusetts, and wrote Massachusetts in the Woman Suffrage
Movement (1881). She married in 1848 William Stevens Robinson
(1818-1876), who wrote in 1856-1876 the political essays signed
" Warrington " for the Springfield Republican. Lucy Larcom,1
born in Beverly, came to Lowell in 1835, where her widowed mother
kept a " corporation " boarding-house, and where she became a
" doffer," changing bobbins in the mills. She wrote much, especially
for the Offering; became an ardent abolitionist and (in 1843) the
friend of Whittier; left Lowell in 1846, and taught for several years,
first in Illinois, and then in Beverly and Norton, Massachusetts.
An Idyl of Work (1875) describes the life of the mills and A New
England Girlhood (1889) is autobiographical; she wrote many stories
and poems, of which Hannah Binding Shoes is best known.

Benjamin F. Butler was from boyhood a resident of Lowell,
where he began to practise law in 1841. James McNeill Whistler
was born here in 1834, and in 1907 his birthplace in Worthen Street
was purchased by the Art Association to be used as its headquarters
and as an art museum and gallery ; it was dedicated in 1908, and in
the same year a replica of Rodin's statue of Whistler was bought for
the city.

See S. A. Drake, History of Middlesex County, 2, p. 53 et seq.
(Boston, 1880); Illustrated History of Lowell, Massachusetts (Lowell,
1897); the books of Harriet H. Robinson and Lucy Larcom already
named as bearing on the industrial conditions of the city between
1835 and 1850; and the famous description in the fourth chapter of
Dickens's American Notes.

LOWELL INSTITUTE, an educational foundation in Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S. A., providing for free public lectures, and en-
dowed by the bequest of $23 7 ,000 left by John Lowell, junior, who
died in 1836. Under the terms of his will 10% of the net income
was to be added to the principal, which in 1909 was over a million
dollars. None of the fund was to be invested in a building
for the lectures; the trustees of the Boston Athenaeum were
made visitors of the fund; but the trustee of the fund is author-
ized to select his own successor, although in doing so he must
" always choose in preference to all others some male descendant

1 See D. D. Addison, Lucy Larcom; Life, Letters and Diary
(Boston, 1897).

of my grandfather John Lowell, provided there is one who
is competent to hold the office of trustee, and of the name of
Lowell," the sole trustee so appointed having the entire selection
of the lecturers and the subjects of lectures. The first trustee
was John Lowell junior's cousin, John Amory Lowell, who
administered the trust for more than forty years, and was
succeeded in 1881 by his son, Augustus Lowell, who in turn
was succeeded in 1900 by his son Abbott Lawrence Lowell, who
in 1909 became president of Harvard University.

The founder provided for two kinds of lectures, one popular,
" and the other more abstruse, erudite and particular." The
popular lectures have taken the form of courses usually ranging
from half a dozen to a dozen lectures, and covering almost every
subject. The fees have always been large, and many of the most
eminent men in America and Europe have lectured there. A
large number of books have been published which consist of
those lectures or have been based upon them. As to the advanced
lectures, the founder seems to have had in view what is now
called university extension, and in this he was far in advance
of his time; but he did not realize that such work can only be
done effectively in connexion with a great school. In pursuance
of this provision public instruction of various kinds has been
given from time to time by the Institute. The first freehand
drawing in Boston was taught there, but was given up when the
public schools undertook it. In the same way a school of practical
design was carried on for many years, but finally, in 1903, was
transferred to the Museum of Fine Arts. Instruction for working
men was given at the Wells Memorial Institute until 1908, when
the Franklin Foundation took up the work. A Teachers' School
of Science is maintained in co-operation with the Natural History
Society. For many years advanced courses of lectures were
given by the professors of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, but in 1904 they were superseded by an evening
school for industrial foremen. In 1907, under the title of
" Collegiate Courses," a number of the elementary courses
in Harvard University were offered free to the public under the
same conditions of study and examination as in the university.

For the earlier period, see Harriett Knight Smith, History of the
Lowell Institute (Boston, 1898).

LOWENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, on the Sober, 39 m. E. of Gorlitz by rail. Pop. 5682.
It is one of the oldest towns in Silesia; its town hall dates
from the i6th century, and it has a Roman Catholic church
built in the I3th century and restored in 1862. The town has
sandstone and gypsum quarries, breweries and woollen mills,
and cultivates fruit and vegetables. Lowenberg became a
town in 1217 and has been the scene of much fighting, especially
during the Napoleonic wars. Near the town is the village and
estate of Hohlstein, the property of the Hohenzollern family.

LOWENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wurttemberg, capital of the mediatized county of that name,
situated under the north slope of the Lowenstein range, 6 m.
from Heilbronn. Pop. 1527. It is dominated by the ruined
castle of the counts of Lowenstein, and enclosed by medieval
walls. The town contains many picturesque old houses. There
is also a modern palace. The cultivation of vines is the chief
industry, and there is a brine spring (Theusserbad).

Lowenstein was founded in 1123 by the counts of Calw, and
belonged to the Habsburgs from 1281 to 1441. In 1634 the
castle was destroyed by the imperialists. The county of Lowen-
stein belonged to a branch of the family of the counts of Calw
before 1281, when it was purchased by the German king Rudolph
I., who presented it to his natural son Albert. In 1441 Henry,
one of Albert's descendants, sold it to the elector palatine of
the Rhine, Frederick I., and later it served as a portion for
Louis (d. 1524), a son of the elector by a morganatic marriage,
who became a count of the Empire in 1494. Louis's grandson
Louis II. (d. 1611) inherited the county of Wertheim and other
lands by marriage and called himself count of Lowenstein-
Wertheim; his two sons divided the family into two branches.
The heads of the two branches, into which the older and Pro-
testant line was afterwards divided, were made princes by the

7 8

LOWESTOFT— LOWTH

king of Bavaria in 1812 and by the king of Wiirttemberg in
1813; the head of the younger, or Roman Catholic line, was
made a prince of the Empire in 1711. Both lines are flourishing,
their present representatives being Ernst (b. 1854) prince of
Lowenstein- Wertheim-Freudenberg, and Aloyse (b. 1871) prince
of Lowenstein- Wertheim-Rosenberg. The lands of the family
were mediatized after the dissolution of the Empire in 1806.
The area of the county of Lowenstein was about 53 sq. m.

See C. Rommel, Grundztige einer Chronik der Stadt Lowenstein
(Lowenstein, 1893).

LOWESTOFT, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-
place in the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England,
117! m. N.E. from London by ' the Great Eastern railway.
Pop. (1901) 29,850. It lies on either side of the formerly
natural, now artificial outlet of the river Waveney to the North
Sea, while to the west the river forms Oulton Broad and Lothing
Lake. The northern bank is the original site. South Lowestoft
arose on the completion of harbour improvements, begun in
1844, when the outlet of the Waveney, reopened in 1827, was
deepened. The old town is picturesquely situated on a lofty
declivity, which includes the most easterly point of land in
England. The church of St Margaret is Decorated and Per-
pendicular. South Lowestoft has a fine esplanade, a park
(Bellevue) and other adjuncts of a watering-place. Bathing
facilities are good. There are two piers enclosing a harbour with
a total area of 48 acres, having a depth of about i6ft. at high
tide. The fisheries are important and some 600 smacks belong
to the port. Industries include ship and boat building and
fitting, and motor engineering. The town is governed by a
mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area 2178 acres.

Lowestoft (Lothu Wistoft, Lowistoft, Loistoft) owes its origin
to its fisheries. In 1086 it was a hamlet in the demesne of the
royal manor of Lothingland. The men of Lowestoft as tenants
on ancient demesne of the crown possessed many privileges,
but had no definite burghal rights until 1885. For several
centuries before 1740 the fisheries were the cause of constant
dispute between Lowestoft and Yarmouth. During the last
half of the i8th century the manufacture of china flourished in
the town. A weekly market on Wednesdays was granted to
John, earl of Richmond, in 1308 together with an eight days'
fair beginning on the vigil of St Margaret's day, and in 1445
John de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, one of his successors as lord of
the manor, received a further grant of the same market and also
two yearly fairs, one on the feast of St Philip and St James and
the other at Michaelmas. The market is still held on Wednes-
days, and in 1792 the Michaelmas fair and another on May-day
were in existence. Now two yearly fairs for small wares are held
on the I3th of May and the nth of October. In 1643 Cromwell
performed one of his earlier exploits in taking Lowestoft, captur-
ing large supplies and making prisoners of several influential
royalists. In the war of 1665 the Dutch under Admiral Opdam
were defeated off Lowestoft by the English fleet commanded by
the duke of York.

See Victoria County History, Suffolk; E. Gillingwater, An His-
torical Account of the Town of Lowestoft (ed. 1790).

LOWIN, JOHN (1576-1659), English actor, was born in London,
the son of a carpenter. His name frequently occurs in Henslowe's
Diary in 1602, when he was playing at the Rose Theatre in the
earl of Worcester's company, and he was at the Blackfriars in
1603, playing with Shakespeare, Burbage and the others, and
owning — by 1608 — a share and a half -of the twenty shares in
that theatre. About 1623 he was one of the managers. He lived
in Southwark, and Edward Alleyn speaks of his dining with him
in 1620. " Lowin in his latter days kept an inn (the Three Pigeons)
at Brentford, where he deyed very old." Two of his favourite
parts were Falstaff , and Melanteus in The Maid's Tragedy.

LOWLAND, in physical geography, any broad expanse of land
with a general low level. The term is thus applied to the land-
ward portion of the upward slope from oceanic depths to con-
tinental highlands, to a region of depression in the interior of a
mountainous region, to a plain of denudation or to any region
in contrast to a highland. The Lowlands and Highlands of
Scotland are typical.

LOWNDES, THOMAS (1692-1748), founder of the Lowndean
professorship of astronomy at Cambridge university, England,
was born in 1692, both his father and mother being Cheshire
landowners. In 1725 he was appointed provost marshal of
South Carolina, a post he preferred to fill by deputy. In 1727
Lowndes claimed to have taken a prominent part in inducing
the British government to purchase Carolina, but he surrendered
his patent when the transfer of the colony to the crown was
completed. His patent was renewed in 1730, but he resigned
it in 1733. He then brought various impractical schemes before
the government to check the illicit trade in wool between Ireland
and France; to regulate the paper currency of New England;
and to supply the navy with salt from brine, &c. He died on the
1 2th of May 1748. By his will he left his inherited Cheshire
properties to the university of Cambridge for the foundation of
a chair of astronomy and geometry.

LOWNDES, WILLIAM THOMAS (1798-1843), English biblio-
grapher, was born about 1798, the son of a London bookseller.
His principal work, The Bibliographer's Manual of English
Literature — the first systematic work of the kind — was published
in four volumes in 1834. It took Lowndes fourteen years to
compile, but, despite its merits, brought him neither fame nor
money. Lowndes, reduced to poverty, subsequently became
cataloguer to Henry George Bohn, the bookseller and publisher.
In 1839 he published the first parts of The British Librarian,
designed to supplement his early manual, but owing to failing
health did not complete the work. Lowndes died on the 3ist of
July 1843.

LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, so called because
of its proximity to the " highest" of all feasts and Sundays,
Easter. It was also known formerly as White Sunday, being still
officially termed by the Roman Catholic Church Dominica in
albis, " Sunday in white garments," in allusion to the white
garments anciently worn on this day by those who had been
baptized and received into the Church just before Easter. Alb-
Sunday, Quasimodo and, in the Greek Church, Antipascha, and
•fl SeurepoTrpcbn? Kupia/c^ (literally " second-first Sunday," i.e.
the second Sunday after the first) were other names for the day.

LOWTH, ROBERT (1710-1787), English divine and Orientalist,
was born at Winchester on the 27th of November 1710. He was
the younger son of William Lowth (1661-1732), rector of Buriton,
Hampshire, a theologian of considerable ability. Robert was
educated on the foundation of Winchester College, and in 1729.
was elected to a scholarship at New College, Oxford. He gradu-
ated M.A. in 1737, and in 1741 he was appointed professor of
poetry at Oxford, in which capacity he delivered the Praelectiones
Academicae de Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum. Bishop Hoadly ap-
pointed him in 1744 to the rectory of Ovington, Hampshire,
and in 1750 to the archdeaconry of Winch"-*:;'. In 1753 he was
collated to the rectory of East Woodhay, Hampshire, and in the
same year he published his lectures on Hebrew poetry. In 1754
he received the degree of doctor of divinity from his university,
and in 1755 he went to Ireland for a short time as first chaplain
to the lord-lieutenant, the 4th duke of Devonshire. He declined
a presentation to the see of Limerick, but accepted a prebendal
stall at Durham and the rectory of Sedgefield. In 1758 he
published his Life of William of Wykeham; this was followed
in 1762 by A Short Introduction to English Grammar. In 1765,
the year of his election into the Royal Societies of London and
Gottingen, he engaged in controversy with William Warburton
on the book of Job, in which he was held by Gibbon to have had
the advantage. In June 1766 Lowth was consecrated bishop of
St David's, and about four months afterwards he was translated
to Oxford, where he remained till 1777, when he became bishop-
of London and dean of the Chapel Royal. In 1778 appeared his
last work, Isaiah, a new Translation, with a Preliminary Dis-
sertation, And Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory.
He declined the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1783, and died
at Fulham on the 3rd of November 1787.

The Praelectiones, translated in 1787 by G. Gregory as Lectures on
the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, exercised a great influence both in
England and on the continent. Their chief importance lay in the-

LOXODROME— LOYALISTS

79

idea of looking at the sacred poetry as poetry, and examining it by
the ordinary standards of literary criticism. Lowth's aesthetic criti-
cism was that of the age, and is now in great part obsolete, a more
natural method having been soon after introduced by Herder.
The principal point in which Lowth's influence has been lasting is his
doctrine of poetic parallelism, and even here his somewhat mechanical
classification of the forms of Hebrew sense-rhythm, as it should
rather be called, is open to serious objections. Editions of the
Lectures and of the Isaiah have been numerous, and both have
been translated into German. A volume of Sermons and other
Remains, with memoir by the topographer, Peter Hall (1802-
1849), was published in 1834, and an edition of the Popular Works
of Robert Lowth in 3 vols. appeared in 1843.

LOXODROME (from Gr. Xo£6s, oblique, and dp&tws, course),
the line on the earth's surface making a constant angle with
the meridian.

LOYALISTS or TORIES, in America, the name given to
the colonists who were loyal to Great Britain during the War
of Independence. In New England and the Middle Colonies
loyalism had a religious as well as a political basis. It repre-
sented the Anglican as opposed to the Calvinistic influence.
With scarcely an exception the Anglican ministers were ardent
Loyalists, the writers and pamphleteers were the ministers
and teachers of that faith, and virtually all the military or civil
leaders were members of that church. The Loyalists north
of Maryland represented the old Tory traditions. In the southern
colonies, where Anglicanism predominated, the division did not
follow religious lines so closely. In Virginia and South Carolina
the Whig leaders were almost without exception members of
the established church. Out of twenty Episcopal ministers
in South Carolina only five were Loyalists. Although many of
the wealthy Anglican planters of the tide-water section fought
for the mother country, the Tories derived their chief support
from the non-Anglican Germans and Scotch in the upper country.
The natural leaders in these colonies were members of the same
church as the governor and vied with him in their zeal for the
support of that church. Since religion was not an issue, the
disputes over questions purely political in character, such as
taxation, distribution of land and appointment of officials,
were all the more bitter. The settlers on the frontier were
snubbed both socially and politically by the low-country aristo-
cracy, and in North Carolina and South Carolina were denied
courts of justice and any adequate representation in the colonial
assembly. Naturally they refused to follow such leaders in a
war in defence of principles in which they had no material
interest. They did not drink tea and had little occasion for the
use of stamps, since they were not engaged in commerce and
had no courts in which to use legal documents. The failure
of the British officers to realize that conditions in the south
differed from those in the north, and the tendency on their
part to treat all Dissenters as rebels, were partly responsible
for the ultimate loss of their southern campaign. The Scotch-
Irish in the south, influenced perhaps by memories of commercial
and religious oppression in Ulster, were mostly in sympathy
with the American cause.

Taking the Thirteen Colonies as a whole, loyalism drew its
strength largely from the following classes: (i) the official
class — men holding positions in the civil, military and naval
services, and their immediate families and social connexions,
as, for example, Lieutenant-Governor Bull in South Carolina,
Governor Dunmore in Virginia and Governor Tryon in New
York; (2) the professional classes — lawyers, physicians, teachers
and ministers, such as Benjamin Kissam, Peter Van Schaack
and Dr Azor Belts of New York and Dr Myles Cooper, president
of King's College (now Columbia University); (3) large landed
proprietors and their tenants, e.g. William Wragg in South
Carolina and the De Lanceys, De Peysters and Van Cortlandts
in New York; (4) the wealthy commercial classes in New York,
Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Charleston, whose business
interests would be affected by war; (5) natural conservatives
of the type of Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, and numerous
political trimmers and opportunists. Before 1776 the Loyalists
may be divided into two groups. There was a minority of
extremists led by the Anglican ministers and teachers, who

favoured an unquestioning obedience to all British legislation.
The moderate majority disapproved of the mother country's
unwise colonial policy and advocated opposition to it through
legally organized bodies. Many even sanctioned non-importation
and non-exportation agreements, and took part in the election
of delegates to the First Continental Congress. The aggressive
attitude of Congress, the subsequent adoption of the Declara-
tion of Independence, and the refusal to consider Lord Howe's
conciliatory propositions finally forced them into armed opposi-
tion. Very few really sanctioned the British policy as a whole, but
all felt that it was their first duty to fight for the preservation
of the empire and to leave constitutional questions for a later
settlement. John Adams's estimate that one-third of all the
people in the thirteen states in 1776 were Loyalists was perhaps
approximately correct. In New England the number was small,
perhaps largest in Connecticut and in the district which after-
wards became the state of Vermont. New York was the chief
stronghold. The " De Lancey party " or the " Episcopalian
party " included the majority of the wealthy farmers, merchants
and bankers, and practically all communicants of the Anglican
church. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and
Virginia contained large and influential Loyalist minorities; North
Carolina was about equally divided; South Carolina probably,
and Georgia certainly, had Loyalist majorities. Some of the
Loyalists joined the regular British army, others organized
guerilla bands and with their Indian allies inaugurated a reign
of terror on the frontier from New York to Georgia. New
York alone furnished about 15,000 Loyalists to the British army
and navy, and about 8500 militia, making in all 23,500 Loyalist
troops. This was more than any other colony supplied, perhaps
more than all the others combined. Johnson's " Loyal Greens "
and Butler's " Tory Rangers " served under General St Leger
in the Burgoyne campaign of 1777, and the latter took part in
the Wyoming and Cherry Valley massacres of 1778. The
strength of these Loyalists in arms was weakened in New York
by General Sullivan's success at Newtown (now Elmira) on the
2Qth of August 1779, and broken in the north-west by George
Rogers Clark's victories at Kaskaskia and Vincennes in 1778 and
1779, and in the south by the battles of King's Mountain and
Cowpens in 1 780. Severe laws were passed against the Loyalists
in all the states. They were in general disfranchised and forbidden
to hold office or to practise law. Eight of the states formally
banished certain prominent Tories either conditionally or un-
conditionally, and the remaining five, Connecticut, New Jersey,
Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, did practically the same
indirectly. Social and commercial ostracism forced many
others to flee. Their property was usually confiscated for the
support of the American cause. They went to England, to the
West Indies, to the Bahamas, to Canada and to New York,
Newport, Charleston and other cities under British control.
According to a trustworthy estimate 60,000 persons went into
exile during the years from 1775 to 1787. The great majority
settled in Nova Scotia and in Upper and Lower Canada, where
they and their descendants became known as " United Empire
Loyalists." Those who remained in the United States suffered
for many years, and all the laws against them were not finally
repealed until after the War of 1812. The British government,
however, endeavoured to look after the interests of its loyal
colonists. During the war a number of the prominent Loyalists
(e.g. Joseph Galloway) were appointed to lucrative positions,
and rations were issued to many Loyalists in the cities, such as
New York, which were held by the British. During the peace
negotiations at Paris the treatment of the Loyalists presented
a difficult problem, Great Britain at first insisting that the
United States should agree to remove their disabilities and to
act toward them in a spirit of conciliation. The American
commissioners, knowing that a treaty with such provisions would
not be accepted at home, and that the general government had,
moreover, no power to bind the various states in such a matter,
refused to accede; but in the treaty, as finally ratified, the United
States agreed (by Article V.) to recommend to the legislatures
of the various states that Loyalists should " have free liberty

8o

LOYALTY— LOYOLA

to go to any part or parts of any of the thirteen United States,
and therein to remain twelve months, unmolested in their en-
deavours to obtain the restitution of such of their estates, rights
and properties as may have been confiscated," that acts and
laws in the premises be reconsidered and revised, and- that
restitution of estates, &c., should be made. The sixth article
provided " that there shall be no future confiscations made,
nor any prosecutions commenced against any person " for
having taken part in the war; and that those in confinement
on such charges should be liberated. In Great Britain opponents
of the government asserted that the Loyalists had virtually
been betrayed; in America the treaty aroused opposition
as making too great concessions to them. Congress made
the promised recommendations, but they were unheeded by the
various states, in spite of the advocacy by Alexander Hamilton
and others of a conciliatory treatment of the Loyalists; and
Great Britain, in retaliation, refused until 1796 to evacuate
the western posts as the treaty prescribed. Immediately after
the war parliament appointed a commission of five to examine
the claims of the Loyalists for compensation for services and
losses; and to satisfy these claims and to establish Loyalists
in Nova Scotia and Canada the British government expended
fully £6,000,000.

See C. H. van Tyne, The •Loyalists in the American Revolution
(New York, 1902), which contains much valuable information but
does not explain adequately the causes of loyalism. More useful in
this respect is the monograph by A. C. Flick, Loyalism in New York
during the American Revolution (New York, 1901). On the bio-
graphical side see Lorenzo Sabine, Biographical Sketches of Loyalists
of the American Revolution (2 vols., Boston, 1864); on the literary
side, M. C. Tyler, Literary History of the American Revolution, 1763-
1783 (2 vols., New York, 1897).

LOYALTY, allegiance to the sovereign or established govern-
ment of one's country, also personal devotion and reverence
to the sovereign and royal family. The English word came into
use in the early part of the isth century in the sense of fidelity
to one's oath, or in service, love, &c.; the later and now the
ordinary sense appears in the i6th century. The O. Fr. loialte,
mod. loyauti, is formed from loial, loyal, Scots leal, Lat. legalis,
legal, from lex, law. This was used in the special feudal sense
of one who has full legal rights, a legalis homo being opposed to
the exlex, utlegatus, or outlaw. Thence in the sense of faithful,
it meant one who kept faithful allegiance to his feudal lord,
and so loyal in the accepted use of the word.

LOYALTY ISLANDS (Fr. lies Loyalty or Loyaute), a group
in the South Pacific Ocean belonging to France, about 100 m.
E. of New Caledonia, with a total land area of about 1050 sq. m.
and 20,000 inhabitants. It consists of Uea or Uvea (the northern-
most), Lifu (the largest island, with an area of 650 sq. m.), Tiga
and several small islands and Mard or Nengone. They are coral
islands of comparatively recent elevation, and in no place rise
more than 250 ft. above the level of the sea. Enough of the
rocky surface is covered with a thin coating of soil to enable
the natives to grow yams, taro, bananas, &c., for their support;
cotton thrives well, and has even been exported in small
quantities, but there is no space available for its cultivation
on any considerable scale. Fresh water, rising and falling with
the tide, is found in certain large caverns in Lifu, and by sinking
to the sea-level a supply may be obtained in any part of the
island. The chief product of the islands are bananas \> the chief
export sandal-wood.

The Loyalty islanders are Melanesians; the several islands have
each its separate language, and in Uea one tribe uses a Samoan
and another a New Hebridean form of speech. The Loyalty
group was discovered at the beginning of the igth century, and
Dumont d'Urville laid down the several islands in his chart.
For many years the natives had a reputation as dangerous
cannibals, but they are now among the most civilized Melanesians.
Christianity was introduced into Mare by native teachers from
Rarotonga and Samoa; missionaries were settled by the London
Missionary Society at Mare in 1854, at Lifu in 1859 and at Uea
in 1865: Roman Catholic missionaries also arrived from New
Caledonia; and in 1864 the French, considering the islands a

dependency of that colony, formally instituted a commandant.
An attempt was made by this official to put a stop to the English
missions by violence; but the report of his conduct led to so
much indignation in Australia and in England that the emperor
Napoleon, on receipt of a protest from Lord Shaftesbury and
others, caused a commission of inquiry to be appointed and
free liberty of worship to be secured to the Protestant missions.
A further persecution of Christians in Uea, during 1875, called
forth a protest from the British government.

LOYOLA, ST IGNATIUS OF (1491-1556), founder of the
Society of Jesus. Inigo Lopez de Recalde, son of Beltran,
lord of the noble houses of Loyola and Onaz, was born, according
to the generally accepted opinion, on the 24th of December
1491 at the castle of Loyola, which is situated on the river
Urola, about i m. from the town of Azpeitia, in the province of
Guipuzcoa. He was the youngest of a family of thirteen. As
soon as he had learnt the elements of reading and writing, he was
sent as a page to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella; after-
wards, until his twenty-sixth year, he took service with Antonio
Maurique, duk,e of Nagera, and followed the career of arms. He
was free in his relations with women, gambled and fought;
but he also gave indications of that courage, constancy and
prudence which marked his after life. In a political mission to
settle certain disputes in the province he showed his dexterity
in managing men.

Despite the treaty of Noyon (1516), Charles V. kept Pampeluna,
the capital of Navarre. Andr6 de Foix, at the head of the French
troops, laid siege to the town in 1521 and Ignatius was one of the
defending garrison. In the hour of danger, the claims of religion
reasserted themselves on the young soldier, and, following a
custom when no priest was at hand, he made his confession to a
brother officer, who in turn also confessed to him. During the
final assault on the igth of May 1521 a cannon ball struck him,
shattering one of his legs and badly wounding the other. The
victorious French treated him kindly for nearly two weeks,
and then sent him in a litter to Loyola. The doctors declared
that the leg needed to be broken and set again; and the operation
was borne without a sign of pain beyond a clenching of his fist.
His vanity made him order the surgeons to cut out a bone which
protruded below the knee and spoilt the symmetry of his leg.
He was lame for the rest of his days. Serious illness followed
the operations, and, his life being despaired of, he received the
last sacraments on the z8th of June. That night, however, he
began to mend, and in a few days he was out of danger. During
convalescence two books that were to influence his life were
brought to him. These were a Castilian translation of The Life
of Christ by Ludolphus of Saxony, and the popular Flowers of the
Saints, a series of pious biographies. He gradually became
interested in these books, and a mental struggle began. Some-
times he would pass hours thinking of a certain illustrious lady,
devising means of seeing her and of doing deeds that would win
her favour; at other times the thoughts suggested by the books
got the upper hand. He began to recognize that his career of
arms was over: so he would become the knight of Christ. He
determined to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and to practise
all. the austerities that he read of in The Flowers of the Saints.
Expiating his sins was not so much his aim as to accomplish
great deeds for God. During the struggle that went on in his soul ,
he began to take note of his psychological state; and this was
the first time that he exercised his reason on spiritual things;
the experience thus painfully gained he found of great use after-
wards in directing others. One night while he lay awake, he
tells us, he saw the likeness of the Blessed Virgin with her
divine Son; and immediately a loathing seized him for the
former deeds of his life, especially for those relating to carnal
desires; and he asserts that for the future he never yielded to any
such desires. This was the first of many visions. Ignatius
proposed after returning from Jerusalem to join the Carthusian
order at Seville as a lay brother. About the same time Martin
Luther was in the full course of his protest against the papal
supremacy and had already burnt the pope's bull at Worms. The
two opponents were girding themselves for the struggle; and

LOYOLA

81

what the Church of Rome was losing by the defection of the
Augustinian was being counterbalanced by the conversion of
the founder of the Society of Jesus.

As soon as Ignatius had regained strength, he started ostensibly
to rejoin the duke of Nagera, but in reality to visit the great
Benedictine abbey of Montserrato, a famous place of pilgrimage.
On the way, he was joined by a Moor, who began to jest at some
of the Christian doctrines, especially at the perpetual virginity
of the Blessed Virgin. Ignatius was no controversialist; and
the Moor rode off victorious. The chivalrous nature of Ignatius
was aroused. Seized with a longing to pursue and kill the Moor
on account of his insulting language, Ignatius, still doubting
as to his best course, left the matter to his mule, which at the
dividing of the ways took the path to the abbey, leaving the
open road which the Moor had taken. Before reaching Mont-
serrato, Ignatius purchased some sackcloth for a garment and
hempen shoes, which, with a staff and gourd, formed the usual
pilgrim's dress. Approaching the abbey he resolved to do as
his favourite hero Amadis de Gaul did — keep a vigil all night
before the Lady altar and then lay aside his worldly armour to
put on that of Christ. He arrived at the abbey just about the
feast of St Benedict (the zist of March 1522), and there made a
confession of his life to a priest belonging to the monastery.
He found in use for the pilgrims a translation of the Spiritual
Exercises of the former abbot, Garcia di Cisneros (d. 1510);
and this, book evidently gave Ignatius the first idea of his more
famous work under the same title. Leaving his mule to the
abbey, and giving away his worldly clothes to a beggar, he kept
his watch in the church during the night of the 24th-25th of
March, and placed on the Lady altar his sword and dagger.
Early the next morning he received the Holy Eucharist and
left before any one could recognize him, going to the neighbouring
town of Manresa, where he first lived in the hospice. Here
began a series of heavy spiritual trials which assailed him for
many months. Seven hours a day he spent on his knees in prayer
and three times a day he scourged his emaciated body. One day,
almost overcome with scruples, he was tempted to end his
miseries by suicide. At another time, for the same reason, he
kept an absolute fast for a week. He tells us that, at this time,
God wrought with him as a master with a schoolboy whom he
teaches. Bait his energies were not confined to himself. He
assisted others who came to him for spiritual advice; and seeing
the fruit reaped from helping his neighbour, he gave up the
extreme severities in which he had delighted and began to take
more care of his person, so as not needlessly to offend those
whom he might influence for good.

During his stay at Manresa, he lived for the most part in a
cell at the Dominican convent; and here, evidently, he had
severe illnesses. He recounts the details of at least two of these
attacks, but says nothing about the much-quoted swoon of
eight days, during which he is supposed to have seen in vision
the scheme of the future Society. Neither does he refer in any
way to the famous cave in which, according to the Ignatian
myth, the Spiritual Exercises were written. Fortunately we
have the first-hand evidence of his autobiography, which is a
surer guide than the lines written by untrustworthy disciples.
Ignatius remained at Manresa for about a year, and in the spring
of 1523 set out for Barcelona on his way to Rome, where he
arrived on Palm Sunday. After two weeks he left, having
received the blessing of Pope Adrian VI., and proceeded by
Padua to Venice, where he begged his bread and slept in the
Piazza di San Marco until a rich Spaniard gave him shelter
and obtained an order from the doge for a passage in a pilgrim
ship bound for Cyprus, whence he could get to Jaffa. In due
course Ignatius arrived at Jerusalem, where he intended to
remain, in order continuously to visit the holy places and help
souls. For this end he had obtained letters of recommendation
to the guardian, to whom, however, he only spoke of his desire
of satisfying his devotion, not hinting his other motive. The
Franciscans gave him no encouragement to remain; and the
provincial threatened him with excommunication if he persisted.
Not only had the friars great difficulty in supporting themselves,

but they dreaded an outbreak from the fanatical Turks who
resented some imprudent manifestations of Loyola's zeal.
Ignatius returned to Venice in the middle of January 1524;
and, determining to devote himself for a while to study, he set
out for Barcelona, where he arrived in Lent. Here he consulted
Isabella Roser, a lady of high rank and piety, and also the master
of a grammar school. These both approved his plan; the one
promised to teach him without payment and the other to provide
him with the necessaries of life. Here, in his thirty-third year,
he began to learn Latin, and after two years his master urged
him to go to Alcala to begin philosophy. During his stay of a
year and a half in this university, besides his classes, he found
occasion to give to some companions his Spiritual Exercises in
the form they had then taken and certain instructions in Christian
doctrine. On account of these discourses Ignatius came into-
conflict with the Inquisition. He and his companions were
denounced as belonging to the sects of Sagali and Illuminati.
Their mode of life and dress was peculiar and hinted at innovation.
But, always ready to obey authority, Ignatius was able to disarm
any charges that, now and at other times, were brought against
him. The Inquisition merely advised him and his companions
to dress in a less extraordinary manner and to go shod. Four
months later he was suddenly cast into prison; and, after
seventeen days, he learnt that he was falsely accused of
sending two noble ladies on a pilgrimage to Jaen. During
their absence, from the 2ist of April 1527 to the ist of June,
he remained in prison, and was then set free with a prohibition
against instructing others until he had spent four years in study.
Seeing his way thus barred at Alcala, he went with his
companions to Salamanca. Here the Dominicans, doubting the
orthodoxy of the new-comers, had them put into prison, where
they were chained foot to foot and fastened to a stake set up in
the middle of the cell. Some days afterwards Ignatius was
examined and found without fault. His patience won him many
friends; and when he and his companions remained in prison
while the other prisoners managed to escape, their conduct
excited much admiration. After twenty-two days they were
called up to receive sentence. No fault was found in their life
and teaching; but they were forbidden to define any sins as
being mortal or venial until they had studied for four years.
Hampered again by such an order, Ignatius determined to go
to Paris to continue his studies. Up to the present he was far
from having any idea of founding a society. The only question
before him now was whether he should join an order, or continue
his wandering existence. He decided upon Paris for thfe present,
and before leaving Salamanca he agreed with his companions
that they should wait where they were until he returned; for
he only meant to see whether he could find any means by which
they all might give themselves to study. He left Barcelona and,
travelling on foot to Paris, he arrived there in February 1528.
The university of Paris had reached its zenith at the time
of the council of Constance (1418), and was now losing its
intellectual leadership under the attacks of the Renaissance and
the Reformation. In 1521 the university had condemned
Luther's Babylonish Captivity, and in 1527 Erasmus's Colloquies
met with the same fate. Soon after his arrival, Ignatius may
have seen in the Place de Greve the burning of Louis de Berquin
for heresy.1 At this period there were between twelve and
fifteen thousand students attending the university, and the
life was an extraordinary mixture of licentiousness and devout
zeal. When Ignatius arrived in Paris, he lodged at first with
some fellow-countrymen; and for two years attended the
lectures on humanities at the college de Montaigu, supporting
himself at first by the charity of Isabella (Roser; but, a fellow-
lodger defrauding him of his stock, he found himself destitute
and compelled to beg his bread. He retired to the hospice

1 Louis de Berquin, who died on the 1 7th of April 1529, belonged
to a noble family of Artois. He was a man of exemplary life and a
friend of Erasmus and the humanists, besides being a persona grata
at the court of Louise of Savoy and Francis I. His main offence
was that he attacked the monks and clergy, and that he advocated
the reading of the Scriptures by the people in the vulgar tongue. —
(W. A. P.)

LOYOLA

of St Jacques; and, following the advice of a Spanish monk,
spent his vacations in Flanders, where he was helped by the
rich Spanish merchants. At Bruges he became acquainted with
the famous Spanish scholar, Juan Luis Vives, with whom he
lodged. In the summer of 1530 he went to London, where he
received alms more abundantly than elsewhere. As he could
only support himself at Paris with difficulty, it was impossible
to send for his companions in Salamanca. Others, however,
joined him in Paris, and to some of them he gave the Spiritual
Exercises, with the result that the Inquisition made him give up
speaking on religious subjects during the time he was a student.
At the end of 1529 he came into contact with the men who were
eventually to become the first fathers of the Society of Jesus.
He won over the Savoyard Pierre Lefevre (Faber), whose room
he shared, and the Navarrese Francis Xavier, who taught
philosophy in the college of St Barbara. Afterwards he became
acquainted with the young Castilian, Diego Laynez, who had
hea'rd of him at Acala and found him out in Paris. With
Laynez came two other young men, the Toledan Alfonso Salmeron
and the Portuguese Simon Rodriguez. Nicholas Bobadilla,
a poor Spaniard who had finished his studies, was the next to
join him. The little company of seven determined to consecrate
their union by vows. On the isth of August 1534, the Feast
of the Assumption, they assembled in the crypt of the church
of St Mary on Montmartre, and Faber, the only one who was a
priest, said Mass. They then took the vows of poverty and
chastity, and pledged themselves to go to the Holy Land as
missionaries or for the purpose of tending the sick; or if this
design should prove impracticable, to go to Rome and place
themselves at the disposal of the pope for any purpose. But,
whatever may have been the private opinion of Ignatius, there
was on this occasion no foundation of any society. The vows
were individual obligations which could be kept quite apart from
membership in a society. A provision was made that if, after
waiting a year at Venice, they were unable to go to Jerusalem,
this part of the vow should be cancelled and they should at
once betake themselves to Rome.

At this time Ignatius was again suffering from his former
imprudent austerities; and he was urged to return for a while
to his native air. He left Paris for Spain in the autumn of 1535,
leaving Faber in charge of his companions to finish their studies.
During the absence of Ignatius, Faber gained three more
adherents. But before leaving Paris Ignatius heard once more
that complaints had been lodged against him at the Inquisition;
but these like the others were found to be without any foundation.
When he arrived near Loyola he would not go to the castle, but
lived at the public hospice at Azpeitia, and began his usual life
of teaching Christian doctrine and reforming morals. Falling
ill again he went to other parts of Spain to transact business for
his companions. Then, sailing from Valencia to Genoa, he made
his way to Venice, where he arrived during the last days of 1535.
Here he waited for a year until his companions could join him,
and meanwhile he occupied himself in his usual good works,
gaining several more companions and meeting Giovanni Piero
Caraffa, afterwards Paul IV., who had lately founded the
Theatines. What happened between the two does not appear;
but henceforth Caraffa seems to have borne ill will towards
Ignatius and his companions. At Venice Ignatius was again
accused of heresy, and it was said that he had escaped from the
Inquisition in Spain and had been burnt in effigy at Paris. These
charges he met successfully by insisting that the nuncio should
thoroughly inquire into the matter.

After a journey of fifty-four days his companions arrived at
Venice in January 1537; and here they remained until the
beginning of Lent, when Ignatius sent them to Rome to get
money for the proposed voyage to Palestine. He himself stayed
behind, as he feared that, if he went with them, Caraffa at Rome,
together with Dr Ortiz, a German opponent in Paris and now
Charles V.'s ambassador at the Vatican, would prejudice the
pope against them. But Ortiz proved a friend and presented
them to Paul III., who gave them leave to go to Palestine to
preach the Gospel, bestowing upon them abundant alms. He

likewise gave licence for those not yet priests to be ordained by
any catholic bishop on the title of poverty. They had returned
to Venice where Ignatius and the others were ordained priests
on the 24th of June 1537, after having renewed their vows of
poverty and chastity to the legate Verallo. Ignatius, now a
priest, waited for eighteen months before saying Mass, which he
did for the first time on the 25th of December 1538 in the church
of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.

The year of waiting passed away without any chance of going
to the Holy Land. Finding it impossible to keep this part of
their vow, the fathers met at Vicenza, where Ignatius was staying
in a ruined monastery; and here after deliberation it was deter-
mined that he, Laynez and Faber should go to Rome to place
the little band at the disposal of the pope. It was now that the
Society began to take some visible form. A common rule was
devised and a name adopted. Ignatius declared that having
assembled in the name of Jesus, the association should henceforth
bear the name of the " Company of Jesus." The word used
shows Loyola's military ideal of the duties and methods of the
nascent society.

On the road to Rome a famous vision took place, as to which
we have the evidence of Ignatius himself. In a certain church,
a few miles before Rome, whilst in prayer he was aware of a
stirring and a change in his soul; and so openly did he see God
the Father placing him with Christ, that he could not dare to
doubt that God the Father had so placed him. Subsequent
writers add that Christ, looking at him with a benign countenance,
said: " I shall be propitious to you "; while others add the
significant words, " at Rome." Ignatius, however, says nothing
about so important a matter; indeed he understood the vision
to mean that many things would be adverse to them, and told
his companions when they reached the city that he saw the
windows there closed against him. He also said: " We must of
necessity proceed with caution; and we must not make the
acquaintance of women unless they be of very high rank."
They arrived in Rome in October 1537; and lived at first in a
little cottage in a vineyard and near the Trinita dei Monti. The
pope appointed Faber to teach Holy Scripture, and Laynez
scholastic theology, in the university of the Sapienza. Ignatius
was left free to carry on his spiritual work, which became so large
that he was obliged to call his other companions to Rome.
During the absence of the pope, a certain hermit began to spread
heresy and was opposed by Ignatius and his companions. In
revenge the hermit brought up the former accusations concerning
the relations to the Inquisition, and proclaimed Ignatius and his
friends to be false, designing men and no better than concealed
heretics. The matter was examined and the legate ordered the
suit to be quashed. But this did not suit Ignatius. It was
necessary for his own good repute and the future of his work that
a definitive sentence should be pronounced and his name cleared
once and for all. The legate demurred; but on the pope's
return sentence was formally given in his favour.

The life of Ignatius is now mainly identified with the formation
and growth of his Society (see JESUITS), but his zeal found other
outlets in Rome. He founded institutions for rescuing fallen
women, started orphanages and organized catechetical instruc-
tions. He obtained, after difficulty, the official recognition of
his Society from Paul III. on the 27th of September 1540, and
successfully steered it through many perils that beset it in its
early days. He was unanimously elected the first general in
April 1541; and on the 22nd of that month received the first
vows of the Society in the church of San Paolo fuori la mura.
Two works now chiefly occupied the remainder of his life: the
final completion of the Spiritual Exercises and the drawing up of
the Constitutions, which received their final form after his death.
These two are so constantly connected that the one cannot be
understood without the other. The Constitutions are discussed
in the article on the Jesuits. In these he taught his followers to
respond to the call; by the Spiritual Exercises he moulded their
character.

The Book of theSpiritual Exercises has been one of the world-moving
books. In its strict conception it is only an application of the Gospel

LOYOLA

precepts to the individual soul. Its object is to convince a man of
sin, of justice and of judgment. The idea of the book is not original
to Ignatius At Montserrato he had found in use a popular trans-
lation of the Exercitatorio de la. vida spiritual (1500), written in Latin
by Abbot Garcias de Cisneros (d. 1510), and divided into three ways
or periods during which purity of soul, enlightenment and union
are to be worked for; a fourth part is added on contemplation.
This book evidently afforded the root idea of the Ignatian and more
famous book. But the differences are great. While taking the title,
the idea of division by periods and the subjects of most of the medi-
tations from the older work, Ignatius skilfully adapted it to his own
requirements. Above all the methods of the two are essentially
different. The Benedictine work follows the old monastic tradition
of the direct intercourse of the soul with God. Ignatius, with his
military instinct and views of obedience, intervenes with a director
who gives the exercises to the person who in turn receives them.
If this introduction of the director is essential to the end for which
Ignatius framed his Exercises, in it we also find dangers. A director,
whose aim is only the personal advantage of the one who is receiving
the exercises, will be the faithful interpreter of his founder's inten-
tions: but in the case of one whose esprit de corps is unbalanced,
the temporary and pecuniary advantage of the Society may be
made of more importance than that of the exercitant. Another
danger may come when minuteness of direction takes away the
wholesome sense of responsibility. Apart from these abuses the
Spiritual Exercises have proved their value over and over again,
and have received the sincerest form of flattery in countless imita-
tions. The original parts of the book are principally to be found in
the meditations, which are clearly Ignatian in conception as well as
method. These are The Reign of Christ, wherein Christ as an earthly
king calls his subjects to war: and Two Standards, one of Jesus Christ
and the other of Lucifer. Besides these there are various additions
to the series of meditations, which are mostly the practical results
of the experiences which Ignatius went through in the early stages
of his conversion. He gives various methods of prayer; methods of
making an election; his series of rules for the discernment of spirits;
rules for the distribution of alms and the treatment of scruples;
tests of orthodoxy. These additions are skilfully worked into the
series of meditations; so that when the exercitant by meditation
has moved his soul to act, here are practical directions at hand.

The exercises are divided into four series of meditations technically
called " weeks," each of which may last as long as the director con-
siders necessary to achieve the end for which each week is destined.
But the whole period is generally concluded in the space of a month.
The first week is the foundation, and has to do with the consideration
of the end of man, sin, death, judgment and hell. Having purified
the soul from sin and obtained a detestation thereof, the second week
treats of the kingdom of Christ, and is meant to lead the soul to
make an election of the service of God. The third and fourth weeks
are intended to confirm the soul in the new way chosen, to teach
how difficulties can be overcome, to inflame it with the love of God
and to help it to persevere.

The Book of the Spiritual Exercises was not written at Manresa,
although there is in that place an inscription testifying to the sup-
posed fact. Ignatius was constantly adding to his work as his own
personal experience increased, and as he watched the effects of his
method on the souls of those to whom he gave the exercises. The
latest critics, even those of the Society itself, give 1548 as the date
when the book received its final touches; though Father Roothaan
gives Rome, the 9th of J uly 1 54 1 , as the date at the end of the ancient
MS. version. Ignatius wrote originally in Spanish, but the book was
twice translated into Latin during his lifetime. The more elegant
version (known as the common edition) differs but slightly from the
Spanish. Francisco Borgia, while duke of Gandia, petitioned Paul
III. to have the book examined and approved. The pope appointed
censors for both translations, who found the work to be replete with
piety and holiness, highly useful and wholesome. Paul III. on re-
ceiving this report confirmed it on the aist of July 1548 by the breve
Pastoralis officii cura. This book, which is rightly called the spiritual
arm of the Society, was the firstjbook published by the Jesuits.

The progress of the Society of Jesus in Loyola's lifetime was
rapid (see JESUITS). Having always had an attraction for a life
of prayer and retirement, in 1547 he tried to resign the general-
ship, and again in 1550, but the fathers unanimously opposed the
project. One of his last trials was to see in 1556 the election as
pope of his old opponent Caraffa, who soon showed his intention
of reforming certain points in the Society that Ignatius considered
vital. But at this difficult crisis he never lost his peace of mind.
He said: " If this misfortune were to fall upon me, provided it
happened without any fault of mine, even if the Society were to
melt away like salt in water, I believe that a quarter of an hour's
recollection in God would be sufficient to console me and to re-
establish peace within me." It is clear that Ignatius never
dreamed of putting his Society before the church nor of identifying
the two institutions.

In the beginning of 1556 Ignatius grew very weak and resigned
the active government to three fathers, Polanco, Madrid and
Natal. Fever laid hold of him, and he died somewhat suddenly
on the 3ist of July 1556, without receiving or asking for the last
sacraments. He was beatified in 1609 by Paul V. and canonized
in 1628 by Gregory XV. His body lies under the altar in the
north transept of the Gesu in Rome.

His portrait is well known. The olive complexion, a face
emaciated by austerities, the large forehead, the brilliant and
small eyes, the high bald head tell their own tale. He was of
medium height and carried himself so well that his lameness was
hardly noticeable. His character was naturally impetuous and
enthusiastic, but became marked with great self-control as he
gradually brought his will under his reason. There was always
that love of overcoming difficulty inherent in a chivalrous
nature; and this also accounts for that desire of surpassing
every one else that marked his early days. Whilst other Chris-
tians, following St Paul, were content to do all things for the
glory of God, Ignatius set himself and his followers to strive after
the greater glory. Learning by his own experience and errors,
he wisely developed a sovereign prudence which nicely adjusted
means to the end in view. He impressed on his followers the
doctrine that in all things the end was to be considered. Never
would Ignatius have countenanced so perverted an idea as that the
end justified the means, for with his spiritual light and zeal for
God's glory he saw clearly that means in themselves unjust were
opposed to the very end he held in view. As a ruler he displayed
the same common sense. Obedience he made one of his great
instruments, yet he never intended it to be a galling yoke. His
doctrine on the subject is found in the well-known letter to the
Portuguese Jesuits in 1553, and if this be read carefully together
with the Constitutions his meaning is clear. If he says that a
subject is to allow himself to be moved and directed, under God,
by a superior just as though he were a corpse or as a staff in the
hands of an old man, he is also careful to say that the obedience
is only due in all things " wherein it cannot be defined (as it is
said) that any kind of sin appears." The way in which his
teaching on obedience is practically carried out is the best correc-
tive of the false ideas that have arisen from misconceptions of
its nature. His high ideas on the subject made him a stern ruler.
There are certain instances in his life which, taken by themselves,
show a hardness in treating individuals who would not obey;,
but as a rule, he tempered his authority to the capacity of those
with whom he had to deal. When he had to choose between the
welfare of the Society and the feelings of an individual it was
clear to which side the balance would fall.

There was in his character a peculiar mixture of conservatism
and a keen sense of the requirements of the day. In intellectual
matters he was not in advance of his day. The Jesuit system of
education, set forth in the Ratio studiorum, owes nothing to him.
While he did not reject any approved learning, he abhorred any
intellectual culture that destroyed or lessened piety. He wished
to secure uniformity in the judgment of the Society even in
points left open and free by the church : " Let us all think in the
same way, let us all speak in the same manner if possible."'
Bartole, the official biographer of Ignatius, says that he would
not permit any innovation in the studies; and that, were he
to live five hundred years, he would always repeat " no novelties '*
in theology, in philosophy or in logic — not even in grammar.
The revival of learning had led many away from Christ; in-
tellectual culture must be used as a means of bringing them
back. The new learning in religion had divided Christendom;
the old learning of the faith, once delivered to the saints, was to
reconcile them. This was the problem that faced Ignatius,
and in his endeavour to effect a needed reformation in the
individual and in society his work and the success that crowned
it place him among the moral heroes of humanity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Ignatian literature is very large. Fortun-
ately we have in the Acta quaedam what is in effect the autobiography
of the saint. This has been translated into English under the title
of The testament of Ignatius Loyola, being sundry acts of our Father
Ignatius, under God, the first founder of the Society of Jesus, taken down
from the Saint's own lips by Luis Consoles (London, 1900) ; and the

LOZENGE— LUBAO

above account of Ignatius is taken in most places directly from this,
which is not only the best of all sources but also a valuable corrective
of the later and more imaginative works. Next to the Acta quaedam
comes in value Polanco's Vita Ignatii Loiolae, which is published in
the Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu now in progress. Polanco
was the saint's secretary towards the end of his life. Ribadeneira,
who as a youth had been associated with the founder, wrote his
Vida del S. Ignacio de Loyola (Madrid, 1594), based on an early
Latin work (Naples, 1572). Bartole, the official biographer, wrote
his Delia vita e dell' institute di S. Ignatio (Rome, 1650, 1659) ;
Genelli wrote Das Leben des heiligen Ignatius von Loyola (Innsbruck,
1848); Nicolas Orlandinus gives a life in the first volume of the
Historiae Societatis Jesu (Rome, 1615). It would be impossible to
give a list even of the other lives, most of which are without value as
Histories, being written mainly for edification. But the student may
be referred to the modern books Henri Joli's St Ignace de Loyola
(Paris, 1899), which is based on the best authorities, and to H.
Miiller's curious Les Origines de la Compagnie de Jesus (Paris, 1898),
in which the author tries to establish a Mahommedan origin for
many of the ideas adopted by the saint.

The literature connected with the Spiritual Exercises is also large.
It will be sufficient here to mention : A Book of Spiritual Exercises,
written by Garcias de Cisneros (London, 1876) ; the official Latin text
in the third volume of the Avignon edition of the Constitutions
(1830); Roothaan's Exercitia spiritualia S. P. Ignatii de Loyola,
cum versions litterali ex autographo Hispanico, notis illustrata (Namur,
1841) ; Diertino, Historia exercitiorum S. P. Ignatii de Loyola (1887).
Especially worthy of notice is P. Watrigant's La Genese des exercices
de Saint Ignace de Loyola, republished from Les Etudes (zoth May,
20th July, 20th October 1897). (E. TN.)

LOZENGE (from the Fr. losenge, or losange; the word also
appears in Span, losanje, and Ital. losanga; perhaps derived
from a word meaning a stone slab laid on a grave, which appears
in forms such as Provencal lousa, Span, losa, the ultimate origin
of which is unknown, the Lat. lapis, stone, orlaus, praise, in the
sense of epitaph, have been suggested), properly a four equal-
sided figure, having two acute and two obtuse angles, a rhomb
or " diamond." The figure is frequently used as a bearing in
heraldry and especially as a shield so shaped on which the arms
of a widow or spinster are emblazoned. It is used also to denote
the diamond-shaped facets of a precious stone when cut, also
the diamond panes of a casement window. In the I4th century
the " lozenge pattern " was a favourite design for decoration.
The word is also applied to a small tablet of sugar, originally
diamond shaped, containing either medical drugs or some
simple flavouring, or to a tablet of any concentrated substance,
such as a meat-lozenge. In the reign of James I. of Scotland
(1406-1437) a Scotch gold coin having a lozenge-shaped shield
with the arms of Scotland on the obverse side was called a
" lozenge-lion."

LOZERE, a department of south-eastern France belonging
to the central plateau, composed of almost the whole of Gevaudan
and of some portions of the old dioceses of Uzes and Alais,
districts all formerly included in the province of Languedoc.
Pop. (1906) 128,016. Area, 1999 sq. m. It is bounded N. by
Cantal and Haute-Loire, E. by Ardeche and Card, S. by Card
and Aveyron and W. by Aveyron and Cantal. Lozere is moun-
tainous throughout and in average elevation is the highest of all
the French departments. It has three distinct regions — the
Cevennes proper to the south-east, the causses to the south-west
and the mountain tracts which occupy the rest of its area. The
Cevennes begin (within Lozere) with Mont Aigoual, which rises
to a height of more than 5100 ft.; parallel to this are the moun-
tains of Bouges, bold and bare on their southern face, but falling
gently with wooded slopes towards the Tarn which roughly
limits the Cevennes on the north. To the north of the Tarn is the
range of Lozere, including the peak of Finiels, the highest point
Of the department (5584 ft.). Farther on occurs the broad
marshy plateau of Montbel, which drains southward^ to the
Lot, northwards to the Allier, eastward by the Chassezac to
the Ardeche. From this plateau extend the mountains of
La Margeride, undulating granitic tablelands partly clothed with
woods of oak, beech and fir, and partly covered with pastures,
to which flocks are brought from lower Languedoc in summer.
The highest point (True de Randon) reaches 3098 ft. Adjoining
the Margeride hills on the west is the volcanic range of Aubrac,
a pastoral district where horned cattle take the place of sheep;

the highest point is 4826 ft. The causses of Lozere, having an area
of about 564 sq. m., are calcareous, fissured and arid, but separated
from each other by deep and well-watered gorges, contrasting
with the desolate aspect of the plateaus. The causse of Sauve-
terre, between the Lot and the Tarn, ranges from 3000 to 3300 ft.
in height; that of Mejan has nearly the same average altitude,
but has peaks some 1000 ft. higher. Between these two causses
the Tarn valley is among the most picturesque in France.
Lozere is watered entirely by rivers rising within its own bound-
aries, being in this respect unique. The climate of Lozere varies
greatly with the locality. The mean temperature of Mende
(50° F.) is below that of Paris; that of the mountains is always
low, but on the causses the summer is scorching and the winter
severe; in the Cevennes the climate becomes mild enough at
their base (656 ft.) to permit the growth of the olive. Rain falls
in violent storms, causing disastrous floods. On the Mediter-
ranean versant there are 76 in., in the Garonne basin 46 and in
that of the Loire only 28. Sheep and cattle-rearing and cheese-
making are the chief occupations. Bees are kept, and, among
the Cevennes, silkworms. Large quantities of chestnuts are
exported from the Cevennes, where they form an important article
of diet. In the valley of the Lot wheat and fruit are the chief
products; elsewhere rye is the chief cereal, and oats, barley,
meslin and potatoes are also grown. Fruit trees and leguminous
plants are irrigated by small canals (beats) on terraces made and
maintained with much labour. Lead, zinc and antimony are
found. Saw-milling, the manufacture of wooden shoes and wool-
spinning are carried on; otherwise industries are few and
unimportant. Of mineral springs, those of Bagnols-les-Bains are
most frequented. The line of the Paris-Lyon company from
Paris to Nimes traverses the eastern border of the department,
which is also served by the Midi railway with the line from
Neussargues to Beziers via Marvejols. The arrondissements
are Mende, Florae and Marvejols; the cantons number 24,
the communes 198. Loze're forms the diocese of Mende and part
of the ecclesiastical province of Albi. It falls within the region
of the XVI. army corps, the circumscriptions of the academic
(educational division) of Montpellier and the appeal court of
Nimes. Mende (q.v .) is its most important town.

LUANG-PRABANG, a town of French Indo-China, capital
of the Lao state of that name, on the left bank of the Me Kong
river. It lies at the foot of the pagoda hill which rises about
200 ft. above the plain on the promontory of land round which
the Nam Kan winds to the main river. It has a population of
about 9000 and contains the " palace " of the king of the state
and several pagodas. In 1887 it was taken and sacked by the
Haw or Black Flags, robber bands of Chinese soldiery, many
of them survivors of the Taiping rebellion. In 1893 Siam was
compelled to renounce her claims to the left bank of the Me
Kong, including Luang-Prabang and the magnificent highlands
of Chieng Kwang. That portion of the state which was on the
right bank of the Me Kong was not affected by the treaty, except
in so far as a portion of it fell within the sixteen miles' zone
within which Siam agreed not to keep troops. Trade is in the
hands of Chinese or Shan traders; hill rice and other jungle
products are imported from the surrounding districts by the
Kha or hill people. The exports, which include rubber, gum
benjamin, silk, wax, sticklac, cutch, cardamon, a little ebony,
cinnamon, indigo, rhinoceros and deer horns, ivory and fish
roe, formerly all passed by way of Paklai to the Me Nam, and so
to Bangkok, but have now almost entirely ceased to follow
that route, the object of the French government being to deflect
the trade through French territory. Luang-Prabang is the
terminus of navigation on the upper Me Kong and the centre
of trade thereon.

LUBAO, a town in the south-western part of the province
of Pampanga, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 30 m. N.W. of
Manila. Pop. (1903) 19,063. Lubao is served by the Manila &
Dagupan railway, and has water communication with Manila
by tidal streams and Manila Bay. Its products are, therefore,
readily marketed. It lies in a low, fertile plain, suited to the
growing of rice and sugar. Many of the inhabitants occupy

LUBBEN— LUBECK

themselves in the neighbouring nipa swamps, either preparing
the nipa leaves for use in house construction, or distilling " nipa-
wine " from the juice secured by tapping the blossom stalks.
The language is Pampangan.

LUBBEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, on the Spree, 47 m. S.S.E. of Berlin, on the railway
to Gorlitz. Pop. (1905) 7173. It is the chief town of the
Spreewald, and has saw-mills and manufactories of hosiery,
shoes and paper, and is famous for its gurken, or small pickling
cucumbers. The poet Paul Gerhardt (1607-1676) was pastor
here and is buried in the parish church.

LUBECK, a state and city (Freie und Hansestadt Liibeck)
of Germany. The principality of Lubeck, lying north of the
state, is a constituent of the grand-duchy of Oldenburg (q.v.).
The state is situated on an arm of the Baltic between Holstein
and Mecklenburg-Schwerin. It consists of the city of Lubeck,
the town of Travemunde, 49 villages and the country districts,
embraces 115 sq. m. of territory, and had a population in 1907 of
109,265, of which 93,978 were included in the city and its immediate
suburbs. The state lies in the lowlands of the Baltic, is diversified
by gently swelling hills, and watered by the Trave and its
tributaries, the Wakenitz and the Stecknitz. The soil is fertile,
and, with the exception of forest land (14% of the whole area),
is mostly devoted to market gardening. Trade is centred in
the city of Lubeck.

The constitution of the free state is republican, and, by the
fundamental law of 1875, amended in 1905 and again in 1907,
consists of two assemblies, (i) The Senate of fourteen members,
of whom eight must belong to the learned professions, and six
of these again must be jurists, while of the remaining six, five
must be merchants. The Senate represents the sovereignty of
the state and is presided over by theOberbiirgermeister, who during
his two years' term of office bears the title of " magnificence."
(2) The House of Burgesses (Burgerschaft), of 120 members,
elected by free suffrage and exercising its powers partly in
its collective capacity and partly through a committee of thirty
members. Purely commercial matters are dealt with by the
chamber of commerce, composed of a praeses, eighteen members
and a secretary. This body controls the exchange and appoints
brokers, shipping agents and underwriters. The executive
is in the hands of the Senate, but the House of Burgesses has the
right of initiating legislation, including that relative to foreign
treaties; the sanction of both chambers is required to the
passing of any new law. Lubeck has a court of first instance
(Amtsgerkht) and a high court of justice (Landgericht) ; from
the latter appeals lie to the Hanseatic court of appeal (Oberlandes-
gerichl) at Hamburg, and from this again to the supreme court
of the empire (Reicksgericht) in Leipzig. The people are nearly
all Lutherans, and education is compulsory between the ages
of six and fourteen.

The estimated revenue for the year 1908-1909 amounted to
about £650,000, and the expenditure to a like sum. The public
debt amounted, in 1908, to about £2,518,000. Lubeck has one
vote in the federal council (Bundesrat) of the German Empire,
and sends one representative to the imperial parliament
(Reichstag).

History of the Constitution. — At the first rise of the town justice
was administered to the inhabitants by the Vogt (advocates) of
the count of Holstein. Simultaneously with its incorporation
by Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, who presented the city
with its own mint toll and market, there appears a magistracy
of six, chosen probably by the Vogt from the SchS/en (scabini,
probi homines). The members of the town council had to be
freemen, born in lawful wedlock, in the enjoyment of estates
in freehold and of unstained repute. Vassals or servants of any
lord, and tradespeople, were excluded. A third of the number
had annually to retire for a year, so that two-thirds formed
the sitting council. By the middle of the i3th century there
were two burgomasters (magistri burgensium). Meanwhile,
the number of magistrates (consules) had increased, ranging
from twenty to forty and upwards. The council appointed
its own officers in the various branches of the administration.

In the face of so much self-government the Vogt presently dis-
appeared altogether. There were three classes of inhabitants,
full freemen, half freemen and guests or foreigners. People of
Slav origin being considered unfree, all intermarriage with them
tainted the blood; hence nearly all surnames point to Saxon,
especially Westphalian, and even Flemish descent. The magis-
tracy was for two centuries almost exclusively in the hands
of the merchant aristocracy, who formed the companies of
traders or " nations," such as the Bergen-fahrer, Novgorod-
fahrer, Riga-fahrer and Stockholm- fahrer. From the beginning,
however, tradesmen and handicraftsmen had settled in the
town, all of them freemen of German parentage and with property
and houses of their own. Though not eligible for the council,
they shared to a certain extent in the self-government through
the aldermen of each corporation or gild, of which some appear
as early as the statutes of 1240. Naturally, there arose much
jealousy between the gilds and the aristocratic companies,
which exclusively ruled the republic. After an attempt to upset
the merchants had been suppressed in 1384, the gilds succeeded,
under more favourable circumstances, in 1408. The old patrician
council left the city to appeal to the Hansa and to the imperial
authorities, while a new council with democratic tendencies, elected
chiefly from the gilds, took their place. In 1416, however, owing
to the pressure brought to bear by the Hansa, by the emperor
Sigismund and by Eric, king of Denmark, there was a restoration.
The aristocratic government was again expelled under the
dictatorship of Jiirgen Wullenweber (c. 1492-1537), till the old
order was re-established in 1535. In the constitution of 1669,
under the pressure of a large public debt, the great companies
yielded a specified share in the financial administration to the
leading gilds of tradesmen. Nevertheless, the seven great com-
panies continued to choose the magistrates by co-optation among
themselves. Three of the four burgomasters and two of the
senators, however, had henceforth to be graduates in law. The
constitution, set aside only during the French occupation, has
subsequently been slowly reformed. From 1813 the popular
representatives had some share in the management of the
finances. But the reform committee of 1814, whose object was
to obtain an extension of the franchise, had made little progress,
when the events of 1848 led to the establishment of a representative
assembly of 120 members, elected by universal suffrage, which
obtained a place beside the senatorial government. The republic
has given up its own military contingent, its coinage and its
postal dues to the German Empire; but it has preserved its
municipal self-government and its own territory, the inhabitants
of which enjoy equal political privileges with the citizens.

The City of Liibeck. — Lubeck, the capital of the free state, was
formerly the head of the Hanseatic League. It is situated on a
gentle ridge between the rivers Trave and Wakenitz, 10 m. S.W.
of the mouth of the former in the bay of Lubeck, 40 m. by rail
N.E. of Hamburg, at the junction of lines to Eutin, Biichen,
Travemunde and Strassburg (in Mecklenburg-Schwerin) and
consists of an inner town and three suburbs. The former
ramparts between the Trave and the old town ditch have been
converted into promenades. The city proper retains much of its
ancient grandeur, despite the tendency to modernize streets and
private houses. Foremost among its buildings must be men-
tioned its five chief churches, stately Gothic edifices in glazed
brick, with lofty spires and replete with medieval works of art —
pictures, stained glass and tombs. Of them, the Marienkirche,
built in the i3th century, is one of the finest specimens of early
Gothic in Germany. The cathedral, or Domkirche, founded in
1173, contains some curious sarcophagi and a magnificent altar-
piece in one of the chapels, while the churches of St James
(Jakobikircke), of St Peter (Petrikirche) and of St Aegidius
(Aegidienkirche) are also remarkable. The Rathaus (town hall)
of red and black glazed brick, dating from various epochs during
the middle ages, is famous for its staircase, the vaulted wine
cellar of the city council beneath and magnificent wood carving.
There should also be mentioned the Schiffershaus; the medieval
gates (Holstentor, Burgtor); and the Hospital of the Holy
Ghost, remarkable for ancient frescoes and altars in rich wood

86

LUBECK

carving, the entrance hall of which is a 13th-century chapel,
restored in 1866 and decorated in 1898. The museum preserves
the most remarkable municipal archives in existence as well as
valuable collections of historical documents.

The poet, Emanuel Geibel (1889), and the painter, Johann
Friedrich Overbeck (1789-1869), were natives of Liibeck. This
city is famous for the number and wealth of its charitable
institutions. Its position as the first German emporium of the
west end of the Baltic has been to some extent impaired by
Hamburg and Bremen since the construction of the North Sea
and Baltic Canal, and by the rapid growth and enterprise of
Stettin. In order to counterbalance their rivalry, the quays have
been extended, a canal was opened in 1900 between the Trave
and the Elbe, the river up to the wharves has been deepened to
25 ft. or more. The river is kept open in winter by ice-breakers.
A harbour was made in 1 899-190x3 on the Wakenitz Canal for
boats engaged in inland traffic, especially on the Elbe and Elbe-
Trave Canal. Liibeck trades principally with Denmark, Sweden,
Finland, Russia, the eastern provinces of Prussia, Great Britairj
and the United States. The imports amounted in value to about
£4,850,000 in 1906 and the exports to over £10,000,000. The
chief articles of import are coal, grain, timber, copper, steel and
wine, and the exports are manufactured goods principally to
Russia and Scandivania. The industries are growing, the chief
being breweries and distilleries, saw-mills and planing-mills,
shipbuilding, fish-curing, the manufacture of machinery, engines,
bricks, resin, preserves, enamelled and tin goods, cigars, furniture,
soap and leather. Pop. (1885) 55,399; (1905) 9i,S4i-

History. — Old Lubeck stood on the left bank of the Trave,
where it is joined by the river Schwartau, antf was destroyed in
1138. Five years later Count Adolphus II. of Holstein founded
new Lubeck, a few miles farther up, on the peninsula Buku,
where the Trave is joined on the right by the Wakenitz, the
emissary of the lake of Ratzeburg. An excellent harbour,
sheltered against pirates, it became almost at once a competitor
for the commerce of the Baltic. Its foundation coincided with
the beginning of the advance of the Low German tribes of
Flanders, Friesland and Westphalia along the southern shores of
the Baltic — the second great emigration of the colonizing Saxon
element. In 1140 Wagria, in 1142 the country of the Polabes
(Ratzeburg and Lauenburg), had been annexed by the Holtsaetas
(the Transalbingian Saxons). From 1166 onwards there was a
Saxon count at Schwerin. Frisian and Saxon merchants from
Soest, Bardowiek and other localities in Lower Germany, who
already navigated the Baltic and had their factory in Gotland,
settled in the new town, where Wendish speech and customs
never entered. About 1157 Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
forced his vassal, the count of Holstein, to give up Lubeck to
him; and in 1163 he removed thither the episcopal see of
Oldenburg (Stargard), founding at the same time the dioceses
of Ratzeburg and Schwerin. He issued the first charter to the
citizens, and constituted them a free Saxon community having
their own magistrate, an advantage over all other towns of his
dominions. He invited traders of the north to visit his new
market free of toll and custom, providing his subjects were
promised similar privileges in return. From the beginning the
king of Denmark granted them a settlement for their herring
fishery on the coast of Schoonen. Adopting the statutes of
Soest in Westphalia as their code, Saxon merchants exclusively
ruled the city. In concurrence with the duke's Vogt (adwcatus)
they recognized only one right of judicature within the town,
to which nobles as well as artisans had to submit. Under these
circumstances the population grew rapidly in wealth and influence
by land and sea, so that, when Henry was attainted by the
emperor, Frederick I., who came in person to besiege Lubeck
in 1181, this potentate," in consideration of its revenues and its
situation on the frontier of the Empire," fixed by charter, dated
the igth of September 1188, the limits, and enlarged the liberties,
of the free town. In the year 1201 Lubeck was conquered by
Waldemar II. of Denmark. But in 1223 it regained its liberty,
after the king had been taken captive by the count of Schwerin.
In 1226 it was made a free city of the Empire by Frederick II.,

and its inhabitants took part with the enemies of the Danish
king in the victory of Bornhovede in July 1227. The citizens
repelled the encroachments of their neighbours in Holstein and
in Mecklenburg. On the other hand their town, being the
principal emporium of the Baltic by the middle of the i3th
century, acted as the firm ally of the Teutonic knights in Livonia.
Emigrants founded new cities and new sees of Low German
speech among alien and pagan races; and thus in the course
of a century the commerce of Lubeck had supplanted that of
Westphalia. In connexion with the Germans at Visby, the
capital of Gotland, and at Riga, where they had a house from
1231, the people of Lubeck with their armed vessels scoured the
sea between the Trave and the Neva. They were encouraged by
papal bulls in their contest for the rights of property in wrecks
and for the protection of shipping against pirates and slave-
hunters. Before the close of the century the statutes of Lubeck
were adopted by most Baltic towns having a German population,
and Visby protested in vain against the city on the Trave having
become the court of appeal for nearly all these cities, and even
for the German settlement in Russian Novgorod. In course of
time more than a hundred places were embraced in this relation,
the last vestiges of which did not disappear until the beginning
of the i8th century. From about 1299 Lubeck presided over a
league of cities, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, Greifswald and
some smaller ones, and this Hansa of towns became heir to a
Hansa of traders simultaneously on the eastern and the western
sea, after Lubeck and her confederates had been admitted to the
same privileges with Cologne, Dortmund and Soest at Bruges
and in the steelyards of London, Lynn and Boston. The union
held its own, chiefly along the maritime outskirts of the Empire,
rather against the will of king and emperor, but nevertheless
Rudolph of Habsburg and several of his successors issued new
charters to Lubeck. As early as 1241 Lubeck, Hamburg and
Soest had combined to secure their highways against robber
knights. Treaties to enforce the public peace were concluded
in 1291 and 1338 with the dukes of Brunswick, Mecklenburg and
Pomerania, and the count of Holstein. Though the great federal
armament against Waldemar IV., the destroyer of Visby, was
decreed by the city representatives assembled at Cologne in
1367, Lubeck was the leading spirit in the war which ended with
the surrender of Copenhagen and the peace concluded at Stralsund
on the 24th of May 1370. Her burgomaster, Brun Warendorp,
who commanded the combined naval and land forces, died on
the field of battle. In 1368 the seal of the city, a double-headed
eagle, which in the I4th century took the placeof the more ancient
ship, was adopted as the common seal of the confederated towns
(civitates maritimae), some seventy in number. Towards the end
of the 1 5th century the power of the Hanseatic League began
to decline, owing to the rise of Burgundy in the west, of Poland
and Russia in the east and the emancipation of the Scandinavian
kingdom from the union of Calmar. Still Lubeck, even when
nearly isolated, strove to preserve its predominance in a war
with Denmark (1501-12), supporting Gustavus Vasa in Sweden,
lording it over the north of Europe during the years 1534 and 1535
in the person of Jiirgen Wullenweber, the democratic burgo-
master, who professed the most advanced principles of the
Reformation, and engaging with Sweden in a severe naval war
(1536-70).

But the prestige and prosperity of the town were beginning
to decline. Before the end of the i6th century the privileges
of the London Steelyard were suppressed by Elizabeth. As
early as 1425 the herring, a constant source of early wealth,
began to forsake the Baltic waters. Later on, by the discovery
of a new continent, commerce was diverted into new directions.
Finally, with the Thirty Years' War, misfortunes came thick.
The last Hanseatic diet met at Lubeck in 1630, shortly after
Wallenstein's unsuccessful attack on Stralsund; and from that
time merciless sovereign powers stopped free intercourse on all
sides. Danes and Swedes battled for the possession of the Sound
and for its heavy dues. The often changing masters of Holstein
and Lauenburg abstracted much of the valuable landed property
of the city and of the chapter of Lubeck. Towards the end of

LUBLIN— LUBRICANTS

the i8th century there were signs of improvement. Though
the Danes temporarily occupied the town in 1801, it preserved
its freedom and gained some of the chapter lands when the
imperial constitution of Germany was broken up by the act of
February 1803, while trade and commerce prospered for a few
years. But in November 1806, when Blucher, retiring from
the catastrophe of Jena, had to capitulate in the vicinity of
LUbeck, the town was sacked by the French. Napoleon annexed
it to his empire in December 1810. But it rose against the French
in March 1813, was re-occupied by them till the sth of December,
and was ultimately declared a free and Hanse town of the German
Confederation by the act of Vienna of the 9th of June 1815.
The Hanseatic League, however, having never been officially
dissolved, LUbeck still enjoyed its traditional connexion, with
Bremen and Hamburg. In 1853 they sold their common property,
the London Steelyard; until 1866 they enlisted by special
contract their military contingents for the German Confederation,
and down to 1879 they had their own court of appeal at Lubeck.
LUbeck joined the North German Confederation in 1866, profiting
by the retirement from Holstein and Lauenburg of the Danes,
whose interference had prevented as long as possible a direct
railway between LUbeck and Hamburg. On the 27th of June
1867 Lubeck concluded a military convention with Prussia,
and on the nth of August 1868 entered the German Customs
Union (Zolherein), though reserving to itself certain privileges
in respect of its considerable wine trade and commerce with
the Baltic ports.

See E. Deecke, Die Freie und Hansestadt Lubeck (4th ed., Lubeck,
1881) and Lubische Geschichten und Sagen (Lubeck, 1891); M. Hoff-
mann, Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Lubeck (Lubeck, 1889-
1892) and Chronik von Lubeck (Lubeck, 1908); Die Freie und
Hansestadt Lubeck, published by Die geographische Gesellschaft in
Lubeck (Lubeck, 1891); C. W. Pauli, Liibecksche Zustdnde im Mittel-
alter (Lubeck, 1846-1878) ; J. Geffcken, Lubeck in der Mitte des i6"n
Jahrliunderts (Lubeck, 1905); P. Hasse, Die Anfange Lubecks
(Lubeck; 1893); H. Bodeker, Geschichte der Freien und Hansesladt
Lubeck (Lubeck, 1898); A. Holm, Lubeck, die Freie und Hansestadt
(Bielefeld, 1900) ; G. Waitz, Lubeck unter Jtirgen Wullenweber (Berlin,
1855-1856); Klug, Geschichte Lubecks wdhrend der Vereinigung mil
dem franzosischen Kaiserreich (Lubeck, 1857); F. Frensdorff, Die
Stadt- und Gerichtsverfassung Lubecks im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert
(Lubeck, 1861); the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Lubeck (Lubeck, 1843-
1904); the Lubecker Chroniken (Leipzig, 1884-1903); and the
Zeitschrift des Vereins fur lubeckische Geschichte (Lubeck, 1860 fol.).

(R. P.; P. A. A.)

LUBLIN, a government of Russian Poland, bounded N. by
Siedlce, E. by Volhynia (the Bug forming the boundary), S.
by Galicia, and W. by Radom (the Vistula separating the two).
Area, 6499 sq. m. The surface is an undulating plain of Cretaceous
deposits, 800 to 900 ft. in altitude, and reaching in one place
1050 ft. It is largely covered with forests of oak, beech and
lime, intersected by ravines and thinly inhabited. A marshy
lowland extends between the Vistula and the Wieprz. The
government is drained by the Vistula and the Bug, and by their
tributaries the Wieprz, San and Tanev. Parts of the government,
being of black earth, are fertile, but other parts are sandy.
Agriculture is in good condition. Many Germans settled in
the government before immigration was stopped in 1887; in
1897 they numbered about 26,000. Rye, oats, wheat, barley
and potatoes are the chief crops, rye and wheat being exported.
Flax, hemp, buckwheat, peas, millet and beetroot are also
cultivated. Horses are carefully bred. In 1897 the population
was 1,165,122, of whom 604,886 were women. The Greek
Orthodox (chiefly Little Russians in the south-east) amounted
to 20-1% of the whole; Roman Catholics (i.e. Poles) to 62-8%;
Jews to 14-2%; and Protestants to 2-8%. The urban popula-
tion was 148,196 in 1897. The estimated population in 1906
was 1,362,500. Industrial establishments consist chiefly of
distilleries, sugar-works, steam flour-milk, tanneries, saw-mills
and factories of bent-wood furniture. Domestic industries are
widely developed in the villages. River navigation employs
a considerable portion of the population. The government
is divided into ten districts, the chief towns of which, with their
populations in 1897, are — Lublin, capital of the province (50,152) ;
Biegoray (6286); Cholm (19,236); Hrubieszow (10,699);

Yanow (7927); Krasnystaw or Kraznostav (8879); Lubartow
(5249); Nova-Alexandrya or Pulawy (3892); Sarnostye (12,400);
and Tomaszow (6224).

LUBLIN, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the government
of the same name, 109 m. by rail S.E. of Warsaw, on a small
tributary of the Wieprz. Pop. (1873) 28,900; (1897) 50,152.
It is the most important town of Poland after Warsaw and
Lodz, being one of the chief centres of the manufacture of thread-
yarn, linen and hempen goods and woollen stuffs; there is also
trade in grain and cattle. It has an old citadel, several palaces
of Polish nobles and many interesting churches, and is the head-
quarters of the XIV. army corps, and the see of a Roman Catholic
bishop. The cathedral dates from the i6th century. Of the
former fortifications nothing remains except the four gates,
one dating from 1342.

Lublin was in existence in the loth century, and has a church
which is said to have been built in 986. During the time the
JageUon dynasty ruled over Lithuania and Poland it was the
most important city between the Vistula and the Dnieper, having
40,000 inhabitants (70,000 according to other authorities)
and all the trade with Podolia, Volhynia and Red Russia. Indeed,
the present town is surrounded with ruins, which prove that it
formerly covered a much larger area. But it was frequently
destroyed by the Tatars (e.g. 1240) and Cossacks (e.g. 1477).
In 1568-1569 it was the seat of the stormy convention at which
the union between Poland and Lithuania was decided. In
1702 another convention was held in Lublin, in favour of Augustus
II. and against Charles XII. of Sweden, who carried the town
by assault and plundered it. In 1831 Lublin was taken by the
Russians. The surrounding country is rich in reminiscences
of the struggle of Poland for independence.

LUBRICANTS. Machines consist of parts which have
relative motion and generally slide and rub against each other.
Thus the axle of a cart or railway vehicle is pressed against a
metallic bearing surface supporting the body of the vehicle,
and the two opposed surfaces slide upon each other and are
pressed together with great force. If the metallic surfaces be
clean, the speed of rubbing high, and the force pressing the
surfaces together considerable, then the latter will abrade each
other, become hot and be rapidly destroyed. It is possible,
however, to prevent the serious abrasion of such opposing surfaces,
and largely to reduce the frictional resistance they oppose to
relative motion by the use of lubricants (Lat. lubricare, lubricus,
slippery). These substances are caused to insinuate themselves
between the surfaces, and have the property of so separating
them as to prevent serious abrasion. The solid and semi-solid
lubricants seem to act as rollers between the surfaces, or form a
film between them which itself suffers abrasion or friction. The
liquM lubricants, however, maintain themselves as liquid films
between the surfaces, upon which the bearing floats. The
frictional resistance is then wholly in the fluid. Even when
lubricants are used the friction, i.e. the resistance to motion
offered by the opposing surfaces, is considerable. In the article
FRICTION will be found a statement of how friction is measured
and the manner in which it is expressed. The coefficient of
friction is obtained by dividing the force required to cause the
surfaces to slide over each other by the load pressing them to-
gether. For clean unlubricated surfaces this coefficient may be
as great as 0-3, whilst for well-lubricated cylindrical bearings
it may be as small as 0-0006. Engineers have, therefore, paid
particular attention to the design of bearings with the object
of reducing the friction, and thus making use of as much as
possible of the power developed by prime movers. The import-
ance of doing this will be seen when it is remembered that the
energy wasted is proportional to the coefficient of friction, and
that the durability of the parts depends upon the extent to which
they are separated by the lubricant and thus prevented from
injuring each other.

There is great diversity in the shapes of rubbing surfaces, the
loads they have to carry vary widely, and the speed of rubbing
ranges from less than one foot to thousands of feet per minute.
There is also a large number of substances which act as lubricants,

LUBRICANTS

some being liquids and others soft solids. In many instruments or
machines where the surfaces in contact which have to slide upon
each other are only lightly pressed together, and are only occasion-
ally given relative motion, the lubricant is only needed to prevent
abrasion. Microscopes and mathematical instruments are of this
kind. In such cases, the lubricant which keeps the surfaces from
abrading each other is a mere contamination film, either derived
from the air or put on when the surfaces are finished. When such
lubricating films are depended upon, the friction surfaces should
be as hard as possible and, if practicable, of dissimilar metals.
In the absence of a contamination film, most metals, if rubbed
when in contact, will immediately adhere to each other. A large
number of experiments have been made to ascertain the co-
efficient of friction under these imperfect conditions of lubrica-
tion. Within wide limits of load, the friction is proportional to
the pressure normal to the surfaces and is, therefore, approxi-
mately independent of the area of the surfaces in contact.
Although the static coefficient is often less than the kinetic at
very low speeds, within wide limits the latter coefficient de-
creases with increasing speed. These laws apply to all bearings
the velocity of rubbing of which is very small, or which are
lubricated with solid or semi-solid materials.

When the speed of rubbing is considerable and the contamina-
tion film is liable to be destroyed, resort is had to lubricants
which possess the power of keeping the surfaces apart, and
thereby reducing the friction. The constant application of such
substances is necessary in the case of such parts of machine
tools as slide rests, the surfaces of which only move relatively
to each other at moderate speeds, but which have to carry heavy
loads. In all ordinary cases, the coefficient of friction of flat
surfaces, such as those of slide blocks or pivot bearings, is high,
owing to the fact that the lubricant is not easily forced between
the surfaces. In the case of cylindrical bearing surfaces, such as
those of journals and spindles, owing to the fact that the radius
of the bearing surface is greater than that of the journal or spindle,
the lubricant, if a liquid, is easily drawn in and entirely separates
the surfaces (see LUBRICATION). Fortunately, cylindrical bear-
ings are by far the most common and important form of bearing,
and they can be so lubricated that the friction coefficient is very
low. The lubricant, owing to its viscosity, is forced between the
surfaces and keeps them .entirely apart. This property of vis-
cosity is one of the most important possessed by liquid lubricants.
Some lubricants, such as the oils used for the light spindles of
textile machinery, are quite thin and limpid, whilst others,
suitable for steam engine cylinders and very heavy bearings, are,
at ordinary temperatures, as thick as treacle or honey. Gener-
ally speaking, the greater the viscosity of the lubricant the
greater the load the bearing will carry, but with thick lubricants
the frictional coefficient is correspondingly high. True lubricants
differ from ordinary liquids of equal viscosity inasmuch as they
possess the property of " oiliness." This is a property which
enables them to maintain an unbroken film between surfaces
when the loads are heavy. It is possessed most markedly by
vegetables and animal oils and fats, and less markedly by mineral
oils. In the case of mineral lubricating oils from the same
source, the lower the specific gravity the greater the oiliness of
the liquid, as a rule. Mixtures of mineral oil with animal or
vegetable oil are largely used, one class of oil supplying those
qualities in which the other is deficient. Thus the mineral
oils, which are comparatively cheap and possess the important
property of not becoming oxidized into gummy or sticky sub-
stances by the action of the air, which also are not liable to
cause spontaneous ignition of cotton waste, &c., and can be
manufactured of almost any desired viscosity, but which on the
other hand are somewhat deficient in the property of oiliness,
are mixed with animal or vegetable oils which possess the latter
property in marked degree, but are liable to gum and become
acid and to cause spontaneous ignition, besides being compara-
tively expensive and limited in quantity. Oils which become
acid attack the bearings chemically, and those which oxidize
may become so thick that they fail to run on to the bearings
properly.

The following table shows that the permissible load on bearings
varies greatly: —

Description of Bearing. Load in ft

per sq. in.

Hard steel bearings on which the load is inter-
mittent, such as the crank pins of shearing

machines 3000

Bronze crosshead neck journals . . 1200

Crank pins of large slow engines . . 800-900

Crank pins of marine engines . . 400-500

Main crank-shaft bearings, slow marine 600

Main crank-shaft bearings, fast marine 400

Railway coach journals .... 300-400

Fly-wheel shaft journals . . . 150-200

Small engine crank pins .... 150-200

Small slide blocks, marine engines . 100

Stationary engine slide block ' . . 25-125

Stationary engine slide block, usually . 30-60

Propeller thrust bearings . . . 50-70

Shafts in cast iron steps, high speed . 15

Solid Lubricants. — Solid substances, such as graphite or plumbago,
soapstone, &c., are used as lubricants when there is some objection
to liquids or soft solids, but the surfaces between which they are
placed should be of very hard materials. They are frequently mixed
with oils or greases, the lubricating properties of which they improve.
Semi-solid Lubricants. — The contrast in lubricating properties
between mineral and fatty oils exists also in the case of a pure mineral
grease like vaseline and an animal fat such as tallow, the latter
possessing in a far greater degree the property of greasiness. A
large number of lubricating greases are made by incorporating or
emulsifying animal and vegetable fats with soap and water; also by
thickening mineral lubricating oils with soap. Large quantities of
these greases are used with very good results for the lubrication of
railway waggon axles, and some oT them are excellent lubricants for
the bearings of slow moving machinery. Care must be taken, how-
ever, that they do not contain excess of water and are not adulterated
with such useless substances as china clay ; also, that they melt as a
whole, and that the oil does not run down and leave the soap. This
is liable to occur with badly made greases, and hot bearings are the
result. Except in special cases, greases should not be used for
quick-running journals, shafts or spindles, on account of the high
frictional resistance which they offer to motion. In the case of fats
and greases whose melting points are not much above the tempera-
ture of surrounding objects it generally happens that the lubricating
films are so warmed by friction that they actually melt and act as
oils. These lubricants are generally forced into the bearings by a form
of syringe fitted with a spring piston, or are squeezed between the
faces by means of a screw-plug.

Liquid Lubricants. — Generally speaking, all bearings which it is
necessary should run with as little friction as possible must be sup-
plied with liquid lubricants. These may be of animal, vegetable or
mineral origin. The mineral oils are mixtures of hydrocarbons of
variable viscosity, flashing-point, density and oiliness. They are
obtained by distillation from American, Russian and other
petroleums. The fixed oils obtained from animal and vegetable
substances are not volatile without decomposition, and are found
ready made in the tissues of animals and plants. Animal oils are
obtained from the adipose tissue by simple heat or by boiling with
water. They are usually either colourless or yellow. The oils of
plants occur usually in the seeds or fruit, and are obtained either
by expression or by means of solvents such as ether or petroleum.
They are of various shades of yellow and green, the green colour
being due to the presence of chlorophyll. The fundamental difference
between fixed oils and mineral oils exists in their behaviour towards
oxygen. Mineral oils at ordinary temperatures are indifferent to
oxygen, but all fixed oils combine with it and thicken or gum more
or less, generating heat at the same time. Such oils are, therefore,
dangerous if dropped upon silk, cotton or woollen waste or other
combustible fibrous materials, which are thus rendered liable to
spontaneous ignition.

Liquid lubricants are used for all high speed bearings. In some
cases the rubbing surfaces work in a bath of the lubricant, which
can then reach all the rubbing parts with certainty. Small engines
for motor cars or road waggons are often lubricated in this way. In
the case of individual bearings, such as those of railway vehicles, a
pad of cotton, worsted and horse hair is kept saturated with the
lubricant and pressed against the under side of the journal. The
journal is thus kept constantly wetted with oil, and the film is forced
beneath the brass as the axle rotates. In many cases, oil- ways and
grooves are cut in the bearings, and the lubricant is allowed to run
by gravity into them and thus finds its way between the opposing
surfaces. To secure a steady feed various contrivances are adopted,
the most common being a wick of cotton or worsted used as a siphon.
In cases where it is important that little if any wear should take
place, the lubricant is forced by means of a pump between the friction
surfaces and a constant film of oil is thereby maintained between
them.

For the spindles of small machines such as clocks, watches and
other delicate mechanisms, which are only lubricated at long intervals

LUBRICATION

89

and are often exposed to extremes of temperature, the lubricant
must be a fluid oil as free as possible from tendency to gum or thicken
by oxidation or to corrode metal, and must often have a low freez-
ing-point. It must also possess a maximum of " oiliness." The
lubricants mostly used for such purposes are obtained from porpoise
or dolphin jaw oils, bean oil, hazel nut oil, neatsfoot oil, sperm oil
or olive oil. These oils are exposed for some time to temperatures as
low as the mechanism is required to work at, and the portion which
remains fluid is separated and used. Free acid should be entirely
eliminated by chemical refining. A little good mineral oil may with
advantage be mixed with the fatty oil.

For all ordinary machinery, ranging from the light ring spindles of
textile mills to the heavy shafts of large engines, mineral oils are
almost universally employed, either alone or mixed with fatty oils,
the general rule being to use pure mineral oils for bath, forced or
circulating pump lubrication, and mixed oils for drop, siphon and
other less perfect methods of lubrication. Pure mineral oils of
relatively low viscosity are used for high speeds and low pressures,
mixed oils of greater viscosity for low speeds and high pressures.
In selecting oils for low speeds and great pressures, viscosity must be
the first consideration, and next to that " oiliness." If an oil of
sufficiently high viscosity be used, a mineral oil may give a result as
good or better than a pure fixed oil ; a mixed oil may give a better
result than either. If a mineral oil of sufficient viscosity be not
available, then a fixed oil or fat may be expected to give the best
result.

In special cases, such as in the lubrication of textile machines,
where the oil is liable to be splashed upon the fabric, the primary
consideration is to use an oil which can be washed out without
leaving a stain. Pure fixed oils, or mixtures composed largely of
fixed oils, are used for such purposes.

In other special cases, such as marine engines working in hot places,
mixtures are used of mineral oil with rape or other vegetable oil
artificially thickened by blowing air through the heated oil, and
known as " blown " oil or " soluble castor oil."

In the lubrication of the cylinders and valves of steam, gas and oil
engines, the lubricant must possess as much viscosity as possible at
the working temperature, must not evaporate appreciably and must
not decompose and liberate fatty acids which would corrode the metal
and choke the steam passages with metallic soaps; for gas and oil
engines the lubricant must t>e as free as possible from tendency to
decompose and deposit carbon when heated. For this reason steam
cylinders and valves should be lubricated with pure mineral oils of
the highest viscosity, mixed with no more fixed oil than is necessary
to ensure efficient lubrication. Gas and oil engines also should be
lubricated with pure mineral oils wherever possible.

For further information on the theory and practice of lubrication
and on the testing of lubricants, see Friction and Lost Work in
Machinery and Mill Work, by R. H. Thurston (1903); and Lubri-
cation and Lubricants, by L. Archbutt and R. M. Deeley (1906).

(R. M. D.)

LUBRICATION. Our knowledge of the action of oils and other
viscous fluids in diminishing friction and wear between solid
surfaces from being purely empirical has become a connected
theory, based on the known properties of matter, subjected to the
definition of mathematical analysis and verified by experiment.
The theory was published in 1886 (Phil. Trans., 1886, 177, pp.
157-234); but it is the purpose of this article not so much to
explain its application, as to give a brief account of the intro-
duction of the misconceptions that so long prevailed, and of the
manner in which their removal led to its general acceptance.

Friction, or resistance to tangential shifting of matter over
matter, whatever the mode and arrangement, differs greatly
according to the materials, but, like all material resistance, is
essentially limited. The range of the limits in available materials
has a primary place in determining mechanical possibilities,
and from the earliest times they have demanded the closest
attention on the part of all who have to do with structures or
with machines, the former being concerned to find those materials
and their arrangements which possess the highest limits, and the
latter the materials in which the limits are least. Long before the
reformation of science in the ijth and i6th centuries both these
limits had formed the subject of such empirical research as
disclosed numerous definite although disconnected circumstances
under which they could be secured; and these, however far from
the highest and lowest, satisfied the exigencies of practical
mechanics at the time, thus initiating the method of extending
knowledge which was to be subsequently recognized as the only
basis of physical philosophy. In this purely empirical research
the conclusion arrived at represented the results for the actual
circumstance from which they were drawn, and thus afforded no

place for theoretical discrepancies. However, in the attempts at
generalization which followed the reformation of science, oppor-
tunity was afforded for such discrepancies in the mere enunciation
of the circumstances in which the so-called laws of friction of
motion are supposed to apply. The circumstances in which
the great amount of empirical research was conducted as to the
resistance between the clean, plane, smooth surfaces of rigid
bodies moving over each other under pressure, invariably include
the presence of air at atmospheric pressure around, and to some
extent between, the surfaces; but this fact had received no
notice in the enunciation of these laws, and this constitutes
a theoretical departure from the conditions under which the
experience had been obtained. Also, the theoretical division
of the law of frictional resistance into two laws — one dealing with
the limit of rest, and the other asserting that the friction of
motion, which is invariably less in similar circumstances than
that of rest, is independent of the velocity of sliding — involves
the theoretical assumption that there is no asymptotic law of
diminution of the resistance, since, starting from rest, the
rate of sliding increases. The theoretical substitution of ideal
rigid bodies with geometrically regular surfaces, sliding in contact
under pressure at the common regular surface, for the aerated
surfaces in the actual circumstances, and the theoretical sub-
stitution of the absolute independence of the resistance of the
rate of sliding for the limited independence in the actual circum-
stances, prove the general acceptance of the conceptions — (i)
that matter can slide over matter under pressure at a geometric-
ally regular surface; (2) that, however much the resistance
to sliding under any particular pressure (the co-efficient of
friction) may depend on the physical properties of the materials,
the sliding under pressure takes place at the geometrically
regular surface of contact of the rigid bodies; and (3) as the
consequence of (i) and (2), that whatever the effect of a lubricant,
such as oil, might have, it could be a physical surface effect. Thus
not only did these general theoretical conceptions, .resulting
from the theoretical laws of friction, fail to indicate that the
lubricant may diminish the resistance by the mere mechanical
separation of the surfaces, but they precluded the idea that such
might be the case. The result was that all subsequent attempts
to reduce the empirical facts, where a lubricant was used, to
such general laws as might reveal thc^separate functions of the
complex circumstances on which lubrication depends, com-
pletely failed. Thus until 1883 the science of lubrication had
not advanced beyond the empirical stage.

This period of stagnation was terminated by an accidental
phenomenon observed by Beauchamp Tower, while engaged
on his research on the friction of the journals of railway carriages.
His observation led him to a line of experiments which proved
that in these experiments the general function of the lubricant
was the mechanical separation of the metal surfaces by a layer
of fluid of finite thickness, thus upsetting the preconceived ideas
as expressed in the laws of the friction of motion. On the publica-
tion of Tower's reports (Proc. Inst. M.E., November 1883), it
was recognized by several physicists (B.A. Report, 1884, pp. 14,
625) that the evidence they contained afforded a basis for
further study of the actions involved, indicating as it did the
circumstances — namely, the properties of viscosity and cohesion
possessed by fluids — account of which had not been taken in
previous conclusions. It also became apparent that continuous
or steady lubrication, such as that of Tower's experiments, is
only secured when the solid surfaces separated by the lubricant
are so shaped that the thickness at the ingoing side is greater than
that at the outgoing side.

When the general equations of viscous fluids had been shown
as the result of the labours of C. L. M. H. Navier,1 A. L. Cauchy,1
S. D. Poisson,3 A. J. C. Barre de St Venant,4 and in 1845 of Sir
G. Gabriel Stokes,6 to involve no other assumption than that
the stresses, other than the pressure equal in all directions,

1 Mem. de I'Acad. (1826), 6, p. 389.

* Mem. des sav. ttrang. 1. 40.

' Mem. de I'Acad. (1831), 10, p. 345. < B.A. Report (1846)

1 Cambridge Phil. Trans. (1845 and 1857).

9o

LUBRICATION

are linear functions of the distortional rates of strain multiplied
by a constant coefficient, it was found that the only solutions
of which the equations admitted, when applied to fluids flowing
between fixed boundaries, as water in a pipe, were singular
solutions for steady or steady periodic motion, and that the
conclusions they entailed, that the resistance would be pro-
portional to the velocity, were for the most part directly at
variance with the common experience that the resistances
varied with the square of the velocity. This discrepancy was
sometimes supposed to be the result of eddies in the fluid, but
it was not till 1883 that it was discovered by experiments with
colour bands that, in the case of geometrically similar boundaries,
the existence or non-existence of such eddies depended upon
a definite relation between the mean velocity (U) of the fluid,
the distance between the boundaries, and the ratio of the co-
efficient of viscosity to the density Gu/p) , expressed by UDp/^t = K,
where K is a physical constant independent of units, which has
a value between 1900 and 2000, and for parallel boundaries
D is four times the area of the channel divided by the perimeter
of the section (Phil. Trans., 1883, part iii. 935-982). K is thus
a criterion at which the law of resistance to the mean flow changes
suddenly (as U increases), from being proportional to the flow,
to a law involving higher powers of the velocity at first, but as
the rates increase approaching an asymptote in which the power
is a little less that the square.

This sudden change in the law of resistance to the flow of
fluid between solid boundaries, depending as it does on a complete
change in the manner of the flow — from direct parallel flow to
sinuous eddying motion — serves to determine analytically the
circumstances as to the velocity and the thickness of the film
under which any fluid having a particular coefficient of viscosity
can act the part of a lubricant. For as long as the circumstances
are such that UDp//i is less than K, the parallel flow is held stable
by the viscosity, so that only one solution is possible — that
in which the resistance is the product of n multiplied by the

rate of distortion, as pj^; in this case the fluid has lubricating

properties. But when the circumstances are such that UDp/^t
is greater than K, other solutions become possible, and the
parallel flow becomes unstable, breaks down into eddying
motion, and the resistance varies as pu", which approximates
to pw1'78 as the velocity increases; in this state the fluid has
no lubricating properties. Thus, within the limits of the criterion,
the rate of displacement of the momentum of the fluid is in-
significant as compared with the viscous resistance, and may
be neglected; while outside this limit the direct effects of the
eddying motion completely dominate the viscous resistance,
which in its turn may be neglected. Thus K is a criterion which
separates the flow of fluid between solid surfaces as definitely
as the flow of fluid is separated from the relative motions in
elastic solids, and it is by the knowledge of the limit on which
this distinction depends that the theory of viscous flow can
with assurance be applied to the circumstance of lubrication.

Until the existence of this physical constant was discovered,
any theoretical conclusions as to whether in any particular
circumstances the resistance of the lubricant would follow the
law of viscous flow or that of eddying motion was impossible.
Thus Tower, being unaware of the discovery of the criterion,
which was published in the same year as his reports, was thrown
off the scent in his endeavour to verify the evidence he had
obtained as to the finite thickness of the film by varying the
velocity. He remarks in his first report that, " according
to the theory of fluid motion, the resistance would be as the
square of the velocity, whereas in his results it did not increase
according to this law." The rational theory of lubrication does
not, however, depend solely on the viscosity within the interior
of fluids, but also depends on the surface action between the
fluid and the solid. In many respects the surface actions, as
indicated by surface tension, are still obscure, and there has
been a general tendency to assume that there may be discontinuity
in the velocity at the common surface. But whatever these
actions may be in other respects, there is abundant evidence

that there is no appreciable discontinuity in the velocity at the
surfaces as long as the fluid has finite thickness. Hence in the
case of lubrication the velocities of the fluid at the surfaces of
the solids are those of the solid. In as far as the presence of
the lubricant is necessary, such properties as cause oil in spite
of its surface tension to spread even against gravity over a bright
metal surface, while mercury will concentrate into globules on
the bright surface of iron, have an important place in securing
lubrication where the action is intermittent, as in the escapement
of a clock. If there is oil on the pallet, although the pressure
of the tooth causes this to flow out laterally from between the
surfaces, it goes back again by surface tension during the
intervals; hence the importance of using fluids with low surface
tension like oil, or special oils, when there is no other means of
securing the presence of the lubricant.

The differential equations for the equilibrium of the lubricant are
what the differential equations of viscous fluid in steady motion
become when subject to the conditions necessary for lubrication
as already defined — (l) the velocity is below the critical value;

(2) at the surfaces the velocity of the fluid is that of the solid;

(3) the thickness of the film is small compared with the lateral
dimensions of the surfaces and the radii of curvature of the surfaces.
By the first of these conditions all the terms having p as a factor
may be neglected, and the equations thus become the equations of
equilibrium of the fluid ; as such, they are applicable to fluid whether
incompressible or elastic, and however the pressure may affect the
viscosity. But the analysis is greatly simplified by omitting all
terms depending on compressibility and by taking /i constant ; this
may be done without loss of generality in a qualitative sense. With
these limitations we have for the differential equation of the equili-
brium of the lubricant : —

du dv . dw~\

(i)

These are subject to the boundary conditions (2) and (3). Taking
* as measured parallel to one of the surfaces in the direction of rela-
tive motion, y normal to the surface and 2 normal to the plane of xy
by condition (3), we may without error disregard the effect of any
curvature in the surfaces. Also » is small compared with u and w,
and the variations of u and w in the directions x and 2 are small com-
pared with their variation in the direction y. The equations (l)
reduce to

dp d*u dp dp d?w du . dv , <fc

- 0= ^- 0=

du

dw

(2)

For the boundary conditions, putting f(x, z) as limiting the lateral
area of the lubricant, the conditions at the surfaces may be expressed
thus : —

= o,

i >•

(3)

when f(x, z)=o, p = po , J

Then, integrating the equations (2) over y, and determining the
constants by equations (3), we have, since by the second of equations
(2) p is independent of y,

(4)

i dp

Then, differentiating equations (4) with respect to x and 2 respec-
tively, and substituting in the 4th of equations (2), and integrating
from y = o to y = h, so that only the values of v at the surfaces may be
required, we have for the differential equation of normal pressure at
any point x, z, between the boundaries: —

Tx

("f) +.4 Wl)

(5)

Again differentiating equations (4), with respect to x and z respec-
tively, and substituting in the 5th and 6th of equations (2), and
putting fx and f, for the intensities of the tangential stresses at the
lower and upper surfaces: —

(6)

hdp

=

LUCAN

91

Equations (5) and (6) are the general equations for the stresses
at the boundaries at x, z, when A is a continuous function of * and z,
it and p being constant.

For the integration of equations (6) to get the resultant stresses
and moments on the solid boundaries, so as to obtain the conditions
of their equilibrium, it is necessary to know how * and z at any point
on the boundary enter into h, as well as the equation /(*, z)=o,
which determines the limits of the lubricating film. If y, the normal
to one of the surfaces, has not the same direction for all points of
this surface, in other words, if the surface is not plane, * and z be-
come curvilinear co-ordinates, at all points perpendicular to y. Since,
for lubrication, one of the surfaces must be plane, cylindrical, or a
surface of revolution, we may put x = R0, y = r — R, and z perpendicular
to the plane of motion. Then, if the data are sufficient, the resultant
stresses and moments between the surfaces are obtained by integrat-
ing the intensity of the stress and moments of intensity of stress over
the surface.

This, however, is not the usual problem that arises. What is
generally wanted is to find the thickness of the film where least (ho)
and its angular position with respect to direction of load, to resist a
definite load with a particular surface velocity. If the surfaces are
plane, the general solution involves only one arbitrary constant, the
least thickness (/to) ; since in any particular case the variation of k
with * is necessarily fixed, as in this case lubrication affords no auto-
matic adjustment of this slope. When both surfaces are curved in
the plane of motion there are at least two arbitrary constants, ho,
and <t> the angular position of h, with respect to direction of load;
while if the surfaces are both curved in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of motion as well as in the plane of motion, there are three
arbitrary constants, ho, <fo, z». The only constraint necessary is to
prevent rotation in the plane of motion of one of the surfaces, leaving
this surface free to move in any direction and to adjust its position so
as to be in equilibrium under the load.

The integrations necessary for the solutions of these problems
are practicable — complete or approximate — and have been
effected for circumstances which include the chief cases of
practical lubrication, the results having been verified by reference
to Tower's experiments. In this way the verified theory is
available for guidance outside the limits of experience as well
as for determining the limiting conditions. But it is necessary
to take into account certain subsidiary theories. These limits
depend on the coefficient of viscosity, which diminishes as the
temperature increases. The total work in' overcoming the re-
sistance is spent in generating heat in the lubricant, the volume
of which is very small. Were it not for the escape of heat by
conduction through the lubricant and the metal, lubrication
would be impossible. Hence a knowledge of the empirical law
of the variation of the viscosity of the lubricant with temperature,
the coefficients of conduction of heat in the lubricant and in
the metal, and the application of the theory of the flow of heat
in the particular circumstances, are necessary adjuncts to the
theory of lubrication for determining the limits of lubrication.
Nor is this all, for the shapes of the solid surfaces vary with the
pressure, and more particularly with the temperature.

The theory of lubrication has been applied to the explanation of
the slipperiness of ice (Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1899).

(O. R.)

LUCAN [MARCUS ANNAEUS LUCANUS], (A.D. 30-65), Roman
poet of the Silver Age, grandson of the rhetorician Seneca and
nephew of the philosopher, was born at Corduba. His mother
was Acilia; his father, Marcus Annaeus Mela, had amassed
great wealth as imperial procurator for the provinces. From
a memoir which is generally attributed to Suetonius we learn
that Lucan was taken to Rome at the age of eight months and
displayed remarkable precocity. One of his instructors was the
Stoic philosopher, Cornutus, the friend and teacher of Persius.
He was studying at Athens when Nero recalled him to Rome
and made him quaestor. These friendly relations did not last
long. Lucan is said to have defeated Nero in a public
poetical contest; Nero forbade him to recite in public, and the
poet's indignation made him an accomplice in the conspiracy
of Piso. Upon the discovery of the plot he is said to have been
tempted by the hope of pardon to denounce his own mother.
Failing to obtain a reprieve, he caused his veins to be opened,
and expired repeating a passage from one of his poems descriptive
of the death of a wounded soldier. His father was involved
in the proscription, his mother escaped, and his widow Folia
Argentaria survived to receive the homage of Statius under
Domitian. The birthday of Lucan was kept as a festival after

his death, and a poem addressed to his widow upon one of these
occasions and containing information on the poet's work and
career is still extant (Statius's Silvae, ii. 7, entitled Genethliacon
Lucani).

Besides his principal performance, Lucan's works included
poems on the ransom of Hector, the nether world, the fate of
Orpheus, a eulogy of Nero, the burning of Rome, and one in
honour of his wife (all mentioned by Statius), letters, epigrams,
an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Medea and numerous
miscellaneous pieces. His minor works have perished except
for a few fragments, but all that the author wrote of the Pharsalia
has come down to us. It would probably have concluded with
the'^battle of Philippi, but breaks off abruptly as Caesar is about
to plunge into the harbour of Alexandria. The Pharsalia opens
with a panegyric of Nero, sketches the causes of the war and the
characters of Caesar and Pompey, the crossing of the Rubicon
by Caesar, the flight of the tribunes to his camp, and the panic
and confusion in Rome, which Pompey has abandoned. The
second book describes the visit of Brutus to Cato, who is persuaded
to join the side of the senate, and his marriage a second time to
his former wife Marcia, Ahenobarbus's capitulation at Cornnium
and the retirement of Pompey to Greece. In the third book
Caesar, after settling affairs in Rome, crosses the Alps for Spain.
Massilia is besieged and falls. The fourth book describes the
victories of Caesar in Spain over Afranius and Petreius, and the
defeat of Curio by Juba in Africa. In the fifth Caesar and Antony
land in Greece, and Pompey's wife Cornelia is placed in security
at Lesbos. The sixth book describes the repulses of Caesar
round Dyrrhachium, the seventh the defeat of Pompey at
Pharsalia, the eighth his flight and assassination in Egypt,
the ninth the operations of Cato in Africa and his march through
the desert, and the landing of Caesar in Egypt, the tenth the
opening incidents of the Alexandrian war. The incompleteness
of the work should not be left out of account in the estimate of
its merits, for, with two capital exceptions, the faults of the
Pharsalia are such as revision might have mitigated or rendered.
No such pains, certainly, could have amended the deficiency
of unity of action, or supplied the want of a legitimate protagonist.
The Pharsalia is not true to history, but it cannot shake off its
shackles, and is rather a metrical chronicle than a true epic.
If it had been completed according to the author's design,
Pompey, Cato and Brutus must have successively enacted the
part of nominal hero, while the real hero is the arch-enemy
of liberty and Lucan, Caesar. Yet these defects, though glaring,
are not fatal or peculiar to Lucan. The false taste, the strained
rhetoric, the ostentatious erudition, the tedious harangues and
far-fetched or commonplace reflections so frequent in this
singularly unequal poem, are faults much more irritating, but
they are also faults capable of amendment, which the writer
might not improbably have removed. Great allowance should
also be made in the case of one who is emulating predecessors
who have already carried art to its last perfection. Lucan's
temper could never have brooked mere imitation; his versifica-
tion, no less than his subject, is entirely his own; he avoids
the appearance of outward resemblance to his great predecessor
with a persistency which can only have resulted from deliberate
purpose, but he is largely influenced by the declamatory school
of his grandfather and uncle. Hence his partiality for finished
antithesis, contrasting strongly with his generally breathless
style and turbid diction. Quintilian sums up both aspects of
his genius with pregnant brevity, " Ardens et concitatus et
sententiis clarissimus," adding with equal justice, " Magis
oratoribus quam poetis annumerandus." Lucan's oratory,
however, frequently approaches the regions of poetry, e.g. the
apotheosis of Pompey at the beginning of the ninth book, and
the passage in the same book where Cato, in the truest spirit of
the Stoic philosophy, refuses to consult the oracle of Jupiter
Ammon. Though in many cases Lucan's rhetoric is frigid,
hyperbolical, and out of keeping with the character of the speaker,
yet his theme has a genuine hold upon him; in the age of Nero
he celebrates the republic as a poet with the same energy with
which in the age of Cicero he might have defended it as an orator.

LUCANIA— LUCARIS

But for him it might almost have been said that the Roman
republic never inspired the Roman muse.

Lucan never speaks of himself, but his epic speaks for him.
He must have been endowed with no common ambition, industry
and self-reliance, an enthusiastic though narrow and aristocratic
patriotism, and a faculty for appreciating magnanimity in others.
But the only personal trait positively known to us is his conjugal
affection, a characteristic of Seneca also.

Lucan, together with Statius, was preferred even to Virgil
in the middle ages. So late as 1493 his commentator Sulpitius
writes: " Magnus profecto est Maro, magnus Lucanus;
adeoque prope par, ut quis sit major possis ambigere." Shelley
and Southey, in the first transport of admiration, thought
Lucan superior to Virgil; Pope, with more judgment, says that
the fire which burns in Virgil with an equable glow breaks forth
in Lucan with sudden, brief and interrupted flashes. Of late,
notwithstanding the enthusiasm of isolated admirers, Lucan
has been unduly neglected, but he has exercised an important
influence upon one great department of modern literature by his
effect upon Corneille, and through him upon the classical French
drama.

AUTHORITIES. — The Pharsalia was much read in the middle ages,
and consequently it is preserved in a large number of manuscripts,
the relations of which have not yet been thoroughly made out.
The most recent critical text is that of C. Hosius (and ed. 1906),
and the latest complete commentaries are those of C. E. Haskins
(1887, with a valuable introduction by W. E. Heitland) and C. M.
Francken (1896). There are separate editions of book i. by P. Lejay
(1894) and book vii. by I. P. Ppstgate (1896). Of earlier editions
those of Oudendorp (which contains the continuation of the Pharsalia
to the death of Caesar by Thomas May, 1728), Burmann (1740),
Bentley (1816, posthumous) and Weber (1829) may be mentioned.
There are English translations by C. Marlowe (book i. only, 1600),
Sir F. Gorges (1614), Thomas May (1626), N. Rowe (1718) and Sir E.
Ridley (2nd ed. 1905), the two last being the best.

(R.G.;J. P. P.)

LUCANIA, in ancient geography, a district of southern Italy,
extending from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Tarentum.
To the north it adjoined Campania, Samnium and Apulia, and
to the south it was separated by a narrow isthmus from the
district of Bruttii. It thus comprised almost all the modern
province of the Basilicata, with the greater part of the pro-
vince of Salerno and a portion of that of Cosenza. The
precise limits were the river Silarus on the north-west, which
separated it from Campania, and the Bradanus, which flows
into the Gulf of Tarentum, on the north-east; while the two
little rivers Laus and Crathis, flowing from the ridge of the
Apennines to the sea on the west and east, marked the limits
of the district on the side of the Bruttii.

Almost the whole is occupied by the Apennines, here an
irregular group of lofty masses. The main ridge approaches
the western sea, and is continued from the lofty knot of mountains
on the frontiers of Samnium, nearly due south to within a few
miles of the Gulf of Policastro, and thenceforward is separated
from the sea by only a narrow interval till it enters the district
of the Bruttii. Just within the frontier of Lucania rises Monte
Pollino, 7325 ft., the highest peak in the southern Apennines.
The mountains descend by a much more gradual slope to the
coastal plain of the Gulf of Tarentum. Thus the rivers which
flow to the Tyrrhenian Sea are of little importance compared
with those that descend towards the Gulf of Tarentum. Of
these the most important are — the Bfadanus (Bradano), the
Casuentus (Basiento), the Aciris (Agri), and the Siris (Sinno).
The Crathis, which forms at its mouth the southern limit of the
province, belongs almost wholly to the territory of the Bruttii,
but it receives a tributary, the Sybaris (Coscile), from the
mountains of Lucania. The only considerable stream on the
western side is the Silarus (Sele), which constitutes the northern
boundary, and has two important tributaries in the Calor
(Galore) and the Tanager (Negro) which joins it from the south.

The district of Lucania was so called from the people bearing
the name Lucani (Lucanians) by whom it was conquered about
the middle of the sth century B.C. Before that period it was
included under the general name of Oenotria, which was applied

by the Greeks to the southernmost portion of Italy. The
mountainous interior was occupied by the tribes known as
Oenotrians and Chones, while the coasts on both sides were
occupied by powerful Greek colonies which doubtless exercised
a protectorate over the interior (see MAGNA GRAECIA). The
Lucanians were a southern branch of the Samnite or Sabelline
race, who spoke the Osca Lingua (q.v.). We know from Strabo
that they had a democratic constitution save in time of war,
when a dictator was chosen from among the regular magistrates.
A few Oscan inscriptions survive, mostly in Greek characters,
from the 4th or 3rd century B.C., and some coins with Oscan
legends of the 3rd century (see Conway, Italic Dialects, p. 1 1 sqq. ;
Mommsen, C.I.L. x. p. 21; Roehl, Inscriptiones Graecae Anti-
quissimae, 547). The Lucanians gradually conquered the whole
country (with the exception of the Greek towns on the coast)
from the borders of Samnium and Campania to the southern
extremity of Italy. Subsequently the inhabitants of the
peninsula, now known as Calabria, broke into insurrection, and
under the name of Bruttians established their independence,
after which the Lucanians became confined within the limits
already described. After this we find them engaged in hostilities
with the Tarentines, and with Alexander, king of Epirus, who
was called in by that people to their assistance, 326 B.C. In 298
B.C. (Livy x. ii seq.) they made alliance with Rome, and Roman
influence was extended by the colonies of Venusia (291 B.C.),
Paestum (273), and above all Tarentum (272). Subsequently
they were sometimes in alliance, but more frequently engaged
in hostilities, during the Samnite wars. On the landing of
Pyrrhus in Italy (281 B.C.) they were among the first to declare
in his favour, and found themselves exposed to the resentment
of Rome when the departure of Pyrrhus left his allies at the
mercy of the Romans. After several campaigns they were reduced
to subjection (272 B.C.). Notwithstanding this they espoused
the cause of Hannibal during the Second Punic War (216 B.C.),
and their territory during several campaigns was ravaged by
both armies. "The country never recovered from these disasters,
and under the Roman government fell into decay, to which
the Social War, in which the Lucanians took part with the
Samnites against Rome (90-88 B.C.) gave the finishing stroke.
In the time of Strabo the Greek cities on the coast had fallen
into insignificance, and owing to the decrease of population and
cultivation the malaria began to obtain the upper hand. The
few towns of the interior were of no importance. A large part
of the province was given up to pasture, and the mountains
were covered with forests, which abounded in wild boars, bears
and wolves. There were some fifteen independent communities,
but none of great importance.

For administrative purposes under the Roman empire,
Lucania was always united with the district of the Bruttii.
The two together constituted the third region of 'Augustus.

The towns on the east coast were — Metapontum, a few miles south
of the Bradanus; Heraclea, at the mouth of the Aciris; and Siris,
on the river of the same name. Close to its southern frontier stood
Sybaris, which was destroyed in 510 B.C., but subsequently replaced
by Thurii. On the west coast stood Posidonia, known under the
Roman government as Paestum; below that came Elea or Velia,
Pyxus, called by the Romans Buxentum, and Laus, near the frontier
of the province towards Bruttium. Of the towns of the interior
the most considerable was Potentia, still called Potenza. To the
north, near the frontier of Apulia, was Bantia (Aceruntia belonged
more properly to Apulia); while due south from Potentia was
Grumentum, and still farther in that direction were Nerulum and
Muranum. In the upland valley of the Tanagrus wereAtina,
Forum Popilii and Consilinum; Eburi (Eboli) and Voiceii (Buccino),
though to the north of the Silarus, were also included in Lucania.
The Via Popillia traversed the district from N. to S., entering it at
the N.W. extremity; the Via Herculia, coming southwards from
the Via Appia and passing through Potentia and Grumentum, joined
the Via Popillia near the S.W. edge of the district: while another
nameless road followed the east coast and other roads of less import-
ance ran W. from Potentia to the Via Popillia, N.E. to the Via Appia
and E. from Grumentum to the coast at Heraclea. (T. As.)

LUCARIS, CYRILLOS (1572-1637), Greek prelate and theo-
logian, was a native of Crete. In youth he travelled, studying
at Venice and Padua, and at Geneva coming under the influence
of the reformed faith as represented by Calvin. In 1602 he was

LUCARNE— LUCAS VAN LEYDEN

93

elected patriarch of Alexandria, and in 1621 patriarch of Con-
stantinople. He was the first great name in the Orthodox
Eastern Church since 1453, and dominates its history in the
I7th century. The great aim of his life was to reform the church
on Calvinistic lines, and to this end he sent many young Greek
theologians to the universities of Switzerland, Holland and
England. In 1629 he published his famous Confessio, Calvinistic
in doctrine, but as far as possible accommodated to the language
and creeds of the Orthodox Church. It appeared the same year
in two Latin editions, four French, one German and one English,
and in the Eastern Church started a controversy which culminated
in 1691 in the convocation by Dositheos, patriarch of Jerusalem,
of a synod by which the Calvinistic doctrines were condemned.
Lucaris was several times temporarily deposed and banished
at the instigation of his orthodox opponents and of the Jesuits,
who were his bitterest enemies. Finally, when Sultan Murad
was about to set out for the Persian War, the patriarch was
accused of a design to stir up the Cossacks, and to avoid trouble
during his absence the sultan had him killed by the Janissaries
(June 1637). His body was thrown into the sea, recovered and
buried at a distance from the capital by his friends, and only
brought back to Constantinople after many years.

The orthodoxy of Lucaris himself continued to be a matter
of debate in the Eastern Church, even Dositheos, in view of the
reputation of the great patriarch, thinking it expedient to gloss
over his heterodoxy in the interests of the Church.
. See the article " Lukaris " by Ph. Meyer in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklop. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1902), which gives further authorities.

LUCARNE, a French architectural term for a garret window,
also for the lights or small windows in spires.

LUCAS, SIR CHARLES (d. 1648), English soldier, was the son
of Sir Thomas Lucas of Colchester, Essex. As a young man
he saw service in the Netherlands under. the command of his
brother, and in the " Bishops' War " he commanded a troop
of horse in King Charles I.'s army. In 1639 he was made a knight.
At the outbreak of the Civil War Lucas naturally took the king's
side, and at the first cavalry fight, Powick Bridge, he was wounded.
Early in 1643 he raised a regiment of horse, with which he
defeated Middleton at Padbury on July ist. In January 1644
he commanded the forces attacking Nottingham, and soon
afterwards, on Prince Rupert's recommendation, he was made
lieutenant-general of Newcastle's Northern army. When New-
castle was shut up in York, Lucas and the cavalry remained
in the open country, and when Rupert's relieving army crossed
the mountains into Yorkshire he was quickly joined by New-
castle's squadrons. At Marston Moor Lucas swept Fairfax's
Yorkshire horse before him, but later in the day he was taken
prisoner. Exchanged during the winter, he defended Berkeley
Castle for a short time against Rainsborough, but was soon in
the field again. As lieutenant-general of all the horse he
accompanied Lord Astley in the last campaign of the first war,
and, taken prisoner at Stow-on-the-Wold, he engaged not to
bear arms against parliament in the future. This parole he must
be held to have broken when he took a prominent part in the
seizure of Colchester in 1648. That place was soon invested,
and finally fell, after a desperate resistance, to Fairfax's army.
The superior officers had to surrender " at mercy," and Lucas
and Sir George Lisle were immediately tried by court martial
and sentenced to death. The two Royalists were shot the same
evening in the Castle of Colchester.

See Lloyd, Memoirs of Excellent Personages (1669) ; and Earl de
Grey, A Memoir of the Life of Sir Charles Lucas (1845).

LUCAS, CHARLES (1713-1771), Irish physician and politician,
was the son of a country gentleman of small means in Co.
Clare. Charles opened a small business as an apothecary in
Dublin, and between 1735 and 1741 he began his career as a
pamphleteer by publishing papers on professional matters
which led to legislation requiring inspection of drugs. Having
been elected a member of the common council of Dublin in 1741
he detected and exposed encroachments by the aldermen on the
electoral rights of the citizens, and entered upon a controversy
on the subject, but failed in legal proceedings against the alder-

men in 1744. With a view to becoming a parliamentary candi-
date for the city of Dublin he issued in 1748-1749 a series of
political addresses in which he advocated the principles of
Molyneux and Swift; and he made himself so obnoxious to the
government that the House of Commons voted him an enemy
to the country, and issued a proclamation for his arrest, thus
compelling him to retire for some years to the continent. Having
studied medicine at Paris, Lucas took the degree of M.D. at
Leiden in 1752. In the following year he started practice as
a physician in London, and in 1756 he published a work on
medicinal waters, the properties of which he had studied on the
continent and at Bath. The essay was reviewed by Dr Johnson,
and although it was resented by the medical profession it gained
a reputation and a considerable practice for its author. In 1760
he renewed his political pamphleteering; and having obtained
a pardon from George III., he proceeded to Dublin, where he
received a popular welcome and a Doctor's degree from Trinity
College. He was elected member for the city of Dublin in 1761,
his colleague in the representation being the recorder, Henry
Grattan's father. On the appointment of Lord Halifax as lord
lieutenant in the same year Lucas wrote him a long letter
(igth of Sept. 1761, MSS. Irish State Paper Office) setting forth
the grievances which Ireland had suffered in the past, chiefly
on account of the exorbitant pensions enjoyed by government
officials. The cause of these evils he declared to be the un-
representative character of the Irish constitution; and among
the remedies he proposed was the shortening of parliaments.
Lucas brought in a bill in his first session to effect this reform,
but was defeated on the motion to have the bill sent to England
for approval by the privy council; and he insisted upon the
independent rights of the Irish parliament, which were after-
wards in fuller measure successfully vindicated by Grattan.
He also defended the privileges of the Irish Protestants in the
press, and especially in the Freeman's Journal, founded in 1763.
His contributions to the press, and his Addresses to the Lord
Mayor and other political pamphlets made him one of the most
popular writers in Ireland of his time, although he was anti-
catholic in his prejudices, and although, as Lecky observes,
" there is nothing in his remains to show that he possessed any
real superiority either of intellect or knowledge, or even any
remarkable brilliancy of expression." He died on the 4th of
November 1771, and was accorded a public funeral. As an orator
Charles Lucas appears to have had little power, and he made
no mark in the House of Commons.

See R. R. Madden, Hist, of Irish Periodical Literature from the End
of the 17th to the Middle of the ipth Century (2 vols., London, 1867) ;
Francis Hardy, Memoirs of the Earl of Charlemont (2 .vols., London,
1812) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century,
vols. i. and ii. (5 vols., London, 1892).

LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR (1840- ), English painter, was
born in London, and was a student in the Royal Academy
Schools. He was elected an associate of the academy in 1886
and academician in 1898, and became a constant exhibitor of
pictures of historical and domestic incidents, notably of the
Tudor and Stuart periods, painted with much skill and with
close attention to detail. One of his most important works is
a panel in the Royal Exchange, presented by the corporation
of London, representing William the Conqueror granting the
first charter to the city; and one of his earlier pictures, " After
Culloden: Rebel Hunting," is in the National Gallery of British
Art.

LUCAS VAN LEYDEN (c. 1494-1533), Dutch painter, was born
at Leiden, where his father Huig Jacobsz gave him the first
lessons in art. He then entered the painting-room of Cornells
Engelbrechtszen of Leiden, and soon became known for his
capacity in making designs for glass, engraving copper-plates,
painting pictures, portraits and landscapes in oil and distemper.
According to van Mander he was born in 1494, and painted at
the age of twelve a " Legend of St Hubert " for which he was
paid a dozen florins. He was only fourteen when he finished
a plate representing Mahomet taking the life of Sergius, the
monk, and at fifteen he produced a series of nine plates for a
"Passion," a "Temptation of St Anthony," and a "Conversion

94

LUCCA

of St Paul." The list of his engravings in 1510, when, according
to van Mander, he was only sixteen, includes subjects as various
as a celebrated " Ecce Homo," " Adam and Eve expelled from
Paradise," a herdsman and a milkmaid with three cows, and a
little naked girl running away from a barking dog. Whatever
may be thought of the tradition embodied in van Mander's
pages as to the true age of Lucas van Leyden, there is no doubt
that, as early as 1508, he was a master of repute as a copper-
plate engraver. It was the time when art found patrons among
the public that could ill afford to buy pictures, yet had enough
interest in culture to satisfy itself by means of prints. Lucas
van Leyden became the representative man for the public
of Holland as Durer for that of Germany; and a rivalry grew
up between the two engravers, which came to be so close that
on the neutral market of Italy the products of each were all
but evenly quoted. Vasari affirmed that Durer surpassed
Lucas as a designer, but that in the use of the graver they
were both unsurpassed, a judgment which has not been reversed.
But the rivalry was friendly. About the time when Durer
visited the Netherlands Lucas went to Antwerp, which then
flourished as an international mart for productions of the pencil
and the graver, and it is thought that he was the master who
took the freedom of the Antwerp gild in 1521 under the name
of Lucas the Hollander. In Durer's diary kept during his travels
in the Low Countries, we find that at Antwerp he met Lucas,
who asked him to dinner, and that Durer accepted. He valued
the art of Lucas at its true figure, and exchanged the Dutchman's
prints for eight florins' worth of his own. In 1527 Lucas made a
tour of the Netherlands, giving dinners to the painters of the
gilds of Middleburg, Ghent, Malines and Antwerp. He was
accompanied during the trip by Mabuse, whom he imitated in
his style as well as in his love of rich costume. On his return
home he fell sick and remained ailing till his death in 1533, and
he believed that poison had been administered to him by some
envious comrade.

A few days before his death Lucas van Leyden was informed
of the birth of a grandson, first-born of his only daughter
Gretchen. Gretchen's fourth son JEAN DE HOEY followed the
profession of his grandfather, and became well known at the
Parisian court as painter and chamberlain to the king of France,
Henry IV.

As an engraver Lucas van Leyden deserves his reputation. He has
not the genius, nor had he the artistic tact, of Diirer ; and he displays
more cleverness ot expression than skill in distribution or in refinement
in details. But' his power in handling the graver is great, and some
of his portraits, especially his own, are equal to anything by the
master of Nuremberg. Much that he accomplished as a painter has
been lost, because he worked a good deal upon cloth in distemper.
In 1522 he painted the " Virgin and Child with the Magdalen and a
Kneeling Donor," now in the gallery of Munich. His manner was
then akin to that of Mabuse. The " Last Judgment '" in the town-
gallery of Leiden is composed on the traditional lines of Cristus and
Memling, with monsters in the style of Jerom Bosch and figures in
the stilted attitudes of the South German school ; the scale of colours
in yellow, white and grey is at once pale and gaudy, the quaintest
contrasts are produced by the juxtaposition of alabaster flesh in
females and bronzed skin in males, or black hair by the side of
yellow, or rose-coloured drapery set sharply against apple-green
or black; yet some of the heads are painted with great delicacy
and modelled with exquisite feeling. Dr Waagen gave a favourable
opinion of a triptych now at the Hermitage at St Petersburg, exe-
cuted, according to van Mander, in 1531, representing the " Blind
Man of Jericho healed by Jesus Christ." Here too the German critic
observed the union of faulty composition with great finish and warm
flesh-tints with a gaudy scale of colours. The same defects and
qualities will be found in such specimens as are preserved in public
collections, among which may be mentioned the " Card Party " at
Wilton House, the " Penitent St Jerome " in the gallery of Berlin,
and the hermits " Paul " and Anthony " in the Liechtenstein
collection at Vienna. There is a characteristic " Adoration of the
Magi " at Buckingham Palace.

LUCCA (anc. Luca) , a town and archiepiscopal see of Tuscany,
Italy, capital of the province of Lucca, 13 m. by rail N.E. of
Pisa. Pop. (1901) 43,366 (town); 73,465 (commune). It is
situated 62 ft. above the level of the sea, in the valley of the
Serchio, and looks out for the most part on a horizon of hills
and mountains. The fortifications, pierced by four gates, were
begun in 1504 and completed in 1645, and long ranked among

the most remarkable in the peninsula. They are still well-
preserved and picturesque, with projecting bastions planted
with trees.

The city has a well-built and substantial appearance, its
chief attraction lying in the numerous churches, which belong
in the main to a well-marked basilican type, and present almost
too richly decorated exteriors, fine apsidal ends and quadrangular
campaniles, in some cases with battlemented summits, and
windows increasing in number as they ascend. In style they
are an imitation of the Pisan. It is remarkable that in the arcades
a pillar generally occupies the middle of the facade. The cathe-
dral of St Martin was begun in 1063 by Bishop Anselm (later
Pope Alexander II.); but the great apse with its tall columnar
arcades and the fine campanile are probably the only remnants
of the early edifice, the nave and transepts having been rebuilt
in the Gothic style in the i4th century, while the west front
was begun in 1204 by Guidetto (lately identified with Guido
Bigarelli of Como), and " consists of a vast portico of three
magnificent arches, and above them three ranges of open galleries
covered with all the devices of an exuberant fancy." The ground
plan is a Latin cross, the nave being 273 ft. in length and 84 ft.
in width, and the transepts 144 ft. in length. In the nave is a
little octagonal temple or chapel, which serves as a shrine for the
most precious of the relics of Lucca, a cedar- wood crucifix, carved,
according to the legend, by Nicodemus, and miraculously con-
veyed to Lucca in 782. The Sacred Countenance (Volto Santo),
as it is generally called, because the face of the Saviour is con-
sidered a true likeness, is only shown thrice a year. The chapel
was built in 1484 by Matteo Civitali, a local sculptor of the early
Renaissance (1436-1501); he was the only master of Tuscany
outside Florence who worked thoroughly in the Florentine style,
and his creations are among the most charming works of the
Renaissance. The cathedral contains several other works by
him — the tomb of P. da Noceto, the altar of S. Regulus and the
tomb of Ilaria del Carretto by Jacopo della Quercia of Siena
(described by Ruskin in Modern Painters, ii.), the earliest of his
extant works (1406), and one of the earliest decorative works of
the Renaissance. In one of the chapels is a fine Madonna by Fra
Bartolommeo; in the municipal picture gallery are a fine " God
the Father " and another Madonna by him; also some sculptures
by Civitali, and some good wood carving, including choir stalls.
In the cathedral choir is good stained glass of 1485. The church
of St Michael, founded in the 8th century, and built of marble
within and without, has a lofty and magnificent western fafade
(1188) — an architectural screen rising much above the roof of the
church. The interior is good but rather bare. The church of
St Martino at Arliano near Lucca belongs to the first half of the
8th century; it is of basilican plan (see G. T. Rivoira, Origini
dell' Architettura Lombarda, in. [Rome, 1901] 138). St Frediano
or Frigidian dates originally from the 7th century, but was built
in the Romanesque style in 1112-1147, though the interior,
originally with four aisles and nave, shows traces of the earliest
structure; the front occupies the site of the ancient apse; in one
of its chapels is the tomb of Santa Zita, patroness of servants
and of Lucca itself. In S. Francesco, a fine Gothic church, is
the tomb of Castruccio Castracane. San Giovanni (originally
of the 1 2th century), S. Cristoforo, San Romano (rebuilt in the
I7th century, by Vincenzo Buonamici), and Santa Maria Fori-
sportam (of the 1 2th century) also deserve mention.

Among the secular buildings are the old ducal palace, begun
in 1578 by Ammanati, and now the residence of the prefect
and seat of the provincial officers and the public picture gallery;
the early Renaissance Palazzo Pretorio, or former residence of
the podesta, now the seat of the civil and correctional courts;
the palace, erected in the isth century by a member of the
Guinigi family, of brick, in the Italian Gothic style, and now
serving as a poor-house; the 16th-century palace of the marquis
Guidiccioni, now used as a depository for the archives, the earliest
documents going back to A.D. 790. The Palazzo Mansi contains
a collection of Dutch pictures. There are several other fine
late 16th-century palaces. The principal market-place in the
city (Piazza del Mercato) has taken possession of the arena of the

LUCCA, BAGNI DI— LUCCHESINI

95

ancient amphitheatre, the outer arches of which can still be seen
in the surrounding buildings. The whole building, belonging
probably to the early Empire, measured 135 by 105 yds., and
the arena 87 J by 58 yds. The outline of the ancient theatre can
be traced in the Piazza delle Grazie,and some of its substructure
walls are preserved. The ancient forum was on the site of the
Piazza S. Michele in the centre of the town; remains of a small
public building or shrine were found not far off in 1906 (L. Pernier
in Notizie degli Scavi, 1906, p. 117). The rectangular disposition
of the streets in the centre of the town is a survival of Roman
times. Besides the academy of sciences, which dates from 1 584,
there are several institutions of the same kind — a royal philo-
mathic academy, a royal academy of arts and a public library
of 50,000 volumes. The archiepiscopal library and archives are
also important, while the treasury contains some fine goldsmith's
work, including the 14th-century Croce dei Pisani, made by the
Pisans for the cathedral.

The river Serchio affords water-power for numerous factories.
The most important industries are the manufacture of jute goods
(carried on at Ponte a Moriano in the Serchio valley, 6 m. N. of
Lucca), tobacco, silks and cottons. The silk manufacture, intro-
duced at Lucca about the close of the i ith century, and in the
early part of the i6th the means of subsistence for 30,000 of its
inhabitants, now gives employment (in reeling and throwing)
to only about 1500. The bulk of the population is engaged in
agriculture. The water supply is maintained by an aqueduct
built in 1823-1832 with 459 arches, from the Pisan mountains.

The ancient Luca, commanding the valley of the Serchio, is first
mentioned as the place to which Sempronius retired in 218 B.C.
before Hannibal; but there is some doubt as to the correctness
of Livy's statement, for, though there were continual wars with
the Ligurians, after this time, it is not mentioned again until we
are told that in 177 B.C. a Latin colony was founded there in
territory offered by the Pisans for the purpose.1 It must have
become a municipium by the lex Julia of 90 B.C., and it was here
that Julius Caesar in 56 B.C. held his famous conference with
Pompey and Crassus, Luca then being still in Liguria, not in
Etruria. A little later a colony was conducted hither by the
triumvirs or by Octavian; whether after Philippi or after Actium
is uncertain. In the Augustan division of Italy Luca was as-
signed to the 7th region (Etruria); it is little mentioned in the
imperial period except as a meeting-point of roads — to Florentia
(see CLODIA, VIA), Luna and Pisae. The road to Parma given
in the itineraries, according to some authorities, led by Luna
and the Cisa pass (the route taken by the modern railway from
Sarzana to Parma), according to others up the Serchio valley and
over the Sassalbo pass (O. Cuntz in Jahreshefte des oesterr. arch.
Instituts, 1904, 53). Though plundered and deprived of part of
its territory by Odoacer, Luca appears as an important city and
fortress at the time of Narses, who besieged it for three months
in A.D. 5 S3, and under the Lombards it was the residence of a
duke or marquis and had the privilege of a mint. The dukes
gradually extended their power over all Tuscany, but after the
death of the famous Matilda the city began to constitute itself an
independent community, and in 1160 it obtained from Welf VI.,
duke of Bavaria and marquis of Tuscany, the lordship of all the
country for 5 m. round, on payment of an annual tribute. In-
ternal discord afforded an opportunity to Uguccione della Fag-
giuola, with whom Dante spent some time there, to make himself
master of Lucca in 1314, but the Lucchesi expelled him two years
afterwards, and handed over their city to Castruccio Castracane,
under whose masterly tyranny it became " for a moment the
leading state of Italy," until his death in 1328 (his tomb is in
S. Francesco). Occupied by the troops of Louis of Bavaria, sold
to a rich Genoese Gherardino Spinola, seized by John, king of
Bohemia, pawned to the Rossi of Parma, by them ceded to
Martino della Scala of Verona, sold to the Florentines, surrendered
to the Pisans, nominally liberated by the emperor Charles IV.
and governed by his vicar, Lucca managed, at first as a demo-

1 Some confusion has arisen owing to the similarity of the names
Luca and Luna ; the theory of E. Bormann in Corp. Inscrip. Latin.
(Berlin, 1888), xi. 295 is here followed.

cracy, and after 1628 as an oligarchy, to maintain " its independ-
ence alongside of Venice and Genoa, and painted the word
Libertas on its banner till the French Revolution." In the begin-
ning of the i6th century one of its leading citizens, Francesco
Burlamacchi, made a noble attempt to give political cohesion to
Italy, but perished on the scaffold (1548); his statue by Ulisse
Cambi was erected on the Piazza. San Michele in 1863.' As a
principality formed in 1805 by Napoleon in favour of his sister
Elisa and her husband Bacchiocchi, Lucca was for a few years
wonderfully prosperous. It was occupied by the Neapolitans
in 1814; from 1816 to 1847 it was governed as a duchy by Maria
Luisa, queen of Etruria, and her son Charles Louis; and it after-
wards formed one of the divisions of Tuscany.

The bishops of Lucca, who can be traced back to 347, received
exceptional marks of distinction, such as the pallium in 1120,
and the archiepiscopal cross from Alexander II. In 1726
Benedict XIII. raised their see to the rank of an archbishopric,
without suffragans.

See A. Mazzarosa, Sloria di Lucca, (Lucca, 1833); E. Ridolfi,
L'Arte in Lucca studiata nella sua Catledrale (1882); Guidi di Lucca;
La Basilica di S. Michele in Foro in Lucca. i (T. As.)

LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly Bagno a
Corsena), a commune of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca,
containing a number of famous watering-places. Pop. (1901)
13,685. The springs are situated in the valley of the Lima,
a tributary of the Serchio; and the district is known in the
early history of Lucca as the Vicaria di Val di Lima. Ponte
Serraglio (16 m. N. of Lucca by rail) is the principal village
(pop. 1312), but there are warm springs and baths also at Villa,
Docce Bassi, Bagno Caldo, &c. The springs do not seem to have
been known to the Romans. Bagno a Corsena is first mentioned
in 1284 by Guidone de Corvaia, a Pisan historian (Muratori,
R.I.S. vol. xxii.). Fallopius, who gave them credit for the
cure of his own deafness, sounded their praises in 1569; and
they have been more or less in fashion since. The temperature
of the water varies from 98° to 130° Fahr.; in all cases it gives
off carbonic acid gas and contains lime, magnesium and sodium
products. In the village of Bagno Caldo there is a hospital
constructed largely at the expense of Nicholas Demidoff in
1826. In the valley of the Serchio, 3 m. below Ponte a Serraglio, is
the medieval Ponte del Diavolo (1322) with its lofty central arch.

LUCCEIUS, LUCIUS, Roman orator and historian, friend and
correspondent of Cicero. A man of considerable wealth and
literary tastes, he may be compared with Atticus. Disgusted
at his failure to become consul in 60, he retired from public
life, and devoted himself to writing a history of the Social and
Civil Wars. This was nearly completed, when Cicero earnestly
requested him to write a separate history of his (Cicero's) consul-
ship. Cicero had already sung his own praises in both Greek
and Latin, but thought that a panegyric by Lucceius, who had
taken considerable interest in the affairs of that critical period,
would have greater weight. Cicero offered to supply the material,
and hinted that Lucceius need not sacrifice laudation to accuracy.
Lucceius almost promised, but did not perform. Nothing
remains of any such work or of his history. In the civil war
he took the side of Pompey; but, having been pardoned by
Caesar, returned to Rome, where he lived in retirement until
his death. .

Cicero's Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser), especially Ad Fam. v. 12;
and Orelli, Onomasticon Tullianum.

LUCCHESINI, GIROLAMO (1751-1825), Prussian diplomatist,
was born at Lucca on the 7th of May 1751, the eldest son of
Marquis Lucchesini. In 1779 he went to Berlin where Frederick
the Great gave him a court appointment, making use of him
in his literary relations with Italy. Frederick William II.,
who recognized his gifts for diplomacy, sent him in 1787 to Rome
to obtain the papal sanction for the appointment of a coadjutor
to the bishop of Mainz, with a view to strengthening the German
Fttrstenbund. In 1788 he was sent to Warsaw, and brought
about a rapprochement with Prussia and a diminution of
Russian influence at Warsaw. He was accredited ambassador
to the king and republic of Poland on the I2th of April 1789.

96

LUCENA— LUCERNE

Frederick William was at that time intriguing with Turkey,
then at war with Austria and Russia. Lucchesini was to rouse
Polish feeling against Russia, and to secure for Prussia the
concourse of Poland in the event of war with Austria and Russia.
All his power of intrigue was needed in the conduct of these
hazardous negotiations, rendered more difficult by the fact that
Prussian policy excluded the existence of a strong Polish govern-
ment. A Prusso- Polish alliance was concluded in March 1790.
Lucchesini had been sent in January of that year to secure the
alliance of Saxony against Austria, and in September he was
sent to Sistova, where representatives of the chief European
powers were engaged in settling the terms of peace between
Austria and Turkey, which were finally agreed upon on the 4th
of August 1791. Before he returned to Warsaw the Polish
treaty of which he had been the chief author had become a dead
letter owing to the engagements made between Prussia and
Austria at Reichenbach in July 1790, and Prussia was already
contemplating the second partition of Poland. He was recalled
at the end of 1791, and in July 1792 he joined Frederick William
in the invasion of France. He was to be Prussian ambassador
in Paris when the allied forces should have reinstated the
authority of Louis XVI. He was opposed alike to the invasion
of France and the Austrian alliance, but his prepossessions
did not interfere with his skilful conduct of the negotiations
with Kellermann after the allies had been forced to retire by
Dumouriez's guns at Valmy, nor with his success in securing
the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt's assistance against France.
In 1793 he was appointed ambassador to Vienna, with the
ostensible object of securing financial assistance for the Rhenish
campaign. He accompanied Frederick William through the
Polish campaign of 1793-94, and in the autumn returned to
Vienna. His anti-Austrian bias made him extremely unpopular
with the Austrian court, which asked in vain for his recall in
1795. In 1797, after a visit to Italy in which he had an interview
with Napoleon at Bologna, these demands were renewed and
acceded to. In 1800 he was sent by Frederick William III.
on a special mission to Paris. Despatches in which he expressed
his distrust of Bonaparte's peaceful professions and his conviction
of the danger of the continuance of a neutral policy were inter-
cepted by the first consul, who sought his recall, but eventually
accepted him as regular ambassador (1802). He consistently
sought friendly relations between France and Prussia, but he
warned his government in 1806 of Napoleon's intention of
restoring Hanover to George III. and of Murat's aggressions in
Westphalia. He was superseded as ambassador in Paris in
September just before the outbreak of war. After the disaster
of Jena on the i4th of October he had an interview with Duroc
near Wittenberg to seek terms of peace. After two unsuccessful
attempts at negotiation, the first draft being refused by Napoleon,
the second by Frederick William, he joined the Prussian court
at Konigsberg only to learn that his services were no longer
required. He then joined the court of Elisa, grand duchess of
Tuscany, at Lucca and Florence, and after Napoleon's fall
devoted himself to writing. He died on the 2oth of October
1825.

He published in. 1819 three volumes, Suite cause et gli effetti delta
tonfederazione rhenana, at Florence, but revealed little that was not
already available in printed sources. His memoirs remained in MS.
His despatches are edited by Bailleu in Preussen und Frankreich
(Leipzig, 1887, Publikationen aus den preussischen Staatsarchiven).

LUCENA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova,
37 m. S.S.E. of Cordova, on the Madrid-Algeciras railway.
Pop. (1900) 21,179. Lucena is situated on the Cascajar, a minor
tributary of the Genii. The parish church dates from the
beginning of the i6th century. The chief industries are the
manufacture of matches, brandy, bronze lamps and pottery,
especially the large earthenware jars (linajas) used throughout
Spain for the storage of oil and wine, some of which hold more
than 300 gallons. There is considerable trade in agricultural
produce, and the horse fair is famous throughout Andalusia.
Lucena was taken from the Moors early in the i4th century;
it was in the attempt to recapture it that King Boabdil of
Granada was taken prisoner in 1483.

LUCERA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, 12! m.
W.N.W. by rail of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 16,962. It is situated
upon a lofty plateau, the highest point of which (823 ft.), pro-
jecting to the W., was the ancient citadel, and is occupied by
the well-preserved castle erected by Frederick II., and rebuilt
by Pierre d'Angicourt about 1280. The cathedral, originally
Romanesque, but restored after 1300 is in the Gothic style;
the fafade is good, and so is the ciborium. The interior was
restored in 1882. The town occupies the site of the ancient
Luceria, the key of the whole country. According to tradition
the temple of Minerva, founded by Diomede, contained the
Trojan Palladium, and the town struck numerous bronze coins;
but in history it is first heard of as on the Roman side in the
Samnite Wars (321 B.C.), and in 315 or 314 B.C. a Latin colony
was sent here. It is mentioned in subsequent military history,
and its position on the road from Beneventum, via Aecae (mod.
Troja) to Sipontum, gave it some importance. Its wool was
also renowned. It now contains no ancient remains above
ground, though several mosaic pavements have been found and
there are traces of the foundations of an amphitheatre outside
the town on the E. The town-hall contains a statue of Venus,
a mosaic and some inscriptions (but cf. Th. Mommsen's remarks
on the local neglect of antiquities in Corp. Inscr. Lot. ix. 75).
In 663 it was destroyed by Constans II., and was only restored
in 1223 by Frederick II., who transported 20,000 Saracens hither
from Sicily. They were at first allowed religious freedom, but
became Christians under compulsion in 1300. Up to 1806
Lucera was the capital of the provinces of Basilicata and
Molise. (T. As.)

LUCERNE (Ger. Luzern; Ital. Lucerna), one of the cantons
of central Switzerland. Its total area is 579-3 sq. m., of which
530-2 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering
120-4 sq. m., and vineyards -04 sq. m.). It contains no glaciers
or eternal snows, its highest points being the Brienzer Rothhorn
(7714 ft.) and Pilatus (6995 ft.), while the Rothstock summit
(5453 ft.) and the Kaltbad inn, both on the Rigi, are included
in the canton, the loftiest point of the Rigi range (the Kulm)
being entirely in Schwyz. The shape of the canton is an irregular
quadrilateral, due to the gradual acquisition of rural districts
by the town, which is its historical centre. The northern portion,
about 155 sq. m., of the Lake of Lucerne is in the canton. Its
chief river is the Reuss, which flows through it for a short distance
only receiving the Kleine Emme that flows down through the
Entlebuch. In the northern part the Wigger, the Suhr and the
Wynen streams flow through shallow valleys, separated by low
hills. The canton is fairly well supplied with railways. The lakes
of Sempach and Baldegg are wholly within the canton, which
also takes in small portions of those of Hallwil and of Zug.

In 1900 the population numbered 146,519, of which 143,337
were German-speaking, 2204 Italian-speaking and 747 French-
speaking, while 134,020 were Romanists, 12,085 Protestants
and 319 Jews. Its capital is Lucerne (q.v.); the other towns
are Kriens (pop. 5951), Willisau (4131), Ruswil (3928), Littau
(3699), Emmen (3162) and Escholzmatt (3127). The peasants
are a fine race, and outside the chief centres for foreign visitors
have retained much of their primitive simplicity of manners
and many local costumes. In the Entlebuch particularly the
men are of a robust type, and are much devoted to wrestling
and other athletic exercises. That district is mainly pastoral
and is famous for its butter and cheese. Elsewhere in the canton
the pastoral industry (including swine-breeding) is more extended
than agriculture, while chiefly in and around Lucerne there are
a number of industrial establishments. The Industrie des etr angers
is greatly developed in places frequented by foreign visitors.
The population as a whole is Conservative in politics and
devotedly Romanist in religion. But owing to the settlement of
many non-Lucerne hotel-keepers and their servants in the
town of Lucerne the capital is politically Radical.

The canton ranks officially third in the Swiss confederation
next after Zurich and Bern. It was formerly in the diocese of
Constance, and is now in that of Basel. It contains 5 adminis-
trative districts and 107 communes. The existing cantonal

LUCERNE— LUCERNE, LAKE OF

97

constitution dates in its main features from 1875. The legislature
or Grossrath consists of members elected in 55 electoral circles,
in the proportion of i to every 1000 souls (or fraction over 500)
of the Swiss population, and lasts for 4 years. On the 4th of
April 1909 proportional representation was adopted for elections
of members of the Grossrath. Since 1905 the executive of 7
members is elected by a popular vote for 4 years, as are the 2
members of the federal Standerath and the 7 members of the
federal N ' ationalrath. Five thousand citizens ' can demand a
facultative referendum as to all legislative projects and important
financial decrees, or as to the revision of the cantonal constitution,
while the same number can also revoke the mandate of the
cantonal legislature before its proper term of office has ended,
though this revocation does not affect the executive. Four
thousand citizens have the right of " initiative " as to constitu-
tional amendments or legislative projects.

The canton is composed of the various districts which the town
acquired, the dates being those at which the particular region
was finally secured — Weggis (1380), Rothenburg, Kriens, Horw,
Sempach and Hochdorf (all in 1394), Wolhusen and the Entlebuch
(1405), the so-called " Habsburger region " to the N.E. of the
town of Lucerne (1406), Willisau (1407), Sursee and Beromunster
(1415), Mailers (1477) and Littau (1481), while in 1803, in
exchange for Hitzkirch, Merenschwand (held since 1397) was
given up. (W. A. B. C.)

LUCERNE, the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name.
It is one of the principal tourist centres of Switzerland, being
situated on the St Gotthard railway line, by which it is 59 m.
from Basel and 180 m. from Milan. Its prosperity has always
been bound up with the St Gotthard Pass, so that the successive
improvements effected on that route (mule path in the I3th
century, carriage road 1820-1830, and railway tunnel in 1882)
have had much effect on its growth. It is beautifully situated
on the banks of the river Reuss, just as it issues from the Lake
of Lucerne, while to the south-west rises the rugged range of
Pilatus, balanced on the east by the more smiling ridge of the
Rigi and the calm waters of the lake. The town itself is very
picturesque. On the rising ground to its north still stand nine
of the towers that defended the old town wall on the Musegg
slope. The Reuss is still crossed by two quaint old wooden
bridges, the upper being the Kapellbriicke (adorned by many
paintings illustrating the history of Switzerland and the town
and clinging to the massive Wasserthurm) and the lower the
Miihlenbriicke (also with paintings, this time of the Dance of
Death). The old Hofbriicke (on the site of the Schweizerhof
quay) was removed in 1852, when the process of embanking
the shore of the lake began, the result being a splendid series
of quays, along which rise palatial hotels. The principal building
is the twin-towered Hofkirche (dedicated toStLegeror Leodegar)
which, though in its present form it dates only from 1633-1635,
was the centre round which the town gradually gathered;
originally it formed part of a Benedictine monastery, but since
1455 has been held by a college of secular canons. It has a fine
17th-century organ. The 16th-century town-hall (Rathhaus)
now houses the cantonal museum of antiquities of all dates.
Both the cantonal and the town libraries are rich in old books,
the latter being now specially devoted to works (MS. or printed)
relating to Swiss history before 1848. The Lion monument,
designed by Thorwaldsen, dedicated in 1821, and consisting of
a dying lion hewn out of the living sandstone, commemorates
the officers and men of the Swiss Guard (26 officers and about
760 men) who were slain while defending the Tuileries in Paris
in 1792, and is reflected in a clear pool at its foot. In the im-
mediate neighbourhood is the Glacier Garden, a series of potholes
worn in the sandstone rock bed of an ancient glacier. Among
modern buildings are the railway station, the post office and the
Museum of War and Peace, all in the new quarter on the left
bank of the Reuss. In the interior of the town are many quaint
old private houses. In 1799 the population numbered but 4337,
but had doubled by 1840. Since then the rise has been rapid
and continuous, being 29,255 in 1900. The vast majority are
German-speaking (in 1900 there were 1242 Italian-speaking and

529 French-speaking persons) and Romanists (in 1900 there
were 4933 Protestants and 299 Jews).

The nucleus of the town was a Benedictine monastery, founded
ab out 7 50 on the right bank of the Reuss by the abbey of Murbach
in Alsace, of which it long remained a " cell." It is first men-
tioned in a charter of 840 under the name of " Luciaria," which
is probably derived from that of the patron saint of the monastery,
St Leger or Leodegar (in O. Ger. Leudegar or Lutgar) — the form
" Lucerrun " is first found in 1252. Under the shadow of this
monastery there grew up a small village. The germs of a
municipal constitution appear in 1252, while the growing power
of the Habsburgs in the neighbourhood weakened the ties that
bound Lucerne to Murbach. In 1291 the Habsburgs finally pur-
chased Lucerne from Murbach, an act that led a few weeks later
to the foundation of the Swiss Confederation, of which Lucerne
became the fourth member (the first town to be included) in 1332.
But it did not get rid of all traces of Habsburg domination till
after the glorious victory of Sempach (1386). That victory led
also to the gradual acquisition of territory ruled by and from
the town. At the time of the Reformation Lucerne clave to the
old faith, of which ever since it has been the great stronghold
in Switzerland. The papal nuncio resided here from 1601 to 1873.
In the i6th century, as elsewhere in Switzerland, the town
government fell into the hands of an aristocratic oligarchy,
whose power, though shaken by the great peasant revolt (1653)
in the Entlebuch, lasted till 1798. Under the Helvetic republic
(1798-1803) Lucerne was the seat of the central government,
under the Act of Mediation (1803-1814) one of the six " Direc-
torial " cantons and from 1815 to 1848 one of the three ruling
cantons. The patrician government was swept away by the
cantonal constitution of 1831. But in 1841 the Conservatives
regained power, called in the Jesuits (1844) and so brought
about the Sonderbund War (1847) in which they were defeated,
the decisive battle taking place at Gisikon, not far from Lucerne.
Since 1848 Lucerne has been in disfavour with the Radicals who
control the federal government, and has not been chosen as the
site of any great federal institution. The Radicals lost power
in the canton in 1871, after which date the Conservatives became
predominant in the canton, though in the town the Radicals
were in the majority.

See J. J. Blumer, Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demo-
kratien (3 vols., St Gall, 1850-1859); A. L. Gassmann, Das Volkslied
im Luzerner Wiggerthal u. Hinterland (Basel, 1906) ; Geschichtsfreund
(organ of the Historical Society of the Forest Cantons) from 1843.
A. von Liebenau, CharakterbUder aus Luzern's Vergangenheit (2 vols.,
Lucerne, 1884-1801); T. von Liebenau, Das alte Luzern (Lucerne,
1881) and " Der luzernische Bauernkrieg vom 1653 " (3 articles in
vols. xviii.-xx., 1893-1895, of the Jahrbuch f. Schweizerische Ge-
schichte); Heimathkunde fur den Kanton Luzern (6 vols., Lucerne,
1867-1883); A. Ltttolf, Sagen, Brauche, Legenden aus d. Funf Orten
(Lucerne, 1862); K. Pfyffer, Der Kanton Luzern (2 vols., 1858-
1859) and Geschichte d. Stadt u. Kanton Luzern (2 vols., new ed.,
1861); A. P. von Segesser, Rechtsgeschichte d. Stadt u. Republik
Luzern (4 vols., 1850-1858) and 45 Jahre (1841-1887) im Luzernischen
Staatsdienst (Bern, 1887); J. Sowerby, The Forest Cantons of
Switzerland (London, 1892).. (W. A. B. C.)

LUCERNE, LAKE OF, the name .usually given by foreigners
to the principal lake of Central Switzerland. In French it is
called the Lac des Quatre Cantons, and in German the Vierwald-
stdltersee, this term being often wrongly translated " Lake of the
Four Forest Cantons," whereas it means the " Lake of the Four
Valleys " — voiles — which form the four Cantons of Lucerne,
Unterwalden, Uri and Schwyz. It takes its name from the town
of Lucerne, which is situated at its west end, just where the Reuss
issues from the lake, after having entered it at Fliielen at the east
end and so practically formed it; the Muota enters the lake
at Brunnen (northern shore) and the two mountain streams
called the Engelberg and the Sarnen Aa at Buochs and Alpnach-
stad respectively (S.). The lake is generally supposed to be, on
the whole, the most beautiful in Switzerland. This is partly
due to the steep limestone mountains between which it lies,
the best known being the Rigi (5006 ft.) to the N., and Pilatus
(6995 ft.) to the S.W., and to the great promontories that thrust
themselves into its waters, such as those of Horw (S.), of Biirgen-
stock (S.), of Meggenhorn (N.) and of Seelisberg (S.), and partly

xvn. 4

98

LUCERNE— LUCHAIRE

to the irregularity of its shape. It is, in fact, composed of four
main basins (with two side basins), which represent four different
valleys, orographically distinct, and connected only by narrow
and tortuous channels. There is, first, the most easterly basin,
the Bay of Uri, extending from Fliielen on the south to Brunnen
on the north. At Brunnen the great delta of the Muota forces the
lake to the west, so that it forms the Bay of Gersau or the Gulf
of Buochs, extending from the promontory of Seelisberg (E.)
to that of the Biirgenstock (W.). Another narrow strait between
the two " Noses " (Nasen) leads westwards to the Basin of Weggis,
enclosed between the Rigi (N.) and the Biirgenstock promontory
(S.). This last named bay forms the eastern arm of what is called
the Cross of Lucerne, the western arm of which is formed by the
Bay of Lucerne, while the northern arm is the Bay of Kiissnacht
and the southern that of Hergiswil, prolonged S.W. by the
Bay of Alpnach, with which it is joined by a very narrow channel,
spanned by the Acher iron bridge. The Bay of Uri offers the
sternest scenery, but is the most interesting, by reason of its
connexion with early Swiss history — at Brunnen the Everlasting
League of 1315 was really made, while the legendary place of
meeting of the founders of Swiss freedom was the meadow of the
Riitli on the west (purchased by the Confederation in 1859),
and the site of Tell's leap is marked by the Chapel of Tell (E.).
Nearly opposite Brunnen, close to the west shore, an isolated
rock (the Schillerstein or Mythensteiri) now bears an inscription
in honour of Friedrich Schiller, the author of the famous play of
William Tell (1804). In the Bay of Gersau the most interesting
spot is the village of Gersau (N.), which formed an independent
republic from 1390 to 1798, but in 1818 was finally united to the
canton of Schwyz. In the next basin to the west is Weggis (N.),
also for long in the middle ages a small independent state;
to the S.E. of Weggis, on the north shore of the lake, is Vitznau,
whence a rack railway (1871) leads up to the top of the Rigi
(41 m.), while S.W. of Weggis, on the south shore of the lake,
is Kehrsiten, whence an electric railway leads up to the great
hotels on the Biirgenstock promontory (2854 ft.). The town
of Lucerne is connected with Fliielen by the main line of the
St Gotthard railway (32 m.), though only portions of this line
(from Lucerne to Kiissnacht, 105 m., and from Brunnen to
Fliielen, 7 m.) run along the shore; Brunnen is also connected
with Fliielen by the splendid carriage road known as the Axen-
strasse (7! m.)and is the starting-point of an electric line (1905)
up to Morschach (S.E.) and the great hotels of Axenstein and
Axenfels near it. On the promontory between Lucerne and
Kiissnacht stands the castle of New Habsburg (modern), while
from Kussnacht a carriage road leads through the remains of the
" Hollow Way " (Hohle Gasse), the scene of the legendary murder
of Gessler by William Tell. The west shore of the southern arm,
or the basin of Hergiswil and the Bay of Alpnach, is traversed
from Horw to Alpnachstad by the Brttnig railway (5^ m.), which
continues towards Sarnen (Obwalden) and the Bernese Oberland,
S.W. from Alpnachstad, whence a rack railway leads N.W. up
Pilatus (2! m.). Opposite Hergiswil, but on the east shore of
the Basin of Hergiswil, is Stanstad, the port of Stans (Nidwalden),
which is connected by an electric line with Engelberg (14 m.).
The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1835. Lucerne is the
only town of importance, but several spots serve as ports for
neighbouring towns or large villages (Brunnen for Schwyz,
Fliielen for Altdorf, Stanstad for Stans, Alpnachstad for Sarnen).
Most of the villages on the shores are frequented in summer by
visitors (Gersau also in winter), especially Hertenstein, Weggis,
Gersau, Brunnen, Beckenried and Hergiswil, while great hotels,
commanding magnificent views, have been built on heights above
it, such as the Biirgenstock, Seelisberg, and near Morschach,
above Brunnen, besides those on the Rigi, Pilatus and the
Stanserhorn. The area of the lake is about 44? sq. m., its length
about 24 m., its greatest width only 2 m. and its greatest depth
702 ft., while the surface of the water is 1434 ft. above sea-level.
Of the total area about 155 sq. m. are in the Canton of Lucerne,
13 sq. m. in that of Nidwalden, 7^ sq. m. in that of Uri,
7! sq. m. in that of Schwyz, and about i sq. m. in that of
Obwalden. (W. A. B. C.)

LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK or ALFALFA, known botanically
as Medicago saliva, a plant of the natural order Leguminosae.
In England it is still commonly called " lucerne," but in America
" alfalfa," an Arabic term ("the best fodder "), which, owing to
its increasing cultivation in the western hemisphere, has come
into widening usage since the introduction of the plant by the
Spaniards. It is an erect perennial herb with a branched hollow
stem i to 2 ft. high, trifoliolate leaves, short dense racemes of
small yellow, blue or purple flowers, and downy pods coiled
two or three times in a loose
spiral. It has a characteristic
long tap-root, often extending 15
ft. or more into the soil. It is
a native of the eastern Mediter-
ranean region, but was intro-
duced into Italy in the ist
century A.D., and has become
more widely naturalized in
Europe; it occurs wild in hedges
and fields in Britain, where it
was first cultivated about 1650.
It seems to have been taken
from Spain to Mexico and South
America in the i6th century,
but the extension of its cultiva-
tion in the Western States of
the American Union practically
dates from the middle of the
1 9th century, and in Argentina
its development as a staple crop
is more recent. It is much culti-
vated as a forage crop in France
and other parts of the continent
of Europe, but has not come
into such general use in Britain,
where, however, it is frequently
met with in small patches in
districts where the soil is very
light, with a dry subsoil. Its Lucerne (Medicago saliva), J nat.
thick tap-roots penetrate very s'ze-

deeply into the soil; and if a J; %S3£%3fi«t. size,
good cover is once obtained, the 3i Fruit, enlarged,
plants will yield abundant cut-
tings of herbage for eight or ten years, provided they are properly
top-dressed and kept free from perennial weeds. The time to
cut it is, as with clover and sainfoin, when it is in early flower.

In the United States alfalfa has become the staple leguminous
forage crop throughout the western half of the country. Some
idea of the increase in its cultivation may be obtained from the
figures for Kansas, where in 1891 alfalfa was cultivated over
34,384 acres, while in 1907 the number was 743,050. The pro-
gress of irrigation has been an important factor in many districts.
The plant requires a well-drained soil (deep and permeable
as possible), rich in lime and reasonably free from weeds.

See, for practical directions as to cultivation, Farmers' Bulletin
339 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, by J. M. Westgate
(Washington, December 1908).

LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE (1846-1908), French
historian, was born in Paris on the 24th of October 1846. In
1879 he became a professor at Bordeaux and in 1889 professor
of medieval history at the Sorbonne; in 1895 he became a
member of the Academic des sciences morales et poliliques, where
he obtained the Jean Reynaud prize just before his death on the
i4th of November 1908. The most important of Achille
Luchaire's earlier works is his Histoire des institutions monarchiques
de la France sous les premiers Capetiens (1883 and again 1891);
he also wrote a Manuel des institutions franc.aises: periode des
Capetiens directs (1892); Louis VI. le Gros, annales de sa vie
et de son regne (1890); and Etude sur les actes de Louis VII.
(1885). His later writings deal mainly with the history of
the papacy, and took the form of an elaborate work on Pope
Innocent III. This is divided into six parts: (i.) Rome et Italie

LUCHU ARCHIPELAGO

99

(1904); (ii.) La Croisade des Albigeois (1905); (iii.) La Papaute et
I 'empire (1905); (iv.) La Question a Orient (1906); (v.) Les
Royautes vassales du Saint-Siege (1908); and (vi.) Le Conctte de
Latran et la rtforme de l'£glise (1908). He wrote two of the
earlier volumes of E. Lavisse's Histoire de France.

LUCHU ARCHIPELAGO (called also RIUKIU, LOO-CHOO and
LIUKIU), a long chain of islands belonging to Japan, stretching
from a point 80 m. S. of Kiushiu to a point 73 m. from the N.E.
coast of Formosa, and lying between 24° and 30° N. and 123°
and 130° E. Japanese cartographers reckon the Luchu islands
as 55, having a total coast-line of 768 m., an area of 935 sq. m.,
and a population of about 455,000. They divide them into
three main groups, of which the northern is called Oshima-
shoto; the central, Okinawa-gunto; and the southern, Saki-
shima-retto. The terms shoto, gunto and retto signify " archi-
pelago," "cluster of islands " and "string of islands" respectively.
The last-named group is subdivided into Miyako-gunto and
Yayeyama-gunto. The principal islands of these various
groups are : —

Oshima-shoto —

Amami-Oshima . . . . 34 m. long and 17 m. broad
Tokuno-shima . . . . 16 „ 8J „

Okinawa-gunto —
Okinawa-shima(GreatLuchu)63^ m. long and 14^ m. broad

Kume-shima 9f „ 7! „

Okinoerabu-shima . . . 9i „ 5 „

Ihiya-shima 5 „ 2§ „

Miyako-gunto —
Miyako-shima .... 12} m. long and 12 m. broad

Erabu-shima 4! ,, 3! „

Yayeyama-gunto—

Ishigaki-shima .... 243 m. long and 144 m. broad
Iriomoto-shima .... I4i „ 14 „

Yonakuni-shima . • • 7i » 3i ,,

The remaining islands of the archipelago are of very small
size, although often thickly populated. Almost at the extreme
north of the chain are two islands with active volcanoes:
Nakano-shima (3485 ft.) and Suwanose-shima (2697 ft.), but
the remaining members of the group give no volcanic indica-
tions, and the only other mountain of any size is Yuwan-dake
(2299 ft.) in Amami-Oshima. The islands " are composed chiefly
of Palaeozoic rocks — limestones and quartzites found in the west,
and clay, slate, sandstone and pyroxenite or amphibolite on
the east. . . . Pre-Tertiary rocks have been erupted through
these. The outer sedimentary zone is of Tertiary rocks."1
The capital is Shuri in Okinawa, an old-fashioned place with a
picturesque castle. The more modern town of Nafa, on the same
island, possesses the principal harbour and has considerable
trade.

The scenery of Luchu is unlike that of Japan. Though so close
to the tropics, the islands cannot be said to present tropical features:
the bamboo is rare; there is no high grass or tangled undergrowth;
open plains are numerous; the trees are not crowded together;
lakes are wanting; the rivers are insignificant; and an unusual
aspect is imparted to the scenery by numerous coral crags. The
temperature in Nafa ranges from a mean of 82° F. in July to 60° in
January. The climate is generally (though not in all the islands)
pleasant and healthy, in spite of much moisture, the rainfall being
very heavy.

The fauna includes wild boars and deer, rats and bats. Excellent
small ponies are kept, together with cattle, pigs and goats. The
majority of the islands are infested with venomous snakes called
habu (Trimeresurus), which attain a length of 6 to 7 ft. and a diameter
of from 2j to 3 in. Their bite generally causes speedy death, and in
the island of Amami-Oshima they claim many victims every year.
The most important cultivated plant is the sugar-cane, which provides
the principal staple of trade.

Luchu is noted for the production of particularly durable vermilion-
coloured lacquer, which is much esteemed for table utensils in Japan.
The islands also manufacture certain fabrics which are considered a
speciality. These are Riukiu-tsumugi, a kind of fine pongee; the so-
called Satsuma-gasuri, a cotton fabric greatly used for summer wear;
basho-fu, or banana-cloth (called also aka-basho), which is woven
from the fibre of a species of banana; and hoso-jofu, a particularly
fine hempen stuff, made in Miyako-shima, and demanding such

1 Note in Geographical Journal, xx., on S. Yoshiwara, " Raised
Coral Reefs in the Islands of the Riukiu Curve," in Journ. Coll. of
Science, Imp. Univ., Tokyo (1901).

difficult processes that six months are required to weave and dye a
piece gj yds. long.

People. — Although the upper classes in Luchu and Japan closely
resemble each other, there are palpable differences between the lower
classes, the Luchuans being shorter and better proportioned than
the Japanese; having higher foreheads, eyes not so deeply set, faces
less flattened, arched and thick eyebrows, better noses, less marked
cheek-bones and much greater hairiness. The last characteristic has
been attributed to the presence of Ainu blood, and has suggested a
theory that when the Japanese race entered south-western Japan
from Korea, they drove the Ainu northwards and southwards, one
portion of the latter finding their way to Luchu, the other to Yezo.
Women of the upper class never appea- in public in Luchu, and are
not even alluded to in conversation, but women of the lower orders
go about freely with uncovered faces. The Luchu costume resembles
that of Japan, the only marked difference being that the men use
two hairpins, made of gold, silver, pewter or wood, according to the
rank of the wearer. Men shave their faces until the age of twenty-
five, after which moustache and beard are allowed to grow, though the
cheeks are kept free from hair. Their burial customs are peculiar
and elaborate, and their large sepulchres, generally mitre-shaped,
and scattered all over the country, according to Chinese fashion,
form a striking feature of the landscape. The marriage customs are
also remarkable. Preliminaries are negotiated by a middleman, as
in China and Japan, and the subsequent procedure extends over
several days. The chief staple of the people's diet is the sweet
potato, and pork is the principal luxury. An ancient law, still in
force, requires each family to keep four pigs. In times of scarcity a
species of sago (obtained from the Cycas revoluta) is eaten. There is a
remarkable absence of religious influence in Luchu. Places of worship
are few, and the only function discharged by Buddhist priests seems
to be to officiate at funerals. The people are distinguished by gentle-
ness, courtesy and docility, as well as by marked avoidance of crime.
With the exception of petty thefts, their Japanese administrators find
nothing to punish, and for nearly three centuries no such thing
as a lethal weapon has been known in Luchu. Professor Chamber-
lain states that the Luchuan language resembles the Japanese in
about the same 'degree as Italian resembles French, and says that
they are sister tongues, many words being identical, others differing
only by letter changes which follow certain fixed analogies, and
sentences in the one being capable of translation into the other word
for word, almost syllable for syllable.

History. — Tinsunshi," Grandson of Heaven," is the mythical
founder of the Luchu monarchy. Towards the close of the 1 2th
century his descendants were driven from the throne by rebellion,
but the old national party soon found a victorious leader in
Shunten, son of Tametomo, a member of the famous Minamoto
family, who, having been expelled from Japan, had come to
Luchu and married there. The introduction of the arts of reading
and writing are assigned to Shunten's reign. Chinese invasions
of Luchu may be traced back to A.D. 605, but they did not result
in annexation; and it was in 1372 that China first obtained from
the Luchuans recognition of supremacy. Luchuan relations
with Japan had long been friendly, but at the end of the i6th
century the king refused Japan assistance against Korea, and in
1609 the prince ofSatsuma invaded the islands with 3000 men,
took the capital by storm> captured the king and carried him off
to Kagoshima. A few years later he was restored to his throne
on condition of acknowledging Japanese suzerainty and paying
tribute. The Luchuans nevertheless continued to pay tribute
to China also.

The Chinese government, however, though taking a benevolent
interest in the welfare of the islanders, never attempted to bring
them under military sway. The incongruity of this state of
affairs did not force itself upon Japan's attention so long as her
own empire was divided into a number of semi-independent
principalities. But in 1879 the Japanese government, treating
Luchu as an integral part of the mikado's dominions, dethroned
its prince, pensioned him as the other feudal chiefs had been
pensioned, and converted Luchu into a prefecture under the name
of Okinawa. This name signifies " extended rope," and alludes
to the attenuated nature of the archipelago. China remonstrat-
ing, a conference was held in Peking, when plenipotentiaries of
the two empires signed an agreement to the «ffect that the
archipelago should be divided equally between the claimants.
The Chinese government, however, refused to ratify this com-
promise, and the Japanese continued their measures for the
effective administration of all the islands. Ultimately (1895)
Formosa also came into Japan's possession, and her title to the
whole chain of islands ceased to be disputed.

IOO

LUCIA— LUClAN

Though Captain Broughton, of H.M.S. " Providence," was
wrecked on Miyako-shima and subsequently visited Nafa in
1797, it was not till the " Alceste " and "Lyra" expedition
in 1816-1817, under Captains Basil Hall and Murray Maxwell,
that detailed information was obtained about Luchu. The
people at that time showed a curious mixture of courtesy and
shyness. From 1844 efforts were made by both Catholic (French)
and Protestant missionaries to Christianize them, but though
hospitable they made it clear that these efforts were unwelcome.
Further visits were made by British vessels under Captain
Beechey (1826) and Sir Edward Belcher (1845). The American
expedition under Commodore M. C. Perry (1853) added largely
to knowledge of the islands, and concluded a treaty with the
Luchuan government.

See Basil Hall, Account of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast
of Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island (London, 1818); Comm.
M. C. Perry, Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron
to the China Seas and Japan, 1852-1854 (Washington, 1856);
B. H. Chamberlain, " The Luchu Islands and their Inhabitants," in
the Geographical Journal, vol. v. (1895) ; " Contributions to a Biblio-
graphy of Luchu," in Trans. Asiatic Soc. Japan, xxiv. (1896); C. S.
Leavenworth, " History of the Loo-choo Islands," Journ. China Br.
Royal Asiatic Soc. xxxvi. (1905).

LUCIA (or LUCY), ST, virgin and martyr of Syracuse, whose
name figures in the canon of the mass, and whose festival
is celebrated on the i3th of December. According to the legend,
she lived in the reign of Diocletian. Her mother, having been
miraculously cured of an illness at the sepulchre of St Agatha
in Catania, was persuaded by Lucia to distribute all her wealth
to the poor. The youth to whom the daughter had been betrothed
forthwith denounced her to Pascasius, the prefect, who ordered
that she should be taken away and subjected to shameful outrage.
But it was found that no force which could be applied was able
to move her from the spot on which she stood; even boiling oil
and burning pitch had no power to hurt her, until at last she was
slain with the sword. The most important documents concerning
St Lucy are the mention in the Marlyrologium Hieronymianum
and the ancient inscription discovered at Syracuse, in which
her festival is indicated. Many paintings represent her bearing
her eyes in her hand or on a salver. Some artists have even
represented her blind, but nothing in her Ada justifies this
representation. It is probable that it originated in a play upon
words (Lucia, from Lat. lux, light), just as St Clair is invoked
in cases of eye-disease.

See O. Caietanus, Vitae sanctorum Siculorum, i. 114-121 (Palermo,
1657); loannes de loanne, Acta sincera sanctae Luciae (Palermo,
1758); Analecta Bollandiana, xxii. 492; Cahier, Caracttristiques des
saints, i. 105 (Paris, 1867). (H. DE.)

LUCIAN(d. 312), Christian martyr, was born, like the famous,
heathen writer of the same name, at Samosata. His parents,
who were Christians, died when he was in his twelfth year.
In his youth he studied under Macarius of Edessa, and after
receiving baptism he adopted a strictly ascetic life, and devoted
himself with zeal to the continual study of scripture. Settling
at Antioch when Malchion was master of the Greek school he
became a presbyter, and, while supporting himself by his skill
as a rapid writer, became celebrated as a teacher, so that he is
regarded as the founder of the famous theological school of
Antioch. He did not escape suspicion of heresy, and is repre-
sented as the connecting link between Paul of Samosata and
Arius. Indeed, on the deposition of the former (A.D. 268) he
was excluded from ecclesiastical fellowship by three successive
bishops of Antioch, while Arius seems to have been among his
pupils (Theodoret, Hist. Eccl. i. 3, 4). He was, however, restored
before the outbreak of persecution, and the reputation won
by his high character and learning was confirmed by his courage-
ous martyrdom. He was carried to Nicomedia before Maximin
Daza, and persisting in his faith perished on the 7th of January
312, under torture and hunger, which he refused to satisfy with
food offered to idols. His defence is preserved by Rufinus
(ix. 6; on Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. ix. 9). His remains were
conveyed to Drepanum in Bithynia, and under Constantine
the town was founded anew in his honour with the name of
Helenopolis, and exempted from taxes by the emperor (A.D. 327)

(see Chron. Pasch., Bonn ed., p. 527). Here in 387, on the anni-
versary of his death, Chrysostom delivered the panegyrical
homily from which, with notices in Eusebius, Theodoret and the
other ecclesiastical historians, the life by Jerome ( Vir. III. cap.
77), but especially from the account by S. Metaphrastes (cited
at length in Bernhardy's notes to Suidas, s.v. voBfixi), the facts
above given are derived. See also, for the celebration of his day
in the Syriac churches, Wright, Cat. of Syr. MSS. p. 283.

Jerome says that Lucian wrote Libelli de fide and several letters,
but only a short fragment of one epistle remains (Chron. Pasch., ed.
Dindorf, i. 516). The authorship of a confession of faith ascribed to
Lucian and put forth at the semi-Arian synod of Antioch (A.D. 341)
is questioned. Lucian's most important literary labour was his
edition of the Greek Old Testament corrected by the Hebrew text,
which, according to Jerome (Adv. Ruf. ii. 77), was in current use
from Constantinople to Antioch. That the edition of Lucian is
represented by the text used by Chrysostom and Theodoret, as well
as by certain extant MSS., such as the Arundelian of the British
Museum, was proved by F. Field (Prol. ad Origenis Hexapla, cap. ix.).

Before the publication of Field's Hexapla, Lagarde had already
directed his attention to the Antiochian text (as that of Lucian may
be called) and ultimately published the first part (Genesis, 2 Esdras,
Esther) of a provisional reconstructed text. The distinguishing
marks of the Lucianic recension are thus summarized by S. R.
Driver, Notes on Heb. Text of Samuel, p. li. seq. : (i) The substitution
of synonyms for the words employed by the Septuagint; (2) the
occurrence of double renderings; (3) the occurrence of renderings
" which presuppose a Hebrew original self-evidently superior in the
passages concerned to the existing Massoretic text," a peculiarity
which makes it very important for the criticism of the Hebrew Bible.
From a statement of Jerome in his preface to the gospels it seems
probable that Lucian had also a share in fixing the Syrian recension
of the New Testament text, but of this it is impossible to speak with
certainty. He was associated in his work with the Hebraist
Dorotheus.

See, generally, A. Harnack's art. in Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk.
vol. xi., and for " remains " Routh, Rel. Sac. iv. 3-17. A full account
of his recension of the Septuagint is given in H. B. Swete's Introduc-
tion to the Old Testament in Greek, p. 81 sqq. ; and a good account of his
doctrinal position in the prolegomena to the volume on Athanasius
in the series of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (p. xxviii.) and
A. Harnack's History of Dogma, especially vol. iv.

LUCIAN [AouKtcuw] (c. A.D. 120-180), Greek satirist of the
Silver Age of Greek literature, was born at Samosata on the
Euphrates in northern Syria. He tells us in the Somnium or
Vita Luciani, i, that, his means being small, he was at first
apprenticed to his maternal uncle, a statuary, or rather sculptor
of the stone pillars called Hermae. Having made an unlucky
beginning by breaking a marble slab, and having been well
beaten for it, he absconded and returned home. Here he had
a dream or vision of two women, representing Statuary and
Literature. Both plead their cause at length, setting forth the
advantages and the prospects of their respective professions;
but the youth chooses liaiotLa, and decides to pursue learning.
For some time he seems to have made money as a prirup, following
the example of Demosthenes, on whose merits and patriotism
he expatiates in the dialogue Demoslhenis Encomium. He was
very familiar with the rival schools of philosophy, and he must
have well studied their teachings; but he lashes them all alike,
the Cynics, perhaps, being the chief object of his derision. Lucian
was not only a sceptic; he was a scoffer and a downright un-
believer. He felt that men's actions and conduct always fall
far short of their professions and therefore he concluded that the
professions themselves were worthless, and a mere guise to secure
popularity or respect. Of Christianity he shows some knowkdge,
and it must have been somewhat largely professed in Syria at
the close of the 2nd century.1 In the] Philopatris (q,v.), though
the dialogue so called is generally regarded as spurious, there
is a statement of the doctrine of the Trinity,2 and the " Galilaean
who had ascended to the third heaven " (12), and " renewed "
(6.v€Kalvt.o~fv) by the waters of baptism, may possibly allude
to St Paul. The doctrines of the Ao-yos and the " Light of the
world," and that God is in heaven making a record of the good

1 In the Alexander (25) we are told that the province of Pontus,
due north of Syria, was " full of Christians."

1 Philopatris, 12, inl/int&oira Qtiiv fiiyav HnlipoTov otopavlwva, vlAr
Harpits, nvevna in irorpis iKVopiv&ntvov, Iv in rpiwv Kal t£ ivds Tpla,
a passage which bears on the controverted procession "a Patre
Filioque."

LUCIAN

101

and bad actions of men,1 seem to have come from the same
source, though the notion of a written catalogue of human
actions to be used in judgment was familiar to Aeschylus and
Euripides.

As a satirist and a wit Lucian occupies in prose literature
the unique position which Aristophanes holds in Greek poetry.
But whether he is a mere satirist, who laughs while he lashes,
or a misanthrope, who hates while he derides, is not very clear.
In favour of the former view it may be said that the two main
objects of his ridicule are mythology and the sects of philosophy;
in favour of the latter, his bitter exposure of imposture and
chicanery in the Alexander, and the very severe attacks he
makes on the " humbug " of philosophy ,2 which he everywhere
assails with the most acrimonious and contemptuous epithets.

As a writer Lucian is fluent, easy and unaffected, and a close
follower of the best Attic models, such as Plato and the orators.
His style is simpler than Plutarch's, and some of his compositions,
especially the Dialogues of the Gods (pp. 204-287) and of the
Marine Deities (288-327), and, above all, the Dialogues of the
Dead (329-454), are models of witty, polished and accurate Greek
composition. Not less clever, though rather lax in morality,
are the traipiKoi 610X0701 (pp. 280-325), which remind us
somewhat of the letters of Alciphron. The sarcasms on the
popular mythology, the conversations of Pluto, Hermes, Charon
and others of the powers in Hades, show a positive disbelief
in any future state of existence. The model Lucian followed
in these dialogues, as well in the style as in the sparkling and
playful repartee, was the Platonic conversations, founded on the
drama, of which the dialogue may be called the prose repre-
sentative. Aristotle never adopted it, perhaps regarding it as
beneath the true dignity of philosophy. The dialogue, in fact,
was revived and improved by Lucian,* the old traditions of the
Xo7oirotoi and Xo7O7p<i</>oi, and, above all, the immense influence
of rhetoric as an art, having thrown some discredit on a style
of composition which, as introduced by Plato, had formed quite
a new era in Greek prose composition. For rhetoric loved to
talk, expatiate and declaim, while dialectic strove to refute
by the employment of question and answer, often in the briefest
form.

Lucian evinces a perfect mastery over a language as wonderful
in its inflections as in its immense and varied vocabulary; and
it is a well-merited praise of the author to say that to a good
Greek scholar the pages of Lucian are almost as easy and as enter-
taining as an English or French novel. It is true that he employs
some forms and compounds which were not in use in the time of
Plato or Demosthenes, and, as one who lived under Roman
rule, has a tendency towards Latinisms. But his own sentiments
on the propriety of diction are shown by his reproof to Lexiphanes,
" if anywhere you have picked up an out-of-the-way word, or
coined one which you think good, you labour to adapt the sense
of it, and think it a loss if you do not succeed in dragging it in
somewhere, even when it it not really wanted."

Lucian founded his style, or obtained his fluency, from the
successful study of rhetoric, by which he appears to have made
a good income from composing speeches which attracted much
attention. At a later period in life he seems to have held a
lucrative legal office in Egypt, which he retained till his death.

His extant works are so numerous that of some of the principal
only a short sketch can be given. More than 80 pieces have
come down to us under his name (including three collections
of 71 shorter dialogues), of which about 20 are spurious or of

1 Philopatris, 13. Aesch. Eum. 265, &e\Toyp&4xf 51 T&VT' Iru-ry.
<t>ptvl.

* In Hermotimns (51) Hermotimus says to Lycinus (who must be
assumed to represent Lucian himself), fi/3p«m)s &tl <ri, icoi obn oU'
S TI iraBwv juffets ^iXoffo^iaK not Is TOVS 4>i\oao<t>ouvTas diroffKanrreis.
In Icaromenippui (5; see also 29) he says he always guessed who
were the best physical philosophers " by their sour-faced looks, their
paleness of complexion and the length of their beards."

3 He says (speaking as 26pos in Bis accusatus, 34) that he found
dialogue somewhat out of repute from the too numerous questions
(i.e. employed by Plato), and brought it up to a more human and
natural standard, substituting banter and repartee for dialectic
quibbles and close logical reasoning.

doubtful authorship. To understand them aright we must
remember that the whole moral code, the entire " duty of man,"
was included, in the estimation of the pagan Greek, in the
various schools of philosophy. As these were generally rivals,
and the systems they taught were more or less directly antagon-
istic, truth presented itself to the inquirer, not as one, but as
manifold. The absurdity and the impossibility of this forms
the burden of all Lucian's writings. He could only form one
conclusion, viz. that there is no such thing as truth.

One of the best written and most amusing treatises of antiquity
is Lucian's True History, forming a rather long narrative in two
books, which suggested Swift's Gulliver's Travels, Rabelais's
Voyage of Pantagruel and Cyrano de Bergerac's Journey to
the Moon. It is composed, the author tells us in a brief intro-
duction, not only as a pastime and a diversion from severer
studies, but avowedly as a satire on the poets and logographers
who had written so many marvellous tales. He names Ctesias
and Homer; but Hellanicus and Herodotus, perhaps other
Xo7oirotot still earlier, appear to have been in his mind.4 The
only true statement in his History, he wittily says (p. 72), is that
it contains nothing but lies from beginning to end.

The main purport of the story is to describe a voyage to the
moon. He set out, he tells us, with fifty companions, in a well-
provisioned ship, from the " Pillars of Hercules," intending to
explore the western ocean. After eighty days' rough sailing they
came to an island on which they found a Greek inscription, " This
was the limit of the expedition of Heracles and Dionysus ";
and the visit of the wine-god seemed attested by some miraculous
vines which they found there. After leaving the island they
were suddenly carried up, ship and all, by a whirlwind into the
air, and on the eighth day came in sight of a great round island
shining with a bright light (p. 77), and lying a little above the
moon. In a short time they are arrested by a troop of gigantic
" horse-vultures " and brought as captives to the " man in the
moon," who proves to be Endymion. He is engaged in a war
with the inhabitants of the sun, which is ruled by King Phaethon,
the quarrel having arisen from an attempt to colonize the planet
Venus (Lucifer). The voyagers are enlisted as " Moonites,"
and a long description follows of the monsters and flying dragons
engaged in the contest. A fight ensues, in which the slaughter
is so great that the very clouds are tinged with red (p. 84). The
long description of the inhabitants of the moon is extremely
droll and original. After descending safely into the sea, the ship is
swallowed by a huge " sea serpent " more than 100 miles long.
The adventures during the long confinement in the creature's
belly are most amusing; but at last they sail out through the
chinks between the monster's teeth, and soon find themselves
at the " Fortunate Islands." Here they meet with the spirits
of heroes and philosophers of antiquity, on whom the author
expatiates 'at some length. The tale comes to an abrupt end
with an allusion to Herodotus in the promise that he " will tell
the rest in his next books."

Another curious and rather long treatise is entitled Aot/ooj ^
"Ovos, the authorship of which is regarded as doubtful. Parts
of the story are coarse enough; the point turns on one Lucius
visiting in a Thessalian family, in which the lady of the house
was a sorceress. Having seen her changed into a bird by anoint-
ing herself with some potent drug, he resolves to try a similar
experiment on himself, but finds that he has become an ass,
retaining, however, his human senses and memory. The mistake
arose from his having filched the wrong ointment; however, he
is assured by the attendant, Palaestra, that if he can but procure
roses to eat, his natural form will be restored. In the night a
party of bandits break into the house and carry off the stolen
goods into the mountains on the back of the unfortunate donkey,
who gets well beaten for stumbling on the rough road. Seeing,
as he fancies, some roses in a garden, he goes in quest of them,

4 He says (p. 127) that he saw punished in Hades, more severely
than any other sinners, writers of false narratives, among whom were
Ctesias of Cnidus and Herodotus. Yet in the short essay inscribed
Herodotus (p. 831), he wishes it were possible for him to imitate the
many excellencies of that writer.

102

LUCIAN

and again gets beaten as a thief by the gardener (p. 585). After
many adventures with the bandits, he attempts to run away,
but is caught. A council is held, and he is condemned to die
together with a captive, girl who had essayed to escape on his
back. Suddenly, however, soldiers appear, and the bandits
are arrested (p. 595). Again the ass escapes " to the great and
populous city of Beroea in Macedonia " (p. 603). Here he is sold
to a strolling conjurer, afterwards to a market-gardener; and
both experiences are alike painful. Again he passes into the
possession of a cook, where he gets fat and sleek on food more
suited to his concealed humanity than the hard fare he has of
late lived upon (p. 614). At last, during an exhibition in the
theatre, he sees some roses being carried past, and, making
a successful rush to devour them, he recovers his former shape.
" I am Lucius," he exclaims to the wondering president of the
exhibition, " and my brother's name is Caius. It was a Thes-
salian witch that changed me into a donkey." Thus all ends
well, and he returns safe to his country.

The treatise On the Syrian Goddess (Mylitta, the moon-goddess,
the Semitic Aphrodite) is written in the Ionic dialect in imita-
tion perhaps of the style of Herodotus, though the resemblance
is by no means close. The writer professes to be an Assyrian
(p. 452), and to describe the wonders in the various temples of
Palestine and Syria; he descanfs on the eunuchs of Syria and
the origin of the self-imposed privation of manhood professed
and practised by the Galli. The account of the temples, altars
and sacrifices is curious, if really authentic; after the manner
of Pausanias it is little more than a list, with the reasons in most
cases added, or the origin of the custom explained.

De Morte Peregrini is a narrative of one Proteus, a Cynic, who
after professing various doctrines, and among them those of
Christianity, ended his own life by ascending a burning pyre
(see PEREGRINUS PROTEUS).

Bis accusatus (" Twice Accused ") is a dialogue beginning
with a satire on the folly of the popular notion that the gods
alone are happy. Zeus is represented as disproving this by
enumerating the duties that fall to their lot in the government
of the world, and Hermes remarks on the vast crowds of philo-
sophers of rival sects, by whose influence the respect and worship
formerly paid to the gods have seriously declined. A trial is
supposed to be held under the presidency of the goddess AIKIJ,
between the Academy, the Porch, the schools of the Cynics and
Epicureans, and Pleasure, Revelry, Virtue, Luxury, &c., as
variously impugned or defended by them. Then Conversation
and Rhetoric come before the court, each having an action for
defamation to bring against Syrus the essayist, who of course is
Lucian himself (p.823). His defence is heard, and in both cases
he is triumphantly acquitted. This essay is brilliant from its
clever parodies of Plato and Demosthenes, and the satire on the
Socratic method of arguing by short questions and answers.

The Loner of Lying (^iXo^eM^s) discusses the reason why some
persons seem to take pleasure in falsehood for its own sake.
Under the category of lying all mythology (e.g. that of Homer
and Hesiod) is included, and the question is asked, why the
hearers of such stories are amused by them? Quack remedies,
charms and miraculous cures are included among the most
popular kinds of falsehood; witchcraft, spiritualism, exorcism,
expulsion of devils, spectres, are discussed in turn, and a good
ghost story is told in p. 57. An anecdote is given of Democritus,
who, to show his disbelief in ghosts, had shut himself up in a
tomb, and when some young men, dressed up with death's
heads, came to frighten him at night, he did not even look up,
but called out to them, " Stop your joking " (p. 59). This
treatise, a very interesting one, concludes with the reflection that
truth and sound reason are the only remedies for vain and
superstitious terrors.

The dialogue Navigium seu Vota ("The Ship or the Wishes ")
gives an apparently authentic account of the measurements and
fittings of an Egyptian ship which has arrived with a cargo of
corn at the Peiraeus, driven out of its course to Italy by adverse
winds. The full length is 180 ft., the breadth nearly 50, the
depth from deck to the bottom of the hold 43 ft. The " wishes "

turn on a party of friends, who have been to see the ship, declaring
what they would most desire to possess. One would have the
ship filled with gold, another a fine house with gold plate; a
third would be a " tyrant " with a large force devoted to his
interests; a fourth would like to make himself invisible, enter
any house that he pleased, and be transported through the air
to the objects of his affection. After hearing them all, the first
speaker, Lycinus (Lucian), says that he is content with the
privilege of laughing heartily at the vanity of human wishes,
especially when they are those of professed philosophers.

The dialogue between Philo and Lycinus, Convivium seu
Lapithae, is a very amusing description of a banquet, at which
a party of dignified philosophers quarrelled over their viands
at a marriage feast, and came to blows. The style is a good
imitation of Plato, and the scene reminds one of the " clients'
dinner " in the fifth satire of Juvenal. Matters come to a climax
by the attempt of one of the guests, Zenothemis, to secure for
himself a fatter fowl which had been served to his next neighbour
Hermon. Each seizes his bird and hits the other with it in the
face, at the same time pulling his beard. Then a general fight
ensues. The story is a satire on philosophy, the favourite topic
of a writer who believed neither in gods nor in men.

The Piscalor (" Fisherman "), a dialogue between Lucian,
Socrates, Pythagoras, Empedocles, Plato and others, commences
with a general attack on the author as the enemy of philosophy.
Socrates proposes that the culprit should be tried, and that
Philosophia should assist in the prosecution. Lucian declares
that he does not know where such a person lives, long as he has
been looking for her (n). She is found at last, but declares
Lucian has never disparaged her, but only impostors and pre-
tenders under her name (15). He makes a long defence (pp. 598-
606), abusing the philosophers in the sort of language in which
some schools of theologians abuse the monks of the middle ages
(34). The trial is held in the Acropolis of Athens, and the sham
philosophers, dreading a verdict against them, throw themselves
from the rock. A Cynic flings away his scrip in the hurry, and on
examination it is found to contain, not books or loaves of bread,
but gold coins, dice and fragrant essences (44). At the end Lucian
baits his hook with a fig and a gold coin, and catches gluttonous
strollers in the city while seated on the wall of the Acropolis.

The Voyage Home (KaTcnrXouj) opens with the complaint that
Charon's boat is kept waiting for Hermes, who soon appears
with his troop of ghosts. Among them is a rvpavvos, one Mega-
penthes, who, as his name is intended to express, mourns greatly
over the life he has just left. Amusing appeals are made by other
souls for leave to return to life, and even bribes are offered to the
presiding goddess of destiny, but Clotho is inexorable. The
moral of the piece is closely like that of the parable of Dives and
Lazarus: the rich and prosperous bewail their fate, while the
poor and afflicted find rest from their troubles, and have no desire
to return to them. The rvpavvos here is the man clothed in
purple and fine linen, and Lucian shows the same bitter dislike
of tyrants which Plato and the tragic writers display. The heavy
penalty is adjudged to Megapenthes that he may ever remember
in the other world the misdeeds done in life.

The Sales of Lives is an auction held by Zeus to see what price
the lives of philosophers of the rival sects will bring. A Pytha-
gorean, who speaks in the Ionic dialect, first undergoes an
examination as to what he can teach, and this contains an
enumeration of the doctrines usually ascribed to that sect,
including metempsychosis. He is valued at 75. 6d., and is suc-
ceeded by Diogenes, who avows himself the champion of truth,
a cosmopolitan (8), and the enemy of pleasure. Socrates brings
two talents, and is purchased by Dion, tyrant of Syracuse (19).
Chrysippus, who gives some specimens of his clever quibbles,1
is bought for fifty pounds, Aristotle for nearly a hundred, while
Pyrrho the sceptic (or one of his school), who professes to " know

1 E.g. " A stone is a body; a living creature is a body; you are a
living creature; therefore you are a stone." Again: " Is every^
body possessed of life? " No. " " Is a stone possessed of life? '
" No. ' " Are you a body ?" " Yes." " A living body ?"
" Yes." " Then, if a living body, you are not a stone."

LUCIFER

103

nothing," brings four pounds, " because he is dull and stupid and
has no more sense than a grub " (27). But the man raises a doubt,
" whether or not he has really been bought," and refuses to go
with the purchaser till he has fully considered the matter.

Timon is a very amusing and witty dialogue. The misanthrope,
once wealthy, has become a poor farm-labourer, and reproaches
Zeus for his indifference to the injustice of man. Zeus declares
that the noisy disputes in Attica have so disgusted him that he
has not been there for a long time (9). He tells Hermes to con-
duct Plutus to visit Timon, and see what can be done to help
him. Plutus, who at first refuses to go, is persuaded after a
long conversation with Hermes, and Timon is found by them
digging in his field (31). Poverty is unwilling to resign her
votary to wealth; and Timon himself is with difficulty per-
suaded to turn up with his mattock a crock of gold coins. Now
that he has once more become rich, his former flatterers come
cringing with their congratulations and respects, but they are
all driven off with broken heads or pelted with stones. Between
this dialogue and the Plutus of Aristophanes there are many
close resemblances.

Hermotimus (pp. 739-831) is one of the longer dialogues,
Hermotimus, a student of the Stoic philosophy for twenty years
(2), and Lucian (Lycinus) being the interlocutors. The long
time — forty years at the least — required for climbing up to the
temple of virtue and happiness, and the short span of life, if any,
left for the enjoyment of it, are discussed. That the greatest
philosophers do not always attain perfect indifference, the Stoic
ultimatum, is shown by the anecdote of one who dragged his pupii
into court to make him pay his fee (9), and again by a violent
quarrel with another at a banquet (n). Virtue is compared to a
city with just and good and contented inhabitants; but so
many offer themselves as guides to the right road to virtue that
the inquirer is bewildered (26). What is truth, and who are the
right teachers of it? The question is argued at length, and
illustrated by a peculiar custom of watching the pairs of athletes
and setting aside the reserved combatant (irdp«6pos) at the
Olympian games by the marks on the ballots (40-43). This, it
is argued, cannot be done till all the ballots have been examined ;
so a man cannot select the right way till he has tried all the ways
to virtue. But to know the doctrines of all the sects is impossible
in the term of a life (49). To take a taste of each, like trying a
sample of wine, will not do, because the doctrines taught are not,
like the crock of wine, the same throughout, but vary or advance
day by day (59). A suggestion is made (68) that the searcher
after truth should begin by taking lessons in the science of
discrimination, so as to be a good judge of truth before testing
the rival claims. But who is a good teacher of such a science ?
(70). The general conclusion is that philosophy is not worth the
pursuit. " If I ever again," says Hermotimus, " meet a philo-
sopher on the road, I will shun him, as I would a mad dog."

The Anacharsis is a dialogue between Solon and the Scythian
philosopher, who has come to Athens to learn the nature of the
Greek institutions. Seeing the young men performing athletic
exercises in the Lyceum, he expresses his surprise at such a waste
of energy. This gives Socrates an opportunity of descanting at
length on training as a discipline, and emulation as a motive for
excelling. Love of glory, Solon says, is one of the chief goods in
life. The argument is rather ingenious and well put; the style
reminds us of the minor essays of Xenophon.

The Alexander or False Prophet is the subject of a separate
article (see ALEXANDER the PAPHLAGONIAN).

These are the chief of Lucian's works. Many others, e.g.
Prometheus, Menippus, Life of Demonax, Toxaris, Zeus Tra-
goedus, The Dream or the Cock, Icaromenippus (an amusing
satire on the physical philosophers), are of considerable literary
value. (F. A. P.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Editio princeps (Florence, 1496); valuable
editions with notes by T. Hcmsterhuis and 1. F. Reitz (1743-1746,
with Lexicon Lucianeum by C. C. Reitz) and J. T. Lehmann (1822-
1831). Editions of the text by C. Jacobitz (1886-1888) and J.
Sommerbrodt (1886-1899). The scholia have been edited by H.
Rabe in the Teubner series (1906). There are numerous editions
of separate portions of Lucian's works and translations in most

European languages; amongst the latter may be mentioned the
German version by C. M. Wieland (1788), with valuable notes and
commentaries: English; one by several hands (1711), for which
Drydcn had previously written an unsatisfactory life of the author,
by T. Francklin (1780) and W. Tooke (1820): and French; of The
Ass, by P. L. Courier, with full bibliography by A. J. Ppns (1887),
and of the complete works by E. Talbot (1866) and Bclin de Ballu
(1789; revised ed. by L. Humbert, 1896). A complete modern
English translation, racy and colloquial, appeared in 1905, The Works
of Lucian of Samosata, by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler. On
Lucian generally, the best work is M. Croiset's Essai sur la vie el les
ceuvres de Lucien (1882); see also E. Egger, " Parallele de Lucien et
Voltaire," in Memoires de litterature ancienne (1862); C. Martha,
Les Moralistes sous I'empire remain (1866); H. W. L. Hime, Lucian,
the Syrian Satirist (1900); Sir R. C. Jebb, Essays and Addresses
(1907); " Lucian," by W. L. Collins in Blackwopd's Ancient Classics
for English Readers; the Prolegomena to editions of select works
with notes by Sommerbrodt ; and the exhaustive bibliography of the
earlier literature in Engelmann, Scriptores Graeci (1880). On some
special questions see E. Rohde, Uber Lucians Schrift Aofocto; fj "Ovot
(Leipzig, 1869); C. Buerger, De Lucio Patrensi (Berlin, 1887);
J. Bernays, Lucian und die Kyniker (Berlin, 1879) ; C. G. Jacob,
Characteristik Lucians von Samosata (Hamburg, 1832); C. F. Her-
mann, Charakteristik Lucians (Gottingen, 1849); P. M. Bolderman,
Studia Lucianea (Leiden, 1893); R. Helm, "Lucian und die
Philosophenschulen," in Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum
(1901), pp. 188, 263, 367.

LUCIFER (d. 370/1), bishop of Cagliari (hence called Cara-
litanus), an ardent supporter of the cause of Athanasius. After
the unfavourable result of the synod of Aries in 353 he volunteered
to endeavour to obtain a new and impartial council. He was
accordingly sent by Pope Liberius, with Pancratius the presbyter
and Hilarius the deacon, but could not prevent the condemnation
of Athanasius, which was renewed at Milan in 355. For his own
persistent adherence to the orthodox creed he was banished to
Germanicia in Commagene; he afterwards lived at Eleuther-
opolis in Palestine, and finally in the upper Thebaid. His exile
came to an end with the publication of Julian's edict in 362.
From 363 until his death in 371 he lived at Cagliari in a state of
voluntary separation from ecclesiastical fellowship with his
former friends Eusebius of Vercelli, Athanasius and the rest, on
account of their mild decision at the synod of Alexandria in
362 with reference to the treatment of those who had unwillingly
Arianized under the persecutions of Constantius. Lucifer was
hardly sufficiently educated to appreciate the real question at
issue, and the sect which he thus founded did not continue
long after his death. It is doubtful whether it ever formulated
any distinctive doctrine; certainly it developed none of any
importance. The memory of Lucifer is still cherished in Sardinia;
but, although popularly regarded there as a saint, he has never
been canonized.

The controversial writings of Lucifer, dating from his exile, are
chiefly remarkable for their passionate zeal, and for the boldness and
violence of the language addressed to the reigning emperor, whom
he did not scruple to call the enemy of God and a second Saul,
Ahab and Jeroboam. Their titles, in the most probable chrono-
logical order, are De non parcendis in Deum delinquentibus, De
regibus apostaticis, Ad Constantium Augustum pro Athanasio libri
»'»'., De non conveniendo cum haereticis and Moriendum esse pro
Filio Dei. Their quotations of Scripture are of considerable value to
the critical student of the Latin text before Jerome. They were
first collected and edited by Tilius (Paris, 1568); the best edition
is that of W. Hartel in the Vienna Corpus, Script. Eccl. Lat. (1886).
See also G. Kriiger, Lucifer Bischof von Cagliari und das Schisma der
Luciferianer (Leipzig, 1886); F. G. Kenyon, Textual Criticism,
pp. 181, 221.

LUCIFER (the Latinized form of Gr. <£o><7</>6pos, " light-
bearer "), the name given to the " morning star," i.e. the planet
Venus when it appears above the E. horizon before sunrise,
and sometimes also to the " evening star," i.e. the same planet in
the W. sky after sundown, more usually called Hesperus (q.v.).
The term " day star " (so rendered in the Revised Version)
was used poetically by Isaiah for the king of Babylon: " How
art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning!
how art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the
nations " (Is. xiv. 12, Authorized Version). The words ascribed
to Christ in Luke x. 18: "I beheld Satan as lightning fall from
heaven " (cf. Rev. ix. i), were interpreted by the Christian
Fathers as referring to the passage in Isaiah; whence, in
Christian theology, Lucifer came to be regarded as the name of

IO4

LUCILIUS

Satan before his fall. This idea finds its most magnificent
literary expression in Milton's Paradise Lost. In this sense the
name is most commonly associated with the familiar phrase
" as proud as Lucifer."

LUCILIUS, 6AIUS (c. 180-103 B.C.), the earliest Roman
satirist, of whose writings only fragments remain, was born
at Suessa Aurunca in Campania. The dates assigned by Jerome
for his birth and death are 148 and 103 or 102 B.C. But it is
impossible to reconcile the first of these dates with other facts
recorded of him, and the date given by Jerome must be due to an
error, the true date being about 180 B.C. We learn from Velleius
Paterculus that he served under Scipio at the siege of Numantia
in 134. We learn from Horace that he lived on the most intimate
terms of friendship with Scipio and Laelius, and that he cele-
brated the exploits and virtues of the former in his satires.
Fragments of those books of his satires which seem to have been
first given to the world (books xxvi.-xxix.) clearly indicate that
they were written in the lifetime of Scipio. Some of these bring
the poet before us as either corresponding with, or engaged in
controversial conversation with, his great friend. One line —

Percrepa pugnam Popilli, facta Cornell cane —
in which the defeat of M. Popillius Laenas, in 138, is contrasted
with the subsequent success of Scipio, bears the stamp of having
been written while the news of the capture of Numantia was still
fresh. It is in the highest degree improbable that Lucilius
served in the army at the age of fourteen; it is still more unlikely
that he could have been admitted into the familiar intimacy
of Scipio and Laelius at that age. It seems a moral impossibility
that between the age of fifteen and nineteen — i.e. between 133
and 129, the year of Scipio 's death — he could have come before
the world as the author of an entirely new kind of composition,
and one which, to be at all successful, demands especially
maturity of judgment and experience. It may further be said
that the well-known words of Horace (Satires, ii. i, 33), in which
he characterizes the vivid portraiture of his life, character and
thoughts, which Lucilius bequeathed to the world,

quo fit ut omnis

Votiva pateat veluti descripta tabella
Vita senis,1

lose much of their force unless senis is to be taken in its ordinary
sense — which it cannot be if Lucilius died at the age of forty-six.
He spent the greater part of his life at Rome, and died, according
to Jerome, at Naples. Lucilius belonged to the equestrian order,
a fact indicated by Horace's notice of himself as " infra Lucili
censum." Though not himself belonging to any of the great
senatorial families, he was in a position to associate with them
on equal terms. This circumstance contributed to the boldness,
originality and thoroughly national character of his literary
work. Had he been a " semi-Graecus," like Ennius and Pacuvius,
or of humble origin, like Plautus, Terence or Accius, he would
scarcely have ventured, at a time when the senatorial power
was strongly in the ascendant, to revive the r61e which had
proved disastrous to Naevius; nor would he have had the
intimate knowledge of the political and social life of his day
which fitted him to be its painter. Another circumstance deter-
mining the bent of his mind was the character of the time.
The origin of Roman political and social satire is to be traced
to the same disturbing and disorganizing forces which led to
the revolutionary projects and legislation of the Gracchi.

The reputation which Lucilius enjoyed in the best ages of
Roman literature is proved by the terms in which Cicero and
Horace speak of him. Persius, Juvenal and Quintilian vouch
for the admiration with which he was regarded in the first century
of the empire. The popularity which he enjoyed in his own
time is attested by the fact that at his death, although he had
filled none of the offices of state, he received the honour of a public
funeral. His chief claim to distinction is his literary originality.
He may be called the inventor of poetical satire, as he was the
first to impress upon the rude inartistic medley, known to the
Romans by the name of satura, that character of aggressive

1 "And so it happens that the whole life of the old man stands
clearly before us, as if it were represented on a votive picture."

and censorious criticism of persons, morals, manners, politics,
literature, &c. which the word satire has ever since denoted.
In point of form the satire of Lucilius owed nothing to the Greeks.
It was a legitimate development of an indigenous dramatic enter-
tainment, popular among the Romans before the first introduc-
tion of the forms of Greek art among them ; and it seems largely
also to have employed the form of the familiar epistle. But the
style, substance and spirit of his writings were apparently as
original as the form. He seems to have commenced his poetical
career by ridiculing and parodying the conventional language
of epic and tragic poetry, and to have used the language com-
monly employed in the social intercourse of educated men.
Even his frequent use of Greek words, phrases and quotations,
reprehended by Horace, was probably taken from the actual
practice of men, who found their own speech as yet inadequate
to give free expression to the new ideas and impressions which
they derived from their first contact with Greek philosophy,
rhetoric and poetry. Further, he not only created a style of his
own, but, instead of taking the substance of his writings from
Greek poetry, or from a remote past, he treated of the familiar
matters of daily life, of the politics, the wars, the administration
of justice, the eating and drinking, the money-making and
money-spending, the scandals and vices, which made up the
public and private life of Rome in the last quarter of the 2nd
century B.C. This he did in a singularly frank, independent
and courageous spirit, with no private ambition to serve, or
party cause to advance, but with an honest desire to expose
the iniquity or incompetence of the governing body, the sordid
aims of the middle class, and the corruption and venality of the
city mob. There was nothing of stoical austerity or of rhetorical
indignation in the tone in which he treated the vices and follies
of his time. His character and tastes were much more akin
to those of Horace than of either Persius or Juvenal. But he
was what Horace was not, a thoroughly good hater; and he
lived at a time when the utmost freedom of speech and the most
unrestrained indulgence of public and private animosity were
the characteristics of men who took a prominent part in affairs.
Although Lucilius took no active part in the public life of his
time, he regarded it in the spirit of a man of the world and of
society, as well as a man of letters. His ideal of public virtue
and private worth had been formed by intimate association
with the greatest and best of the soldiers and statesmen of an
older generation.

The remains of Lucilius extend to about eleven hundred, mostly un-
connected lines, most of them preserved by late grammarians, as
illustrative of peculiar verbal usages. He was, for his time, a
voluminous as well as a very discursive writer. He left behind him
thirty books of satires, and there is reason to believe that each book,
like the books of Horace and Juvenal, was composed of different
pieces. The order in which they were known to the grammarians was
not that in which they were written. The earliest in order of com-
position were probably those numbered from xxvi. to xxix., which
were written in the trochaic and iambic metres that had been em-
ployed by Ennius and Pacuvius in their Saturae. In these he made
those criticisms on the older tragic and epic poets of which Horace
and other ancient writers speak. In them too he speaks of the
Numantine War as recently finished, and of Scipio as still living.
Book i., on the other hand, in which the philosopher Carneades, who
died in 128, is spoken of as dead, must have been written after the
death of Scipio. Most of the satires of Lucilius were written in hexa-
meters, but, so far as an opinion can be formed from a number of
unconnected fragments, he seems to have written the trochaic
tetrameter with a smoothness, clearness and simplicity which he
never attained in handling the hexameter. The longer fragments
produce the impression of great discursiveness and carelessness, but
at the same time of considerable force. He appears, in the com-
position of his various pieces, to have treated everything that
occurred to him in the most desultory fashion, sometimes adopting
the form of dialogue, sometimes that of an epistle or an imaginary
discourse, and often to have spoken in his own name, giving an
account of his travels and adventures, or of amusing scenes that he
had witnessed, or expressing the results of his private meditations
and experiences. Like Horace he largely illustrated his own obser-
vations by personal anecdotes and fables. The fragments clearly
show how often Horace has imitated him, not only in expression, but
in the form of his satires (see for instance i. 5 and ii. 2), in the topics
which he treats of, and the class of social vices and the types of
character which he satirizes. For students of Latin literature, the

LUCILIUS JUNIOR— LUCKE

chief interest of studying the fragments of Lucilius consists in the
light which they throw on the aims and methods of Horace in the
composition of his satires, and, though not to the same extent, of
his epistles. They are important also as materials for linguistic
study ; and they have considerable historical value.

Editions by F. D. Gerlach (1846), L. Muller (1872), C. Lachmann
(1876, posthumous), F. Marx (1905); see also L. Muller, Leben und
Werke des Lucilius (1876); " Luciliana," by H. A. J. Munro, in
the Journal of Philology, vii. (1877); Mommsen, Hist, of Rome,
bk. iv. ch. 13; " Luciliana," by A. E. llousman, in Classical
Quarterly (April, 1907); C. Cichorius, Untersuchungen zu Lucilius
(Berlin, 1908). (W. Y. S,; X.)

LUCILIUS JUNIOR, a friend and correspondent of the younger
Seneca, probably the author of Aetna, a poem on the origin
of volcanic activity, variously attributed to Virgil, Cornelius
Severus (epic poet of the Augustan age) and Manilius. Its
composition has been placed as far back as 44 B.C., on the ground
that certain works of art, known to have been removed to Rome
about that date, are referred to as being at a distance from the
city. But as the author appears to have known and made use
of the Quaestiones Naturales of Seneca (written A.D. 65), and no
mention is made of the great eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 79), the
time of its composition seems to lie between these two dates.
In favour of the authorship of Lucilius are the facts that he was
a friend of Seneca and acquainted with his writings; that he
had for some time held the office of imperial procurator of Sicily,
and was thus familiar with the locality; that he was the author
of a poem on Sicilian subjects. It is objected that in the 79th
letter of Seneca, which is the chief authority on the question,
he apparently asks that Lucilius should introduce the hackneyed
theme of Aetna merely as an episode in his contemplated poem,
not make it the subject of separate treatment. The sources of
the Aetna are Posidonius of Apamea, and perhaps the pseudo-
Aristotelian De Mundo, while there are many reminiscences of
Lucretius. It has come down in a very corrupt state, and its
difficulties are increased by the unpoetical nature of the subject,
the straining after conciseness, and the obtrusive use of metaphor.

Editions by J. Scaliger (1595), F. Jacob (1826), H. A. J. Munro
(1867), M. Haupt (in his edition of Virgil, 1873), E. Bahrens (in Poetae
latini minores, ii.), S. Sudhaus (1898), R. Ellis (1901, containing a
bibliography of the subject); see also M. Haupt's Opuscula, i. 40,
ii. 27, 162, iii. 437 (notes, chiefly critical); R. Ellis in Journal of
Philology, xvi. 292; P. R. Wagler, De Aetna poemate quaesliones
criticae (1884); B. Kruczkiewicz, Poema de Aetna Monte (1883, in
which the ancient view of the authorship of Virgil is upheld) ; L. Al-
zinger, Studia in Aetnam collata (1896); R. Hildebrandt, Beilrdge
zur Erklarung des Gedichtes Aetna (1900); J. Vessereau (text, trans-
lation and commentary, 1905) ; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman
Literature (Eng. trans. §§ 307, 308).

LUCINA, goddess of light, a title given to Juno and Diana as
presiding over childbirth and bringing children into the light
of the world. The full name is lucina dea, " the light-bringing
goddess " (lux, light, hence adj. lucinus). It is also given to
Hecate (Tibullus 3. 4. 13), as the bringer of terrible dreams,
and is used metaphorically as a synonym for child-birth (Virg.
Georg. iii. 60; Ovid, Ars. Amat. iii. 785).

LUCIUS, the name of three popes.

Lucius L, pope for eight months (253-254), spent a short
period of his pontificate in exile. He is referred to in several
letters of Cyprian (see Epist. Ixviii. 5) as having been in agree-
ment with his predecessor Cornelius in preferring the milder
view on the question as to how the lapsed penitent should be
treated. He is commemorated on the 4th of March. (L. D.*)

Lucius II. (Gherardo Caccianemici dal Orso), pope from the
1 2th of March 1144 to the isth of February 1145, a Bolognese,
successively canon at his native city, cardinal priest of Sta
Croce in Gerusalemme, treasurer of the Roman Church, papal
legate in Germany for Honorius II., chancellor and librarian
under Innocent II., was the successor of Celestine II. His
stormy pontificate was marked by the erection of a revolutionary
republic at Rome which sought to deprive the pope of his temporal
power, and by the recognition of papal suzerainty over Portugal.
He was succeeded by Eugenius III.

His letters are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat. vol. 179. A single
unreliable writer, Godfrey of Viterbo (in J. M. Watterich, Pontif.
Roman. Vitae), is authority for the statement that Lucius II. perished
in an attempt to storm the Capitol. See Jaffd-Wattenbach, Regesta

pontif. Roman. (1885-1888); J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen
Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocent III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregoro-
vius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton
(London, 1896).

Lucios III. (Ubaldo Allucingoli), pope from the ist of Sep-
tember 1181 to the 25th of November 1185, a native of Lucca
and a Cistercian monk, named cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede
by Innocent II. and cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri by
Adrian IV., succeeded Alexander III. He lived at Rome from
November 1181 to March 1182, but dissensions in the city com-
pelled him to pass the remainder of his pontificate in exile,
mainly at Velletri, Anagni and Verona. He disputed with the
emperor Frederick I. the disposal of the territories of the Countess
Matilda. In November 1184 he held a synod at Verona which
condemned the Cathari, Paterines, Waldensians and Arnoldists,
and anathematized all heretics and their abettors. Lucius died
in the midst of preparations for a crusade in answer to appeals of
Baldwin IV. of Jerusalem. His successor was Urban III.

His letters are in I. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat, vol. 201. Consult I. M.
Watterich, Pontif. Roman. Vitae, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862) ; and Jaff<5-
Wattenbach, Regesta Pontif. Roman. (1885-1888). See J. Langen,
Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III.
(Bonn, 1893) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4,
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896) ; P. Scheffer-Boichorst,
" Zu den mathildinischen Schenkungen," in Mittheilungen des
osterreichen Instituts (1888). (C. H. HA.)

LUCK, a term for good or bad fortune, the unforeseen or
unrecognized causes which bring success or failure in any enter-
prise, particularly used of the result of chances in games of skill
or chance (see PROBABILITY). The word does not occur in
English before the i6th century. It was taken from the Low
Ger. luk, a shortened form of geluk, cf. Modern Ger. Cluck,
happiness, good fortune. The New English Dictionary considers
the word to have been introduced from the Low Countries as a
gambling term. The ultimate origin is doubtful; it has been
connected with the German gelingen, to succeed (cf. Druck,
pressure, from dringen), or with locken, to entice.

At Eden Hall in Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family,
has been long preserved a vessel known as " the luck," supposed
to be of Venetian or Byzantine make, and dating from the loth
century. It is a chalice of enamelled glass, and on its safe
preservation the fortunes of the Musgrave family are supposed
to depend, in accordance with the rhyme: —

" Should this cup either break or fall,
Farewell the luck of Edenhall."

LUCRE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791-1855),
German theologian, was born on the 24th of August 1791, at
Egeln near Magdeburg, where his father was a merchant. He
studied theology at Halle and Gottingen. In 1813 he became
repetent at Gottingen, and in 1814 he received the degree of
doctor in philosophy from Halle; in 1816 he removed to Berlin,
where he became licentiate in theology, and qualified as privat-
docent. He soon became intimate with Schleiermacher and de
Wette, and was associated with them in 1819 in the redaction
of the Theologische Zeitschrift. Meanwhile his lectures and
publications (among the latter a Grundriss der Neutestament-
lichen Hermeneutik, 1816) had brought him into considerable
repute, and he was appointed professor extraordinarius in the
new university of Bonn in the spring of 1818; in the following
autumn he became professor ordinarius. From Bonn, where
he had J. C. W. August! (1772-1841), J. K. L. Gieseler, and
Karl Immanuel Nitzsch for colleagues, he was called in 1827
to Gottingen to succeed K. F. Staudlin (1761-1826). In that
year he helped to found the Theologische Studien und Kritiken,
the chief organ of the " mediation " theology ( Vermitlelungs-
theologie). At Gottingen he remained, declining all further
calls elsewhere, as to Erlangen, Kiel, Halle, Tubingen, Jena
and Leipzig, until his death, which occurred on the 4th of
February 1855.

Lticke, who was one of the most learned, many-sided and influential
of the so-called " mediation " school of evangelical theologians
(Vermittelungstheologie), is now chiefly known by his Kommentar
uber die Schriften d. Evangelisten Johannes (4 vols., 1820-1832); it
has since passed through two new and improved editions (the last
volume of the 3rd edition by E. Bertheau, 1856). He is an intelligent

io6

LUCKENWALDE— LUCRETIUS MONS

tnaintainer of the Johahnine authorship of the Fourth Gospel;
in connexion with this thesis he was one of the first to argue for the
early date and non-apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse. His
Einleitung in die Offenbarung Jphannis was published in 1832 (2nd
ed., 1848-1852). He also published a Synopsis Evangeliorum, con-
jointly with W. M. L. de Wette (1818, 2nd ed., 1840). See Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyhlopadie.

LUCKENWALDE, a town in the Prussian province of Branden-
burg, on the Nuthe, 30 m. S. of Berlin, on the main line to
Dresden and Leipzig. Pop. (1905) 22,263. Its cloth and wool
manufactories are among the most extensive in Prussia. Among
its other industries are cotton printing and dye works, brewing,
and the making of metal and bronze goods.

The site of Luckenwalde was occupied in the I2th century
by a Cistercian monastery, but the village did not spring up till
the reign of Frederick the Great. It was made a town in 1808.

LUCKNOW, a city, district and division of British India.
The city was the capital of Oudh from 1775 until it was merged
in the United Provinces in 1901. Pop. (1901) 264,049. It lies
mainly on the right bank of the winding river Gumti, which is
crossed by two railway and three road bridges. It contains
the Canning college (1864), with an Oriental department, and
La Martiniere college, where about 100 boys are educated, the
institution being in part supported by an endowment left by
General Claude Martin in 1800. There are native manufactures
of gold and silver brocade, muslins, embroidery, brass and
copper wares, pottery and moulding in clay. There are also
important European industrial establishments, such as iron-
works and paper-mills. Lucknowjs the centre of the Oudh and
Rohilkhand railway system, with large workshops. Lines
radiate to Cawnpore, Bareilly, Gonda, Fyzabad and Rae Bareli.
Lucknow is the headquarters of the 8th division of the northern
army. The cantonments are situated 3 m. E. of the city.

Lucknow is chiefly notable in the history of British India
as the capital of the nawabs who had dealings with Warren
Hastings, and their successors the kings of Oudh, whose deposi-
tion by Lord Dalhousie was one of the chief causes of the Mutiny.
Amongst the events of the Mutiny the defence of the residency
of Lucknow comes only second in historic interest to the massacre
at Cawnpore itself. For the two sieges, see INDIAN MUTINY.
The name of the residency is now applied not only to the resid-
ency itself, but to the whole of the outbuildings and entrench-
ments in which Sir Henry Lawrence concentrated his small
force. These entrenchments covered almost 60 acres of ground,
and consisted of a number of detached houses, public edifices,
outhouses and casual buildings, netted together, and welded by
ditches, parapets, stockades and batteries into one connected
whole. On the summit of the plateau stands the residency
proper, the official residence of the chief commissioner, a lofty
building three storeys high, with a fine portico. Near the
residency comes the banqueting hall, and beyond the Baillie
Guardgate lie the ruins of the surgeon's house, where Sir Henry
Lawrence died of a shell-wound, and where the ladies of the
garrison were sheltered in underground rooms. Round the
line of the entrenchments are pillars marked with the name of
the various " posts " into which the garrison was distributed.
The most dangerous of these was the Cawnpore battery post,
where the stockade was directly exposed to the enemy's fire.
The mutineers had rifles fixed in rests in the house opposite,
and swept the road that led through the residency enclosure
at this point. Close to the residency is the Lawrence Memorial,
an artificial mound 30 ft. high crowned by a marble cross.

Among the other buildings of interest in Lucknow is the
Imambara, which is one of the largest rooms in the world(i62 ft.
by 54), having an arched roof without supports. This room was
built by the Nawab Asaf-ud-dowlah in 1784, to afford relief to
the famine-stricken people. The many monuments of his
reign include his country palace of Bibiapur, outside the city.
Among later buildings are the two palaces of Chhattar Manzil,
erected for the wives of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar (1814), the remains
of the Farhat Baksh, dating from the previous reign, and ad-
joining the greater Chhattar Manzil, the observatory (now a
bank) of Nasir-ud-din Haidar (1827), the imambara or mausoleum

and the unfinished great mosque (Jama Masjid) of Mahommed
AH Shah (1837), and the huge debased Kaisar Bagh, the palace
of Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856).

The DISTRICT OF LUCKNOW lies on both sides of the river Gumti,
and has an area of 967 sq. m. Its general aspect is that of an open
champaign, well studded with villages, finely wooded and in parts
most fertile and highly cultivated. In the vicinity of rivers, however,
stretch extensive barren sandy tracts (bhur), and there are many
wastes of saline efflorescence (usdr). The country is an almost dead
level, the average slope, which is from N.W. to S.E., being less than
a foot per mile. The principal rivers are the Gumti and the Sai
with their tributaries. The population in 1901 was 793,241, showing
an increase of 2-5 % in the preceding decade.

The DIVISION OF LUCKNOW contains the western half of the old
province of Oudh. It comprises the six districts of Lucknow, Unao,
Sitapur, Rae Bareli, Hardoi and Kheri. Its area is 12,051 sq. m.
and its population in 1901 was 5,977,086, showing an increase of
2-06% in the decade.

See Lucknow District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1904). For a fuller
description of the city see G. W. Forrest, Cities of India (1903).

LUC.ON, a town of western France, in the department of
Vendee, 23 m. S.E. of La Roche-sur-Yon, on the railway from
Nantes to Bordeaux, and on the canal of Lucon (9 m. long), which
affords communication with the sea in the Bay of Aiguillon.
Pop. (1906) 6163. Between Lucon and the sea stretch marshy
plains, the bed of the former gulf, partly drained by numerous
canals, and in the reclaimed parts yielding excellent pasturage,
while in other parts are productive salt-marshes, and ponds for
the rearing of mussels and other shell-fish. Lucon is the seat
of a bishopric, established in 1317, and held by Richelieu from
1607 to 1624. The cathedral, partly of the 12th-century and
partly of later periods, was originally an abbey church. The
facade and the clock tower date from about 1700, and the tower
is surmounted by a crocketed spire rising 275 ft. above the
ground, attributed to the architect Francois Leduc of Tuscany.
The cloisters are of the late isth century. Adjacent is the
bishop's palace, possessing a large theological library and
Titian's " Disciples of Emmaus," and there is a fine public
garden. A communal college and an ecclesiastical seminary are
among the public institutions. During the Vendean wars,
Lucon was the scene of several conflicts, notably in 1793.

LUCRE (Lat. lucrum, gain; the Indo-European root is seen
in Gr. avoXavfLV, to enjoy, and in Ger. Lohn, wages), a term
now only used in the disparaging sense of unworthy profit, or
money that is the object of greed, especially in the expression
" filthy lucre " (i Tim. iii. 3). In the adjective " lucrative,"
profitable, there is, however, no sense of disparagement. In
Scots law the term " lucrative succession " (lucrative acquisitio)
is used of the taking by an heir, during the lifetime of his ancestor,
of a free grant of any part of the heritable property.

LUCRETIA, a Roman lady, wife of Lucius Tarquinius Col-
latinus, distinguished for her beauty and domestic virtues.
Having been outraged by Sextus Tarquinius, one of the sons of
Tarquinius Superbus, she informed her father and her husband,
and, having exacted an oath of vengeance from them, stabbed
herself to death. Lucius Junius Brutus, her husband's cousin,
put himself at the head of the people, drove out the Tarquins,
and established a republic. The accounts of this tradition in
later writers present many points of divergence.

Livy i. 57-59; Dion. Halic. iv. 64-67, 70, 82; Ovid, Fasti, ii. 721-
852 ; Dio Cassius, frag. 1 1 (Bekker) ; G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility
of Early Roman History, i.

LUCRETIUS MONS, a mountain of the Sabine territory,
mentioned by Horace (Od. i. 17, i) as visible from his Sabine
farm, and probably identical with the " Mons Lucretius " men-
tioned in the Liber Pontificates (ed. Duchesne, i. 183), which
speaks of " possessio in territorio Sabinensi quae cognominatur
ad duas casas sub monte Lucretio " in the time of Constantine.
The name " ad duas casas " is supposed to survive hi the chapel
of the Madonna della Casa near Rocca Giovane, and the Mons
Lucretilis is generally (and rightly) identified with Monte
Gennaro, a limestone peak 4160 ft. high, which forms a promi-
nent feature in the view N.E. of Rome. Excavations on the
supposed site of Horace's farm were begun by Professor Pasqui
in September 1909. (T. As.)

LUCRETIUS

107

LUCRETIUS (TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS) (c. 98-55 B.C.), the
great Latin didactic poet. Our sole information concerning his
life is found in the brief summary of Jerome, written more than
four centuries after the poet's death. Jerome followed, often
carelessly, the accounts contained in the lost work of Suetonius
De Viris Illustribus, written about two centuries after the death
of Lucretius; and, although it is likely that Suetonius used the
information transmitted by earlier grammarians, there is nothing
to guide us to the original sources. According to this account
the poet was born in 95 B.C.; he became mad in consequence of
the administration of a love-philtre; and after composing
several books in his lucid intervals, which were subsequently
corrected by Cicero, he died by his own hand in the forty-fourth
year of his age. Donatus states in his life of Virgil, a work also
based on the lost work of Suetonius, that Lucretius died on the
same day on which Virgil assumed the toga virilis, that is, in the
seventeenth year of Virgil's life, and on the very day on which
he was born, and adds that the consuls were the same, that is
Cn. Pompeius Magnus and M. Licinius Crassus, consuls in 70
and again in 55. The statements cannot be perfectly reconciled;
but we may say with certainty that Lucretius was born between
98 and 95 B.C., and died in 55 or 54. A single mention of his
poem, the De rerum natura (which from the condition in which
it has reached us may be assumed to have been published
posthumously) in a letter of Cicero's to his brother Quintus,
written early in 54 B.C., confirms the date given by Donatus
as that of the poet's death. The statements of Jerome have
been questioned or disbelieved on the ground of their intrinsic
improbability. They have been regarded as a fiction invented
later by the enemies of Epicureanism, with the view of discredit-
ing the most powerful work ever produced by any disciple of
that sect. It is more in conformity with ancient credulity than
with modern science to attribute a permanent tendency to
derangement to the accidental administration of any drug,
however potent. A work characterized by such strength,
consistency and continuity of thought is not likely to have been
composed " in the intervals of madness " as Jerome says.
Donatus, in mentioning the poet's death, gives no hint of the
act of suicide. The poets of the Augustan age, who were deeply
interested both in his philosophy and in his poetry, are entirely
silent about the tragical story of his life. Cicero, by his professed
antagonism to the doctrines of Epicurus, by his inadequate
appreciation of Lucretius himself and by the indifference
which he shows to other contemporary poets, seems to have been
neither fitted for the task of correcting the unfinished work of
a writer whose genius was so distinct from his own, nor likely to
have cordially undertaken such a task.

Yet these considerations do not lead to the absolute rejection
of the story. The evidence afforded by the poem rather leads
to the conclusion that the tradition contains some germ of fact.
It is remarkable that in more than one passage of his poem
Lucretius writes with extraordinary vividness of the impression
produced both by dreams and by waking visions. It is true
that the philosophy of Epicurus put great stress on these, as
affording the explanation of the origin of supernatural beliefs.
But the insistence with which Lucretius returns to the subject,
and the horror with which he recalls the effects of such abnormal
phenomena, suggest that he himself may have been liable to
such hallucinations, which are said to be consistent with perfect
sanity, though they may be the precursors either of madness
or of a state of despair and melancholy. Other passages, where
he describes himself as ever engaged, even in his dreams, on his
task of inquiry and composition, produce the impression of an
unrelieved strain of mind and feeling, which may have ended in
some extreme reaction of spirit, or in some failure of intellectual
power, that may have led him to commit suicide. But the
strongest confirmation of the tradition is the unfinished condition
in which the poem has reached us. The subject appears indeed
to have been fully treated in accordance with the plan sketched
out in the introduction to the first book. But that book is the
only one which is finished in style and in the arrangement of
its matter. In all the others, and especially in the last three,

the continuity of the argument is frequently broken by passages
which must have been inserted after the first draft of the argu-
ments was written out. Thus, for instance, in his account of
the transition from savage to civilized life, he assumes at
v. ion the discovery of the use of skins, fire, &c., and the first
beginning of civil society, and proceeds at 1028 to explain the
origin of language, and then again returns, from 1090 to 1160,
to speculate upon the first use of fire and the earliest stages of
political life. These breaks in continuity show what might also
be inferred from frequent repetitions of lines which have appeared
earlier in the poem, and from the rough workmanship of passages
in the later books, that the poem could not have received the
final revision of the author. Nor is there any great difficulty
in believing that Cicero edited it; the word " emendavit,"
need not mean more than what we call " preparing for
press."

From the absence of any claim on the part of any other district
of Italy to the honour of having given birth to Lucretius it is
inferred that he was of purely Roman origin. No writer certainly
is more purely Roman in personal character and in strength of
understanding. His silence on the subject of Roman greatness
and glory as contrasted with the prominence of these subjects
in the poetry of men of provincial birth such as Ennius, Virgil
and Horace, may be explained by the principle that familiarity
had made the subject one of less wonder and novelty to him.
The Lucretian gens to which he belonged was one of the oldest
of the great Roman houses, nor do we hear of the name, as we
do of other great family names, as being diffused over other
parts of Italy, or as designating men of obscure or servile
origin. It may well be assumed that Lucretius was a member of
the Roman aristocracy, belonging either to a senatorian or to
one of the great equestrian families. If the Roman aristocracy
of his time had lost much of the virtue and of the governing
qualities of their ancestors, they showed in the last years before
the establishment of monarchy a taste for intellectual culture
which might have made Rome as great in literature as in arms
and law. A new taste for philosophy had developed among
members of the governing class during the youth of Lucretius,
and eminent Greek teachers of the Epicurean sect settled at
Rome at the same time, and lived on terms of intimacy with
them. The inference that Lucretius belonged to this class
is confirmed by the tone in which he addresses Gaius Memmius,
a man of an eminent senatorian family, to whom the poem is
dedicated. His tone is quite unlike that in which Virgil or even
Horace addresses Maecenas. He addresses him as an equal;
he expresses sympathy with the prominent part he played in
public life, and admiration for his varied accomplishments,
but on bis own subject claims to speak to him with authority.

Although our conception of the poet's life is necessarily vague
and meagre, yet his personal force is so remarkable and so vividly
impressed on his poem, that we seem able to form a consistent
idea of his qualities and characteristics. We know, for example,
that the choice of a contemplative life was not the result of
indifference to the fate of the world, or of any natural coldness
or even calmness of temperament. In the opening lines of the
second and third books we can mark the recoil of a humane
and sensitive spirit from the horrors of the reign of terror which
he witnessed in his youth, and from the anarchy and confusion
which prevailed at Rome during his later years. We may also
infer that he had not been through his whole career so much
estranged from the social life of his day as he seems to have been
in his later years. Passages in his poem attest his familiarity
with the pomp and luxury of city life, with the attractions of
the public games and with the pageantry of great military
spectacles. But much the greater mass of the illustrations of
his philosophy indicate that, while engaged on his poem he must
have passed much of his time in the open air, exercising at once
the keen observation of a naturalist and the contemplative vision
of a poet. He seems to have found a pleasure, more congenial
to the modern than to the ancient temperament, in ascending
mountains or wandering among their solitudes (vi. 469, iv.
575). References to companionship in these wanderings, and

io8

LUCRETIUS

the well-known description of the charm of a rustic meal
(ii. 29) speak of kindly sociality rather than of any austere
separation from his fellows.

Other expressions in his poem (e.g. iii. 10, &c.) imply that
he was also a student of books. Foremost among these were
the writings of Epicurus; but he had also an intimate know-
ledge of the philosophical poem of Empedocles, and at least
an acquaintance with the works of Democritus, Anaxagoras,
Heraclitus, Plato and the Stoical writers. Of other Greek prose
writers he knew Thucydides and Hippocrates; while of the
poets he expresses in more than one passage the highest admira-
tion of Homer, whom he imitated in several places. Next to
Homer Euripides is most frequently reproduced by him. But
his poetical sympathy was not limited to the poets of Greece.
For his own countryman Ennius he expresses an affectionate
admiration; and he imitates his language, his rhythm and his
manner in many places. The fragments of the old tragedian
Pacuvius and of the satirist Lucilius show that Lucretius had
made use of their expressions and materials. In his studies he
was attracted by the older writers, both Greek and Roman, in
whose masculine temperament and understanding he recognized
an affinity with his own.

His devotion to Epicurus seems at first sight more difficult
to explain than his enthusiasm for Empedocles or Ennius.
Probably he found in his calmness of temperament, even in his
want of imagination, a sense of rest and of exemption from the
disturbing influences of life; while in his physical philosophy
he found both an answer to the questions which perplexed him
and an inexhaustible stimulus to his intellectual curiosity. The
combative energy, the sense of superiority, the spirit of satire,
characteristic of him as a Roman, unite with his loyalty to
Epicurus to render him not only polemical but intolerant and
contemptuous in his tone toward the great antagonists of his
system, the Stoics, whom, while constantly referring to them,
he does not condescend even to name. With his admiration of
the genius of others he combines a strong sense of his^wn-power.
He is quite conscious of the great importance and of the difficulty-
of his task; but he feels his own ability to cope with it.

It is more difficult to infer the moral than the intellectual
characteristics of a great writer from the personal impress left
by him on his work. Yet it is not too much to say that there is no
work in any literature that produces a profounder impression of
sincerity. No writer shows a juster scorn of all mere rhetoric
and exaggeration. No one shows truer courage, not marred by
irreverence, in confronting the great problems of human destiny,
or greater strength in triumphing over human weakness. No one
shows a truer humanity and a more tender sympathy with
natural sorrow.

The peculiarity of the poem of Lucretius, that which makes it
unique in literature, is that it is a reasoned system of philosophy,
written in verse. The prosaic title De Rerum Nalura, a transla-
tion of the Gr. Trtpi <^iier«os, implies the subordination of the
artistic to a speculative motive. As in the case of nearly all the
great works of Roman literary genius, the form of the poem was
borrowed from the Greeks. The rise of speculative philosophy
in Greece was coincident with the beginning of prose composition,
and many of the earliest philosophers wrote in the prose of the
Ionic dialect; others, however, and especially the writers of the
Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, expounded their systems in
continuous poems composed in the epic hexameter. Most famous
in connexion with this kind of poetry are Xenophanes and
Parmenides, the Eleatics and Empedocles of Agrigentum. The
last was less important as a philosopher, but greater than the
others both as a poet and a physicist. On both of these grounds
he had a greater attraction to Lucretius. The fragments of the
poem of Empedocles show that the Roman poet regarded that
work as his model. In accordance with this model he has given
to his own poem the form of a personal address, he has developed
his argument systematically, and has applied the sustained
impetus of epic poetry to the treatment of some of the driest and
abstrusest topics. Many ideas and expressions of the Sicilian
have been reproduced by the Roman poet ; and the same tone of

impassioned solemnity and melancholy seems to have pervaded
both works. But Lucretius, if less original as a thinker, was
probably a much greater poet than Empedocles. What chiefly
distinguishes him from his Greek prototypes is that his purpose
is rather ethical than purely speculative; the zeal of a teacher
and reformer is more strong in him than even the intellectual
passion of a thinker. His speculative ideas, his moral teaching
and his poetical power are indeed interdependent on one another,
and this interdependence is what mainly constitutes their
power and interest. But of the three claims which he makes to
immortality, the importance of his subject, his desire to liberate
the mind from the bonds of superstition and the charm and
lucidity of his poetry — that which he himself regarded as supreme
was the second. The main idea of the poem is the irreconcilable
opposition between the truth of the laws of nature and the
falsehood of the old superstitions. But, further, the happiness
and the dignity of life are regarded by him as absolutely
dependent on the acceptance of the true and the rejection of the
false doctrine. In the Epicurean system of philosophy he
believed that he had found the weapons by which this war of
liberation could be most effectually waged. Following Epicurus
he sets before himself the aim of finally crushing that fear of the
gods and that fear of death resulting from it which he regards as
the source of all the human ills. Incidentally he desires also
to purify the heart from other violent passions which corrupt it
and mar its peace. But the source even of these — the passions of
ambition and avarice — he finds in the fear of death; and that
fear he resolves into the fear of eternal punishment after death.

The selection of his subject and the order in which it is treated
are determined by this motive. Although the title of the poem
implies that it is a treatise on the " whole nature of things,"
the aim of Lucretius is to treat only those branches of science
which are necessary to clear the mind from the fear of the gods
and the terrors of a future state. In the two earliest books,
accordingly, he lays down and largely illustrates the first prin-
ciples of being with the view of showing that the world is not
governed by capricious agency, but has come into existence,
continues in existence, and will ultimately pass away in accord-
ance with the primary conditions of the elemental atoms which,
along with empty space, are the only eternal and immutable
substances. These atoms are themselves infinite in number but
limited in their varieties, and by their ceaseless movement and
combinations during infinite time and through infinite space
the whole process of creation is maintained. In the third book
he applies the principles of the atomic philosophy to explain the
nature of the mind and vital principle, with the view of showing
that the soul perishes with the body. In the fourth book he
discusses the Epicurean doctrine of the images, which are cast
from all bodies, and which act either on the senses or immediately
on the mind, in dreams or waking visions, as affording the ex-
planation of the belief in the continued existence of the spirits
of the departed. The fifth book, which has the most general
interest, professes to explain the process by which the earth, the
sea, the sky, the sun, moon and stars, were formed, the origin
of life, and the gradual advance of man from the most savage to
the most civilized condition. All these topics are treated with
the view of showing that the world is not itself divine nor directed
by divine agency. The sixth book is devoted to the explanation,
in accordance with natural causes, of some of the more abnormal
phenomena, such as thunderstorms, volcanoes, earthquakes, &c.,
which are special causes of supernatural terrors.

The consecutive study of the argument produces on most
readers a mixed feeling of dissatisfaction and admiration. They
are repelled by the dryness of much of the matter, the unsuitable-
ness of many of the topics discussed for poetic treatment, the
arbitrary assumption of premises, the entire failure to establish
the connexion between the concrete phenomena which the
author professes to explain and these assumptions, and the
erroneousness of many of the doctrines which are stated with
dogmatic confidence. On the other hand, they are constantly
impressed by his power of reasoning both deductively and
inductively, by the subtlety and fertility of invention with which

LUCRINUS LACUS

109

he applies analogies, by the clearness and keenness of his observa-
tion, by the fulness of matter with which his mind is stored, and
by the consecutive force, the precision and distinctness of his
style, when employed in the processes of scientific exposition.
The first two books enable us better than anything else in ancient
literature to appreciate the boldness and, on the whole, the
reasonableness of the ancient mind in forming hypotheses on
great matters that still occupy the investigations of physical
science. The third and fourth books give evidence of acuteness
in psychological analysis; the fourth and sixth of the most
active and varied observation of natural phenomena; the fifth
of original insight and strong common sense in conceiving the
origin of society and the progressive advance of man to civiliza-
tion. But the chief value of Lucretius as a thinker lies in his
firm grasp of speculative ideas, and in his application of them to
the interpretation of human life and nature. All phenomena,
moral as well as material, are contemplated by him in their
relation to one great organic whole, which he acknowledges
. under the name of " Natura daedala rerum," and the most
beneficent manifestations of which he seems to symbolize and
almost to deify in the " Alma Venus," whom, in apparent con-
tradiction to his denial of a divine interference with human
affairs, he invokes with prayer in the opening lines of the poem.
In this conception of nature are united the conceptions of law and
order, of ever-changing life and interdependence, of immensity,
individuality, and all-pervading subtlety, under which the
universe is apprehended both by his intelligence and his imagina-
tion.

Nothing can be more unlike the religious and moral attitude
of Lucretius than the old popular conception of him as an
atheist and a preacher of the doctrine of pleasure. It is true that
he denies the doctrines of a supernatural government of the
world and of a future life. But his arguments against the first
are really only valid against the limited and unworthy concep-
tions of divine agency involved in the ancient religions; his
denial of the second is prompted by his vital realization of all
that is meant by the arbitrary infliction of eternal torment after
death. His war with the popular beliefs of his time is waged, not
in the interests of licence, but in vindication of the sanctity of
human feeling. The cardinal line of the poem,

" Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum,"

is elicited from him as his protest against the sacrifice of Iphigenia
by her father. But in his very denial of a cruel, limited and
capricious agency of the gods, and in his imaginative recognition
of an orderly, all-pervading, all-regulating power, we find at
least a nearer approach to the higher conceptions of modern
theism than in any of the other imaginative conceptions of
ancient poetry and art. But his conception even of the ancient
gods and of their indirect influence on human life is more worthy
than the popular one. He conceives of them as living a life of
eternal peace and exemption from passion, in a world of their
own; and the highest ideal of man is, through the exercise of his
reason, to realize an image of this life. Although they are
conceived of as unconcerned with the interest of our world,
yet influences are supposed to emanate from them which the
human heart is capable of receiving and assimilating. The effect
of unworthy conceptions of the divine nature is that they render
a man incapable of visiting the temples of the gods in a calm
spirit, or of receiving the emanations that " announce the
divine peace " in peaceful tranquillity. The supposed " atheism "
of Lucretius proceeds from a more deeply reverential spirit than
that of the majority of professed believers in all times.

His moral attitude is also far removed from that of ordinary
ancient Epicureanism or of modern materialism. Though he
acknowledges pleasure to be the law of life, yet he is far from
regarding its attainment as the end of life. What man needs is
not enjoyment, but " peace and a pure heart." The victory
to be won by man is the triumph over fear, ambition, passion,
luxury. With the conquest over these nature herself supplies
all that is needed for happiness. Self-control and renunciation
are the lessons which he preaches.

It has been doubted whether Cicero,1 in his short criticism in
the letter already referred to, concedes to Lucretius both the
gifts of genius and the accomplishment of art or only one of
them. Readers of a later time, who could compare his work with
the finished works of the Augustan age, would certainly disparage
his art rather than his power. But with Cicero it was different. He
greatly admired, or professed to admire, the genius of the early
Roman poets, while he shows indifference to the poetical genius
of his younger contemporaries. Yet he could not have been
insensible to the immense superiority in rhythmical smoothness
which the hexameter of Lucretius has over that of Ennius and
Lucilius. And no reader of Lucretius can doubt that he attached
the greatest importance to artistic execution, and that he took
a great pleasure, not only in " the long roll of his hexameter,"
but also in producing the effects of alliteration, assonance,
&c., which are so marked a peculiarity in the style of Plautus and
the earlier Roman poets. He allows his taste for these tricks
of style to degenerate into mannerism. And this is the only
drawback to the impression of absolute spontaneity which his
style produces. He was unfortunate in living before the natural
rudeness of Latin art had been successfully grappled with.
His only important precursors in serious poetry were Ennius and
Lucilius, and, though he derived from the first of these an
impulse to shape the Latin tongue into a fitting vehicle for the
expression of elevated emotion and imaginative conception, he
could find in neither a guide to follow in the task he set before
himself. The difficulty and novelty of his task enhances our
sense of his power. His finest passages are thus characterized
by a freshness of feeling and enthusiasm of discovery. But the
result of these conditions and of his own inadequate conception
of the proper limits of his art is that his best poetry is clogged
with a great mass of alien matter, which no treatment in the
world could have made poetically endurable. (W. Y. S.)

AUTHORITIES. — The two most ancient manuscripts of Lucretius,
O and Q, are both at Leiden, one being a folio (oblongus) and the other
a quarto (quadratus). Upon these alone the modern texts are
founded. The scientific editing of the text began with C. C. Lach-
mann (1852) whose work still holds the field. The most important
commentary is that of H. A. J. Munro (4th ed., 1886) with a prose
translation. For the earlier editions it is sufficient to refer to the
account in Munro's Introduction, vol. i. pp. 3 sqq. Giussani's com-
plete edition (with Italian notes, 1896) and R. Heinze's edition of
book iii. (1897) are also of value. So too are A. Brieger's numerous
contributions in German periodicals and his text in the Teubner series
(2nd ed., 1899).

The philosophy of Lucretius has been much studied in recent times.
Amongst special treatises may be mentioned K. H. Usener's Epicurca
(1887); J. Woltjer's Lucretii philosophia cum fontibus comparata
(1877); John Masson's Atomic Theory of Lucretius (1884) and
Lucretius: Epicurean and Poet (1909); and several papers and
treatises by Brieger and Giussani.

On the characteristics of the poet as a whole, C. Martha's Le
Poeme de Lucrece (4th ed., Paris, 1885) and W. Y. Sellar in chaps, xi.
sqq. of the Roman Poets of the Republic, may be consulted. There
are useful bibliographies in W. S. Teuffel's History of Roman Literature
(English trans, by G. C. W. Warr) and Martin v. Schanz's Geschichte
der romischen Litteratur.

The following translations into English verse are known : T. Creech
(1683), I. M. Good (1805), T. Busby (1813), C. F.Johnson (New York,
1872), T. C. Baring (1884). There is also a translation by Cyril
Bailey (Oxford, 1910).

LUCRINUS LACUS, or LUCRINE LAKE, a lake of Campania,
Italy, about $ m. to the N. of Lake Avernus, and only separated
fromjthe sea (Gulf of Pozzuoli) by a narrow strip of land, traversed
by the coast road, Via Herculanea, which runs on an embank-
ment, the construction of which was traditionally attributed to
Heracles in Strabo's time — and the modern railway. Its size
has been much reduced by the rise of the crater of the Monte-
nuovo in 1538. Its greatest depth is about 15 ft. In Roman
days its fisheries were important and were let out by the state

1 Ad Q. Fratr. ii. 9 (u), 13. Both sense and words have been
much disputed. The general sense is probably that given by the
following restoration, Lucretii poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt multis
hominibus ingcnii multae etiam (MSS. tamen) artis, sed cum ad
umbilicum (omitted in MSS.) veneris, virum te putabo, si Sallustii
Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo." This would concede
Lucretius both genius and art, but imply at the same time that he
was not easy reading.

no

LUCULLUS

to contractors. Its oyster-beds were, as at the present day, re-
nowned; their foundation is attributed to one Sergius Grata,
about 100 B.C. It was also in favour as a resort for pleasure
excursions from Baiae (cf. Martial i. 63), and its banks were
covered with villas, of which the best known was Cicero's
Academia, on the E. bank. The remnants of this villa, with the
village of Tripergola, disappeared in 1 538.

See J. Beloch, Campanien, ed. 2 (Breslau, 1890), 172.
LUCULLUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family of the
Licinian gens. By far the most famous of its members was
Lucius LICINIUS LUCULLUS (c. 110-56), surnamed Ponticus from
his victories in Asia Minor over Mithradates VI. of Pontus.
His father, of the same name, had held an important military
command in Sicily, but on his return to Rome he was prosecuted
on a charge of bribery and condemned to exile. His mother was
Caecilia, of the family of the Metelli, and sister of Quintus
Caecilius Metellus Numidicus. Early in life he attached himself
to the party of Sulla, and to that party he remained constant.
He attracted Sulla's notice in the Social War (90) and in 88,
when Sulla was appointed to the command of the war against
Mithradates, accompanied him as quaestor to Greece and Asia
Minor. While Sulla was besieging Athens, Lucullus raised a
fleet and drove Mithradates out of the Mediterranean. He won
a brilliant victory off Tenedos, and had he been more of a patriot
and less of a party man he might have ended a perilous war.
In 84 peace was concluded with Mithradates. Sulla returned
to Rome, while Lucullus remained in Asia, and by wise and
generous financial reforms laid the foundation of the prosperity
of the province. The result of his policy was that he became
extremely popular with the provincials, but offended many of
the publicani, a powerful class which farmed the public revenue.
In 80 he returned to Rome as curule aedile, in which capacity
he exhibited games of exceptional magnificence. Soon after-
wards (77) he was elected praetor, and was next appointed to
the province of Africa, where he again won a good name as a
just and considerate governor. In 74 he became consul, and
went to Asia at the head of about 30,000 foot and 2000 horse,
to defend the province of Bithynia against Mithradates, who
was besieging his colleague, Marcus Aurelius Cotta, in Chalcedon
on the Propontis. Mithradates was forced to retire along the
sea-coast till he halted before the strong city of Cyzicus, which
he besieged. Lucullus, however, cut off his communications on
the land side, and, aided by bad weather, forced him to raise
the siege. In the autumn of 73 Lucullus marched to Cabeira
or Neocaesarea, where the king had gone into winter quarters
with a vague hope that his son-in-law, Tigranes, king of Armenia,
and possibly even the Parthians, might come to his aid. Al-
though the forces of Mithradates were far superior in numbers,
his troops were no match for the Roman legionaries. A large
detachment of his army having been cut up by one of Lucullus's
lieutenant-generals, the king decided on instant retreat. The
retreat soon became a disorderly flight, Mithradates himself
escaping with difficulty into Lesser Armenia.

Thus Pontus, with the exception of some of the maritime
cities, such as Sinope, Heraclea and Amisus, became Roman
territory. Two years were occupied in the capture of these
strongholds, while Lucullus busied himself with a general reform
of the administration of the province of Asia. His next step
was to demand the surrender of Mithradates and to threaten
Tigranes with war in the event of refusal. In the spring of 69,
at the head of only two legions, he marched through Sophene,
the south-western portion of Armenia, crossed the Tigris, and
pushed on to the newly-built royal city, Tigranocerta, situated
on one of the affluents of that river. A motley host, made up out
of the tribes bordering on the Black Sea and the Caspian, hovered
round his small army, but failed to hinder him from laying siege
to the town. Lucullus showed consummate military capacity,
contriving to maintain the siege and at the same time to give
battle to the enemy's vastly superior forces. There might now
have been peace but for the interference of Mithradates, who
pressed Tigranes to renew the war and to seek the aid and
alliance of Parthia. The Parthian king, however, preferred a

treaty with Rome to a treaty with Armenia, and desired simply
to have the Euphrates recognized as his western boundary.
Mithradates next appealed to the national spirit of the peoples
of the East generally, and endeavoured to rouse them to a united
effort. The position of Lucullus was critical. The home govern-
ment was for recalling him, and his army was disaffected.
Nevertheless, though continually harassed by the enemy, he
persisted in marching northwards from Tigranocerta over the
iiigh table-land of central Armenia, in the hope of reaching
Artaxata on the Araxes. But the open mutiny of his troops
compelled him to recross the Tigris into the Mesopotamian
valley. Here, on a dark tempestuous night, he surprised and
stormed Nisibis, the capital of the Armenian district of Meso-
potamia, and in this city, which yielded him a rich booty, he
found satisfactory winter quarters. Meantime Mithradates was
again in Pontus, and in a disastrous engagement at Ziela the
Roman camp was taken and the army slaughtered to a man.
Lucullus was obliged to retreat into Asia Minor, leaving Tigranes
and Mithradates masters of Pontus and Cappadocia. The work
of eight years of war was undone. In 66 Lucullus was superseded
by Pompey. He had fairly earned the honour of a triumph, but
his powerful enemies at Rome and charges of maladministration,
to which his immense wealth gave colour, caused it to be deferred
till 63. From this time, with the exception of occasional public
appearances, he gave himself up to elegant luxury, with which
he combined a sort of dilettante pursuit of philosophy, literature
and art. As a general he does not seem to have possessed the
entire confidence of his troops, owing probably to his natural
hauteur and the strict discipline which he imposed on them.
The same causes made him unpopular with the Roman capitalists,
whose sole object was the accumulation of enormous fortunes
by farming the revenue of the provinces.

Among the Roman nobles who revelled in the newly acquired
riches of the East, Lucullus stood pre-eminent. His park and
pleasure grounds near Rome, and the costly and laborious works
in his parks and villas at Tusculum, near Naples, earned for him
from Pompey (it is said) the title of the " Roman Xerxes." On
one of his luxurious entertainments he is said to have spent
upwards of £2000. He was a liberal patron of Greek philosophers
and men of letters, and he collected a valuable library, to which
such men had free access. He himself is said to have been a
student of Greek literature, and to have written a history of the
Marsian war in Greek, inserting solecisms to show that he was a
Roman. He was one of the interlocutors in Cicero's Academica,
the second book (first edition) of which was called Lucullus.
Sulla also entrusted him with the revision of his Memoirs. The
introduction of the cherry-tree from Asia into Europe is attri-
buted to him. It appears that he became mentally feeble some
years before his death, and was obliged to surrender the manage-
ment of his affairs to his brother Marcus. The usual funeral
panegyric was pronounced on him in the Forum, and the people
would have had him buried by the side of Sulla in the Campus
Martius, but at his brother's request he was laid in his splendid
villa at Tusculum.

See Plutarch's Lucullus; Appian's Milhridalic War; the epitomes
of the lost books of Livy; and many passages in Cicero. Some
allusions will also be found in Dio Cassius, Pliny and Athenaeus.
For the Mithradatic wars, see bibliography under MITHRADATES (VI.
of Pontus) ; and generally G. Boissier, Cicero and his Friends (Eng.
trans, by A. D. Jones, 1897); H. Peter, Hist. Rom. Reliquiae, i.
p. cclxxxv. ; W. Drumann, Geschichte Roms, iv. His Elogium is
given in C.I.L. i. 292.

His brother, MARCUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS, was adopted by
Marcus Terentius Varro, and was hence known as Marcus
Terentius Varro Lucullus. In 82 B.C. he served under Sulla
against Marius. In 79 he was curule aedile with his brother,
in 77 praetor, in 73 consul with Gaius Cassius Varus. When
praetor he forbade the carrying of arms by slaves, and with his
colleague in the consulship passed the lex Terenlia Cassia, to
give authority for purchasing corn with the public money and
retailing it at a fixed price at Rome. As proconsul in Macedonia
he made war with great cruelty against the Dardani and Bessi,
and compelled them to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome.

LUCUS FERONIAE— LUDENSCHEID

in

Having enjoyed a triumph, he was sent out to the East to settle
the affairs of the provinces conquered by his brother. He sided
with Cicero during the Catilinarian conspiracy, did his utmost
to prevent his banishment, and subsequently supported his
claim for the restoration of his house. He was one of the better
representatives of the optimates, and enjoyed some reputation
as an orator.

See Cicero, De Domo, 52; Pro Tullio, 8; In Verrem, iii. 70, v. 21 ;
Florus, iii. 4, 7; Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii. 4, II ; Plutarch,
Sulla, 27; Lucullus, 35, 36, 43; Orelli's Onomasticon Tullianum.

LUCUS FERONIAE, an ancient shrine in Etruria. It was
visited both by Latins and Sabines even in the time of Tullus
Hostilius and was plundered by Hannibal in 211 B.C. It was
undoubtedly in the territory of Capena (<?.».); but in imperial
times it became an independent community receiving a colony
of Octavian's veterans (Colonia lulia fdix Lucoferensis) and
possessing an amphitheatre. Its site has been disputed. Some
authorities place it on the Colle Civitucola (but see CATENA),
others at the church of S. Abbondio near Rignano, others (and
probably rightly) at Nazzano, which was reached by a branch
road from the Via Flaminia, where remains of a circular temple
have been found.

See E. Bormann in Corp. Inscr. Lot. xi. 569 sqq. ; H. Nissen,
Ilalische Landeskunde, ii. 369 sqq. (T. As.)

LUCY, RICHARD DE (d. 1179), called the "loyal," chief
justiciar of England, appears in the latter part of Stephen's
reign as sheriff and justiciar of the county of Essex. He became,
on the accession of Henry II., chief justiciar conjointly with
Robert de Beaumont, earl of Leicester; and after the death
of the latter (1168) held the office without a colleague for twelve
years. The chief servant and intimate of the king he was among
the first of the royal party to incur excommunication in the
Becket controversy. In 1173 he played an important part in
suppressing the rebellion of the English barons, and commanded
the royalists at the battle of Fornham. He resigned the justiciar-
ship in 1179, though pressed by the king to continue in office,
and retired to Lesues Abbey in Kent, which he had founded and
where he died. Lucy's son, Godfrey de Lucy (d. 1204), was
bishop of Winchester from 1189 to his death in September 1204;
he took a prominent part in public affairs during the reigns
of Henry II., Richard I. and John.

See J. H. Round, Geoffrey de Mandeville (1892) ; Sir J. H. Ramsay,
Angevin Empire (1903) ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i.

LUCY, SIR THOMAS (1532-1600), the English Warwickshire
squire who is traditionally associated with the youth of William
Shakespeare, was born on the 24th of April 1532, the son of
William Lucy, and was descended, according to Dugdale, from
Thurstane de Cherlecote, whose son Walter received the village
of Charlecote from Henry de Montfort about 1190. Walter is
said to have married into the Anglo-Norman family of Lucy,
and his son adopted the mother's surname. Three of Sir Thomas
Lucy's ancestors had been sheriffs of Warwickshire and Leicester-
shire, and on his father's death in 1552 he inherited Sherborne
and Hampton Lucy in addition to Charlecote, which was rebuilt
for him by John of Padua, known as John Thorpe, about 1558.
By his marriage with Joyce Acton he inherited Sutton Park
in Worcestershire, and became in 1586 high sheriff of the county.
He was knighted in 1565. He is said to have been under the
tutorship of John Foxe, who is supposed to have imbued his
pupil with the Puritan principles which he displayed as knight
of the shire for Warwick in the parliament of 1571 and as sheriff
of the county, but as Mrs Carmichael Slopes points out Foxe
only left Oxford in 1545, and in 1547 went up to London, so
that the connexion must have been short. He often appeared
atStratford-on-Avon as justice of the peace and as commissioner
of musters for the county. As justice of the peace he showed
great zeal against the Catholics, and took his share in the arrest
of Edward Arden in 1583. In 1585 he introduced into parlia-
ment a bill for the better preservation of game and grain, and
his reputation as a preserver of game gives some colour to the
Shakespearian tradition connected with his name. Nicholas
Rowe, writing in 1710, told a story that Lucy prosecuted Shake-
speare for deer-stealing from Charlecote Park in 1585, and that

Shakespeare aggravated the offence by writing a ballad on his
prosecutor. The trouble arising from this incident is said to have
driven Shakespeare from Stratford to London. The tale was
corroborated by Archdeacon Davies of Sapperton, Gloucester-
shire, who died in 1708. The story is not necessarily falsified
by the fact that there was no deer park at Charlecote at the
time, since there was a warren, and the term warren legally covers
a preserve for other animals than hares or rabbits, roe-deer
among others. Shakespeare is generally supposed to have
caricatured the local magnate of Stratford in his portrait of
Justice Shallow, who made his first appearance in the second
part of Henry IV., and a second in the Merry Wives of Windsor.
Robert Shallow is a justice of the peace in the county of Glou-
cester and his ancestors have the dozen white luces in their
coats, the arms of the Lucys being three luces, while in Dug-
dale's Warwickshire (ed. 1656) there is drawn a coat-of-arms in
which these are repeated in each of the four quarters, making
twelve in all. There are many considerations which make it
unlikely that Shallow represents Lucy, the chief being the note-
worthy difference in their circumstances. Lucy died at Charle-
cote on the 7th of July 1600. His grandson, Sir Thomas Lucy
(1585-1640), was a friend of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and was
eulogized by John Davies of Hereford in 1610. The Charlecote
estates eventually passed to the Rev. John Hammond through
his marriage with Alice Lucy, and in 1789 he adopted the name
of Lucy.

For a detailed account of Sir Thomas Lucy, with his son and grand-
son of the same name, see Mrs C. Carmichael Slopes, Shakespeare's
Warwickshire Contemporaries (2nd ed., 1907). Cf. also an article by
Mrs Stones in the Fortnightly Review (Feb. 1903), entitled " Sir
Thomas Lucy not the Original of Justice Shallow, and J. O. Halli-
well-Phillipps, Observations on the Charlecote Traditions (Brighton,
1887).

LUDDITES, the name given to organized bands of English
rioters for the destruction of machinery, who made Iheir first
appearance in Nottingham and the neighbouring districts to-
wards the end of 1811. The origin of the name is given
in Pellew's Life of Lord Sidmouth (iii. So). In 1779 there
lived in a village in Leicestershire a person of weak intellect,
called Ned Ludd, who was the butt of the boys of the village.
On one occasion Ludd pursued one of his tormentors into a
house where were two of the frames used in stocking manufac-
ture, and, not being able to catch the boy, vented his anger on
the frames. Afterwards, whenever any frames were broken, it
became a common saying that Ludd had done it. The riots
arose out of the severe distress caused by the war with France.
The leader of the riotous bands took the name of " General
Ludd." The riols were specially direcled againsl machinery
because of the widespread prejudice that its use produced a
scarcity in the demand for labour. Apart from this prejudice,
it was inevitable that the economic and social revolution implied
in the change from manual labour to work by machinery should
give rise to great misery. The riots began with the destruction
of stocking and lace frames, and, continuing through the winter
and the following spring, spread into Yorkshire, Lancashire,
Derbyshire and Leicestershire. They were met by severe
repressive legislation, introduced by Lord Liverpool's govern-
menl, a notable feature in the opposition to which was Lord
Byron's speech in the House of Lords. In 1816 the rioting was
resumed, caused by the depression which followed the peace of
1815 and aggravated by one of the worst of recorded harvests.
In that year, although the centre of the rioting was again in
Nottingham, it extended over almost the whole kingdom. The
rioters were also thoroughly organized. While part of Ihe band
destroyed the machinery, sentinels were posled to give warning
of the approach of the military. Vigorous repressive measures,
and, especially, reviving prosperily, brought the movement
to an end.

See G. Pellew, Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, 1st
Vtscount Sidmouth (London, 1847); Spencer Walpole, History of
England, vol. i. (London, 1890); and the Annual Register for 1811.
1812 and 1816.

LUDENSCHEID, a town in the Prussian province of West-
phalia, 19 m. by rail S.S.E. of Hagen. Pop. (1905) 28,921. It

112

LUDHIANA— LUDLOW, E.

is the seat of various hardware manufactures, among them metal-
plated and tin-plated goods, buckles, fancy nails and brooches,
and has iron-foundries and machine shops. From the counts of
Altena Liidenscheid passed to the counts of the Mark, with
which district it was ceded to Brandenburg early in the I7th
century.

LUDHIANA, a town and district of British India, in the
Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is 8 m. from the
present left bank of the Sutlej, 228 m. by rail N.W. of Delhi.
Pop. (1901) 48,649. It is an important centre of trade in grain,
and has manufactures of shawls, &c., by Kashmiri weavers, and
of scarves, turbans, furniture and carriages. There is an American
Presbyterian mission, which maintains a medical school for
Christian women, founded in 1894.

The DISTRICT OF LUDHIANA lies south of the river Sutlej, and
north of the native states of Patiala, Jind, Nabha and Maler
Kotla. Area 1455 sq. m. The district consists for the most
part of a broad plain, without hills or rivers, stretching north-
ward from the native borders to the ancient bed of the Sutlej.
The soil is a rich clay, broken by large patches of shifting sand.
On the eastern edge, towards Umballa, the clay is covered by
a bed of rich mould, suitable for the cultivation of cotton and
sugar-cane. Towards the west the sand occurs in union with the
superficial clay, and forms a light friable soil, on which cereals
form the most profitable crop. Even here, however, the earth is
so retentive of moisture that good harvests are reaped from
fields which appear mere stretches of dry and sandy waste.
These southern uplands descend to the valley of the Sutlej by
an abrupt terrace, which marks the former bed of the river.
The principal stream has shifted to the opposite side of the
valley, leaving an alluvial strip, 10 m. in width, between its
ancient and its modern bed. The Sutlej itself is here only
navigable for boats of small burden. A branch of the Sirhind
canal irrigates a large part of the western area. The population
in 1901 was 673,097. The principal crops are wheat, millets,
pulse, maize and sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the main
line of the North-Western railway from Delhi to Lahore, with
two branches.

During the Mussulman epoch, the history of the district is
bound up with that of the Rais of Raikot, a family of converted
Rajputs, who received the country as a fief under the Sayyid
dynasty, about 1445. The town of Ludhiana was founded in
1480 by two of the Lodi race (then ruling at Delhi), from whom
it derives its name, and was built in great part from the pre-
historic bricks of Sunet . The Lodis continued in possession until
1620, when it again fell into the hands of the Rais of Raikot.
Throughout the palmy days of the Mogul empire the Raikot
family held sway, but the Sikhs took advantage of the troubled
period which accompanied the Mogul decadence to establish
their supremacy south of the Sutlej. Several of their chieftains
made encroachments on the domains of the Rais, who were only
able to hold their own by the aid of George Thomas, the famous
adventurer of Hariana. In 1806 Ranjit Singh crossed the Sutlej
and reduced the obstinate Mahommedan family, and distributed
their territory amongst his co-religionists. Since the British
occupation of the Punjab, Ludhiana has grown in wealth and
population.

See Ludhiana District Gazetteer (Lahore, 1907).

LUOIN6TON, a city and the county-seat of Mason county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at. the mouth of the Mar-
quette river, about 85 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900)
7166 (2259 foreign-born); (1904, state census) 7259; (1910) 9132.
It is served by the Pere Marquette, and the Ludington and
Northern railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Mil-
waukee and other lake ports. To Manitowoc, Milwaukee,
Kewanee and Two Rivers, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake
Michigan, cars, especially those of the Pere Marquette railway,
are ferried from here. Ludington was formerly well known as a
lumber centre, but this industry has greatly declined. There are
various manufactures, and the city has a large grain trade.
On the site of the city Pere Marquette died and was buried, but
his body was removed within a year to Point St Ignace. Luding-

ton was settled about 1859, and was chartered as a city in 1873.
It was originally named Pere Marquette, but was renamed in
187'! in honour of James Ludington, a local lumberman.

LUDLOW, EDMUND (c. 1617-1692), English parliamentarian,
son of Sir Henry Ludlow of Maiden Bradley, Wiltshire, whose
family had been established in that county since the isth century,
was born in 1617 or 1618. He went to Trinity College, Oxford,
and was admitted to the Inner Temple in 1 638. When the Great
Rebellion broke out, he engaged as a volunteer in the life guard
of Lord Essex. His first essay in arms was at Worcester, his next
at Edgehill. He was made governor of Wardour Castle in 1643,
but had to surrender after a tenacious defence on the i8th of
March 1644. On being exchanged soon afterwards, he engaged
as major of Sir A. Hesilrige's regiment of horse. He was present
at the second battle of Newbury, October 1644, at the siege of
Basing House in November, and took part in an expedition to
relieve Taunton in December. In January his regiment was
surprised by Sir M. Langdale, Ludlow himself escaping with
difficulty. In 1646 he was elected M.P. for Wilts in the room of
his father and attached himself to the republican party. He
opposed the negotiations with the king, and was one of the chief
promoters of Pride's Purge in 1648. He was one of the king's
judges, and signed the warrant for his execution. In February
he was elected a member of the council of state. In January
1651 Ludlow was sent into Ireland as lieutenant-general of horse,
holding also a civil commission. Here he spared neither health
nor money in the public service. Ireton, the deputy of Ireland,
died on the 26th of November 1651 ; Ludlow then held the chief
command, and had practically completed the conquest of the
island when he resigned his authority to Fleetwood in October
1652. Though disapproving Cromwell's action in dissolving the
Long Parliament, he maintained his employment, but when
Cromwell was declared Protector he declined to acknowledge
his authority. On returning to England in October 1655 he was
arrested, and on refusing to submit to the government was
allowed to retire to Essex. After Oliver Cromwell's death
Ludlow was returned for Hindon in Richard's parliament of
1659, but opposed the continuance of the protectorate. He sat
in the restored Rump, and was a member of its council of state
and of the committee of safety after its second expulsion, and a
commissioner for the nomination of officers in the army. In July
he was sent to Ireland as commander-in-chief. Returning in
October 1659, he endeavoured to support the failing republican
cause by reconciling the army to the parliament. In December
he returned hastily to Ireland to suppress a movement in favour
of the Long Parh'ament, but on arrival found himself almost
without supporters. He came back to England in January 1660,
and was met by an impeachment presented against him to
the restored parliament. His influence and authority had now
disappeared, and all chance of regaining them vanished with
Lambert's failure. He took his seat in the Convention parlia-
ment as member for Hindon, but his election was annulled on the
i8th of May. Ludlow was not excepted from the Act of In-
demnity, but was included among the fifty-two for whom punish-
ment less than capital was reserved. Accordingly, on the
proclamation of the king ordering the regicides to come in,
Ludlow emerged from his concealment, and on the 2oth of June
surrendered to the Speaker; but finding that his life was not
assured, he succeeded in escaping to Dieppe, travelled to Geneva
and Lausanne, and thence to Vevey, then under the protection
of the canton of Bern. There he remained, and in spite of plots
to assassinate him he was unmolested by the government of
that canton, which had also extended its protection to other
regicides. He steadily refused during thirty years of exile to
have anything to do with the desperate enterprises of republican
plotters. But in 1689 he returned to England, hoping to be
employed in Irish affairs. He was however remembered only
as a regicide, and an address from the House of Commons was
presented to William III. by Sir Edward Seymour, requesting
the king to issue a proclamation for his arrest. Ludlow escaped
again, and returned to Vevey, where he died in 1692. A monu-
ment raised to his memory by his widow is in the church of

LUDLOW— LUDOLF

St Martin. Over the door of the house in which he lived was
placed the inscription " Omne solum forti patria, quia Patris."
Ludlow married Elizabeth, daughter of William Thomas, of
Wenvoe, Glamorganshire, but left no issue.

His Memoirs, extending to the year 1672, were published in 1698-
1699 at Vevey and have been often reprinted; a new edition, with
notes and illustrative material and introductory memoir, was issued
by C. H. Firth in 1894. They are strongly partisan, but the picture
of the times is lifelike and realistic. Ludlow also published " a
letter from Sir Hardress Waller ... to Lieutenant-General Ludlow
with his answer " (1660), in defence of his conduct in Ireland. See
C. H. Firth's article in Diet. Nat. Biog.; Guizot's Monk's Contempo-
raries; A. Stein's Brief e Englischer Fliichtlinge in der Schweiz.

LUDLOW, a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow
parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, on the Hereford-
Shrewsbury joint line of the Great Western and London &
North Western railways, 162 m. W.N.W. from London. Pop.
(1901) 4552. It is beautifully situated at the junction of the
rivers Teme and Corve, upon and about a wooded eminence
crowned by a massive ruined castle. Parts of this castle date
from the nth century, but there are many additions such as
the late Norman circular chapel, the Decorated state rooms,
and details in Perpendicular and Tudor styles. The parish
church of St Lawrence is a cruciform Perpendicular building,
with a lofty central tower, and a noteworthy east window,
its 15th-century glass showing the martyrdom of St Lawrence.
There are many fine half-timbered houses of the i;th century,
and one of seven old town-gates remains. The grammar school,
founded in the reign of John, was incorporated by Edward I.
The principal public buildings are the guildhall, town-hall
and market-house, and public rooms, which include a museum
of natural history. Tanning and flour-milling are carried on.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors.
Area 416 acres.

The country neighbouring Ludlow is richly wooded and hilly,
while the scenery of the Teme is exquisite. Westward, Vinnal
Hill reaches 1235 ft., eastward lies Titterstone Clee (1749 ft.).
Richard's Castle, 3 m. S. on the borders of Herefordshire, dates
from the reign of Edward the Confessor, but little more than
its great artificial mound remains. At Bromfield, 3 m. above
Ludlow on the Teme, the church and some remains of domestic
buildings belonged to a Benedictine monastery of the izth
century.

Ludlow is supposed to have existed under the name of Dinan
in the time of the Britons. Eyton in his history of Shropshire
identifies it with one of the " Ludes " mentioned in the Domesday
Survey, which was held by Roger de Lacy of Osbern FitzRichard
and supposes that Roger built the castle soon after 1086, while
a chronicle of the FitzWarren family attributes the castle to
Roger earl of Shrewsbury. The manor afterwards belonged to
the Lacys, and in the beginning of the I4th century passed by
marriage to Roger de Mortimer and through him to Edward IV.
Ludlow was a borough by prescription in the I3th century,
but the burgesses owe most of their privileges to their allegiance
to the house of York. Richard, duke of York, in 1450 confirmed
their government by 1 2 burgesses and 24 assistants, and Edward
IV. on his accession incorporated them under the title of bailiffs
and burgesses, granted them the town at a fee-farm of £24, 35. 4d.,
a merchant gild and freedom from toll. Several confirmations
of this charter were granted; the last, dated 1665, continued
in force (with a short interval in the reign of James II.) until
the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. By the charter of
Edward IV. Ludlow returned 2 members to parliament, but in
1867 the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the town
was disfranchised. The market rights are claimed by the cor-
poration under the charters of Edward IV. (1461) and Edward

VI. (1552). The court of the Marches was established at Ludlow
in the reign of Henry VII., and continued to be held here until
it was abolished in the reign of William III. Ludlow castle
was granted by Edward IV. to his two sons, and by Henry

VII. to Prince Arthur, who died here in 1502. In 1634 Milton's
Comus was performed in the castle under its original style of
" A Masque presented at Ludlow Castle," before the earl of

Bridgewater, Lord President of Wales. The castle was garrisoned
in 1642 by Prince Rupert, who went there after the battle
of Naseby, but in 1646 it surrendered to Parliament and was
afterwards dismantled.

See Victoria County History, Shropshire; Thomas Wright, The
History of Ludlow and its Neighbourhood (1826).

LUDLOW GROUP, or LUDLOVTAN, in geology, the uppermost
subdivision of the Silurian rocks in Great Britain. This group
contains the following formations in descending order: —
Tilestones, Downton Castle sandstones (90 ft.), Ledbury shales
(270 ft.), Upper Ludlow rocks (140 ft.), Aymestry limestone
(up to 40 ft.), Lower Ludlow rocks (350 to 780 ft.). The Ludlow
group is essentially shaly in character, except towards the top,
where the beds become more sandy and pass gradually into the
base of the Old Red Sandstone. The Aymestry limestone,
which is irregular in thickness, is sometimes absent, and where
the underlying Wenlock limestones are absent the shales of the
Ludlow group graduate downwards into the Wenlock shales.
The group is typically developed between Ludlow and Aymestry,
and it occurs also in the detached Silurian areas between Dudley
and the mouth of the Severn.

The Lower Ludlow rocks are mainly grey, greenish and brown
mudstones and sandy and calcareous shales. They contain an
abundance of fossils. The series has been zoned by means of the
graptolites by E. M. R. Wood; the following in ascending order,
are the zonal forms : Monograptus vulgaris, M. Nilssoni. M. scanicus,
M. tumescens and M. leintwardinensis. Cyathaspis ludensis, the
earliest British vertebrate fossil, was found in these rocks at Leint-
wardine in Shropshire, a noted fossil locality. Trilobites are numerous
(Phacops caudatus, Lichas anglicus, Homolonotus delphinocephalus,
Calymene Blumenbachii) ; brachiopods (Leptaena rhomboidalis,
Rhynchonella Wilsoni, Atrypa reticularis) , pelecypods (Cardiola
interrupta, Ctenodonta sulcata) and gasteropods and cephalopods
(many species of Orthoceras and also Gomphoceras, Trochoceras) are
well represented. Other fossils are Ceratiocaris , Pterygotus, Protaster,
Palaeocoma and Palaeodiscus.

The Upper Ludlow rocks are mainly soft mudstones and shales with
some harder sandy beds capable of being worked as building-stones.
These sandy beds are often found covered with ripple-marks and
annelid tracks; one of the uppermost sandy layers is known as the
" Fucoid bed " from the abundance of the seaweed-like impressions
it bears. At the top of this sub-group, near Ludlow, a brown layer
occurs, from a quarter of an inch to 4 in. in thickness, full of the frag-
mentary remains of fish associated with those of Pterygotus and mol-
lusca. This layer, known as the " Ludlow Bone bed," has been
traced over a very large area (see BONE BED). The common fossils
include plants (Actinophyllum, Chondrites), ostracods, phyllocarids,
eurypterids, trilobites (less common than in the older groups),
numerous brachiopods (Lingula minima, Chonetes striatella), gastero-
pods, pelecypods and cephalopods (Orthoceras bullatum). Fish
include Cephalaspis, Cyathaspis, Auchenaspis. The Tilestones,
Downton Castle Sandstone and Ledbury shales are occasionally
grouped together under the term Downtonian. They are in reality
passage beds between the Silurian and Old Red Sandstone, and were
originally placed in the latter system by Sir R. I. Murchison. They
are mostly grey, yellow or red micaceous, shaly sandstones. Lingula
cornea, Platyschisma helicites and numerous phyllocarids and ostra-
cods occur among the fossils.

In Denbighshire and Merionethshire the upper portion of the
Denbighshire Grits belongs to this horizon: viz. those from
below upwards, the Nantglyn Flags, the Upper Grit beds, the Mono-
graptus leintwardinensis beds and the Dinas Bran beds. In the
Silurian area of the Lake district the Coldwell beds, forming the upper
part of the Coniston Flags, are the equivalents of the Lower Ludlow;
they are succeeded by the Coniston Grits (4000 ft.), the Bannisdale
Slates (5200 ft.) and the Kirkby Moor Flags (2000 ft.).

In the Silurian areas of southern Scotland, the Ludlow rocks are
represented in the Kirkcudbright Shore and Riccarton district by the
Raeberry Castle beds and Balmae Grits (500-750 ft.). In the northern
belt — Lanarkshire and the Pentland Hills — the lower portion (or
Ludlovian) consists of mudstones, flaggy shales and greywackes;
but the upper (or Downtonian) part is made up principally of thick
red and yellow sandstones and conglomerates with green mudstones.
The Ludlow rocks of Ireland include the " Salrock beds " of County
Galway and the " Croagmarhin beds " of Dingle promontory.

See SILURIAN, and, for recent papers, the Q.J. Geol. Soc. (London)
and Geological Literature (Geol. Soc., London) annual.

LUDOLF (or LEUTHOLF), HIOB (1624-1704), German orienta-
list, was born at Erfurt on the isth of June 1624. After
studying philology at the Erfurt academy and at Leiden, he
travelled in order to increase his linguistic knowledge. While
in Italy he became acquainted with one Gregorius, an Abyssinian

LUDWIG, K. F. W.— LUDWIGSBURG

scholar, and acquired from him an intimate knowledge of the
Ethiopian language. In 1652 he entered the service of the duke
of Saxe-Gotha, in which he continued until 1678, when he retired
to Frankfort-on-Main. In 1683 he visited England to promote
a cherished scheme for establishing trade with Abyssinia, but
his efforts were unsuccessful, chiefly through the bigotry of the
authorities of the Abyssinian Church. Returning to Frankfort
in 1684, he gave himself wholly to literary work, which he con-
tinued almost to his death on the 8th of April 1704. In 1690
he was appointed president of the collegium imperiale historicum.

The works of Ludolf, who is said to have been acquainted with
twenty-five languages, include Sciagraphia historiae aethiopicae
(Jena, 1676); and the Historic, aethiopica (Frankfort, 1681), which
has been translated into English, French and Dutch, and which was
supplemented by a Commentarius .(1691) and by Appendices (1693-
1694). Among his other works are: Grammatica linguae amharicae
(Frankfort, 1698); Lexicon amharico-latinum (Frankfort, 1698);
Lexicon aethiopico-latinum (Frankfort, 1699) ; and Grammatica
aethiopica (London, 1661, and Frankfort, 1702). In his Grammalik
der athiopischen Sprache (1857) August Dillmann throws doubt on
the story of Ludolf's intimacy with Gregorius.

See C. Juncker, Commentarius de vita et scriptis Jobi Ludolfi
(Frankfort, 1710); L. Diestel, Geschichte des alien Testaments in der
christtichen Kirche (Jena, 1868); and J. Flemming, " Hiob Ludolf,"
in the Beitrage zur Assyriologie (Leipzig, 1890—1891).

LUDWI6, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816-1895),
German physiologist, was born at Witzenhausen, near Cassel, on
the 2gth of December 1816. He studied medicine at Erlangen
and Marburg, taking his doctor's degree at Marburg in 1839.
He made Marburg his home for the next ten years, studying
and teaching anatomy and physiology, first as prosector to
F. L. Fick (1841), then as privat-doccnt (1842), and finally as
extraordinary professor (1846). In 1849 he was chosen professor
of anatomy and physiology at Zurich, and six years afterwards
he went to Vienna as professor in the Josephinum (school for
military surgeons). In 1865 he was appointed to the newly
created chair of physiology at Leipzig, and continued there
until his death on the 23rd of April 1895. Ludwig's name is
prominent in the history of physiology, and he had a large share
in bringing about the change in the method of that science
which took place about the middle of the igth century. With his
friends H. von Helmholtz, E. W. Briicke and E. Du Bois-
Reymond, whom he met tor the first time in Berlin in 1847,
he rejected the assumption that the phenomena of living animals
depend on special biological laws and vital forces different from
those which operate in the domain of inorganic nature; and he
sought to explain them by reference to the same laws as are
applicable in the case of physical and chemical phenomena.
This point of view was expressed in his celebrated Text-book
of Human Physiology (1852-1856), but it is as evident in his
earliest paper (1842) on the process of urinary secretion as in
all his subsequent work/ Ludwig exercised enormous influence
on the progress of physiology, not only by the discoveries he
made, but also by the new methods and apparatus he introduced
to its service. Thus in regard to secretion, he showed that
secretory glands, such as the submaxillary, are more than mere
filters, and that their secretory action is attended by chemical
and thermal changes both in themselves and in the blood passing
through them. He demonstrated the existence of a new class
of secretory nerves that control this action, and by showing
that if the nerves are appropriately stimulated the salivary glands
continue to secrete, even though the animal be decapitated, he
initiated the method of experimenting with excised organs.
He devised the kymograph as a means of obtaining a written
record of the variations in the pressure of the blood in the blood-
vessels; and this apparatus not only conducted him to many
important conclusions respecting the mechanics of the circulation,
but afforded the first instance of the use of the graphic method
in physiological inquiries. For the purpose of his researches
on the gases in the blood, he designed the mercurial blood-pump
which in various modifications has come into extensive use,
and by its aid he made many investigations on the gases of the
lymph, the gaseous interchanges in living muscle, the significance
of oxidized material in the blood, &c. There is indeed scarcely
any branch of physiology, except the physiology of the senses,

to which he did not make important contributions. He was also
a great power as a teacher and the founder of a school. Under
him the Physiological Institute at Leipzig became an organized
centre of physiological research, whence issued a steady stream
of original work; and though the papers containing the results
usually bore the name of his pupils only, every investigation
was inspired by him and carried out under his personal direction.
Thus his pupils gained a practical acquaintance with his methods
and ways of thought, and, coming from all parts of Europe,
they returned to their own countries to spread and extend his
doctrines. Possessed himself of extraordinary manipulative
skill, he abhorred rough and clumsy work, and he insisted that
experiments on animals should be planned and prepared with
the utmost care, not only to avoid the infliction of pain (which
was also guarded against by the use of an anaesthetic), but to
ensure that the deductions drawn from them should have their
full scientific value.

LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865), German dramatist, novelist
and critic, was born at Eisfeld in Thuringia, on the nth of
February 1813. His father, who was syndic of Eisfeld, died when
the boy was twelve years old, and he was brought up amidst
uncongenial conditions. He had devoted his leisure to poetry
and music, which unfitted him for the mercantile career planned
for him. The attention of the duke of Meiningen was directed
to one of his musical compositions, an opera, Die KMerin, and
Ludwig was enabled in 1839 to continue his musical studies under
Mendelssohn in Leipzig. But ill-health and constitutional
shyness caused him to give up a musical career, and he turned
exclusively to literary studies, and wrote several stories and
dramas. Of the latter, Der Erbforster (1850) attracted immediatf
attention as a masterly psychological study. It was followed
by Die Makkabaer (1852), in which the realistic method of
Der Erbforster was transferred to an historical milieu, which
allowed more brilliant colouring and a freer play of the imagina-
tion. With these tragedies, to which may be added Die Rechte
des Herzens and Das Friiulein von Scuderi, the comedy Hans
Frey, and an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Agnes
Bernauer, Ludwig ranks immediately after Hebbel as Germany's
most notable dramatic poet at the middle of the igth century.
Meanwhile he had married and settled permanently in Dresden,
where he turned his attention to fiction. He published a
series of admirable stories of Thuringian life, characterized by
the same attention to minute detail and careful psychological
analysis as his dramas. The best of these are Die Heiteretei
und ihr Widerspiel (1851), and Ludwig's masterpiece, the power-
ful novel, Zwischen Himmel und Erde (1855) . In his Shakespeare-
Studien (not published until 1891) Ludwig showed himself a dis-
criminating critic, with a fine insight into the hidden springs of
the creative imagination. So great, however, was his enthusiasm
for Shakespeare, that he was led to depreciate Schiller in a way
which found little favour among his countrymen. He died at
Dresden on the 25th of February 1865.

Ludwig's Gesammelte Schriften were published by A. Stern and
E. Schmidt in 6 vols. (1891-1892) ; also by A. Bartels (6 vols., 1900).
See A. Stern, Otto Ludwig, ein Dicnierleben (1891; 2nd ed., 1906),
and A. Sauer, Otto Ludwig (1893).

LUDWIGSBURG, a town in the kingdom of Wurttemberg,
9 m. to the N. of Stuttgart by rail and ij m. from the river
Neckar. Pop. (1905) 23,093. It was founded and laid out at
the beginning of the i8th century by the duke of Wurttemberg,
Eberhard Louis, and was enlarged and improved by Duke
Charles Eugene. Constructed as the adjunct of a palace the town
bears the impress of its origin, with its straight streets and spacious
squares. It is now mainly important as the chief military
depot in Wurttemberg. The royal palace, one of the finest in
Germany, stands in a beautiful park and contains a portrait
gallery and the burial vault of the rulers of Wurttemberg. The
industries include the manufacture of organs and pianos, of cotton,
woollen and linen goods, of chemicals, iron and wire goods, and
brewing and brick-making. In the vicinity is the beautiful
royal residence of Monrepos, which is connected with the park
of Ludwigsburg by a fine avenue of lime trees. From 1758 to

LUDWIGSHAFEN— LUGARD

1824 the town was famous for the production of a special kind
of porcelain.

See Belschner, Ludwigsburg in zwei Jahrhunderlen (Ludwigsburg,
1904).

LUDWIGSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian
Palatinate, on the left bank of the Rhine, immediately opposite
to Mannheim, with which it is connected by a steam ferry and
a railway bridge. Pop. (1885) 21,042, (1900) 61,905, (1905)
72,168. It has an increasing trade in iron, timber, coal and
agricultural products, a trade which is fostered by a harbour
opened in 1897; and also large factories for making aniline dyes
and soda. Other industries are the manufacture of cellulose,
artificial manure, flour and malt; and there are saw-mills, iron
foundries and breweries in the town. The place, which was
founded in 1843 by Louis I., king of Bavaria, was only made a
town in 1859.

See J. E,ssc\born,Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen (Ludwigshafen,
1888).

LUDWIGSLUST, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 22 m. by rail S. by E. of Schwerin.
Pop. (1905) 6728. The castle was built by the duke of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Frederick II., in 1772-1776. There 'is
also another ducal residence, a fine park and a monument of
the grand duke, Frederick Francis I. (d. 1837). The town has
a church constructed on the model of a Greek temple. It has
manufactures of chemicals and other small industries. Ludwigs-
lust was founded by the duke Frederick, being named
after this duke's father, Christian Louis II. It became a town
in 1876.

LUG, a verb meaning to pull a heavy object, to drag, now
mainly used colloquially. It is probably Scandinavian in origin ;
the Swedish lugg, forelock, lock of hair, gives lugga, to pull,
tug; and " lug " in some north-eastern English dialects is still
chiefly used in the sense of pulling a person's hair. " Luggage,"
passengers' baggage, means by origin that which has to be
" lugged " about. The Scandinavian word may be also the
source of " lug," in the sense of " ear," in Scotland the regular
dialectical word, and in English commonly applied to the ear-
shaped handles of metal or earthenware pots, pitchers, &c. If
so the word means something that can be pulled or tugged. This
is also possibly the origin of the " lug " or " lug-sail," a four-
sided sail attached to a yard which is hung obliquely to the mast,
whence probably the name " lugger " of a sailing-vessel with
two or three masts and fore and aft lug-sails. The word may,
however, be connected with the Dutch logger, a fishing-boat
using drag-nets. " Lug " is also the name of a marine worm,
Arenicola marina, used as bait.

LUGANO (Ger. Lauis), the most populous and most thriving
town in the Swiss canton of Ticino or Tessin, situated (906 ft.)
on the northern shore of the lake of Lugano. Pop. (1900) 9394,
almost all Italian-speaking and Romanists. To the S. it
is dominated by the Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) and on the
S.E. (across the lake) by the Monte Generoso (5591 ft.) — a
magnificent view point. Both mountains are accessible by
railways. By rail Lugano is 124 m. from Lucerne and 515 m.
from Milan. Situated on the main St Gotthard railway line,
Lugano is now easily reached, so that it is much frequented
by visitors (largely German) in spring and in autumn. Though
politically Swiss since 1512, Lugano is thoroughly Italian in
appearance and character. Of recent years many improvements
have been made in the town, which has two important suburbs —
Paradiso to the south and Cassarate to the east. The railway
station (1109 ft.) is above the town, and is connected with the
fine quays by a funicular railway. On the main quay is a statue
of William Tell by the sculptor Vincenzo Vela (1820-1891),
a native of the town, while other works by him are in the gardens
of private villas in the neighbourhood. The principal church,
San Lorenzo, in part dates back earlier than the 15th century,
while its richly sculptured facade bears the figures 1517. This
church is now the cathedral church of the bishop of Lugano,
a see erected in 1888, with jurisdiction over the Italian parts
of Switzerland. The church of Santa Maria degli Angioli, built

about 1499, and till 1848 occupied by Franciscans, contains
several very fine frescoes (particularly a Crucifixion) painted 1529-
1 530 by Bernardino Luini. A gallery containing modern pictures
has been built on the site of the old palace of the bishops of Como.
During the struggle of 1848-1866 to expel the Austrians from
Lombardy, Lugano served as headquarters for Mazzini and his
followers. Books and tracts intended for distribution in Italy
were produced there and at Capolago (9 m. distant, at the S.E.
end of the lake), and the efforts of the Austrian police to prevent
their circulation were completely powerless. (W. A. B. C.)

LUGANO, LAKE OF (also called CERESIO), one of the smaller
lakes in Lombardy, N. Italy, lying between Lago Maggiore (W.)
and the Lake of Como (E). It is of very irregular shape, the
great promontory of Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) nearly cutting
off the western arm from the main lake. The whole lake has an
area of 19^ sq. m., its greatest length is about 22 m., its greatest
width 2 m., and its greatest depth 945 ft., while its surface is
899 ft. above sea-level. Between Melide (S. of the town of
Lugano) and Maroggia (on the east shore) the lake is so shallow
that a great stone dam has been built across for the St Gotthard
railway line and the carriage road. The chief town is Lugano
(at its northern end), which by the St Gotthard line is 19 m. from
BeUinzona and 9 m. from Capolago, the station at the south-
eastern extremity of the lake, which is but 8 m. by rail from
Como. At the south-western extremity a railway leads S.W.
from Porto Ceresio to Varese (9 m.). Porlezza, at the east end
of the lake, is 8 m. by rail from Menaggio on the Lake of Como,
while Ponte Tresa, at the west end of the lake, is about the same
distance by a steam tramway from Luino on Lago Maggiore.
Of the total area of the lake, about 75 sq. m. are in the Swiss
Canton of Ticino (Tessin), formed in 1803 out of the conquests
made by the Swiss from the Milanese in 1512. The remainder
of the area is in Italy. The lake lies among the outer spurs
of the Alps that divide the Ticino (Tessin) basin from that of
the Adda, where the calcareous strata have been disturbed by
the intrusion of porphyry and other igneous rocks. It is not
connected with any considerable valley, but is fed by numerous
torrents issuing from short glens in the surrounding mountains,
while it is drained by the Tresa, an unimportant stream flowing
into Lago Maggiore. The first steamer was placed on the lake
in 1856. (W. A. B. C.)

LUGANSK (also LUGAN and LUGANSKIY ZAv5o), a town of
southern Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav. Pop.
(1900) 34,175. It has a technical railway school and a meteoro-
logical observatory, stands on the small river Lugan, 10 m. from
its confluence with the northern Donets, in the Lugan mining
district, 213 m. E. of the city of Ekaterinoslav, and has prospered
greatly since 1890. This district, which comprises the coal-
mines of Lisichansk and the anthracite mines of Gorodishche,
occupies about 110,000 acres on the banks of the Donets river.
Although it is mentioned in the i6th century, and coal was dis-
covered there at the time of Peter the Great, it was not until
1795 that an Englishman, Gascoyne or Gaskoin, established
its first iron-works for supplying the Black Sea fleet and the
southern fortresses with guns and shot. This proved a failure,
owing to the great distance from the sea; but during the Crimean
War the iron-works of Lugan again produced shot, shell and gun-
carriages. Since 1864 agricultural implements, steam-engines,
and machinery for beetroot sugar-works, distilleries, &c., have
been the chief manufactures. There is an active trade in
cattle, tallow, wools, skins, linseed, wine, corn and manufactured
wares.

LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY (1858- ),
British soldier, African explorer and administrator, son of the
Rev. F. G. Lugard, was born on the 22nd of January 1858. He
entered the army in 1878, joining the Norfolk regiment. He served
in the Afghan War of 1870-80, in the Sudan campaign of 1884-85,
and in Burma in 1886-87. In May 1888, while on temporary
half-pay, he took command of an expedition organized by the
British settlers in Nyasaland against the Arab slave traders
on Lake Nyasa, and was severely wounded. He left Nyasaland
in April 1889, and in the same year was engaged by the Imperial

n6

LUGO— LUGUDUNUM

British East Africa Company. In their service he explored the
Sabaki river and the neighbouring region, and elaborated a scheme
for the emancipation of the slaves held by the Arabs in the
Zanzibar mainland. In 1890 he was sent by the company to
Uganda, where he secured British predominance and put an end
to the civil disturbances, though not without severe fighting,
chiefly notable for an unprovoked attack by the " French "
on the " British " faction. While administering Uganda he
journeyed round Ruwenzori to Albert Edward Nyanza, mapping
a large area of the country. He also visited Albert Nyanza, and
brought away some thousands of Sudanese who had been left
there by Emin Pasha and H. M. Stanley. In 1892 Lugard
returned to England, where he successfully opposed the abandon-
ment of Uganda by Great Britain, a step then contemplated
by the fourth Gladstone administration. In 1894 Lugard was
despatched by the Royal Niger Company to Borgu, where,
distancing his French and German rivals in a country up to then
unvisited by any Europeans, he secured treaties with the kings
and chiefs acknowledging the sovereignty of the British company.
In 1896-1897 he took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami
on behalf of the British West Charterland Company. From
Ngami he was recalled by the British government and sent to
West Africa, where he was commissioned to raise a native
force to protect British interests in the hinterland of Lagos and
Nigeria against French aggression. In August 1897 he raised the
West African Frontier Force, and commanded it until the end
of December 1899. The differences with France were then com-
posed, and, the Royal Niger Company having surrendered its
charter, Lugard was chosen as high commissioner of Northern
Nigeria. The part of Northern Nigeria under effective control
was small, and Lugard's task in organizing this vast territory
was rendered more difficult by the refusal of the sultan of Sokoto
and many other Fula princes to fulfil their treaty obligations.
In 1903 a successful campaign against the emir of Kano and the
sultan of Sokoto rendered the extension of British control over
the whole protectorate possible, and when in September 1906
he resigned his commissionership, the whole country was being
peacefully administered under the supervision of British residents
(see NIGERIA). In April 1907 he was appointed governor of
Hong-Kong. Lugard was created a C.B. in 1895 and a K.C.M.G.
in 1901. He became a colonel in 1905, and held the local rank
of brigadier-general. He married in 1902 Flora Louise Shaw
(daughter of Major-General George Shaw, C.B., R.A.), who for
some years had been a distinguished writer on colonial subjects
for The Times. Sir Frederick (then Captain) Lugard published
in 1893 The Rise of our East African Empire (partly auto-bio-
graphical), and was the author of various valuable reports
on Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office. Throughout
his African administrations Lugard sought strenuously to secure
the amelioration of the condition of the native races, among
other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of alcoholic
liquors, and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery.

LUGO, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in
1833 of districts taken from the old province of Galicia, and
bounded N. by the Atlantic, E. by Oviedo and Leon, S. by
Orense, and W. by Pontevedra and Corunna. Pop. (1900)
465,386; area, 3814 sq. m. The coast, which extends for about
40 m. from the estuary of Rivadeo to Cape de Vares, is extremely
rugged and inaccessible, and few of the inlets, except those of
Rivadeo and Vivero, admit large vessels. The province, especi-
ally in the north and east, is mountainous, being traversed by the
Cantabrian chain and its offshoots; the sierra which separates
it from Leon attains in places a height of 6000 ft. A large part
of the area is drained by the Mino. This river, formed by the
meeting of many smaller streams in the northern half of the
province, follows a southerly direction until joined by the Sil,
which for a considerable distance forms the southern boundary.
Of the rivers flowing north into the Atlantic, the most important
are the Navia, which has its lower course through Oviedo; the
Eo, for some distance the boundary between the two provinces;
the Masma, the Oro and the Landrove.

Some of the valleys of Lugo are fertile, and yield not only corn

but fruit and wine. The principal agricultural wealth, however,
is on the Mino and Sil, where rye, maize, wheat, flax, hemp and
a little silk are produced. Agriculture is in a very backward
condition, mainly owing to the extreme division of land that
prevails throughout Galicia. The exportation of cattle to Great
Britain, formerly a flourishing trade, was ruined by American
and Australian competition. Iron is found at Caurel and Incio,
arsenic at Castroverde and Cervantes, argentiferous lead at
Riotorto; but, although small quantities of iron and arsenic
are exported from Rivadeo, frequent strikes and lack of transport
greatly impeded the development of mining in the earlier years of
the 2oth century. There are also quarries of granite, marble and
various kinds of slate and building-stone. The only important
manufacturing industries are those connected with leather,
preserves, coarse woollen and linen stuffs, timber and osier work.
About 250 coasting vessels are registered at the ports, and about
as many boats constitute the fishing fleet, which brings in
lampreys, soles, tunny and sardines, the last two being salted
and tinned for export. The means of communication are
insufficient, though there are over 100 m. of first-class roads,
and the railways from Madrid and northern Portugal to Corunna
run through the province.

Lugo the capital (pop. 1900, 26,959) and the important towns of
Chantada (15,003), Fonsagrada (17,302), Mondonedo (10,590),
Monforte (12,912), Panton (12,988), Villalba (13,572) and Viyero
(12,843) are described in separate articles. The province contained
in 1900 twenty-six towns of more than 7000 inhabitants, the
largest being Sarria (11,998) and Savinao (11,182). For a general
description of the people and the history of this region see GALICIA.

LUGO, capital of the above Spanish province, is situated on
the left bank of the river Mino and on the railway from Corunna
to Madrid. Pop. (1900) 26,959. Lugo is an episcopal see, and was
formerly the capital of Gah'cia. Suburbs have grown up round
the original town, the form of which, nearly quadrangular, is
defined by a massive Roman wall 30 to 40 ft. high and 20 ft.
thick, with projecting semicircular towers which numbered 85
as late as 1809, when parts of the fortifications were destroyed
by the French. The wall now serves as a promenade. The
Gothic cathedral, on the south side of the town, dates from the
1 2th century, but was modernized in the 1 8th, and possesses
no special architectural merit. The conventual church of Santo
Domingo dates from the i4th century. The principal industries
are tanning, and the manufacture of linen and woollen cloth.
About i m. S., on the left bank of the Mino, are the famous hot
sulphur baths of Lugo.

Lugo (Lucus Augusti) was a flourishing city under Roman rule
(c. 19 B.C.-A.D. 409) and was made by Augustus the seat of a
comientus juridicus (assize). Its sulphur baths were even then
well known. It was sacked by barbarian invaders in the 5th
century, and suffered greatly in the Moorish wars of the 8th
century. The bishopric dates from a very early period, and it
it said to have acquired metropolitan rank in the middle of the
6th century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of Santiago
de Compostela.

LUGOS, the capital of the county of Krasso-Szoreny, Hungary,
225 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,126. It is
situated on both banks of the river Temes, which divides the
town in two quarters, the Rumanian on the right and the German
on the left bank. It is the seat of a Greek-United (Rumanian)
bishop. Lugos carries on an active trade in wine, and has several
important fairs, while the surrounding country, which is moun-
tainous and well-wooded, produces large quantities of grapes
and plums. Lugos was once a strongly fortified place and of
greater relative importance than at present. It was the last
seat of the Hungarian revolutionary government (August 1849),
and the last resort of Kossuth and several other leaders of the
national cause, previous to their escape to Turkey.

LUGUOUNUM, or LUGDUNUM, an old Celtic place-name (fort
or hill of the god Lugos or Lug) used by the Romans for several
towns in ancient Gaul. The most important was the town at
the confluence of the Sa6ne and Rhone now called Lyons (?.».).
This place had in Roman times two elements. One was a Roman
colonia (municipality of Roman citizens, self-governing) situated

LUINI— LUKE

117

on the hill near the present Fourvieres (Forum velus). The other,
territorially distinct from it for reasons of statecraft, was the
Temple of Roma and Augustus, to which the inhabitants of the
64 Gallic cantons in the three Roman provinces of Aquitania,
Lugudunensis and Belgica — the so-called Tres Galliae — sent
delegates every summer to hold games and otherwise celebrate
the worship of the emperor which was supposed to knit the
provincials to Rome. The two elements together composed the
most important town of western Europe in Roman times.
Lugudunum controlled the trade of its two rivers, and that which
passed from northern Gaul to the Mediterranean or vice versa;
it had a mint; it was the capital of all northern Gaul, despite its
position in the south, and its wealth was such that, when Rome
was burnt in Nero's reign, its inhabitants subscribed largely to
the relief of the Eternal City. (F. J. H.)

LUINI, BERNARDINO (?i46s-?iS4o), the most celebrated
master of the Lombard school of painting founded upon the
style of Leonardo da Vinci, was born at Luino, a village on Lago
Maggiore. He wrote his name as " Bernardin Lovino," but the
spelling " Luini " is now generally adopted. Few facts are known
regarding his life, and imtil a comparatively recent date many
even of his works had, in the lapse of years and laxity of attribu-
tion, got assigned to Leonardo da Vinci. It appears that Luini
studied painting at Vercelli under Giovenone, or perhaps under
Stephano Scotto. He reached Milan either after the departure
of Da Vinci in 1500, or shortly before that event; it is thus
uncertain whether or not the two artists had any personal
acquaintance, but Luini was at any rate in the painting-school
established in Milan by the great Florentine. In the later
works of Luini a certain influence from the style of Raphael is
superadded to that, far more prominent and fundamental, from
the style of Leonardo; but there is nothing to show that he ever
visited Rome. His two sons are the only pupils who have with
confidence been assigned to him; and even this can scarcely be
true of the younger, who was born in 1530, when Bernardino,
was well advanced in years. Guadenzio Ferrari has also been
termed his disciple. One of the sons, E\ angelista, has left little
which can now be identified; the other, Aurelio, was accom-
plished in perspective and landscape work. There was likewise a
brother of Bernardino, named Ambrogio, a competent painter.
Bernardino, who hardly ever left Lombardy, had some merit as a
poet, and is said to have composed a treatise on painting. The
precise date of his death is unknown; he may perhaps have
survived till about 1540. A serene, contented and happy mind,
naturally expressing itself in forms of grace and beauty, seems
stamped upon all the works of Luini. The same character is
traceable in his portrait, painted in an upper group in his fresco of
" Christ crowned with Thorns " in the Ambrosian library in Milan
— a venerable bearded personage. The only anecdote which has
been preserved of him tells a similar tale. It is said that for the
single figures of saints in the church at Saronno he received a
sum equal to 22 francs per day, along with wine, bread and
lodging; and he was so well satisfied with this remuneration that,
in completing the commission, he painted a Nativity for nothing.

A dignified suavity is the most marked characteristic of
Luini's works. They are constantly beautiful, with a beauty
which depends at least as much upon the loving self-withdrawn
expression as upon the mere refinement and attractiveness of
form. This quality of expression appears in all Luini's produc-
tions, whether secular or sacred, and imbues the latter with
a peculiarly religious grace — not ecclesiastical unction, but the
devoutness of the heart. His heads, while extremely like those
painted by Leonardo, have less subtlety and involution and less
variety of expression, but fully as much amenity. He began
indeed with a somewhat dry style, as in the " Pieta " in the
church of the Passione; but this soon developed into the quality
which distinguishes all his most renowned works; although his
execution, especially as regards modelling, was never absolutely
equal to that of Leonardo. Luini's paintings do not exhibit an
impetuous style of execution, and certainly not a negligent one;
yet it appears that he was in fact a very rapid worker, as his
picture of the " Crowning with Thorns," painted for the College

del S. Sepolcro, and containing a large number of figures, is
recorded to have occupied him only thirty-eight days, to which
an assistant added eleven. His method was simple and ex-
peditious, the shadows being painted with the pure colour laid on
thick, while the lights are of the same colour thinly used, and
mixed with a little white. The frescoes exhibit more freedom
of hand than the oil pictures; and they are on the whole less like
the work of Da Vinci, having at an early date a certain resem-
blance to the style of Mantegna, as later on to that of Raphael.
Luini's colouring is mostly rich, and his light and shade forcible.

Among his principal works the following are to be mentioned.
At Saronno are frescoes painted towards 1525, representing the life
of the Madonna — her " Marriage," the " Presentation of the Infant
Saviour in the Temple," the " Adoration of the Magi " and other
incidents. His own portrait appears in the subject of the youthful
" Jesus with the Doctors in the Temple." This series — in which some
comparatively archaic details occur, such as gilded nimbuses — was
partly repeated from one which Luini had executed towards 1520
in S. Croce. In the Brera Gallery, Milan, are frescoes from the
suppressed church of La Pace and the Convent della Felucca — the
former treating subjects from the life of the Virgin, the latter, of
a classic kind, more decorative in manner. The subject of girls
playing at the game of " hot-cockles," and that of three angels
depositing St Catherine in her sepulchre, are particularly memorable,
each of them a work of perfect charm and grace in its way. In the
Casa Silva, Milan, are frescoes from Ovias Metamorphoses. The
Monastero Maggiore of Milan (or church of S. Maurizio) is a noble
treasure-house of Luini's art — including a large Crucifixion, with
about one hundred and forty figures; " Christ bound to the
Column," between figures of Saints Catherine and Stephen, and
the founder of the chapel kneeling before Catherine; the martyr-
dom of this saint; the " Entombment of Christ," and a large
number of other subjects. In the Ambrosian library is the fresco
(already mentioned), covering one entire wall of the Sala della S.
Corona, of " Christ crowned with Thorns," with two executioners,
and on each side six members of a confraternity ; in the same building
the "Infant Baptist playing with a Lamb"; in the Brera, the
" Virgin Enthroned, with Saints " (dated 1521); in the Louvre, the
" Daughter of Herodias receiving the Head of the Baptist "; in the
Esterhazy Gallery, Vienna, the " Virgin between Saints Catherine
and Barbara "; in the National Gallery, London, " Christ disputing
with the Doctors " (or rather, perhaps, the Pharisees). Many or
most of these gallery pictures used to pass for the handiwork of Da
Vinci. The same is the case with the highly celebrated " Vanity and
Modesty " in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, which also may nevertheless
in all probability be assigned to Luini. Another singularly beautiful
picture by him is in the Royal Palace in Milan — a large composition
of " Women Bathing." That Luini was also pre-eminent as a decora-
tive artist is shown by his works in the Certosa of Pavia.

A good account of Luini by Dr G. C. Williamson was published in
1900. (W. M. R.)

LUKE, the traditional author of the third Gospel and of the
Book of Acts, and the most literary among the writers of the
New Testament. He alone, too, was of non-Jewish origin
(Col. iv. ii, 14), a fact of great interest in relation to his writings.
His name, a more familiar form of Lucanus (cf. Silas for Silvanus,
Acts xvii. 4, i Thess. i. i, and see Encycl. Bibl. s.v., for instances
of Aouxas on Egyptian inscriptions), taken together with his
profession of physician (Col. iv. 14), suggests that he was son of
a Greek freedman possibly connected with Lucania in south
Italy; and as Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to all
physicians in Rome (Sueton. Jul. 42), Luke may even have
inherited this status from his father. But in any case such a man
would have the attitude to things Roman which appears in the
works attributed to Luke. He was a fellow-worker of Paul's
when in Rome (Philemon 24), where he seems to have remained
in constant attendance on his leader, as physician as well as
attached friend (Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. n). That Luke, before
he became a Christian, was an adherent of the synagogue —
not a full proselyte, but one of those " worshippers " of God to
whom Acts makes frequent reference — is fairly certain from the
familiarity with the Septuagint indicated in Acts, as well as from
its sympathy with the Hellenistic type of piety as distinct from
specific Paulinism, of which there is but little trace.

The earliest extra-biblical reference to him is perhaps in the
Muratonian Canon, which implies that his name already stood in
MSS. of both Gospel (probably so even in Marcion's day) and
Acts, and says that Paul took him for his companion quasi ut
juris studiosum (" as being a student of law "). Here juris is
almost certainly corrupt; and whether we take the sense to have

n8

LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST

been " as being devoted to travel " (ut juris = itineris) or " as
skilled in disease " (voaov passing into vbfj.ov in the Greek
original), it is probably a mere inference from biblical data.
Beyond references in Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria (cf.
HEBREWS) and Tertullian, which add nothing to our knowledge,
we have the belief to which Origen (Horn. i. in Lucam) witnesses
as existing in his day, that Luke was the " brother " of 2 Cor. viii.
18, " whose praise in the Gospel " (as preached) was " throughout
all the churches." Though the basis of the identification be a
mistake, yet that this " brother," " who was also appointed by
the churches (note the generality of this) to travel with us in the
matter of the charity," was none other than Paul's constant
companion Luke is quite likely; e.g. he seems to have been
almost the only non-Macedonian (as demanded by 2 Cor. ix. 2-4)
of Paul's circle available1 at the time (see Acts xx. 4). Our
next witness, a prologue to the Lucan writings (originally in
Greek, now known only in Latin, see Nov. Test. Latine (Oxford),
I. iii., II. i.), perhaps preserves a genuine tradition in stating
that Luke died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four. It is
hard to see why this should be fiction, which usually took the
form of martyrdom, as in a later tradition touching his end.
The same prologue, and indeed all early tradition, connects him
originally with Antioch (see Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iii. 4, 6, possibly
after Julius Africanus in the first half of the 3rd century).

That he was actually a native of Antioch is as doubtful as the
statement that he was a Syrian by race (Prologue). But internal
evidence bears out the view that he practised his profession in
Antioch, where (or in Tarsus) he probably first met Paul. Whether
any of his information in Acts as to the Gospel in Antioch (xi. 19 ff.,
xiu. i ff., xiv. 26-xv. 35) was due to an Antiochene document used
by him (cf. A. Harnack, The Acts of the Apostles, 245 ff.) or not,
tl.is knowledge in any case suggests Luke's connexion with that
church. He shows, too, local knowledge on points unlikely to have
stood in any such source (e.g. it was in Antioch that the name
" Christians " was first coined, xi. 26), which points to his share in
early Church life there. The Bezan reading in Acts xi. 27, " when
we were assembled," may imply memory of this.

But while Luke probably met Paul in Antioch, and thence started
with him on his second great missionary enterprise (xv. 36 ff.), partly
at least as his medical attendant (cf. Gal. iv. 13), it is possible that
he had also some special connexion with the north-eastern part of
the Aegean. Sir W. M. Ramsay and others fancy that Luke's
original home was Philippi, and that in fact he may have been the
" certain Macedonian " seen in vision by Paul at Troas, inviting
help for his countrymen (xvi. 9 f.). But this is as precarious as the
view that, because "we" ceases at Philippi in xvi. 17, and then re-
emerges in xx. 6, Luke must have resided there during all the interval.
The use and disuse of the first person plural, identifying Paul and
his party, has probably a more subtle and psychological1 meaning
(see ACTS). The local connexion in question may have been subse-
quent to that with Antioch, dating from his work with Paul in the
province of Asia, and being resumed after Paul's martyrdom. This
accords at once with Harnack's argument that Luke wrote Acts
in Asia3 (Luke the Physician, p. 149 ffT), and with the early tradition,
above cited, that he died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four,
without ever having married (this touch may be due to an ascetic
feeling current already in the 2nd century).

The later traditions about Luke's life are based on fanciful inference
or misunderstanding, e.g. that he was one of the Seventy (Adamantius
Dial, de recta, fide, 4th century), or the story (in Theodorus Lector,
6th century) that he painted a portrait of the Virgin Mother. But
a good deal can still be gathered by sympathetic study of his writings
as to the manner of man he was. It was a beautiful soul from which
came " the most beautiful book " ever written, as Renan styled
his Gospel. The selection of stories which he gives us — especially
in the section mainly peculiar to himself (ix. 51— xviii. 14) — reflects
his own character as well as that of the source he mainly follows.
His was indeed a religio medici in its pity for frail and suffering
humanity, and in its sympathy with the triumph of the Divine
" healing art " upon the bodies and souls of men (cf. Harnack, The
Acts, Excursus, iii.). His was also a humane4 spirit, a spirit so

1 Tychicus may be the other " brother," in viii. 22.

1 So also A. Hilgenfeld, Zeit. f. theol. Wissenschaft (1907), p. 214,
argues that " we marks the author's wish to give his narrative
more vividness at great turning-points of the story — the passage
from Asia to Europe, and again the real beginning of the solemn
progress of Paul towards the crisis in Jerusalem, as yet later towards
Rome, xxvii. i ff .

* Note that Luke is at pains to explain why Paul passed by Asia
and Bithynia in the first instance (xvi. 6 f.).

4 Compare what A. W. Verrall has said of the poet Statius and
" the gentle doctrine of humanity " on Hellenic soil, as embodied
in his description of The Altar of Mercy at Athens (Oxford and
Cambridge Review, i. 101 ff.).

tender that it saw further than almost any save the Master himself
into the soul of womanhood. In this, as in his joyousness, united
with a feeling for the poor and suffering, he was an early Francis
of Assisi. Luke, " the physician, the beloved physician," that was
Paul's characterization of him; and it is the impression which his
writings have left on humanity. How great his contribution to
Christianity has been, in virtue of what he alone preserved of the
historical Jesus and of the embodiment of his Gospel in his earliest
followers, who can measure? Harnack even maintains (The Acts,
p. 301) that his story of the Apostolic age was the indispensable
condition for the incorporation of the Pauline epistles in the Church's
canon of New Testament scriptures. Certainly his conception of
the Gospel, viz. a Christian Hellenistic universalism (with some slight
infusion of Pauline thought) passed through a Graeco-Roman mind,
proved more easy of assimilation, and so more directly influential
for the ancient Church, than Paul's own distinctive teaching (ib.
281 ff.; cf. Luke the Physician, pp. 139-145).

LITERATURE. — Introductions to commentaries like A. Plummer's
on Luke's Gospel in the" Intern. Crit." series, R. B. Rackham's^4c<io/
Ike Apostles (" Oxford Comm."); the article " Luke " in Hastings's
Diet, of the Bible and Diet, of Christ and the Gospels, the Encycl.
Biblica and Hauck's Realencyklopddie, vol. xi.; Sir W. M. Ramsay's
Paul the Traveller and Pauline and other Studies, and A. Harnack's
Lukas der Arzt (1906, Eng. trans. 1907) and Die Apostelgeschichte
(1908, Eng. trans. 1909). For the Luke of legend, see authorities
quoted under MARK. (J. V. B.)

LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST, the third of the four canonical
Gospels of the Christian Church.

i. Authorship and Date. — The earliest indication which we
possess of the belief that the author was Luke, the companion
of the Apostle Paul (Col. iv. 14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv. u),
is found in Justin Martyr, who, in his Dialogue with Trypho
(c. 103), when making a statement found only in our Luke, instead
of referring for it simply to the " Apostolic Memoirs," his
usual formula, says that it is contained in the memoirs composed
by " the Apostles and those that followed them." But the first
distinct mention of Luke as the author of the Gospel is that by
Irenaeus in his famous passage about the Four Gospels (Adv.
Haer. III. i. 2, c. A.D. 180).

This tradition is important in spite of the fact that it first
comes clearly before us in a writer belonging to the latter part
of the 2nd century, because the prominence and fame of Luke
were not such as would of themselves have led to his being singled
out to have a Gospel attributed to him. The question of the
authorship cannot, however, be decided without considering the
internal evidence, the interpretation of which in the case of the
Third Gospel and the Acts (the other writing attributed to Luke)
is a matter of peculiar interest. It is generally admitted that
the same person is the author of both works in their present
form. This is intimated at the beginning of the second of them
(Acts i. i); and both are marked, broadly speaking throughout,
though in some parts much more strongly than in others, by
stylistic characteristics which we may conveniently call " Lucan "
without making a premature assumption as to the authorship.
The writer is more versed than any other New Testament writer
except the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and very much
more than most of them, in the literary Greek of the period of
the rise of Christianity; and he has, also, like other writers,
his favourite words, turns of expression and thoughts. The
variations in the degree to which these appear in different
passages are in the main to be accounted for by his having before
him in many cases documents or oral reports, which he repro-
duces with only slight alterations in the language, while at other
times he is writing freely.

We have next to observe that there are four sections in Acts
(xvi. 9-17, 'xx. 4-16, xxi. 1-17, xxvii. i-xxviii. 16) in which
the first person plural is used. Now it is again generally admitted
that in these sections we have the genuine account of one who
was a member of Paul's company, who may well have been Luke.
But it has been and is still held by many critics that the author
of Acts is a different person, and that as in the Third Gospel he has
used documents for the Life of Christ, and perhaps also in the
earlier half of the Acts for the history of the beginnings of the
Christian Church, so in the " we " sections, and possibly in some
other portions of this narrative of Paul's missionary life, he has
used a kind of travel-diary by one who accompanied the Apostle

LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST

on some of his journeys. That neither this, nor any other, com-
panion of Paul can have been the author of the whole work is
supposed to follow both from its theological temper and from
discrepancies between its statements and those of the Pauline
Epistles on matters of fact.

A careful examination, however, of the " we " sections shows
that words and expressions characteristic of the author of the
third Gospel and the Acts are found in them to an extent which
is very remarkable, and that in many instances they belong to
the very texture of the passages. This linguistic evidence, which
is of quite unusual force, has never yet been fairly faced by those
who deny Luke's authorship of Acts. Moreover, the difficulties
in the way of supposing that the author of Acts could at an
earlier period of his life have been a companion of St Paul do not
seem to be so serious as some critics think. Indeed it is easier to
explain some of the differences between the Acts and St Paul's
Epistles on this assumption than on that of authorship by a
writer who would have felt more dependent upon the information
which might be gathered from those Epistles, and who would have
been more likely to have had a collection of them at hand, if his
work was composed c. A.D. 100, as is commonly assumed by
critics who reject the authorship by Luke.

There is then strong reason for believing the tradition that
Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul, was the author of our
third Gospel and the Acts. Another argument in support of this
belief, upon which much reliance has been placed, is found in the
descriptions of diseases, and the words common in Greek medical
writers, contained in these two works. These, it is said, point to
the author's having been a physician, as Luke (Col. iv. 14) was
(see esp. Hobart, The Medical Language of St Luke, 1882). The
instances alleged are, many of them at least, not very distinctive.
Yet they have some value as confirming the conclusion based on
a comparison of the " we " sections of the Acts, with the re-
mainder of the two books.

If we may assume that the writer who uses the first person
plural in Acts xvi. 10 sqq. was the author of the two works, they
can hardly have been composed later than A.D. 96; he would
then have been about 65 years old, even if he was a very young
man when he first joined the Apostle. An earlier date than
A.D. 96 cannot be assigned if it is held that his writings show
acquaintance with the Antiquities of the Jewish People by
Josephus. The grounds for supposing this appear, however, to
be wholly insufficient (see article on Acts by Bishop Lightfoot in
2nd ed. of Smith's Diet, of Bible, p. 39) and it is not easy to see
why he should have deferred writing so long. On the other hand,
a comparison of Luke xxi. 20-24 with Mark xiii. 14 seq. seems to
show that in using his document Luke here mingled with the
prophecy the interpretation which events had suggested and
that the siege of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 and dispersion of its in-
habitants had already taken place some little time before. Circa
A.D. 80 may with probability be given as the time of the com-
position of his Gospel.

2. Contents, Sources and Arrangement. — In the preface to his
Gospel, i. 1-4, Luke alludes to other Gospel-records which pre-
ceded his own. He does not say whether he made any use of them ,
but he seems to imply that his own was more complete. And this
was true in regard to the two which, from a comparison of his
Gospel with the other two Synoptics, we know that he did use.
These we may call his Marcan and his Logian document. Luke
also claims that he has written " in order." The instances in
which he has departed from the Marcan order, and the manner in
which he has introduced his additional matter into the Marcan
outline, do not suggest the idea that he had any independent
knowledge of an exact kind of the chronological sequence of
events. By the phrase " in order " he may himself have intended
chiefly to contrast the orderliness and consecutiveness of his
account with the necessarily fragmentary character of the cate-
chetical instruction which Theophilus had received. He may,
also, have had in view the fact that he has prefixed a narrative of
the birth and infancy of Jesus and of John and so begun the
history at what he considered to be its true point of departure;
to this he'plainly alludes when he says that he has " traced the

119

course of all things accurately from the first." He may, also,
in part be thinking of those indications which he — and he alone
among the evangelists — has given of the points in the course of
secular history at which Jesus was born and the Baptist began to
preach (ii. 1-3, iii. i, 2), though it may be doubted whether
these are in all respects accurate.

Chap. i. 5-11. 52. The Birth and Infancy of John and of Jesus. —
This portion of the Gospel differs in style and character from all the
remainder. Its source may be an Aramaic or a Hebrew document.
Some critics, however, hold that it is wholly Luke's own composition,
and that the Hebraic style^-in which he was able to write in conse-
quence of his familiarity with the LXX. — has been adopted by him
as suitable to the subject in hand. Perhaps an intermediate view
may be the most probable one; he may have obtained part of his
materials, especially the hymns, from some source, and have skilfully
worked these into his narrative.

Chap. iii. i-iv. 13. From the Commencement of the Preaching of the
Baptist to the End of the Temptation in the Wilderness. — The accounts
of the Baptist's preaching and of the temptation are taken from the
Logian document. The genealogy of Jesus here given is peculiar to
this Gospel.

Chap. iv. I4~vi. 16. From the Commencement of the Ministry of
Jesus in Galilee to the Appointment of the Twelve. — In the main Luke
here follows his Marcan document. He has, however, independent
narratives of the visit of Jesus to Nazareth (iv. 16-30) and the call
of the first disciples (v. i-i i). The former, which in Mark is placed
some way on in the Galilean ministry (vi. 1-60), is given by Luke
at the very beginning of it, perhaps because of the previous con-
nexion of Jesus with Nazareth. But that it is not In its right position
here, before any mention of the work in Capernaum, appears from
verse 23. Luke has also slightly altered the position of the call of
the first disciples in the sequence of events.

Chap. vi. 17-viii. 3. — This is an insertion into the Marcan outline
of matter chiefly taken from the Logian document (the Address,
Luke vi. 20-49, corresponds with portions of the Sermon on the
Mount in Matt, v.-vii. ; the healing of the centurion's servant,
Luke vii. i-io = Matt. viii. 5-13; the message of the Baptist and the
discourse for which it gave occasion, Luke vii. 18-35 = Matt. xi. 2-19).
He includes besides, a few pieces peculiar to this Gospel which Luke
had probably himself collected.

Chap. viii. 4-ix. 50. From the A doption of Parabolic Teaching to the
End of the Ministry in Galilee. — He begins again to follow his Marcan
document for what he gives. Many sections, however, contained in
the corresponding part of Mark have no parallel in Luke, while the
parallel to one of them is placed later and differs considerably in form.
Possibly this fact points to his Marcan document having been briefer
than our Mark, and to its having afterwards received interpolations
(see MARK, GOSPEL OF ST).

Chap. ix. 5i-xviii. 14. Incidents and Teaching connected with
Journey towards Jerusalem. — This is another insertion into the Marcan
outline, much longer than the previous one, and consisting partly of
matter taken from the Logian document (warnings to men who offer
to become disciples, Luke ix. 57-60 = Matt. viii. 19-22; a mission-
charge, Luke x. 2-i6 = Matt. ix. 37 and x. 7-16, 40; thanksgiving
that the Father reveals to the simple that which is hidden from the
wise, Luke x. 2i-24 = Matt. xi. 25-27 and xiii. 16, 17, &c., &c.) and
partly of sections peculiar to Luke, about which the same remark
may be made as before.

Chap, xviii. 15-xxii. 13. From the Bringing of young Children to
Jesus to the Preparation for the Passover. — luke again takes up his
Marcan document, nearly at the point at which he left it, and follows
it in the main, though he adds the story of Zacchaeus and the parable
of the Minae (the Ten Pieces of Money), and omits the withering of
the fig-tree and some matter at the end of the discourse on the Last
Things, which are given in Mark.

Chap. xxii. 14 to end. The Last Supper, Passion and Resurrection. —
Though in this portion of his Gospel signs of use of Mark are not
wanting, he also has much that is peculiar to himself. It is supposed
by some that he here made use of another document. It seems more
likely that he had a good many distinct oral traditions for this part
of the history and that he used them freely, sometimes substituting
them for passages of the Marcan document, sometimes altering the
latter in accordance therewith.

3. Doctrinal, Ethical and Literary Characteristics. — The thought
of divine forgiveness, as set forth in. the teaching of Jesus and
manifested in His own attitude towards, and power over, the
hearts of the outcasts among the people, is peculiarly prominent
in this Gospel. This feature of Christ's ministry appears only
in one passage of Mark; some other illustrations of it are
mentioned in Matthew, but in Luke there are several more
which are peculiar to himself (see the three individual cases
vii. 36 sqq.; xix. i sqq., xxiii. 40 sqq. ; also the description at xv. i,
and the three parables that follow). These were " lost sheep of
the house of Israel "; but Christ's freedom from Jewish exclusive-
ness is also brought out (i) as regards Samaritans, by the rebuke

120

LULEA— LULL

administered to the disciples at ix-52 sqq., the parable in x. 3osqq.,
and the incident at xvii. 15-19; whereas they are not mentioned
in Mark, and in Matthew only in the saying (x. 5) in which the
Twelve are forbidden to enter any village of theirs; (2) as regards
Gentiles, by the words of Jesus at iv. 25-27, not to mention sayings
which have parallels in the other Gospels. The promises of Old
Testament prophets that the Gentiles would share in the blessing
of the coming of Christ are also recalled, ii. 32-iii. 6. Once more the
word evayyt\i£toda.i ("to proclaim good tidings") is a favourite
one with Luke. These are all traits which we should expect to find
in one who was a companion of Paul and a Gentile (Col. iv. 1 1 , 14) .

With the breadth and depth of the Saviour's sympathy, which
are so fully exhibited in this Gospel, we may connect the clearness
with which His true humanity is here portrayed. An incident
of His boyhood is related in which His sense of vocation is
revealed, and this is followed by the years of quiet growth that
succeeded (ii. 41-52). Further, during the years of His public
ministry more glimpses of His inner life are given us than in either
Matthew or Mark. His being engaged in prayer is mentioned
several times where there is no parallel in those Gospels (iii. 21,
v. 16, vi. 12, ix. 18, 28, 29, xi. i). Again, besides narrating
the Temptation in the Wilderness and the Agony in the Garden,
this evangelist gives a saying which implies that Jesus had under-
gone many temptations, or rather a life of temptation (xxii. 28).
Once more he records a saying that shows Christ's sense of the
intense painfulness of the work He was sent into the world to do,
arising from the divisions which it caused (xii. 49 sqq.).

Among practical duties, the stress laid on that of almsgiving is
remarkable (see especially xi. 41, xii. 33, xvi. 9 sqq., which are
peculiar to this Gospel). In the second of these passages the
disciples are exhorted to choose a life of voluntary poverty; the
nearest parallel is the ideal set before the rich young man at
Mark x. 21 =Matt. xix. 21 = Luke xviii. 22. In the Beatitudes in
Luke vi. 20, 21 a condition of.physical want is contemplated, not,
as in Matt. v. 3, 6, poverty of spirit and spiritual hunger, while woes
are denounced against the rich and the full (vi. 24, 25). The folly
of absorption in the amassing and enjoyment of wealth is also
shown (xii. 15 sqq. and xvi. 19 sqq.). But it would be an exagger-
ation to say, as some have done, that the poor are represented as
being the heirs of a blessed hereafter, simply on the ground that
they are now poor. In the Beatitudes Christ's own disciples are
addressed, who were blessed though poor, whereas the rich as a
class were opposed or indifferent to the kingdom of God. Again,
the contrast between Lazarus and Dives in the future state
pictures vividly the reversals that are in store; but it is un-
reasonable to take it as implying that every poor man, whatever
his moral character, will be blessed.

But while there is in Luke's Gospel this strain of asceticism
— as to many in modern times it will appear to be — the prevailing
spirit is gentle and tender, and there is in it a note of spiritual
gladness, which is begun by the song and the messages of angels
and the hymns and rejoicing of holy men and women, accom-
panying the birth of the Christ (chaps, i. and ii., passim), and
prolonged by the expressions of joy, the ascriptions of thanks-
giving and praise, called forth by the words and works of Christ
and the wonders of the cross and resurrection, which are peculiarly
frequent and full (iv. 15, v. 25, 26, vii. 16, x. 17, xiii. 13, 17,
xvii. 15-18, xviii. 43, xix. 6, 37, 38, xxiii. 47, xxiv. 41, 52, 53.
Cf. also xv. 5, 7, 10, 32).

The peculiar charm which this Gospel has been generally
felt to possess is largely due to the spiritual and ethical traits
which have been noted. But from a purely literary point of view,
also, it is distinguished by great excellences. The evangelist's
phraseology is indeed affected to some extent by the rhetorical
style of the period when he wrote. Nevertheless his mode of
narration is simple and direct. And the many fascinating
character-sketches, which he has added to the portrait gallery
of Scripture, are drawn clearly and without signs of effort.
In some cases he has skilfully suggested parallelisms and con-
trasts. The chief instance is his careful interweaving of the
accounts of the births and early years of John the Baptist and
of Jesus. Later examples are the two sisters, Martha and Mary

(x. 38-42), and the penitent and the impenitent thief (xxiii.
39-48). That he was a man of great versatility appears in the
Acts from the speeches introduced on various occasions, if (as
is probable) they were in part, at least, his own composition.
In the Gospel he had no opportunity for showing his power in a
manner strictly analogous. But if the hymns in the two intro-
ductory chapters owe even their Greek form in any measure to
him, he was a poet of no mean order. His style varies grea ly;
at times, as in i. 1-4, it is Hellenistic; at others, as in i. 5 to end
of ii., it is strongly Hebraic. Such differences are largely due,
no doubt, to the degree in which he was in various parts inde-
pendent of, or dependent upon, sources. But he would seem in
some degree to have adapted his manner of writing to the subject-
matter in hand. And at all events it is worthy of note that we
pass without any sense of jar from passages in one style t"> those
in another.

See Godet, Commentaire sur Vkoangile de S, Luc (Eng. trans.,
1875); Plummer's Comm. on St Luke (in international Series,
4th ed., 1906); W. Ramsay, Was Christ born in Bethlehem? (3rd
ed., 1905); A. Harnack, Lukas der Arzt (1906); B. Weiss, Die
Quellen des Lukas-evangeliums (1907); also books on the Four
Gospels, or the Synoptic Gospels, mentioned at end of article GOSPEL.

(V. H. S.)

LULEA, a seaport of Sweden, capital of the district (Ian) of
Norrbotten, on the peninsula of Sando, at the mouth of the
Lule river and the north-west corner of the Gulf of Bothnia.
Pop. (1900) 9484. It is connected at Boden (22 m. N.) with the
main line of railway from Stockholm to Gellivara and Narvik
on Ofoten Fjord in Norway. By this line Lulea is 723 m.
N.N.E. of Stockholm. It is the shipping place for the iron ore
mined at Gellivara, 127 m. N. by W., and there are smelting
works at Karlsvik in the vicinity. Timber is also exported, being
floated in large quantities down the Lule. As a rule the port is
closed by ice from November to the end of May. The town was
almost entirely burnt down in 1887, and its buildings are new —
the church (i888-i893),pthe Norrbotten Museum and a technical
school being the most important. Lulea as founded by Gustavus
Adolphus was 7 m. higher up the river, but was moved to the
present site in 1649.

LULL (or LULLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315),
Catalan author, mystic and missionary, was born at Palma
(Majorca). Inheriting the estate conferred upon his father for
services rendered during the victorious expedition (1229) against
the Balearic Islands, Lull was married at an early age to
Blanca Picany, and, according to his own account, led a
dissipated life till 1266 when, on five different occasions, he
beheld the vision of Christ crucified. After his conversion,
he resolved to devote himself to evangelical work among the
heathen, to write an exposure of infidel errors, and to promote
the teaching of foreign tongues in seminaries. He dedicated
nine years to the study of Arabic, and in 1275 showed such signs
of mental exaltation that, at the request of his wife and family,
an official was appointed to administer his estate. He withdrew
to Randa, there wrote his Ars major and Ars generalis, visited
Montpellier, and persuaded the king of Majorca to build a
Franciscan monastery at Miramar. There for ten years he acted
as professor of Arabic and philosophy, and composed many
controversial treatises. After a fruitless visit to Rome in 1285-
1286, he journeyed to Paris, residing in that city from 1287 to
1289, and expounding his bewildering theories to auditors who
regarded him as half insane. In 1289 he went to Montpellier,
wrote his Ars veritatis inventiva, and removed to Genoa where
he translated this treatise into Arabic. In 1291, after many
timorous doubts and hesitations for which he bitterly blamed
himself, Lull sailed for Tunis where he publicly preached Chris-
tianity for a year; he was finally imprisoned and expelled. In
January 1293 he reached Naples where tradition alleges that he
studied alchemy; there appears to be no foundation for this
story, and the treatises on alchemy which bear his name are all
apocryphal.1 His efforts to interest Clement V. and Boniface

1 The alchemical works ascribed to Lull, such as Testamentum,
Codicillus seu Testamentum and Experimenta, are of early although
uncertain date. De Luanco ascribes some of them to a Raimundo

LULLABY— LUMBINI

121

VIII. in his favourite project of establishing missionary colleges
were unavailing; but a visit to Paris in 1298 was attended with
a certain measure of success. He was, however, disappointed
in his main object, and in 1300 he sailed to Cyprus to seek support
for his plan of teaching Oriental languages in universities and
monasteries. He was rebuffed once more, but continued his
campaign with undiminished energy. Between 1302 and 1305
he wrote treatises at Genoa, lectured at Paris, visited Lyons
in the vain hope of enlisting the sympathies of Pope Clement
V., crossed over to Bougie in Africa, preached the gospel, and
was imprisoned there for six months. On being released he
lectured with increasing effect at Paris, attended the General
Council at Vienne in 1311, and there witnessed the nominal
adoption of his cherished proposals. Though close on eighty years
of age, Lull's ardour was unabated. He carried on his propaganda
at Majorca, Paris, Montpellier and Messina, and in 1314 crossed
over once more to Bougie. Here he resumed his crusade against
Mahommedanism, raised the fanatical spirit of the inhabitants,
was stoned outside the city walls and died of his wounds on the
2gth of June 1315. There can be no reasonable doubt that these
events actually occurred, but the scene is laid by one biographer
at Tunis instead of Bougie.

The circumstances of Lull's death caused him to be regarded as a
martyr, local patriotism helped to magnify his merits, and his fan-
tastic doctrines found many enthusiastic partisans. The doctor
illuminates was venerated throughout Catalonia and afterwards
throughout Spain, as a saint, a thinker and a poet ; but his doctrines
were disapproved by the powerful Dominican order, and in 1376
they were formally condemned in a papal bull issued at the instance
of the inquisitor, Nicolas Emeric. The authenticity of this docu-
ment was warmly disputed by Lull's followers, and the bull was
annulled by Martin V. in 1417. The controversy was renewed in
1503 and again in 1578; but the general support of the Jesuits and
the staunch fidelity of the Majorcans saved Lull from condemnation.
His philosophical treatises abound with incoherent formulae to
which, according to their inventor, every demonstration in every
science may be reduced, and posterity has ratified Bacon's disdainful
verdict on Lull's pretensions as a thinker; still the fact that he
broke away f roin the scholastic system has recommended him to the
historians of philosophy, and the subtle ingenuity of his dialectic
has compelled the admiration of men so far apart in opinion as
Giordano Bruno and Leibniz.

The speculations of Lull are now obsolete outside Majorca where
his philosophy still flourishes, but his more purely literary writings
are extremely curious and interesting. In Blanquerna (1283), a
novel which describes a new Utopia, Lull renews the Platonic
tradition and anticipates the methods of Sir Thomas More, Campan-
ella and Harrington, and in the Libre de Maravelles (1286) he adopts
the Oriental apologue from Kalilah and Dimnah. And as a poet
Lull takes a prominent position in the history of Catalan literature;
such pieces as El Desconort (1295) and Lo Cant de Ramon (1299)
combine in a rare degree simple beauty of expression with sublimity
of thought and impassioned sincerity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Histoire litteraire de la France (Paris, 1885),
vol. xxix. ; Obras rimadas de Ramon Lull (Palma, 1859), edited by
G. Rossello; Obras de Ramon Lull (Palma, in progress), edited by
G. Rossello; Jos6 R. de Luanco, Ramon Lull, considerado como
alquimista (Barcelona, 1870) and La Alquimia en Espana (2 vols.,
Barcelona, 1889-1897); K. Hofmann, " Ein Katalaniscne Thiere-
pos," in the Bavarian Academy's Abhandlungen (Munich, 1872),
vol. xii. pp. 173-240; M. Men6ndez y Pelayo, Origenes de la novela
(Madrid, 1905), pp. 72-86; Havelock Ellis in Contemporary Review
(May 1906). (J. F.-K.)

LULLABY, a cradle-song, a song sung to children to " lull "
them to sleep; the melody being styled in Fr. berceuse and in
Ger. Wiegenlied. " Lull," cf. Swed. Mia, Du. lullen, &c., is of
echoic or onomatopoeic origin, cf. Lat. lallare, to chatter.

LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (G. 1633-1687), Italian composer,
was born in Florence. Through the due de Guise he entered
the services of Madame de Montpensier as scullery-boy, and
with the help of this lady his musical talents were cultivated.
A scurrilous poem on his patroness resulted in his dismissal.
He then studied the theory of music under M6tra and entered
the orchestra of the French court, being subsequently appointed
director of music to Louis XIV. and director of the Paris opera.
The influence of his music produced a radical revolution in the

de Tarraga (c. 1370), a converted Jew who studied the occult.
Others are ascribed by Morhof to a Raymundus Lullius Neophytus,
who lived about 1440. See ALCHEMY, and also J. Ferguson, Biblio-
theca chemica (1906).

style of the dances of the court itself. Instead of the slow and
stately movements which had prevailed until then, he introduced
lively ballets of rapid rhythm. In December 1661 he was
naturalized as a Frenchman, his original name being Giovanni
Battista Lulli. In 1662 he was appointed music master to the
royal family. In 1681 he was made a court secretary to the king
and ennobled. While directing a Te Deum on the 8th of January
1687 with a rather long baton he injured his foot so seriously
that a cancerous growth resulted which caused his death on the
22nd of March. Having found a congenial poet in Quinault,
Lully composed twenty operas, which met with a most enthusi-
astic reception. Indeed he has good claim to be considered the
founder of French opera, forsaking the Italian method of separate
recitative and aria for a dramatic consolidation of the two and a
quickened action of the story such as was more congenial to the
taste of the French public. He effected important improvements
in the composition of the orchestra, into which he introduced
several new instruments. Lully enjoyed the friendship of
Moliere, for some of whose best plays he composed illustrative
music. His Miserere, written for the funeral of the minister
Sequier, is a work of genius; and very remarkable are also his
minor sacred compositions. On his death-bed he wrote Bisogna
morire, peccatore.

LUMBAGO, a term in medicine applied to a painful ailment
affecting the muscles of the lower part of the back, generally
regarded as of rheumatic origin. An attack of lumbago may
occur alone, or be associated with rheumatism in other parts of
the body. It usually comes on by a seizure, often sudden,
of pain in one or both sides of the small of the back, of a severe
cutting or stabbing character, greatly aggravated on movement
of the body, especially in attempting to rise from the recumbent
posture and also in the acts of drawing a deep breath, coughing
or sneezing. So intense is the suffering that it is apt to suggest
the existence of inflammation in some of the neighbouring
internal organs, such as the kidne.ys, bowels, &c., but the absence
of the symptoms specially characteristic of these_latter complaints,
or of any great constitutional disturbance beyond the pain,
renders the diagnosis a matter of no great difficulty. Lumbago
seems to be brought on by exposure to cold and damp, and by the
other exciting causes of rheumatism. Sometimes it follows
a strain of the muscles of the loins. The attack is in general
of short duration, but occasionally it continues for a long time,
as a feeling of soreness and stiffness on movement. The treat-
ment includes that for rheumatic affections in general (see RHEU-
MATISM) and the application of local remedies to allay the pain.

LUMBER, a word now meaning (i) useless discarded furniture
or other rubbish, particularly if of a bulky or heavy character;
(2) timber, when roughly sawn or cut into logs or beams (see
TIMBER) ; (3) as a verb, to make a loud rumbling noise, to move
in a clumsy heavy way, also to burden with useless material,
to encumber. " Lumber " and " lumber-house " were formerly
used for a pawnbroker's shop, being in this sense a variant of
" Lombard," a name familiar throughout Europe for a banker,
money-changer or pawnbroker. This has frequently been taken
to be the origin of the word in sense (i), the reference being to the
store of unredeemed and unsaleable articles accumulating in
pawnbrokers' shops. Skeat adopts this in preference to the
connexion with " lumber " in sense (3), but thinks that the word
may have been influenced by both sources (Etym. Diet., 1910).
This word is probably of Scandinavian origin, and is cognate
with a Swedish dialect word lomra, meining "to roar," a
frequentative of ljumma, " to make a noise." The English word
may be of native origin and merely onomatopoeic. The New
English Dictionary, though admitting the probability of the
association with " Lombard," prefers the second proposed
derivation. The application of the word to timber is of American
origin; the New English Dictionary quotes from Suffolk (Mass.)
Deeds of 1662 — " Freighted in Boston, with beames . . . boards
. . . and other lumber."

LUMBINI, the name of the garden or grove in which Gotama,
the Buddha, was born. It is first mentioned in a very ancient
Pali ballad preserved in the Sutta Nipata (verse 583). This

122

LUMP-SUCKER— LUMSDEN

is the Song of Nalaka (the Buddhist Simeon), and the words put
in the mouth of the angels who announce the birth to him are:
" The Wisdom-child, that jewel so precious, that cannot be
matched, has been born at Lumbini, in the Sakiya land, for weal
and for joy in the world of men." The commentaries on the
Jatakas (i. 52, 54), and on a parallel passage in the Majjhima
(J.R.A.S., 1895, p. 767), tell us that the mother of the future
Buddha was on her way from Kapilavastu (Kapilavatthu) ,
the capital of the Sakiyas, to her mother's home at Devadaha,
the capital of the adjoining tribe, the Koliyas, to be confined
there. Her pains came upon her on the way, and she turned
aside into this grove, which lay not far from Devadaha, and gave
birth there to her son. All later Buddhist accounts, whether
Pali or Sanskrit, repeat the same story.

A collection of legends about Asoka, included in the Divydva-
dana, a work composed probably in the ist or 2nd century A.D.,
tells us (pp. 389, 390) how Asoka, the Buddhist emperor, visited
the traditional site of this grove, under the guidance of Upagupta.
This must have been about 248 B.C. Upagupta (Tissa: see
PALI) himself also mentions the site in his Kathd Vatlhu (p. 559).
The Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hien and Hsuan Tsang, visiting India
in the 5th and 7th centuries A.D., were shown the site; and the
latter (ed. Walters, ii. 15-19) mentions that he saw there an
Asoka pillar, with a horse on the top, which had been split,
when Hsuan Tsang saw it, by lightning. This pillar was re-
discovered under the following circumstances.

The existence, a few miles beyond the Nepalese frontier,
of an inscribed pillar had been known for some years when,
in 1895, the discovery of another inscribed pillar at Nigllva,
near by, led to the belief that this other, hitherto neglected,
one must also be an Asoka pillar, and very probably the one
mentioned by Hsuan Tsang. At the request of the Indian
government the Nepalese government had the pillar, which was
half buried, excavated for examination; and Dr Fiihrer, then
in the employ of the Archaeological Survey, arrived soon after-
wards at the spot.

The stone was split into two portions, apparently by lightning,
and was inscribed with Pali characters as used in the time of
Asoka. Squeezes of the inscription were sent to Europe, where
various scholars discussed the meaning, which is as follows:
" His Majesty, Piyadassi, came here in the 2ist year of his reign
and paid reverence. And on the ground that the Buddha,
the Sakiya sage, was born here, he (the king) had a flawless
stone cut, and put up a pillar. And further, since the Exalted
One was born in it, he reduced taxation in the village of Lumbini,
and established the dues at one-eighth part (of the crop)."

The inscription, having been buried for so many centuries
beneath the soil, is in perfect preservation. The letters, about
an inch in height, have been clearly and deeply cut in the stone.
No one of them is doubtful. But two words are new, and scholars
are not agreed in their interpretation of them. These are the
adjective vigadabhi applied to the stone, and rendered in our
translation "flawless"; and secondly, the last word, rendered
in our translation " one-eighth part (of the crop)." Fortunately
these words are of minor importance for the historical value
of this priceless document. The date, the twenty-first year after
the formal coronation of Asoka, would be 248 B.C. The name
Piyadassi is the official epithet always used by Asoka in his
inscriptions when speaking of himself. The inscription confirms
in every respect the Buddhist story, and makes it certain that,
at the time when it was put up, the tradition now handed down
in the books was current at the spot. Any further inference
that the birth really took place there is matter of probability
on which opinions will differ.

The grove is situate about 3 m. north of Bhagwanpur, the
chief town of a district of the same name in the extreme south
of Nepal, just over the frontier dividing Nepal from the district
of Basti in British territory. It is now called Rummin-dei, i.e.
the shrine of the goddess of Rummin, a name no doubt derived
from the ancient name Lumbini. There is a small shrine at
the spot, containing a bas-relief representing the birth of the
Buddha. But the Buddha is now forgotten there, and the bas-

relief is reverenced only for the figure of the mother, who has
been turned into a tutelary deity of the place. Except so far
as the excavation of the pillar is concerned the site has not been
explored, and four small stupas there (already noticed by
Hsuan Tsang) have not been opened.

AUTHORITIES. — Sulla Nipata, ed. V. Fansboll (London Pali Text
Society, 1884); Katha Vatthu, ed. A. C. Taylor (London, 1897);
Jataka, ed. V. Fansboll, vol. i. (London, 1877); Divydvadana, ed.
Cowell and Niel (Cambridge, 1886); G. Biihler in the Proceedings of
the Vienna Academy for Jan. 1897, in Epigraphia Indica, vol. v.
(London, 1898) and in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1897),
p. 429. See also ibid. (1895), pp. 751 ft.; (1897) pp. 615, 644;
(1898) pp. 199-203; A. Earth in the Journal des savants (Paris,
1897) ; R. Pischel in Sitzungsberichte der konigl. preussischen A kademie
for the gth July 1903; Babu P. Mukherji, Report on a Tour of
Exploration of the Antiquities in the Terai (Calcutta, 1903); V. A.
Smith in Indian Antiquary (Bombay, 1905). (T. W. R. D.)

LUMP-SUCKER, or LUMP-FISH (Cycloplerus lumpus), a
marine fish, which with another British genus (Liparis) and a
few other genera forms a small family (Cyclopteridae). Like
many littoral fishes of other families, the lump-suckers have
the ventral fins united into a circular concave disk, which,
acting as a sucker, enables them to attach themselves firmly to
rocks or stones. The body (properly so called) is short and thick,
with a thick and scaleless skin, covered with rough tubercles,
the larger of which are arranged in four series along each side
of the body. The first dorsal fin is almost entirely concealed by
the skin, appearing merely as a lump on the back. The lump-
sucker inhabits the coasts of both sides of the North Atlantic;
it is not rare on the British coasts, but becomes more common
farther north. It is so sluggish in its habits that individuals
have been caught with sea-weed growing on their backs. In the
spring the fish approaches the shores to spawn, clearing out a
hollow on a stony bottom in which it deposits an immense
quantity of pink-coloured ova. Fishermen assert that the male
watches the spawn until the young are hatched, a statement
which receives confirmation from the fact that the allied gobies,
or at least some of them, take similar care of their progeny.
The vernacular name, " cock and hen paddle," given to the lump-
fish on some parts of the coast, is probably expressive of the
difference between the two sexes in their outward appearance,
the male being only half or one-third the size of the female, and
assuming during the spawning season a bright blue coloration,
with red on the lower parts. This fish is generally not esteemed
as food, but Franz Faber (Fische Islands, p. 53) states that the
Icelanders consider the flesh of the male as a delicacy.1 The
bones are so soft, and contain so little inorganic matter, that the
old ichthyologists placed the lump-sucker among the cartilagin-
ous fishes.

LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT (1821-1896), Anglo-
Indian soldier, son of Colonel Thomas Lumsden, C.B., was born
on the 1 2th of November 1821. He joined the 59th Bengal
Native Infantry in 1838, was present at the forcing of the Khyber
Pass in 1842, and went through the first and second Sikh wars,
being wounded at Sobraon. Having become assistant to Sir
Henry Lawrence at Lahore in 1846, he was appointed in 1847
to raise the Corps of Guides. The object of this corps, composed
of horse and foot, was to provide trustworthy men to act as
guides to troops in the field, and also to collect intelligence
beyond as well as within the North-West frontier of India. The
regiment was located at Mardan on the Peshawar border, and has
become one of the most famous in the Indian army. For the
equipment of this corps, Lumsden originated the khaki uniform.
In 1857 he was sent on a mission to Kandahar with his younger
brother, Sir Peter Lumsden, in connexion with the subsidy paid
by the Indian government to the amir, and was in Afghanistan
throughout the Mutiny. He took part in the Waziri Expedition
of 1860, was in command of the Hyderabad Contingent from
1862, and left India in 1869. He became lieutenant-general
in 1875, and died on the I2th of August 1896.

See Sir Peter Lumsden and George Elsmie, Lumsden of the Guides
(1899).

1 The "cock-padle " was formerly esteemed also in Scotland, and
figures in the Antiquary, chap. xi.

LUNA, A. DE— LUND, T. F.

123

LUNA, ALVARO DE (d. 1453), Constable of Castile, Grand
Master of Santiago, and favourite of King John II. of Castile,
was the natural son of Alvaro de Luna, a Castilian noble. He was
introduced to the court as a page by his uncle Pedro de Luna,
archbishop of Toledo, in 1410. Alvaro soon secured a command-
ing influence over John II., then a mere boy. During the regency
of the king's uncle Ferdinand, which ended in 1412, he was not
allowed to be more than a servant. When, however, Ferdinand
was elected king of Aragon, and the regency remained in the
hands of the king's mother, Constance, daughter of John of
Gaunt, a foolish and dissolute woman, Alvaro became a very
important person. The young king regarded him with an
affection which the superstition of the time attributed to witch-
craft. As the king was surrounded by greedy and unscrupulous
nobles, among whom his cousins, the sons of Ferdinand, com-
monly known as the Infantes (princes) of Aragon, were perhaps
the worst, his reliance on a favourite who had every motive to
be loyal to him is quite intelligible. Alvaro too was a master of
all the accomplishments the king admired — a fine horseman,
a. skilful lance and a writer of court verse. Until he lost the
king's protection he was the central figure of the Castilian history
of the time. It was a period of constant conflict conducted by
shifting coalitions of the nobles, who under pretence of freeing
the king from the undue influence of his favourite were intent on
making a puppet of him for their own ends. The part which
Alvaro de Luna played has been diversely judged. To Mariana
he appears as a mere self-seeking favourite. To others he has
seemed to be a loyal servant of the king who endeavoured to
enforce the authority of the crown, which in Castile was the only
alternative to anarchy. He fought for his own hand, but his
supremacy was certainly better than the rule of gangs of plunder-
ing nobles. His story is in the main one of expulsions from the
court by victorious factions, and of his return when his con-
querors fell out among themselves. Thus in 1427 he was solemnly
expelled by a coalition of the nobles, only to be recalled in the
following year. In 1431 he endeavoured to employ the restless
nobles in a war for the conquest of Granada. Some successes
were gained, but a consistent policy was impossible with a re-
bellious aristocracy and a king of indolent character. In 1445
the faction of the nobles allied with Alvaro's main enemies,
the Infantes de Aragon, were beaten at Olmedo, and the favourite,
who had been constable of Castile and count of Santesteban since
1423, became Grand Master of the military order of Santiago
by election of the Knights. His power appeared to be thoroughly
established. It was, however, based on the personal affection
of the king. The king's second \vife, Isabella of Portugal, was
offended at the immense influence of the constable, and urged
her husband to free himself from slavery to his favourite. In
1453 the king succumbed, Alvaro was arrested, tried and con-
demned by a process which was a mere parody of justice, and
executed at Valladolid on the 2nd of June 1453.

The Chronicle of Alvaro de Luna (Madrid, 1784), written by some
loyal follower who survived him, is a panegyric and largely a romance.
The other contemporary authority — the Chronicle of John II. — is
much less favourable to the constable. Don Jose Quintana has
summarized the two chronicles in his life of Luna in the Vidas de
Espanoles cttebres; Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles (Madrid,
1846-1880), vol. xix.

LUNA (mod. Luni), an ancient city of Etruria, Italy, 4^ m.
S.E. of the modern Sarzana. It was the frontier town of Etruria,
on the left bank of the river, Macra, the boundary in imperial
times between Etruria and Liguria. When the Romans first
appeared in these parts, however, the Ligurians were in possession
of the territory as far as Pisa. It derived its importance mainly
from its harbour, which was the gulf now known as the Gulf of
Spezia, and not merely the estuary of the Macra as some authors
have supposed. The town was apparently not established until
177 B.C., when a colony was founded here, though the harbour
is mentioned by Ennius, who sailed hence for Sardinia in 205 B.C.
under Manlius Torquatus. An inscription of 155 B.C., found
in the forum of Luna in 1857, was dedicated to M. Claudius
Marcellus in honour of his triumph over the Ligurians and
Apuani. It lost much of its importance under the Empire,

though traversed by the coast road (Via Aurelia), and it was
renowned for the marble from the neighbouring mountains of
Carrara, which bore the name of Luna marble. Pliny speaks of
the quarries as only recently discovered in his day. Good wine
was also produced. There are some remains of the Roman
period on the site, and a theatre and an amphitheatre may be
distinguished. No Etruscan remains have come to light.
O. Cuntz's investigations (Jahreshefte des Osterr. Arch. Instituts,
1904, 46) seem to lead to the conclusion that an ancient road
crossed the Apennines from it, following the line of the modern
road (mo're or less that of the modern railway from Sarzana
to Parma), and dividing near Pontremoli, one branch going to
Borgotaro, Veleia and Placentia, and the other over the Cisa
pass to Forum Novum (Fornovo) and Parma. The town was
destroyed by the Arabs in 1016, and the episcopal see transferred
to Sarzana in 1204.

See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
ii. 63. (T. As.)

LUNATION, the period of return of the moon (luna) to the
same position relative to the sun; for example, from full moon
to full moon. Its duration is 29-5305884 days.

LUNAVADA, a native state in India, in the Gujarat division
of Bombay. Area, 388 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 63,967, showing a
decrease of 28 % in the decade, due to famine. The chief, whose
title is maharana, is a Rajput of high lineage. Estimated revenue,
£12,000; tribute, £1000. The capital is Lunavada town, said
to have been founded in 1434; pop. (1901) 10,277.

LUNCHEON, in present usage the name given to a meal be-
tween breakfast and tea or dinner. When dinner was taken at
an early hour, or when it is still the principal midday meal,
luncheon was and is still a light repast. The derivation of the
word has been obscured, chiefly owing to the attempted con-
nexion with " nuncheon," with which the word has nothing
to do etymologically. " Luncheon " is an extended form of
" lunch " (another form of " lump," as " hunch " is of " hump ").
Lunch and luncheon in the earliest meanings found are applied
to a thick piece of bread, bacon, meat, &c.

The word "nuncheon," or "nunchion," with which "luncheon"
has been frequently connected, appears as early as the 1410 century
in the form noneschenche. This meant a refreshment or distribution,
properly of drink, but also accompanied with some small quantity
of meat, taken in the early afternoon. The word means literally
" noon-drink," from none or noon, i.e. nona hora, the ninth hour,
originally 3 o'clock P.M., but later " midday " — the church office
of "nones," and also the second meal of the day, having been
shifted back — and schenchen, to pour out; cf. German schenken,
which means to retail drink and to give, present. Schenche is the
same as "shank," the shin-bone, and the sense development appears
to be shin-bone, pipe, hence tap for drawing liquor. See also Skeat,
Etymological Did. of English Language (1910), s.v. " nunchion."

LUND, TROELS FREDERIK (1840- ), Danish historian,
was born in Copenhagen on the 5th of September 1840. He
entered the university of Copenhagen in 1858. About the age
of thirty he took a post which brought before his notice the
treasures of the archives of Denmark. His first important work,
Historiske Skitser, did not appear until 1876, but after that time
his activity was stupendous. In 1879 was published the first
volume of his Danmarks og Norges Historic i Slutningen af del
xvi. Aarhundrede, a history of daily life in Denmark and Norway
at the close of the i6th century. Troels Lund was the pioneer
of the remarkable generation of young historians who came
forward in northern Europe about 1880, and he remained the
most original and conspicuous of them. Saying very little about
kings, armies and governments, he concentrates his attention
on the life, death, employments, pleasures and prejudices of
the ordinary men and women of the age with which he deals,
using to illustrate his theme a vast body of documents previously
neglected by the official historian. Lund was appointed historio-
grapher-royal to the king of Denmark and comptroller of the
Order of the Dannebrog. There was probably no living man to
whom the destruction of the archives, when Christiansborg Castle
was accidentally burned in 1884, was so acute a matter of distress.
But his favourite and peculiar province, the MSS. of the i6th
century, .was happily not involved in that calamity.

124

LUND— LUNDY

LUND, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, in the district
(Ian) of Malmohus, 10 m. N.E. of Malmo by rail. Pop. (1900)
16,621. A university was founded here in 1668 by Charles XI.,
with faculties of law, medicine, theology and philosophy. The
number of students ranges from 600 to 800, and there are about
50 professors. Its .library of books and MSS. is entitled to
receive a copy of every work printed in Sweden. Important
buildings include the university hall (1882), the academic union
of the students (1851) containing an art museum; the astronomi-
cal observatory, built in 1866, though observations have been
carried on since 1760; the botanical museum, and ethnographical
and industrial art collections, illustrating life in southern Sweden
from early times. Each student belongs to one of twelve nations
(landskap), which mainly comprises students from a particular
part of the country. The Romanesque cathedral was founded
about the middle of the roth century. The crypt under the
raised transept and choir is one of the largest in the world, and
the church is one of the finest in Scandinavia. A statue of the
poet Esaias Tegner stands in the Tegners Plads, and the house
in which he lived from 1813 to 1826 is indicated by an inscribed
stone slab. The chief industries are sugar-refining, iron and
brick works, and the manufacture of furniture and gloves.

Lund (Londinum Gothorum), the "Lunda at Eyrarsund" of
Egil's Saga, was of importance in Egil's time (c. 920). It appears
that, if not actually a seaport, it was at least nearer the Sound
than now. In the middle of the nth century it was made a
bishopric, and in 1103 the seat of an archbishop who received
primatial rank over all Scandinavia in 1163, but in 1536 Lund
was reduced to a bishopric. Close to the town, at the hill of
Sliparabacke, the Danish kings used to receive the homage of the
princes of Skare, and a monument records a victory of Charles XI.
over the Danes (1676), which extinguished the Danish claim to
suzerainty over this district.

LUNDY, BENJAMIN (1789-1839), American philanthropist,
prominent in the anti-slavery conflict, was born of Quaker
parentage, at Hardwick, Warren county, New Jersey, on the
4th of January 1789. As a boy he worked on his father's farm,
attending school for only brief periods, and in 1808-1812 he lived
at Wheeling, Virginia (now W. Va.), where he served an appren-
ticeship to a saddler, and where — Wheeling being an important
headquarters of the inter-State slave trade — he first became
deeply impressed with the iniquity of the institution of slavery,
and determined to devote his life to the cause of abolition. In
1815, while living at Saint Clairsville, Ohio, he organized an anti-
slavery association, known as the " Union Humane Society," which
within a few months had a membership of more than five hundred
men. For a short time he assisted Charles Osborne in editing
the Philanthropist; in 1819 he went to St Louis, Missouri, and
there in 1819-1820 took an active part in the slavery controversy;
and in 1821 he founded at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, an anti-slavery
paper, the Genius of Universal Emancipation. This periodical,
first a monthly and later a weekly, was published successively
in Ohio, Tennessee, Maryland, the District of Columbia and
Pennsylvania, though it appeared irregularly, and at times, when
Lundy was away on lecturing tours, was issued from any office
that was accessible to him. From September 1829 until March
1830 Lundy was assisted in the editorship of the paper by
William Lloyd Garrison (q.v.). Besides travelling through many
states of the United States to deliver anti-slavery lectures,
Lundy visited Haiti twice — in 1825 and 1829, the Wilberforce
colony of freedmen and refugee slaves in Canada in 1830-1831,
and in 1832 and again in 1833 /Texas, all these visits being made,
in part, to find a suitable place outside the United States to
which emancipated slaves might be sent. Between 1820 and
1830, according to a statement made by Lundy himself, he
travelled " more than 5000 m. on foot and 20,000 in other ways,
visited nineteen states of the Union, and held more than 200
public meetings." He was bitterly denounced by slaveholders
and also by such non-slaveholders as disapproved of all anti-
slavery agitation, and in January 1827 he was assaulted and
seriously injured by a slave-trader, Austin Woolfolk, whom he
had severely criticized in his paper. In 1836-1838 Lundy edited

in Philadelphia a new anti-slavery weekly, The National Enquirer,
which he had founded, and which under the editorship of John
G. Whittier, Lundy's successor, became The Pennsylvania-
Freeman. In 1838 Lundy removed to Lowell, La Salle county,
Illinois, where he printed several copies of the Genius of Universal
Emancipation. There, on the 22nd of August 1839, he died.
Lundy is said to have been the first to deliver anti-slavery
lectures in the United States.

See The Life, Travels and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy (Phila-
delphia, 1847), compiled (by Thomas Earle) " under the direction
and on behalf of his children."

LUNDY, ROBERT (fl. 1689), governor of Londonderry.
Nothing is known of Lundy's parentage or early life; but he
had seen service in the foreign wars before 1688, when he was
at Dublin with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the regiment
of Lord Mountjoy. When the apprentices of Derry closed the
gates in the face of the earl of Antrim,- who was approaching
the city at the head of an Irish Catholic force in the interests
of James II., the viceroy Tyrconnel despatched Mountjoy to
pacify the Protestants. Mountjoy and his regiment were well
received in the north, and the citizens of Derry permitted him
to leave within their walls a small Protestant garrison under
the command of Lundy, who assumed the title of governor.
Popular feeling in Derry ran so strongly in favour of the prince
of Orange that Lundy quickly declared himself an adherent
of William; and he obtained from him a commission confirming
his appointment as governor. Whether Lundy was a deliberate
traitor to the cause he had embraced with explicit asseveration
of fidelity in a signed document, or whether, as Macaulay sug-
gests, he was only a cowardly poltroon, cannot certainly be
known. What is certain is that from the moment Londonderry
was menaced by the troops of King James, Lundy used all his
endeavours to paralyse the defence of the city. In April 1689
he was in command of a force of Protestants who encountered
some troops under Richard Hamilton at Strabane, when, instead
of holding his ground, he told his men that all -was lost and
ordered them to shift for themselves; he himself was the first
to take flight back to Derry. King James, then at Omagh on
his way to the north, similarly turned in flight towards Dublin
on hearing of the skirmish, but returned next day on receiving
the true account of the occurrence. On the i4th of April English
ships appeared in the Foyle with reinforcements for Lundy
under Colonel Cunningham. Lundy dissuaded Cunningham
from landing his regiments, representing that a defence of
Londonderry was hopeless; and that he himself intended to
withdraw secretly from the city. At the same time he sent to
the enemy's headquarters a promise to surrender the city at
the first summons. As soon as this became known to the citizens
Lundy's life was in danger, and he was vehemently accused of
treachery. When the enemy appeared before the walls Lundy
gave orders that there should be no firing. But all authority
had passed out of his hands. The people flew to arms under
the direction of Major Henry Baker and Captain Adam Murray,
who organized the famous defence in conjunction with the
Rev. George Walker (q.v.). Lundy, to avoid popular vengeance,
hid himself until nightfall, when by the connivance of Walker
and Murray he made his escape in disguise. He was appre-
hended in Scotland and sent to the Tower of London. He was
excluded from the Act of Indemnity in 1690, but his subsequent
fate is unknown.

See Lord Macaulay, History of England, vol. iii. (Albany edition
of complete works, London, 1898); Rev. George Walker, A True
Account of the Siege of Londonderry (London, 1680); J. Mackenzie,
Narrative of the Siege of Londonderry (London, 1690) ; John Hempton,
The Siege and History of Londonderry (Londonderry, 1861); Rev.
John Graham, A History of the Siege of Derry and Defence of
Enniskillen, 1688-9 (Dublin, 1829). (R. J. M.)

LUNDY, an English island at the entrance of the Bristol
Channel, 12 m. N.W. by N. of the nearest point on the mainland,
namely Hartland Point on the Devonshire coast. The nearest
ports are Clovelly and Bideford. The extreme length of the island
is 3 m. from N. to S., the mean breadth about half a mile, but
at the south the breadth is nearly i m. The area is about 1150

LUNEBURG— LUNEVILLE

acres. The component rock is a hard granite, except at the south,
where slate occurs. This granite was used in the construction
of the Victoria Embankment, London. An extreme elevation
of about 450 ft. is found in the southern half of the island; the
northern sloping gently to the sea, but the greater part of the
coast is cliff-bound and very beautiful. The landing, at the
south-east, is sheltered by the small Rat Island, where the once
common black rat survives. There are a few prehistoric remains
on Lundy, and the foundations of an ancient chapel of St Hele'n.
There are also ruins, and the still inhabited keep, of Marisco
Castle, occupying a strong precipitous site on the south-east,
held in the reign of Henry II. by Sir Jordan de Marisco. The
Mariscos, in their inaccessible retreat, lived lawlessly until in
1242 Sir William Marisco was hanged for instigating an attempt
on the life of Henry III. In 1625 the island was reported to be
captured by Turkish pirates, and in 1633 by Spaniards. Later
it became an object of attack and a hiding place for French
privateers. The island, which is reckoned as extra-parochial,
has some cultivable land and heath pasture, and had a population
in IQOI of 94.

LUNEBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hanover, situated near the foot of a small hill named the
Kalkberg, on the navigable Ilmenau, 14 m. above its confluence
with the Elbe and 30 m. by rail S.E. of Hamburg by the main
line to Hanover. Pop. (1905) 26,751. Numerous handsome
medieval buildings testify to its former prosperity as a prominent
member of the Hanseatic league, and its many quaint houses
with high gables and overhanging eaves have gained for it the
appellation " the Nuremberg of the North." Portions of the
old walls survive, but the greater part of the former circum-
vallation has been converted into promenades and gardens,
outside which a modern town has sprung up. The finest of its
squares are the market-place and the so-called Sand. The
churches of St John, with five aisles and a spire 375 ft. in height;
of St Michael, containing the tombs of the former princes of
Liineburg, and of St Nicolas, with a huge nave and a lofty
spire, are fine Gothic edifices of the I4th and isth centuries.
The old town-hall in the market square is a huge pile, dating
originally from the i3th century, but with numerous additions.
It has an arcade with frescoes, restored by modern Munich
artists, and contains a magnificent hall — the Fiirstensaal —
richly decorated with wood-carving and stained:glass windows.
Galvanoplastic casts of the famous Liineburg silver plate, con-
sisting of 36 pieces which were acquired in 1874 by the Prussian
government for £33,000 and are now housed in the art museum
in Berlin, are exhibited here. Among other public edifices are
the old palace; the convent of St Michael (now converted into
a school and law court), and the Kaufhaus (merchants' hall).
There are a museum, a library of 36,000 volumes, classical and
commercial schools, and a teachers' seminary. Liineburg owes
its importance chiefly to the gypsum and lime quarries of the
Kalkberg, which afford the materials for its cement works, and
to the productive salt-spring at its base which has been known
and used since the loth century. Hence the ancient saying
which, grouping with these the commercial facilities afforded
by the bridge over the Ilmenau, ascribes the prosperity of Liine-
burg to its mons, fans, pans. Other industries are the making
of chemicals, ironware, soda and haircloth. There is a con-
siderable trade in French wines, for which Liineburg has for
centuries been one of the chief emporia in north Germany, and
also in grain and wool. Celebrated are its lampreys, Liine-
burger Bricken.

Liineburg existed in the days of Charlemagne, but it did not
gain importance until after the erection of a convent and a
castle on the Kalkberg in the loth century. After the destruc-
tion of Bardowiek, then the chief commercial centre of North
Germany, by Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, in 1189, Liine-
burg inherited much of its trade and subsequently became one
of the principal towns of the Hanseatic league. Having belonged
to the extensive duchy of Saxony it was the capital of the duchy
of Brunswick-Liineburg from 1235 to 1369; later it belonged to
one or other of the branches of the family of Brunswick, being

involved in the quarrels, and giving its name to cadet lines,
of this house. From the junior line of Brunswick-Liineburg
the reigning family of Great Britain is descended. The re-
formed doctrines were introduced into the town in 1530 and
it suffered heavily during the Thirty Years' War. It reached
the height of its prosperity in the isth century, and in the lyth
century it was the depot for much of the merchandise exported
from Saxony and Bavaria to the mouth of the Elbe; then after
a period of decay the igth century witnessed a revival of its
prosperity. In 1813 the German war of liberation was begun
by an engagement with the French near Liineburg.

See W. F. Volger, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Luneburg (3 vols.,
Liineburg, 1872-1877); E. Bodemann, Die dlteren Zunfturkunden
der Stadt Luneburg (Hanover, 1883); O. Jurgens, Geschichte der Stadt
Luneburg (Luneburg, 1891); Des Propstes Jakob Schomaker Lune-
burger Chronik, edited by T. Meyer (Hanover, 1904); A. Wrede,
Die Einfiihrung der Reformation in Luneburg (Gottingen, 1887),
and W. Remecke,LuneburgsallestesStadtbuchuna Ver/asstungsregtster
(Hanover, 1903). For the history of the principality see von
Leuthe, Archiv fur Geschichte und Verfassung des Furstentums
Luneburg (Celle, 1854-1863).

LUNEBURGER HEIDE, a district of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hanover, lying between the Aller and the Elbe
and intersected by the railways Harburg-Hanover and Bremen-
Stendal. Its main character is that of a broad saddle-back,
running for 55 m. from S.E. to N.W. of a mean elevation of about
250 ft. and attaining its greatest height in the Wilseder Berg
(550 ft.) at its northern end. The soil is quartz sand and is
chiefly covered with heather and brushwood. In the north, and
in the deep valleys through which the streams descend to the
plain, there are extensive forests of oak, birch and beech, and
in the south, of fir and larch. Though the climate is raw and
good soil rare, the heath is not unfertile. Its main products
are sheep — the celebrated Heidschnucken breed, — potatoes,
bilberries, cranberries and honey. The district is also remarkable
for the numerous Hun barrows found scattered throughout its
whole extent.

See Rabe, Die Luneburger Heide und die Bewirthschaftung der
Heidhofe (Jena, 1900); Kniep, Fiihrer durch die Luneburger Heide
(Hanover, 1900); Linde, Die Luneburger Heide (Luneburg, 1905),
and Kiick, Das alte Bauernleben der Luneburger Heide (Leipzig, 1906).

LUNETTE (French diminutive of lune, moon), a crescent-
shaped, semi-circular object. The term is particularly applied
in architecture to a circular opening at the intersection of
vaulting by a smaller vault, as in a ceiling for the entrance of
light or in the lower stories of towers for the passage of bells.
It is also used of a panel space of semi-circular shape, filled by
a fresco or other decorative treatment. In fortification a
" lunette " was originally an earthwork of half-moon shape;
later it became a redan with short flanks, in trace somewhat
resembling a bastion standing by itself without curtains on
either side. The gorge was generally open.

LUNEVILLE, an industrial and garrison town of north-eastern
France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of
Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 m. E.S.E. of Nancy on the railway to
Strassburg. Pop. (1906) town, 19,199; commune, 24,266
(including troops). The town stands on the right bank of the
Meurthe between that river and its affluent the Vezouze, a little
above their confluence. Its chateau, designed early in the i8th
century by the royal architect Germain Boffrand, was the
favourite residence of Duke Leopold of Lorraine, where he
gathered round him an academy composed of eminent men of
the district. It is now a cavalry barracks, and the gardens
form a public promenade. Luneville is an important cavalry
station with a large riding school. The church of St Jacques
with its two domed towers dates from 1730-1745. There are
statues of General Count Antoine de Lasalle, and of the Conven-
tional Abb6 Henri Gr6goire. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect,
and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
It carries on cotton-spinning and the manufacture of railway
material, motor vehicles, porcelain, toys, hosiery, embroidery,
straw-hats and gloves. Trade is in grain, wine, tobacco, hops
and other agricultural produce.

The name of Lun6ville (Lunae villa) is perhaps derived from

126

LUNG— LUPINE

an ancient cult of Diana, the moon goddess, a sacred fountain
and medals with the effigy of this goddess having been found at
Leormont, some 2 m. E. of the town. Luneville belonged to
Austrasia, and after various changes fell, in 1344, to the house
of Lorraine. A walled town in the middle ages, it suffered in
the Thirty Years' War and in the campaigns of Louis XIV.
from war, plague and famine. The town flourished again under
Dukes Leopold and Stanislas, on the death of the latter of whom,
which took place at Luneville, Lorraine was united to France
(1766). The treaty of Luneville between France and Austria
(1801) confirmed the former power in the possession of the left
bank of the Rhine.

LUNG, in anatomy, the name of each of the pair of organs
of respiration in man and other air-breathing animals, the
corresponding organs in fishes being the branchiae or gills (see
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). The word in Old English was lungen ;
it appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Lunge, Du.
long, Swed. lunga; the Teutonic root from which these are
derived meant " light," and the lungs were so-called from their
lightness. The word " lights " was formerly used as synonymous
with " lungs," but is now confined to the lungs of sheep, pigs
or cattle; it is etymologically connected with " lung," the
pre-Teutonic root being seen in Sansk. laghu, Gr. i\a.(j>p6s.

SURGERY OF THE LUNG AND PLEURA. — When a person meets
with a severe injury to the chest, as from a wheel passing over him,
the ribs may be broken and driven into the lung. Air then entering
into the pleural space, the lung collapses, and breathing becomes so
difficult that death may ensue from asphyxia. Short of this, however,
there is a cough with the spitting of frothy, blood-stained mucus
or of bright red blood. All that can be done is to place the person
on his back, slightly propped up by pillows, and to combat syncope
by subcutaneous injections of ether and strychnia.

Empyema means the presence of an abscess between the lung and
the chest wall, i.e. in the pleural space; it is the result of a septic
inflammation of the pleura by the micro-organisms of pneumonia
or of typhoid fever, or by some other germs. As the abscess increases
in size, the lung is pushed towards the spine, and that side of the
chest gives a dull note on percussion. If much fluid collects the
heart may be pushed out of its place, and, the lung-space being
taken up, respiration is embarrassed. Having made sure of the
presence of an abscess by exploring with syringe and hollow needle,
the surgeon opens and drains it. The drainage is made more effectual
by removing an inch or so of one of the ribs, for, unless this is done,
there is a risk of the rubber drainage tube being compressed as the
ribs come closer together again.

The lung itself has sometimes to be operated on, as when it is the
seat of an hydatid cyst, or when it contains an abscess cavity which
cannot otherwise be drained, or when it becomes necessary to remove
a foreign body the exact situation of which has been revealed by the
X-rays. Portions of some of the ribs having been resected, the
pleural cavity is opened, and if the lung has not already become glued
to the chest-wall by inflammatory adhesions, it is stitched up to the
chest-wall, and in a few days, when adhesions have taken place, an
incision is safely made into the lung-tissue. See also RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM. (E. O.*)

LUNG, one of the four symbolical creatures of Chinese legend.
It is a dragon with a scaly snake-like body, long claws, horns,
a bristly face, and its back-bone armed with spikes. Originally
three-clawed, it has become, as the official dragon of the present
dynasty, a five-clawed beast. The form is embroidered on the
state robes of the emperor of China, and it is traditionally
connected with the dynasty's history and fortunes.

LUNGCHOW, a town in the province of Kwangsi, China, in
22° 21' N., 106° 45' E., near the Tongking frontier, and at the
junction of the Sung-chi and Kao-ping rivers. Pop. (estimate)
22,000. The town is prettily situated in a circular valley.
From a military point of view it is considered important, and
considerable bodies of troops are stationed here. It was selected
as the seat of frontier trade by the French convention of 1886,
and was opened in 1889. In 1898 the total value of its trade
amounted to only £20,000, but in 1904 the figures increased
to £56,692.

LUNGE, GEORG (1830- ), German chemist, was born at
Breslau on the isth of September 1839. He studied at Heidel-
berg (under R. W. Bunsen) and Breslau, graduating at the
latter university in 1859. Turning his attention to technical
chemistry, he became chemist at several works both in Germany
and England, and in 1876 he was appointed professor of technical

chemistry at Zurich polytechnic. Lunge's original contributions
cover a very wide field, dealing both with technical processes
and analysis. In addition, he was a voluminous writer, enriching
scientific literature with many standard works. His treatises
Coal Tar and Ammonia (5th ed. 1909; ist ed. 1867), Destination
des Steinkohlentheers) and Sulphuric Acid and Alkali (ist ed.
1878, 4th ed. 1909), established his position as the highest
authority on these subjects, while the Chemische-technische
Untersuchungs-Methoden (1899-1900; Eng. trans.), to which he
contributed, testified to his researches in technical analysis.
His jubilee was celebrated at Zurich on the isth of September
1909.

LUPERCALIA, a very ancient, possibly pre-Roman, pastoral
festival in honour of Lupercus. Its rites were under the super-
intendence of a corporation of priests called Luperci,1 whose
institution is attributed either to the Arcadian Evander, or to
Romulus and Remus. In front of the Porta Romana, on the
western side of the Palatine hill, close to the Ficus Ruminalis
and the Casa Romuli, was the cave of Lupercus; in it, according
to the legend, the she-wolf had suckled the twins, and the bronze
wolf, which is still preserved in the Capitol, was placed in it in
296 B.C. But the festival itself, which was held on February 15th,
contains no reference to the Romulus legend, which is probably
later in origin, though earlier than the grecizing Evander legend.
The festival began with the sacrifice by the Luperci (or the
flamen dialis) of goats and a dog; after which two of the Luperci
were led to the altar, their foreheads were touched with a bloody
knife, and the blood wiped off with wool dipped in milk; then
the ritual required that the two young men should laugh. The
smearing of the forehead with blood probably refers to human
sacrifice originally practised at the festival. The sacrificial
feast followed, after which the Luperci cut thongs from the skins
of the victims and ran in two bands round the walls of the old
Palatine city, the line of which was marked with stones, striking
the people who crowded near. A blow from the thong prevented
sterility in women. These thongs were called februa, the festival
Februatio, and the day dies februatus (februare=to purify);
hence the name of the month February, the last of the old Roman
year. The object of the festival was, by expiation and purifica-
tion, to secure the fruitfulness of the land, the increase of the
flocks and the prosperity of the whole people. The Lupercal
(cave of Lupercus), which had fallen into a state of decay, was
rebuilt by Augustus; the celebration of the festival had been
maintained, as we know from the famous occurrence of it in
44 B.C. It survived until A.D. 494, when it was changed by
Gelasius into the feast of the Purification. Lupercus, in whose
honour the festival was held, is identified with Faunus or Inuus,
Evander (Evav&pos) , in the Greek legend being a translation of
Faunus (the " kindly "). The Luperci were divided into two
collegia, called Quinctiliani (or Quinctiales) and Fabiani, from
the gens Quinctilia (or Quinctia) 2 and Fabia; at the head of each
of these colleges was a magister. In 44 B.C. a third college,
Luperci Julii, was instituted in honour of Julius Caesar, the first
magister of which was Mark Antony. In imperial times the
members were usually of equestrian standing.

See Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885) p. 438;
W. Warde Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899), p. 390 foil., and article
in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed. 1891).

LUPINE (Lupinus), in botany, a genus of about 100 species
of annual and perennial herbaceous plants of the tribe Genisteae,
of the order Leguminosae. Species with digitate leaves range
along the west side of America from British Columbia to northern
Chile, while a few occur in the Mediterranean regions. A few
others with entire leaves are found in Brazil and eastern North
America. The leaves are remarkable for " sleeping " in three
different ways. From being in the form of a horizontal star
by day, the leaflets either fall and form a hollow cone with their

1 Many derivations are suggested, but it seems most probable
that Luperci simply means ' wolves " (the last part of the word
exhibiting a similar formation to nov-erca), the name having its
origin in the primitive worship of the wolf as a wolf-god.

* Mommsen considers the Quinctia to be the older gens, and the
Quinctilia a later introduction from Alba.

LUPUS— LURAY CAVERN

127

bases upwards (L. pilosus), or rise and the cone is inverted
(L. luleus), or else the shorter leaflets fall and the longer rise,
and so together form a vertical star as in many species; the
object in every case being to protect the surfaces of the leaflets
from radiation and consequent wetting with dew (Darwin,
Movements of Plants, p. 340). The flowers are of the usual
" papilionaceous " or pea-like form, blue, white, purple or
yellow, in long terminal spikes. The stamens are monadelphous
and bear dimorphic anthers. The species of which earliest
mention is made is probably L. Termis, which was cultivated
by the ancient Egyptians. It is wild in some parts of the
Mediterranean area and is extensively cultivated in Egypt.
Its seeds are eaten by the poor after being steeped in water to
remove their bitterness; the stems furnish fuel and charcoal
for gunpowder. The lupine of the ancient Greeks and Romans
was probably L. albus, which is still extensively cultivated
in Italy, Sicily and other Mediterranean countries for forage,
for ploughing in to enrich the land, and for its round flat seeds,
which form an article of food. Yellow lupine (L. luleus) and
blue lupine (L. angustifolius) are also cultivated on the European
continent as farm crops for green manuring.

Lupines are easily cultivated in moderately good garden soil;
they include annuals which are among the most ornamental and
most easily grown of summer flowering plants (sow in open borders
in April and May), and perennials, which are grown from seed or
propagated by dividing strong plants in March and April. Many of
the forms in cultivation are hybrid. One of the best known of the
perennial species is L. polyphyllus, a western North American species.
It grows from 3 to 6 ft. high, and has numerous varieties, including
a charming white-flowered one. The tree lupine (L. arboreus) is a
Californian bush, 2 to 4 ft. high, with fragrant yellow flowers. It is
only hardy in the most favoured parts of the kingdom.

LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS, Roman rhetorician, flourished
during the reign of Tiberius. He was the author of a treatise
on the figures of speech (2xi?Mara Xe£«js), abridged from a
similar work by the rhetorician Gorgias (of Athens, not the
well-known sophist of Leontini), the tutor of Cicero's son.
In its present form it is incomplete, as is clearly shown by the
express testimony of Quintilian (Instil, ix. 2, 103, 106) that
Lupus also dealt with figures of sense, rhetorical figures (2x^M<""a
Siavoias). The work is valuable chiefly as containing a number
of examples, well translated into Latin, from the lost works of
Greek rhetoricians. The author has been identified with the
Lupus mentioned in the Ovidian catalogue of poets (Ex Ponlo,
iv. 16), and was perhaps the son of the Publius Rutilius Lupus,
who was a strong supporter of Pompey.

Editions by D. Ruhnken (1768), F. Jacob (1837), C. Halm in
Rhetorcs latini minores (1863); see also monographs by G. Dzialas
(1860 and 1869), C. Schmidt (1865), J. Draheim (1874), Thilo Krieg
(1896).

LUPUS (Lat. lupus, wolf), a disease characterized by the
formation in the skin or mucous membrane of small tubercles
or nodules consisting of cell growth which has an inclination
to retrograde change, leading to ulceration and destruction of
the tissues, and, if it heals, to the subsequent formation of
permanent white scars. Lupus vulgaris is most commonly
seen in early life, and occurs chiefly on the face, about the nose,
cheeks or ears. But it may also affect the body or limbs. It
first shows itself as small, slightly prominent, nodules covered
with thin crusts or scabs. These may be absorbed and removed
at one point whilst spreading at another. Their disappearance
is followed by a permanent white cicatrix. The disease may be
superficial, in which case both the ulceration and the resulting
scar are slight (lupus non-exedens) ; or the ulcerative process
may be deep and extensive, destroying a large portion of the
nose or cheek, and leaving much disfigurement (lupus exedens).
A milder form, lupus erytkematosus, occurs on the nose and
adjacent portions of the cheeks in the form of red patches
covered with thin scales, underneath which are seen the widened
openings of the sebaceous ducts. With a longitudinal patch
on the nose and spreading symmetrical patches on each cheek
the appearance is usually that of a large butterfly. It is slow
in disappearing, but does not leave a scar. Lupus is more
frequently seen in women than in men; it is connected with a
tuberculous constitution. In the superficial variety the applica-

tion of soothing ointments when there is much redness, and
inear incisions, or scrapings with a sharp spoon, to destroy the
ncreased blood supply, are often serviceable. In the ordinary
rorm the local treatment is to remove the new tissue growth
jy solid points of caustic thrust into the tubercles to break
them up, or by scraping with a sharp spoon. The light-treatment
las been successfully applied in recent years. As medicines,
cod-liver oil, iron and arsenic are useful. (E. O.*)

LUQMAN, or LOKMAN, the name of two, if not of three (cf.
note to Terminal Essay in Sir Rd. Burton's translation of the
Arabian Nights), persons famous in Arabian tradition. The one
was of the family of 'Ad, and is said to have built the great dike
of Marib and to have received the gift of life as long as that of
seven vultures, each of which lived eighty years. The name of
the seventh vulture — Lubad — occurs in proverbial literature.
The name of the second Luqman, called " Luqman the Sage,"
occurs in the Koran (31, n). Two accounts of him are current
in Arabian literature. According to Mas'udi (i. no) he was a
Nubian freedman who lived in the time of David in the district
of Elah and Midian. According to some commentators on the
Koran (e.g., Baidawl) he was the son of Ba'ura, one of the sons
of Job's sister or maternal aunt. Derenbourg in his Fables
de Loqmdn le sage (1850) identifies Ba'ura with Beoi, and believes
the name Luqman to be a translation of Balaam. The grave
of Luqman was shown on the east coast of the lake of Tiberias,
also in Yemen (cf. Yaqut, vol. iii. p. 512).

The so-called Fables of Luqman are known to have existed in the
I3th century, but are not mentioned by any Arabian writer. They
were edited by Erpenius (Leiden, 1615) and have been reprinted
many times. For the relation of these to similar literature in other
lands, see J. Jacobs's edition of Caxton's Fables of Aesop, vol. i.
(London, 1889). The name of Luqrnan also occurs in many old
verses, anecdotes and proverbs; cf. G. Freytag's Arabum Proverbia
(Bonn, 1838-1843) and such Arabian writers as Tabari, Mas'udi,
Damiri and the Kttab al-Mu'ammarln (ed. by I. Goldziher, Leiden,
1899). (G. W. T.)

LURAY CAVERN, a large cave in Page county, Virginia,
U.S.A., 39° 35' N. and 78° 17' W., near the village of Luray,
on the Norfork & Western railway. The valley, here 10 m.
wide, extends from the Blue Ridge to the Massanutton Mountain.
The ridges lie in vast folds and wrinkles; and elevations in the
valley are often found to be pierced by erosion. Cave Hill,
300 ft. above the water-level, had long been an object of local
interest on account of its pits and oval hollows or sink-holes,
through one of which, on the I3th of August 1878, Andrew
J. Campbell and others entered, thus discovering the cavern
now described.

The Luray cavern does not date beyond the Tertiary period,
though carved from the Silurian limestone. At some period,
long subsequent to its original excavation, and after many
large stalactites had grown, it was completely filled with glacial
mud charged with acid, whereby the dripstone was eroded into
singularly grotesque shapes. After the mud had been mostly
removed by flowing water, these eroded forms remained amid
the new growths. To this contrast may be ascribed some of the
most striking scenes in the cave. The many and extraordinary
monuments of aqueous energy include massive columns wrenched
from their place in the ceiling and prostrate on the floor; the
Hollow Column, 40 ft. high and 30 ft. in diameter, standing erect,
but pierced by a tubular passage from top to bottom; the
Leaning Column nearly as large, undermined and tilting like
the campanile of Pisa; the Organ, a cluster of stalactites in the
chamber known as the Cathedral; besides a vast bed of dis-
integrated carbonates left by the whirling flood in its retreat
through the great space called the Elfin Ramble.

The stalactitic display exceeds that of any other cavern known.
The old material is yellow, brown or red; and its wavy surface
often shows layers like the gnarled grain of costly woods. The
new stalactites growing from the old, and made of hard carbonates
that had already once been used, are usually white as snow,
though often pink, blue or amber-coloured. The Kmpress
Column is a stalagmite 35 ft. high, rose-coloured, and elaborately
draped. The double column, named from Professors Henry and
Baird, is made of two fluted pillars side by side, the one 25 and

128

LURCH

the other 60 ft. high, a mass of snowy alabaster. Several
stalactites in the Giant Hall exceed 50 ft. in length. The smaller
pendants are innumerable; in the canopy above the Imperial
Spring it is estimated that 40,000 are visible at once.

The " cascades " are wonderful formations like foaming
cataracts caught in mid-air and transformed into milk-white or
amber alabaster. The Chalcedony Cascade displays a variety of
colours. Brand's Cascade, the finest of all, is 40 ft. high and 3o.ft.
wide, and is unsullied and wax-like white, each ripple and
braided rill seeming to have been polished.

The Swords of the Titans are monstrous blades, eight in
number, 50 ft. long, 3 to 8 ft. wide, hollow, i to 2 ft. thick, but
drawn down to an extremely thin edge, and filling the cavern
with tones like tolling bells when struck heavily by the hand.
Their origin and also that of certain so-called scarfs and blankets
is from carbonates deposited by water trickling down a sloping
and corrugated surface. Sixteen of these alabaster scarfs hang
side by side in Hovey's Balcony, three white and fine as crape
shawls, thirteen striated like agate with every shade of brown,

H C.M

A.FJ.

Luray Cavern.

1. The Vestibule.

2. Washington's Pillar.

3. Flower Garden.

4. Amphitheatre.

5. Natural Bridge.

6. Fish Market.

7. Crystal Spring.

8. Proserpine's Pillar.

9. The Spectral Column.
10. Hovey's Balcony.

n. Oberon's Grot.
Titania's Veil.
Saracen's Tent.

14. The Organ.

15. Tower of Babel.
Empress Column.
Hollow Column.

12.
13

16.
17-

18. Henry-Baird Column.

Scale 500 ft. to the inch.

19. Chalcedony Cascade.

20. Coral Spring.

21. The Dragon.

22. Bootjack Alley.

23. Scaly Column.

24. Lost Blanket.

25. Helen's Scarf.

26. Chapman's Lake.

27. Broaddus Lake.

28. Castles on the Rhine.

29. Imperial Spring.

30. The Skeleton.

31. The Twin Lakes.

32. The Engine Room.

33. Miller's Room.

34. Hawes Cabinet.

35. Specimen Avenue.

36. Proposed Exit.

and all perfectly translucent. Down the edge of each a tiny
rill glistens like silver, and this is the ever-plying shuttle that
weaves the fairy fabric.

Streams and true springs are absent, but there are hundreds of
basins, varying from i to 50 ft. in diameter, and from 6 in.
to 15 ft. in depth. The water in them is exquisitely pure,
except as it is impregnated by the carbonate of lime, which
often forms concretions, called according to their size, pearls,
eggs and snowballs. A large one is known as the cannon ball.
On fracture these spherical growths are found to be radiated in
structure.

Calcite crystals, drusy, feathery or fern-like, line the sides and
bottom of every water-filled cavity, and indeed constitute the sub-

stance of which they are made. Variations of level at different
periods are marked by rings, ridges and ruffled margins. These are
strongly marked about Broaddus Lake and the curved ramparts of
the Castles on the Rhine. Here also are polished stalagmites, a
rich buff slashed with white, and others, like huge mushrooms, with
a velvety coat of red, purple or olive-tinted crystals. In some of
the smaller basins it sometimes happens that, when the excess of
carbonate acid escapes rapidly, there is formed, besides the crystal
bed below, a film above, shot like a sheet of ice across the surface.
One pool 12 ft. wide is thus covered so as to show but a third of its
surface. The quantity of water in the cavern varies greatly at
different seasons. Hence some stalactites have their tips under
water long enough to allow tassels of crystals to grow on them,
which, in a drier season, are again coated over with stalactitic
matter; and thus singular distortions are occasioned. Contiguous
stalactites are often inwrapped thus till they assume an almost
globular form, through which by making a section the primary
tubes appear. Twig-like projections, to which the term helictite
has been applied by the present writer, are met with in certain
portions of the cave, and are interesting by their strange and un-
couth contortions. Their presence is due to lateral outgrowths of
crystals shooting from the side of a growing stalactite, or to deflec-
tions caused by currents of air, or to the existence of a diminutive
fungus peculiar to the locality and designated from its habitat
Mucor stalactitis. The Toy-Shop is an amusing collection of these
freaks of nature.

The dimensions of the various chambers included in Luray
Cavern cannot easily be stated, on account of the great irregu-
larity of their outlines. Their size may be seen from the diagram.
But it should be understood that there are several tiers of
galleries, and the vertical depth from the highest to the lowest
is 260 ft. The large tract of land owned by the Luray Caverns
Corporations covers all possible modes of entrance.

The waters of this cavern appear to be entirely destitute of life;
and the existing fauna comprises only a few bats, rats, mice,
spiders, flies and small centipedes. When the cave was first
entered, the floor was covered with thousands of tracks of
raccoons, wolves and bears — most of them probably made
long ago, as impressions made in the tenacious clay that com-
poses most of the cavern floor would remain unchanged for
centuries. Layers of excrementitious matter appear, and also
many small bones, along with a few large ones, all of existing
species. The traces of human occupation are pieces of charcoal,
flints, moccasin tracks and a single skeleton embedded in stalag-
mite in one of the chasms, estimated, from the present rate of
stalagmitic growth, to have lain where found for not more than
five hundred years.

The temperature is uniformly 54° Fahr., coinciding with that
of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. The air is very pure, and the
avenues are not uncomfortably damp. The portions open to the
public are now lighted by electric lamps. The registered number
of visitors in 1906 was 18,000. A unique and highly successful
experiment merits mention, by which the cool pure air of Luray
Cavern is forced through all the rooms of the Limair sanatorium
erected in 1901, by Mr T. C. Northcott, president of the Luray
Caverns Corporation, on the summit of Cave Hill. Tests made
for several successive years by means of culture media and sterile
plates, demonstrated the perfect bacteriologic purity of the air,
first drawn into the caverns through myriads of rocky crevices
that served as natural filters, then further cleansed by floating
over the transparent springs and pools, and finally supplied
to the inmates of the sanatorium.

For a full description see an article by Dr G. L. Hunner, of Johns
Hopkins University, in the Popular Science Monthly for April 1904.

(H. C. H.)

LURCH, a word with several meanings, the etymological
relationships of which are obscure. The chief uses which sur-
vive are — (i) in the phrase " to leave in the lurch," to abandon
some one, to leave him in a position of great difficulty; (2) a
stagger, sudden leaning over, originally a nautical expression
of a sudden " list " made by a ship; (3) the name of a dog, the
" lurcher " used by poachers, properly a cross between a sheep-
dog or collie and a greyhound. In (i) " lurch " is the name of
a game, of which nothing is known (it is supposed to have
resembled backgammon), and also of a state of the score in various
games, in which the loser either scores nothing or is beaten by
very heavy points. In this sense the term is practically obsolete.

LURGAN— LUSATIA

129

It was taken from Fr. lourche, connected with many German
forms, now only dialectical such as Lortsch, Lurtsch, Lorz, Lurz,
all for some kind of game, but also meaning left-hand, wrong,
which the New English Dictionary thinks is the origin of the
word, it being first used as a term in gambling. In (2) " lurch "
occurs first in the form " lee-lurches," sudden rolls a ship takes
to leeward in a heavy sea, which may be a corruption of " lee-
latch," defined in Smyth's Sailor's Word Book as dropping to lee-
ward of the course. In (3) " lurch " is probably another form
of " lurk," to lie in wait for, watch stealthily, hence to pilfer, steal.
LURGAN, a market -town of Co. Armagh, Ireland, well
situated on high ground overlooking Lough Neagh a few miles
to the north; 20 m. S.W. of Belfast by the Great Northern
railway. Pop. (1901) 11,782. The parish church of Shankill
(this parish including Lurgan) has a finely proportioned tower.
Contiguous to the town is Lurgan Castle, a fine modern Eliza-
bethan structure, the seat of Lord Lurgan. Lurgan is famed for
its diapers, and the linen trade is of the first importance, but
there are also tobacco factories and coach factories. It is
governed by an urban district council. Lurgan was founded by
William Brownlow, to whom a grant of the town was made by
James I. In 1619 it consisted of forty-two houses, all inhabited
by English settlers. It was burned by the insurgents in 1641,
and again by the troops of James II. After its restoration in
1690 a patent for a market and fair was obtained.

LURIA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON (1534-1572), Jewish mystic,
was born in Jerusalem. From his German descent he was sur-
named Ashkenazi (the German), and we find that epithet applied
to him in a recently discovered document of date 1559. In
that year Isaac Luria was living in Cairo and trading as a spice
merchant with his headquarters in Alexandria. He had come
to Egypt as a boy after his father's death, and was brought up
by his wealthy maternal uncle Mordecai Francis. The boy,
according to the legends which soon grew round his life, was a
" wonder-child," and early displayed marvellous capacity.
He married as a lad of fifteen, his bride being his cousin. For
some time he continued his studies; later on when engaged
in business there was no break in this respect. Two years after
his marriage he became possessed of a copy of the Kabbalistic
Bible " — the Zohar of Moses de Leon (q.v.). In order to
meditate on the mystic lore he withdrew to a hut by the Nile,
returning home for the Sabbath. Luria afterwards gave to the
Sabbath a mystic beauty such as it had never before possessed.
Thus passed several years; he was still young, but his new mode
of life produced its effects on a man of his imagination and
saintly piety. He became a visionary. Elijah, who had been his
godfather in his babyhood, now paid him frequent visits, initiating
him into sublime truths. By night Luna's soul ascended to
heaven and conversed with celestial teachers who had once been
men of renown on earth.

In 1566 at earliest Luria removed to Safed. This Palestinian
town was in the i6th century the headquarters of the Kabbala.
A large circle of Talmudists lived there; at their head Joseph
Qaro, then over eighty years of age. Qaro's son married Luria's
daughter, and Qaro rejoiced at the connexion, for he had a high
opinion of Luria's learning. Mysticism is often the expression of
a revolt against authority, but in Luria's case mysticism was
not divorced from respect for tradition. After his arrival at
Safed Luria lived at most six years, and died in 1572. But these
years were momentous for Judaism. He established an extra-
ordinary reputation; his personality had a winning attractive-
ness; and he founded a school of mystics who powerfully affected
Judaism after the master's death. The Holy Spirit, we are told,
rested on him, drawn to him by the usual means of the mystics —
self-flogging, ablutions and penance. He had wonderful gifts
of insight, and spoke to the birds. Miracles abounded. More
soberly true is the statement that he went on long walks with
enthusiastic disciples, whom he taught without books. Luria
himself wrote no mystical works; what we know of his doctrines
and habits comes chiefly from his Boswell, Hayim Vital.

There was little of originality in Luria's doctrines: the theory of
emanations, the double belief in the process of the Divine Essence

xvn. 5

as it were self-concentrating (Zimzum) and on the other hand as
expanding throughout creation; the philosophical " sceptism "
which regards God as unknowable but capable of direct intuition
by feeling — these were all common elements of mystical thought.
Luria was an inspirer of saintly conduct rather than an innovator
in theories. Not beliefs, he said, but believers need rebirth. As he
rose in the morning he prayed: " O God, grant that throughout this
coming day I may be able to love my neighbour as myself." Never
would he retire to rest until he had fulfilled his definite engagements
to those who had served him. Luria and his school altered the very
look of the Jewish Prayer Book. Prayer was his main prop. By it
men became controllers of the earthly world and reached God.
He or his school introduced innumerable ritual customs, some of
them beautiful enough. On Sabbath he dressed in white, wearing
a four-fold garment to typify the four letters of the Divine Name.
The Sabbath was to him an actual cult. It was a day of the most
holy joy. Resuming the Talmudic idea of an Over-soul present in
every Israelite on the Sabbath, Luria and his school made play with
this Over-soul, fed it with spiritual and material dainties and evolved
an intricate maze of mystic ceremonial, still observed by countless
masses. Another strong point with Luria was penance. The con-
fessions of sin which he introduced descend to minute ritual details
and rise to the most exalted aspects of social and spiritual life.
He deprecated general confessions and demanded that the individual
must lay bare the recesses of his heart. Hayim Vital reports that
on his death-bed Luria said to his disciples: " Be at peace with one
another: bear with one another: and so be worthy ot my coming
again to reveal to you what no mortal ear has heard before." His
mystic ceremonial became a guide to religious practice, and though
with this there came in much meaningless and even bewildering
formalism, yet the example of his life and character was a lasting
inspiration to saintliness.

See S. Schecher, Studies in Judaism, second series, pp. 251 seq. ;
Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 210; E. Worman in Revue des Etudes
Juives, Ivii. 281. (I. A.)

LURISTAN, in the wider sense (as its name implies) the " Land
of the Lurs," namely that part of western Persia which is bounded
by Turkish territory on the west and extends for about 400 m.
N.W.-S.E. from Kermanshah to Pars with a breadth of 100 to
140 m. It is chiefly mountainous, being intersected by numerous
ranges running N.W.-S.E. The central range has many summits
which are almost within the line of perpetual snow, rising to
13,000 ft. and more, and in it are the sources of Persia's most
important rivers, as the Zayendeh-rud, Jarahi, Karun, Diz, Abi,
Kerkheh. Between the higher ranges are many fertile plains and
low hilly districts, well watered but comparatively little cultivated
in consequence of intertribal feuds. The Lurs are thought to
be aboriginal Persians with a mixture of Semitic blood. Their
language is a dialect of Persian and does not differ materially
from Kurdish. Outwardly they are Mussulmans of the Shiah
branch, but most of them show little veneration for either
Prophet or Koran, and the religion of some of them seems to be
a mixture of Ali-Illahism involving a belief in successive incarna-
tions combined with mysterious, ancient, heathen rites. The
northern part of Luristan, which was formerly known as Luri-
kuchik (little Luristan), is inhabited by the Feili Lurs and these
are divided into the Pishkuh (cis-montane) Lurs in the east and
Pushtkuh (ultra-montane) Lurs in the west adjoining Turkish
territory. They number about 350,000. Little Luristan was
governed by a race of independent princes of the Khurshidi
dynasty, and called atabegs, from 1155 to the beginning of the
1 7th century when the last atabeg, Shah Verdi Khan, was re-
moved by Shah Abbas I. and the government of the province
given to Husain Khan, the chief of a rival tribe, with the title
of vali in exchange for that of atabeg. The descendants of
Husain Khan have retained the title but now govern only the
Pushtkuh Lurs, to whom only the denomination of Feili is at
present applied. The southern part of Luristan was formerly
known as Lur i Buzurg (great Luristan) and is composed of the
Bakhtiari division of the Arabistan province and the districts of
the Mamasennis and Kuhgilus which belong to Fare. The
Bakhtiaris number about 200,000, the others 40,000. Great
Luristan was an independent state under the Fazlevieh
atabegs from 1160 until 1424, and its capital was Idaj, now
represented by mounds and ruins at Malamir 60 m. S.E. of
Shushter.

LUSATIA (Ger. Lausiiz), a name applied to two neighbouring
districts in Germany, Upper and Lower Lusatia, belonging now

130

LUSHAI HILLS— LUSIGNAN

mainly to Prussia, but partly to Saxony. The name is taken
from the Lusitzi, a Slav tribe, who inhabited Lower Lusatia in
the gth and loth centuries.

In the earliest times Lower Lusatia reached from the Black
Elster to the Spree; its inhabitants, the Lusitzi, were conquered
by the German king, Henry the Fowler, and by the margrave
Gero in the loth century. Their land was formed into a separate
march, which for about three centuries was sometimes attached
to, and sometimes independent of, the margraviate of Meissen,
its rulers being occasionally called margraves of Lusatia. In 1303
it was purchased by the margrave of Brandenburg, and after
other changes it fell in 1368 into the hands of the king of Bohemia,
the emperor Charles IV., who already possessed Upper Lusatia.
During the Hussite wars its people remained loyal to the Roman
Catholic Church. In 1469 they recognized Matthias Corvinus,
king of Hungary, as their sovereign, but in 1490 they came again
under the rule of the Bohemian king.

The district now known as Upper Lusatia was occupied by a
Slav tribe, the Milzeni, who like the Lusitzi, were subdued by
Henry the Fowler early in the loth century. For about three
centuries it was called Baudissin (Bautzen), from the name of its
principal fortress. In the nth and 1 2th centuries it was connected
at different periods with Meissen, Poland and Bohemia. To-
wards 1160 the emperor Frederick I. granted it to Ladislas, king
of Bohemia, and under this ruler and his immediate successors
it was largely colonized by German immigrants. In 1253 it
passed to the margrave of Brandenburg, and about the same
time it was divided into an eastern and a western part, Baudissin
proper and Gorlitz. In 1319 the former was restored to Bohemia,
which also recovered Gorlitz in 1329. During the i4th century
the nobles and the townsmen began to take part in the govern-
ment, and about this time Upper Lusatia was known as the
district of the six towns (Sechsstddtelandes) , these being Bautzen,
Gorlitz, Zittau, Lobau, Lauban and Kamenz. From 1377 to
1396 Gorlitz was a separate duchy ruled by John, a son of the
emperor Charles IV., and, like Lower Lusatia, Upper Lusatia
owned the authority of Matthias Corvinus from 1469 to 1490,
both districts passing a little later with the kingdoms of Hungary
and Bohemia to the German king, Ferdinand I. The " six
towns " were severely punished for their share in the war of the
league of Schmalkalden, and about this time the reformed teach-
ing made very rapid progress in Lusatia, the majority of the
inhabitants becoming Protestants. The name of Lusatia
hitherto confined to Lower Lusatia, was soon applied to both
districts, the adjectives Upper and Lower being used to dis-
tinguish them. In 1620, early in the Thirty Years' War, the two
Lusatias were conquered by the elector of Saxony, John George I.,
who was allowed to keep them as the price of his assistance to the
emperor Ferdinand I. In 1635 by the treaty of Prague they were
definitely transferred from Bohemia to Saxony, although the
emperor as king of Bohemia retained a certain supremacy for
the purpose of guarding the rights and privileges of the Roman
Catholics. They suffered much during the wars of the i8th
century. By the peace of Vienna (1815) the whole of Lower
Lusatia and part of Upper Lusatia were transferred from Saxony
to Prussia.

The area of the part of Upper Lusatia retained by Saxony was
slightly increased in 1845; it is now about 960 sq. m. In 1900
Lower Lusatia contained 461,973 inhabitants, of whom 34,837
were Wends; the portion of Upper Lusatia belonging to Prussia
had 305,080 inhabitants, of whom 24,361 were Wends. There
were 405,173 inhabitants, including 28,234 Wends, in Saxon
Upper Lusatia. Laws relating to this district, after passing
through the Saxon parliament must be submitted to the Lusatian
diet at Bautzen. The chief towns of Upper Lusatia are Bautzen,
Zittau, Lobau, Kamenz, Gorlitz, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda and
Lauban; in Lower Lusatia they are Guben, Kottbus, Forst,
Lubben and Spremberg. The principal rivers are the Spree with
its tributaries, the Black Elster and the Neisse. Upper Lusatia
is generally mountainous and picturesque, Lower Lusatia is
flat and sandy. The chief industries are linen weaving, cloth
making and coal mining.

For the history of Lusatia see the eollections, Scriplores rerun
Lusaticarum antiqui el recentiores, edited by C. G. Hoffmann (4 vols.,
Leipzig and Bautzen, 1719); and Scriptores rerum Lusaticarum (4
vols., Gorlitz, 1839-1870). See also W. Lippert, Wettiner und
Wiitelsbacher sowie die Niederlausitz im 14 Jahrhundert (Dresden,
1894); T. Scheltz, Gesamtgeschichte der Ober- und Niederlausitz
Band i. (Halle, 1847), Band ii. (Gorlitz, 1882); J. G. Worbs, Ur-
kundenbuch zur Geschichte des Markgraftums Niederlausitz (Liibben,
1897); and J. A. E. Kohler, Die Geschichte der Oberlausitz (Gorlitz
1867).

LUSHAI HILLS, a mountainous district of Eastern Bengal
and Assam, south of Cachar, on the border between Assam and
Burma. Area, 7227 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 82,434. The hills are
for the most part covered with dense bamboo jungle and rank
undergrowth; but in the eastern portion, owing probably to a
smaller rainfall, open grass-covered slopes are found, with groves
of oak and pine interspersed with rhododendrons. These hills
are inhabited by the Lushais and cognate tribes, but the popula-
tion is extremely scanty. From the earliest known times the
original inhabitants were Kukis, and the Lushais were not heard
of until 1840, when they invaded the district from the north.
Their first attack upon British territory took place in November
1849, and after that date they proved one of the most troublesome
tribes on the north-east frontier of India; but operations in 1890
resulted in the complete pacification of the northern Lushai
villages, and in 1892 the eastern Lushais were reduced to order.
The management of the South Lushai hill country was transferred
from Bengal to Assam in 1898. To obtain more efficient control
over the country the district has been divided into eighteen
circles, each in charge of an interpreter, through whom all orders
are transmitted to the chiefs. The Welsh Presbyterian Mission
began work at Aijal in 1897, and the people have shown un-
expected readiness to accept education. According to the
census of 1901 the total number of Lushais in Assam was 63,452.

See Colonel T. H. Lewin, Wild Races of N.E. India (1870) ; Lushai
Hills Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1906).

LUSIGNAN, the name of a family which sprang from Poitou *
and distinguished itself by its connexion with the kingdom of
Jerusalem, and still more by its long tenure of the kingdom of
Cyprus (1192-1475). A Hugh de Lusignan appears in the ill-
fated crusade of noo-noi; another Hugh, the Brown, came
as a pilgrim to the Holy Land in 1164, and was taken prisoner
by Nureddin. In the last quarter of the I2th century the two
brothers Amalric and Guy, sons of Hugh the Brown, played a
considerable part in the history of the Latin East. About 1180
Amalric was constable of the kingdom of Jerusalem; and he
is said to have brought his handsome brother Guy to the notice
of Sibylla, the widowed heiress of the kingdom. Guy and
Sibylla were married in 1180; and Guy thus became heir pre-
sumptive of the kingdom, if the young Baldwin V., Sibylla's
son by her first marriage to William of Montferrat, should die
without issue. He acted as regent in 1183, but he showed some
incapacity in the struggle with Saladin, and was deprived of all
right of succession. In 1186, however, on the death of Baldwin
V., he succeeded in obtaining the crown, in spite of the opposi-
tion of Raymund of Tripoli. Next year he suffered a crushing
defeat at the battle of Hittin, and was taken prisoner by Saladin.
Released on parole in 1188, he at once broke his parole, and
began the siege of Acre. Difficulties, however, had arisen with
Conrad of Montferrat; and when Guy lost his wife Sibylla in
1190, and Conrad married Isabella, her sister, now heiress of
the kingdom, these difficulties culminated in Conrad's laying
claim to the crown. Guy found his cause espoused in 1191 by
the overlord of his house, Richard I. of England; but Conrad's
superior ability, and the support of the French crusaders, ulti-
mately carried the day, and in 1192 Richard himself abandoned
the pretensions of Guy, and recognized Conrad as king. Though
Conrad was almost immediately assassinated, the crown did not

1 A branch of the line continued in Poitou during the 1 3th century,
and ruled in LaMarche till 1303. Hugh de la Marche, whose betrothed
wife, Isabella of Angoulerae, King John of England seized (thus
bringing upon himself the loss of the greater part of his French
possessions), was a nephew of Guy of Lusignan. He ultimately
married Isabella, after the death of John, and had by her a number
of sons, half-brothers of Henry III. of England, who came over to
England, amongst other foreign favourites, during his reign.

LUSSIN— LUSTRATION

return to Guy, but went to Henry of Champagne, who married
the widowed Isabella. Guy found some satisfaction for his loss
in buying from the Templars the island of Cyprus, and there he
reigned for the last two years of his life (1192-1194). He is
judged harshly by contemporary writers, as simplex and in-
sufflciens; but Dodu (in his Histoire des institutions du royaume
de Jerusalem) suggests that Guy was depreciated because the
kingdom had been lost in his reign, in much the same way as
Godfrey of Bouillon was exalted because Jerusalem had just been
won at his accession. Guy was a brave if not a particularly
able knight; and his instant attack on Acre after his release by
Saladin shows that he had the sentiment de ses devoirs.

He was succeeded in Cyprus by his brother Amalric, who
acquired the title of king of Cyprus from the emperor Henry VI.,
and became king of Jerusalem in 1197 by his marriage to Isa-
bella, after the death of Henry of Champagne (see AMALRIC II.).
Amalric was the founder of a dynasty of kings of Cyprus, which
lasted till 1475, while after 1269 his descendants regularly
enjoyed the title of kings of Jerusalem. The scions of the house
of Lusignan proved themselves the most sincere of crusaders.
They possessed in Cyprus a kingdom, in which they had vindi-
cated for themselves a stronger hold over their feudatories than
the kings of Jerusalem had ever enjoyed, and in which trading
centres like Famagusta flourished vigorously; and they used
the resources of their kingdom, in conjunction with the Hospi-
tallers of Rhodes, to check the progress of the Mahommedans.

Among the most famous members of the house who ruled in
Cyprus three may be mentioned. The first is Hugh III. (the
Great), who was king from 1267 to 1285: to him, apparently,
St Thomas dedicated his De Regimine Principum; and it is in
his reign that the kingdom of Jerusalem becomes permanently
connected with that of Cyprus. The second is Hugh IV. (1324-
J359)> to whom Boccaccio dedicated one of his works, and who
set on foot an alliance with the pope, Venice and the Hospi-
tallers, which resulted in the capture of Smyrna (1344). The
last is Peter I., Hugh's second son and successor, who reigned
from 1359 to 1369, when he was assassinated as the result of a
conspiracy of the barons. Peter and his chancellor de Mezieres
represent the last flicker of the crusading spirit (see CRUSADES).

Before the extinction of the line in 1475, it had succeeded in
putting a branch on the throne of Armenia. Five short-lived
kings of the house ruled in Armenia after 1342, " Latin exiles,"
as Stubbs says, " in the midst of several strange populations
all alike hostile." The kingdom of Armenia fell before the
sultan of Egypt, who took prisoner its last king Leo V. in 1375,
though the kings of Cyprus afterwards continued to bear the
title; the kingdom of Cyprus itself continued to exist under
the house of Lusignan for 100 years longer. The mother of the
last king, James III, (who died when he was two years old),
was a Venetian lady, Catarina Cornaro. She had been made a
daughter of the republic at the time of her marriage to the king
of Cyprus; and on the death of her child the republic first acted
as guardian for its daughter, and then, in 1489, obtained from
her the cession of the island.

See J. M. J. L. de Mas-Latrie, Histoire de I'tle de Chypre sous les
princes de la maison de Lusignan (Paris, 1852-1853); W. Stubbs,
Lectures on Medieval and Modern History (3rd ed., Oxford, 1900).

LUSSIN, a small island in the Adriatic Sea, in the Gulf of
Quarnero, forming together with the adjacent islands of Veglia
and Cherso an administrative district in the Austrian crownland
of Istria. Pop. (1900) 11,615. The island is 24 m. in length,
is of an average breadth of i -64 m., being little more than 300 yds.
wide at its narrowest point, and has an area of 29 sq. m. The
chief town and principal harbour is Lussinpiccolo (pop. 7207),
which is the most important trading centre in the Quarnero
group. The town has become a favourite winter resort, its
climate resembling that of Nice. To the south-east of it is
Lussingrande (pop. 2349), with an old Venetian palace and a
shipbuilding wharf. The island was first peopled at the end of
the i4th century. Its inhabitants are renowned seamen.

LUSTRATION, a term that includes all the methods of purifica-
tion and expiation among the Greeks and Romans. Among

the Greeks there are two ideas clearly distinguishable — that
human nature must purify itself (KaBapaa) from guilt before
it is fit to enter into communion with God or even to associate
with men, and that guilt must be expiated voluntarily (iXa<7/^6j)
by certain processes which God has revealed, in order to avoid
the punishment that must otherwise overtake it. It is not
possible to make such a distinction among the Latin terms
lustratio, piacula, piamenta, caerimoniae, and even among the
Greeks it is not consistently observed. Guilt and impurity
arose in various ways; among the Greeks, besides the general
idea that man is always in need of purification, the species of
guilt most insisted on by religion are incurred by murder, by
touching a dead body, by sexual intercourse, and by seeing a
prodigy or sign of the divine will. The last three spring from
the idea that man had been without preparation and improperly
brought into communication with God, and was therefore guilty.
The first, which involves a really moral idea of guilt, is far more
important than the others in Hellenic religion. Among the
Romans we hear more of the last species of impurity; in general
the idea takes the form that after some great disaster the people
become convinced that guilt has been incurred and must be
expiated. The methods of purification consist in ceremonies
performed with water, fire, air or earth, or with a branch of a
sacred tree, especially of the laurel, and also in sacrifice and
other ceremonial. Before entering a temple the worshipper
dipped his hand in the vase of holy water (ftpippavrripiov, aqua
lustralis) which stood at the door; before a sacrifice bathing
was common; salt-water was more efficacious than fresh, and
the celebrants of the Eleusinian mysteries bathed in the sea
(aXaSt, HVO-TOLI); the water was more efficacious if a firebrand
from the altar were plunged in it. The torch, fire and sulphur
(ri> Oetov) were also powerful purifying agents. Purification by
air was most frequent in the Dionysiac mysteries; puppets
suspended and swinging in the air (oscilla) formed one way of
using the lustrative power of the air. Rubbing with sand and
salt was another method. The sacrifice chiefly used for purifica-
tion by the Greeks was a pig; among the Romans it was always,
except in the Lupercalia, a pig, a sheep and a bull (suovetaurilia).
In Athens a purificatory sacrifice and prayer was held before
every meeting of the ecclesia; the Maimacteria,1 in honour of
Zeus Maimactes (the god of wrath), was an annual festival of
purification, and at the Thargelia two men (or a woman and a
man) were sacrificed on the seashore, their bodies burned and
the ashes thrown into the sea, to avert the wrath of Apollo. On
extraordinary occasions lustrations were performed for a whole
city. So Athens was purified by Epimenides after the Cylonian
massacre, and Delos in the Peloponnesian War (426 B.C.) to stop
the plague and appease the wrath of Apollo. In Rome, besides
such annual ceremonies as the Ambarvalia, Lupercalia, Cerialia,
Paganalia, &c., there was a lustration of the fleet before it sailed,
and of the army before it marched. Part of the ceremonial
always consisted in leading or carrying the victims round the
impure persons or things. After any disaster the luslratio
classium or exercitus was often again performed, so as to make
certain that the gods got all their due. The Amburbium, a
solemn procession of the people round the boundaries of Rome,
was a similar ceremonial performed for the whole city on
occasions of great danger or calamity; the Ambilustrium (so
called from the sacrificial victims being carried round the people
assembled on the Campus Martius) was the purificatory ceremony
which took place after the regular quinquennial census (lustrum)
of the Roman people.

See C. F. Hermann, Griechische Allerttimer, ii. ; G. F. Schomann,
ib. ii. ; P. Stengel, Die griechischen Kultusaltertumer (1898);
Marquardt, Rdmische Staatsverwaltung, iii. p. 200 (1885); P. E.
von Lasaulx, Die Suhnopfer der Griechen und Rdmer (1841); J.
Donaldson, " On the Expiatory and Substitutionary Sacrifices of
the Greeks," in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xxvii.,
1876; and the articles by A. Bouche'-Leclercq in Daremberg and
Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites, and by W. Warde Fowler in
Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891).

1 Maimacteria does not actually occur in ancient authorities a*
the name of a festival.

132

LUTE

LUTE (Arabic aTud, "the wood"; Fr. luth; Ital. Unto;
Span, laud; Ger. Laute; Dut. luit), an ancient stringed
musical instrument, derived in form as well as name from the
Arabs. The complete family consisted of the pandura, tanbur
or mandoline as treble, the lute as alto or tenor, the barbiton or
theorbo as bass, and the chitarrone as double bass. The Arab
instrument, with convex sound-body, pointing to the resonance
board or membrane having been originally placed upon a gourd,
was strung with silk and played with a plectrum of shell or quill.
It was adopted by the Arabs from Persia. Instruments with
vaulted backs are all undoubtedly of Eastern origin; the
distinct type, resembling the longitudinal section of a pear, is
more specially traced in ancient India, Persia and the countries
influenced by their civilization. This type of instrument in-
cludes many families which became known during the middle
ages of western Europe, being introduced into southern Europe
and Spain by the Moors, into southern Russia by the Persians
of the Sassanian period, into Greece from the confines of the
Byzantine Empire. As long as the strings were plucked by
fingers or plectrum the large pear-shaped instrument may be
identified as the archetype of the lute. When the bow, obtained
from Persia, was applied to the instrument by the Arabs, a fresh
family was formed, which was afterwards known in Europe
as rebab and later rebec. The largest member of the ancient
lute family — the bass lute or theorbo — has been identified with
the barbiton.

Until recently the existence of these ancient stringed instruments
was presumed on the evidence of the early medieval European instru-
ments and of the meagre writings extant, such as those of Farabl.1
But a chain of plastic evidence can now be offered, beginning with
the Greek post-Mycenaean age (c. 1000 B.C.). A statuette of a female
musician playing upon a large lute with only an embryonic neck, on

which nevertheless the left hand is
stopping strings, was unearthed in
Egypt in a tomb of the XXth Dynasty
in the cemetery of Goshen by the
members of the British School of
Archaeology in Egypt,2 under the
direction of Professor Flinders Petrie,
to whose courtesy we owe the photo-
graph (fig. l) here reproduced. "It is
difficult to form a conclusive opinion
as to the number of strings the artist
intended to represent, owing t6 the
decorative figures following the direc-
tion of the strings, but, judging from
the position of the right hand pluck-
ing a string, there may have been seven.
Among a number of terra-cotta figures
of musicians, brought to light during
the excavations in a Tell at Suza and
dating from the 8th century B.C.,1
although there is no instrument that
might be identified with the alto lute,
the treble lute or tanbur is represented
with a long, curved neck and a head
bent back to increase the tension, and
there is also an instrument having a
smaller and more elongated body than
the lute. On one of the friezes from
Afghanistan presented to the British
Museum by Major-General Cunningham, which formed the risers of
steps leading to the tope at Jumal Garhi, dating from the 1st century
A.D are represented scenes of music and dancing. Here the arche-
type of the lute appears several times; it had four strings, and
the head was bent back at right angles to the neck. In the 6th cen-
tury A.D illustrations of this early lute are no longer rare, more
especially on Persian silver-work of the Sassanian period4 and in

FIG. i. — Post-Mycenaean
terra-cotta figure, with
ancient lute (1000 B.C.)
from the cemetery at
Goshen.

1 See Latin translation by J. G. L. Kosegarten, Alii Ispahenensis
Liber . . . Arabice editur adjectaque translatione adnotationibusque
illustrates (Greifswald, 1840).

1 See Hyksos and Israelite Cities, by W. M. Flinders Petrie and
J. Garrow Duncan, 1906 (double volume), Brit. Sch. of Arch.

* J. de Morgan, Delegation en Perse (Paris, 1900), vol. i. pi. viii.
Nos. 8, 7 and 9.

4 See " The Treasures of the Oxus," catalogue of the Franks
Bequest to the British Museum by Ormonde M. Dalton (London,
!9°5). Pj; xxvi. No. 190; see also J. R. Aspelin, " Les antiquites
du nord," No. 608 ; also for further references, Kathleen Schlesinger,
" Precursors of the Violin Family," pt. ii. of The Instruments of the
Orchestra, pp. 407-408, and appendix B, pp. 492-493; and Gazette
archeologique (Paris, 1886), vol. xi. pi. x. and p. 70.

the paintings of the Buddhist cave-temples of Ajanta.6 Several
representations of the barbiton are extant from the classical Roman
period.

The modern Egyptian 'ud is the direct descendant of the Arabic
lute, and, according to Lane, is strung with seven pairs of catgut
strings played by a plectrum. A specimen in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, given by the khedive, has four pairs only, which appears
to have been the old stringing of the instrument. When frets (cross-
lines dividing the neck or finger-board to show the fingering) are
employed they are of catgut disposed according to the Arabic scale
of seventeen intervals in the octave, consisting of twelve limmas.
an interval rather less than our equal semitone, and five commas!
which are very small but quite recognizable differences of pitch.

The lute family is separated from the guitars, also of Eastern
origin, by the formation of the sound body, which is in all lutes
pear-shaped, without the sides or ribs necessary to the structure of
the flat-backed guitar and cither. Observing this distinction, we
include with the lute the little Neapolitan mandoline of 2 ft. long
and the large double-necked Roman chitarrone, not infrequently
6 ft. long. Mandolines are partly strung with wire, and are played
with a plectrum, indispensable for metal or short strings. Perhaps
the earliest lutes were so played, but the large lutes and theorbos
strung with catgut have been invariably touched by the fingers only,
the length permitting this more sympathetic means of producing the
tone.

Praetorius,' writing when the lute was in universal favour,
mentions seven varieties distinguished by size and tuning. The
smallest would be larger than a mandoline, and the melody
string, the " chanterelle," often a single string, lower in pitch.
Praetorius calls this an octave lute, with the chanterelle C or D.
The two discant lutes have respectively B and A, the alto G, the
tenor E, the bass D, and the great octave bass G, an octave
below the alto lute which may be taken as the model lute culti-
vated by the amateurs of the time. The bass lutes were theorbos,
that is, double-necked lutes, as described below. The accord-

ance of an alto lute was fjj:

founded upon that of the original eight-stringed European lute, to
which the highest and lowest notes had, in course of time, been

added. A later addition was the

also on the [finger-

board, and bass strings, double or single, known as diapasons,
which, descending to the deep C of the violoncello, were not stopped
with the fingers. The diapasons were tuned as the key of the piece
of music required. Fig. 2 represents an Italian instrument made by
one of the most celebrated lute
makers, Venere of Padua, in 1600;
it is 3 ft. 6 in. high, and has six
pairs of unisons and eight single
diapasons. The finger-board,
divided into approximately equal
half tones by the frets, as a rule
eight in number, was often further
divided on the higher notes, for
ten, eleven, or, as in the woodcut,
even twelve, semitones. The head,
bearing the tuning pegs, was placed
at an obtuse or a right angle to the
neck, to increase the bearing of the
strings upon the nut, and be con-
venient for sudden requirements of
tuning during performance, the
trouble of keeping a lute in tune
being proverbial.

The lute was in general use during
the l6th and I7th centuries. In the
1 8th it declined; still J. S. Bach
wrote a " partita " for it. The latest
date we have met with of an en-
graved publication for the lute is
1760.

The large double-necked lute,
with two sets of- tuning pegs, the
lower for the finger-board, the
higher for the diapason strings, was
known as the theorbo; also, and
especially in England, as the arch-
lute; and, in a special form, the neck being then very long, as
the chitarrone. Theorbo and chitarrone appear together at the
close of the i6th century, and their introduction was synchronous
with the rise of accompanied monody in music, that is, of the oratorio
and the opera. Peri, Caccini and Monteverde used theorbos to

FIG. 2. — Lute, by Venere
Padua.

6 By John Griffiths (London, 1896), vol. ii. pi. 105, cave I. IO, e.
• Syntagm. Music, pt. ii., " Organographie " (Wolfenbiittel, 1618),
pp. 30 and 58-61.

LUTHARDT- -LUTHER, MARTIN

accompany their newly-devised recitative, the invention of which
in Florence, from the impulse of the Renaissance, is well known.
The height of a theorbo varied from 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft., the Paduan
being always the largest, excepting the Roman 6-ft. long chitarrone.
These large lutes had very deep notes, and doubtless great liberties
were allowed in tuning, but the strings on the finger-board followed
the lute accordance already given, or another quoted by Baron
(Untersuckung des Instruments der Lauten, Nuremberg, 1727) as the
old theorbo or " violway " (see Mace, Mustek's Monument, London,
1676).—

hv

01

We find again both these accordances varied and transposed a tone
higher, perhaps with thinner strings, or to accommodate local differ-
ences of pitch. Praetorius recommends the chanterelles of theorbos
being tuned an octave lower on account of the great strain. By such
a change, another authority, the Englishman Thomas Mace, says, the
life and spruceness of airy lessons were quite lost. The theorbo or
archlute had at last to give way to the violoncello and double bass,
which are still used to accompany the " recitativo secco " in oratorios
and operas. Handel wrote a part for a theorbo in Esther (1720);
after that date it appears no more in orchestral scores, but remained
in private use until nearly the end of the century.

The lute and the organ share the distinction of being the first
instruments for which the oldest instrumental compositions we
possess were written. For the lute, however, they were not written
in our present notation, but in tablature, " lyrawise," a system by
which as many lines were drawn horizontally as there were pairs of
strings on the finger-board, the frets, distributed at intervals of a
semitone, being distinguished by the letters of the alphabet, repeated
from A, representing the open string, for each line. This was the
English and French manner; the Italian was by numbers instead of
letters. The signs of time were placed over the stave, and were not
repeated unless the mensural values changed. (A. J. H. ; K. S.)

LDTHARDT, CHRISTOPH ERNST (1823-1902), German
Lutheran theologian, was born at Maroldsweisach, Bavaria, on
the 22nd of March 1823. He studied theology at Erlangen and
Berlin, and in 1856 became professor ordinarius of systematic
theology and New Testament exegesis at Leipzig. In 1865 he
was made a counsellor to the consistory, in 1871 canon of
Meissen cathedral, and in 1887 a privy councillor to the church.
He died at Leipzig on the 2ist of September 1902. A strictly
orthodox theologian, and a clear writer, though not a very
profound scholar, Luthardt became widely appreciated as the
author of apologetic lectures. These were collected under the
title Apologie des Christentums (vol. i., 1864, I4th ed. 1896;
vol. ii. 7th ed., 1001; vol. iii. 7th ed., 1898; vol. iv. 2nd ed.,
1880), a work of which the first three volumes have been trans-
lated into English. In 1868 he founded and edited the Allgemeine
evang.-lutherische Kirchenzeitung, with its supplement the
Theologisches Litteraturblatt, and in 1880 became editor of the
Zeitschrijt fiir kirchl. W issenschaft und kirchl. Leben.

His other works include Das Johanneische Evangelium . . .
erkldrt (1852-1853; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1875-1876), Offenbarung
Johannis erkldrt (1861), Lehre von den letzten Dingen (1861 ; 3rd ed.
1885); Kompendium der Dogmatik (1865; 9th ed., 1893), Geschichte
der christlichen Ethik (2 vols., 1888-1893), Gnadeund Wahrheit (1874),
Dot Wort des Lebens (1877) and Gnade und Frieden (1880). His
autobiography was published with the title Erinnerungen aus
vergangenen Tagen (1889; and ed., 1891).

LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546), the great German religious
reformer, was born at Eisleben on the loth of November 1483.
His father, Hans Luther (Lyder, Luder, Ludher), a peasant from
the township of Mohra in Thuringia, after his marriage with
Margarethe Ziegler, had settled in Mansfeld, attracted by the
prospects of work in the mines there. The counts of Mansfeld,
who, many years before, had started the mining industry,
made a practice of building and letting out for hire small furnaces
for smelting the ore. Hans Luther soon leased one, then three.
In 1491 he became one of the four elected members of the village
council (vier Herren von der Gemeinde} ; and we are told that
the counts of Mansfeld held him in esteem. The boy grew up
amid the poor, coarse surroundings of the German peasant
life, imbibing its simple beliefs. He was taught that the Emperor
protected the poor people against the Turk, that the Church
was the " Pope's House," wherein the Bishop of Rome had all
the rights of the house-father. He shared the common super-
stitions of the time and some of them never left him.

Young Martin went to the village school at Mansfeld; to a
school at Magdeburg kept by the Brethren of the Common Lot;
then to the well-known St George's school at Eisenach. At
Magdeburg and Eisenach Luther was " a poor student," i.e.
a boy who was received into a hospice where he lived rent-free,
attended school without paying fees, and had the privilege of
begging for his bread at the house-doors of the town; in return
for which he sang as a chorister in the church to which the
school was attached. Luther was never a " wandering student " ;
his parents were too careful of their child to permit him to
lead the life of wandering licence which marked these pests of
medieval German scholastic life. At Eisenach he attracted the
notice of the wife of a wealthy merchant of Eisenach, whom his
biographers usually identify as Frau Cotta.

After three happy years at Eisenach, Luther entered the
university of Erfurt (1501), then the most famous in Germany.
Hans Luther had been prospering, and was more than ever
resolved to make his son a lawyer. Young Luther entered his
name on the matriculation book in letters which can still be
read " Martinus Ludher ex Mansfelt," a free student, no longer
embarrassed by great poverty. In Luther's time Erfurt was the
intellectual centre of Germany and its students were exposed
to a variety of influences which could not fail to stimulate young
men of mental ability.

Its theology was, of course, scholastic, but of what was then
called the modern type, the Scotist; its philosophy was the
nominalist system of William of Occam, whose great disciple,
Gabriel Biel (d. 1495), had been one of its most famous professors;
Nicholas de Lyra's (d. 1340) system of biblical interpretation
had been long taught there by a succession of able teachers;
Humanism had won an early entrance to the university; the
anti-clerical teaching of John of Wessel, who had himself taught
at Erfurt for fifteen years (1445-1460), had left its mark on
the place and was not forgotten. Hussite propagandists, even in
Luther's time, secretly visited the town and whispered among
the students their anti-clerical Christian socialism. Papal
legates to Germany seldom failed to visit the university and by
their magnificence bore witness to the majesty of the Roman
church.

A study of the scholastic philosophy was then the preliminary
training for a course of law, and Luther worked so hard at the
prescribed studies that he had little leisure, he said, for classical
learning. He attended none of the Humanist lectures, but he
read a good many of the Latin authors and also learned a little
Greek. He never was a member of the Humanist circle; he
was too much in earnest about religious questions and of too
practical a turn of mind. The young Humanists would have
gladly welcomed him into their select band. They dubbed him
the " philosopher," the " musician," recalled in after days his
fine social disposition, his skill in playing the lute, and his ready
power in debate. He took the various degrees in an unusually
brief time. He was bachelor in 1502 and master in 1505. His
father, proud of his son's steady application and success, sent
him the costly present of a Corpus Juris. He may have begun
to study law. Suddenly he plunged into the Erfurt Convent of
the Augustinian Eremites and after due noviciate became a monk.

The action was so unexpected that his contemporaries felt
bound to give all manner of explanations which have been
woven into accounts which are legendary. Nothing is known
about the cause of the sudden plunge but what Luther has
himself revealed. He has told us that he entered the monastery
because he doubted of himself, and that his action was sudden
because he knew that his father would have disapproved of his
intention.

The word " doubt " has made historians think of intellectual
difficulties — of the " theological scepticism " taught by Occam
and Biel, of the disintegrating criticism of Humanism. But
there is no trace of any theological difficulties in Luther's mind
in the struggles which sent him into the convent and distracted
him there. He was driven to do what he did by the pressure
of a practical religious need, the desire to save his soul. The
fires of hell and the shades of purgatory, which are the constant

134

LUTHER, MARTIN

background of Dante's " Paradise," were present to Luther from
childhood.

Luther was the greatest religious genius which the i6th
century produced, and the roots of the movement in which he
was the central figure must be sought for in the popular religious
life of the last decades of the isth and opening decades of the
1 6th centuries — a field which has been neglected by almost all
his biographers. When it is explored traces of at least five
different types of religious sentiment can be discovered. Pious
parents, whether among the burghers or peasants, seem to have
taught their children a simple evangelical faith. Martin Luther
and thousands of children like him were trained at home to know
the creed, the ten commandments, the Lord's prayer, and such
simple hymns as Ein Kindelein so lobelich, Nun bitten wir den
Heiligen Geist and Crist ist erstanden; and they were taught
to believe that God for Christ's sake freely pardons sin. They
learned that simple faith which Luther afterwards expounded
in his Small Catechism and called the Kinderlehre. When lads
trained like himself entered school and college they came in
contact with that religious revival which characterized the
last half of the 15th century. Fear seemed to brood over the
peoples of Western Europe. The plague devastated the badly
drained towns, new diseases spread death, the fear of the Turks
was permanent. All this went to feed revival, which, founded
on fear, refused to see in Jesus Christ anything but a stern judge,
and made the Virgin Mother and Anna the " grandmother "
the intercessors; which found consolation in pilgrimages from
shrine to shrine; which believed in crude miracles, and in the
thought that God could be best served within convent walls.
Luther's mind was caught in this current of feeling. He records
how it was burnt into him by pictures which filled his boyish
imagination. Jesus in the painted window of Mansfeld church,
stern of face, sword in hand, sitting on a rainbow, coming to
judge; an altarpiece at Magdeburg, in which a ship with its
crew, was sailing on to heaven, carrying no layman on board;
the deeds of St Elizabeth emblazoned on the window of St
George's parish church at Eisenach; the living pictures of a
young nobleman who had turned monk to save his soul, of a
monk, the holiest man Luther had ever known, who was aged
far beyond his years by his maceration; and many others of the
same kind.

Alongside this we can trace the growth of another religious
movement of a different kind. We can see a sturdy common-
sense religion taking possession of multitudes in Germany, which
insisted that laymen might rule in many departments supposed
to belong exclusively to the clergy. The jus episcopate which
Luther afterwards claimed for the secular authorities had been
practically exercised in Saxony and Brandenburg; cities and
districts had framed police regulations which set aside ecclesi-
astical decrees about holidays and begging; the supervision of
charity was passing from the hands of the church into those of
laymen; and religious confraternities which did not take their
guidance from the clergy were increasing. Lastly, the medieval
Brethren were engaged in printing and distributing tracts,
mystical, anti-clerical, sometimes socialist. All these influences
abounded as Luther was growing to manhood and laid their
marks upon him. It was the momentary power of the second
which drove him into the convent, and he selected the mon-
astic order which represented all that was best in the revival
of the latter half of the isth century — the Augustinian
Eremites.

In the convent Luther set himself to find salvation. The last
word of that Scotist theology which ruled at the close of the
middle ages was that man must work out his own salvation, and
Luther tried to do so in the most approved later medieval fashion
by the strictest asceticism. He fasted and scourged himself; he
practised all the ordinary forms of maceration and invented
new ones, all to no purpose. His theological studies, part of the
convent education, told him that pardon could be had through
the Sacrament of Penance, and that the first part of the sacra-
ment was sorrow for sin. The older theology declared that such
sorrow must be based on love to God. Had he this love? God

always appeared to him as an implacable judge, threatening
punishment for breaking a law which it was impossible to keep.
He confessed to himself that he often hated this arbitrary Will
which Scotist theology called God. The later theology, taught
in the convent by John of Palz and John Nathin, said that
sorrow might be based on a meaner motive provided the Sacra-
ment of Penance was continually resorted to. Luther wearied
his superiors with his attendance at the confessional. He was
looked upon as a young saint, and his reputation extended
throughout the convents of his order. The young saint felt
himself to be no nearer the pardon of God; he thought that he
was " gallows-ripe." At last his superiors seemed to discover his
real difficulties. Partly by their help, partly by study of the
scriptures, he came to understand that God's pardon was to be
won by trusting to His promises. Thus after two years of in-
describable mental conflicts Luther found peace. The struggle
marked him for life. His victory gave him a sense of freedom,
and the feeling that life was given by God to be enjoyed. In all
external things he remained unchanged. He was a faithful son
of the medieval church, with its doctrines, ceremonies and
usages.

Soon after he had attained inward peace, Luther was ordained.
He continued his studies in theology, devoting himself to the
more " experimental " portions of Augustine, Bernard and
Gerson. He showed himself a good man of business and was
advanced in his order. In 1508 he was sent with some other
monks to Wittenberg to assist the small university which had
been opened there in 1502 by Frederick the Wise, elector of
Saxony. It was there that Luther began to preach, first in a
small chapel to the monks of his order; later taking the place
of one of the town's clergy who was in ill-health. From Witten-
berg he was sent by the chiefs of the German Augustinian
Eremites to Rome on a mission concerning the organization of
the order. He went up with the feelings of the medieval pilgrim
rather than with the intoxication of the ardent Humanist. On
his return (1512) he was sent by Staupitz, his vicar-general,
to Erfurt to take the necessary steps for higher graduation in
theology, in order to succeed Staupitz himself as professor of
theology in Wittenberg. He graduated as Doctor of the Holy
Scripture, took the Wittenberg doctor's oath to defend the
evangelical truth vigorously (mriliter), became a member of the
Wittenberg Senate, and three weeks later succeeded Staupitz
as professor of theology.

From the first Luther's lectures in theology differed from
those ordinarily given at the time. He had no opinions on
theological subjects at variance with the theology taught at
Erfurt and elsewhere. No one attributed any heretical views
to the young Wittenberg professor. He differed from others
because he looked at theology in a more practical way. He
thought it ought to be made useful to guide men to the grace of
God and to tell them how to persevere in a life of joyous obedience
to God and His commandments. His teaching was " experi-
mental " from the beginning. Besides he believed that he had
been specially set apart to lecture on the Holy Scriptures, and
he began by commenting on the Psalms and on the Epistles of
St Paul. He never knew much Hebrew and was not specially
strong in Greek; so he used the Vulgate in his prelections. He
had a huge widely printed volume on his desk, and wrote the
notes for his lectures on the margins and between the lines.
Some of the pages survive. They contain in the germ the leading
thoughts of what became Lutheran theology. At first he ex-
pressed himself in the phrases common to scholastic theology,
when these were found to be inadequate in words borrowed from
the mystical writers of the I4th and isth centuries, and then in
new phrases more appropriate to the circle of fresh thoughts.
Those new thoughts at first simply pushed aside the ordinary
theology taught in the schools without staying to criticize it.
Gradually, however, Luther began to find that there was some
real opposition between what he was teaching and the theology
he had been taught in the Erfurt convent. It appeared charac-
teristically enough on the practical and not on the speculative
side of theology in a sermon on Indulgences preached in July 1516.

LUTHER, MARTIN

135

Once begun the breach widened, until Luther could contrast
" our theology " with what was taught at Erfurt, and by Sep-
tember he began to write against the scholastic theology, to

clare that it was Pelagian at heart, that it repudiated the
\ugustinian doctrines of grace, and neglected to teach the
supreme value of that faith " which throws itself upon God."

These lectures and the teaching they contained soon made
a great impression. Students began to flock to the small obscure
university of Wittenberg, and the elector grew proud of the
teacher who was making his university famous. It was at this
interesting stage of his own religious career that he felt himself
compelled to stand forth in opposition to what he believed to
be a great religious scandal, and almost unconsciously to become
a Reformer.

Luther began his work as a Reformer by proposing to discuss
the true meaning of Indulgences. The occasion was an In-
dulgence proclaimed by Pope Leo X., farmed by the archbishop
of Mainz, and preached by John Tetzel, a Dominican monk and
a famed seller of Indulgences. Many of the German princes
had no great love for Indulgence sellers, and Frederick of Saxony
had prohibited Tetzel from entering his territories. But it was
easy to reach most parts of Electoral Saxony without actually
crossing the frontiers. The Red Cross of the Indulgence seller
had been set up at Zerbst and at Juterbogk, and people had gone
from Wittenberg to buy the Papal Tickets. Luther believed
that the sales were injurious to the morals of the townsmen; he
had heard reports of Tetzel's sermons; he had become wrathful
on reading the letter of recommendation of the archbishop;
and friends had urged him to interfere. He protested with a
characteristic combination of caution and courage. The church
of All Saints (the castle church) was closely connected with the
university of Wittenberg. Its doors were commonly used for
university proclamations. The Elector Frederick was a great
collector of relics and had stored them in his church. He had
procured an Indulgence for all who attended its services on
All Saints' Day, and crowds commonly gathered. Luther
nailed ninety-five theses on the church door on that day, the
ist of November 1517, when the crowd could see and read
them.

The proceeding was strictly academic. The matter discussed,
to judge by the writings of theologians, was somewhat obscure;
and Luther offered his theses as an attempt to make it clearer.
No one was supposed to be committed to every opinion he
advanced in such a way. But the theses posted somehow touched
heart and conscience in a way unusual in the common subjects
of academic disputation. Every one wanted to read them.
The University Press could not supply copies fast enough. They
were translated into German, and were known throughout
Germany in less than a fortnight. Within a month they had
been heard of all over western and southern Europe. Luther
himself was staggered at the way they were received. He said
he had never meant to determine, but to debate.

The theses were singularly unlike what might have been
expected from a professor of theology. They made no attempt
at theological definition, no pretence at logical arrangement;
they were anything but a brief programme of reformation. They
were simply ninety-five sledge-hammer blows directed against
the most flagrant ecclesiastical abuse of the age. They were
addressed to the " common " man and appealed to his common
sense of spiritual things.

The practice of offering, selling and buying Indulgences
(see INDULGENCE) was everywhere common in the beginning
of the 1 6th century. The beginnings go back more than a
thousand years before the time of Luther. In the earliest church
life, when Christians fell into sin, they were required to make
public confession before the congregation, to declare their sorrow,
and to vow to perform certain acts which were regarded as
evidence of the sincerity of their repentance. When the custom
of public confession before the congregation had changed to
private confession to the clergy, it became the confessor's duty
to impose these satisfactions. It was thought only right that
there should be some uniformity in dealing with repentant

sinners, and books appeared giving lists of sins and what were
supposed to be suitable satisfactions. When the sins confessed
were very heinous the satisfactions were correspondingly severe
and sometimes lasted over many years. About the 7th century
arose a custom of commuting or relaxing these imposed satisfac-
tions. A penance of several years fasting might be commuted
into saying so many prayers, or giving an arranged amount in
alms, or even into a money-fine. In the last case the analogy of
the Wergeld of the German tribal codes was commonly followed.
The usage generally took the form that any one who visited a
church, to which the Indulgence had been attached, on a day
named, and gave a contribution to its funds, had his penance
shortened by one-seventh, one-third or one-half, as might be
arranged. This was the origin of Indulgences properly so-called.
They were always mitigations of satisfactions or penances which
had been imposed by the church as outward signs of inward
sorrow, tests of fitness for pardon, and the needful precedents of
absolution. Luther uttered no protest against Indulgences
of this kind. He held that what the church had imposed the
church could remit.

This old and simple conception of Indulgences had been greatly
altered since the beginning of the I3th century. The institution
of penance had been raised to the dignity of a sacrament, and
this had changed both the place and the character of satisfactions.
Under the older conception the order had been Sorrow (Contritio),
Confession, Satisfaction (or due manifestation of sorrow in
ways prescribed) and Absolution. Under the newer theory
the order was Sorrow, Confession, Absolution, Satisfaction,
and both satisfaction and sorrow took new meanings. It was
held that Absolution removed guilt and freed from eternal
punishment, but that something had to be done to free the
penitent from temporal punishment whether in this life or in
purgatory. Satisfactions took the new meaning of the temporal
punishments due in this life and the substitute for the pains of
purgatory. The new thought of a treasury of merits (thesaurus
meritorum) introduced further changes. It was held that the
good deeds over and above what were needed for their own
salvation by the living or by the saints in heaven, together with
the inexhaustible merits of Christ, were all deposited in a treasury
out of which they could be taken by the pope and given by him
to the faithful. They could be added to the satisfactions actually
done by penitents. Thus Satisfactions became not merely signs
of sorrow but actual merits, which freed men from the need
to undergo the temporal pains here and in purgatory which their
sins had rendered them liable to. By an Indulgence merits
could be transferred from the storehouse to those who required
them. The change made in the character of Sorrow made
Indulgences all the more necessary for the indifferent penitent.
On the older theory Sorrow (Contritio) had for its one basis love
to God; but on the newer theory the starting-point might be
a less worthy king of sorrow (Attritio) which it was held would be
changed into the more worthy kind in the Sacrament of Penance.
The conclusion was naturally drawn that a process of penitence
which began with sorrow of the more unworthy kind needed a
larger amount of Satisfactions or penance than what began with
Contrition. Hence for the indifferent Christian, Attrition,
Confession and Indulgence became the three heads in the scheme
of the church of the later middle ages for his salvation. The one
thing which satisfied his conscience was the burdensome thing
he had to do, and that was to procure an Indulgence — a matter
made increasingly easy for him as time went on.

This doctrine of Attrition had not the undivided support of the
theologians of the later medieval church ; but it was taught by the
Scotists and was naturally a favourite theme with the sellers of
Indulgences. Nor were all theologians at one upon the whole theory
of Indulgences. The majority of the best theologians held that
Indulgences had nothing to do with the pardoning of guilt, but
only with freeing from temporal penalties in this life or in purgatory.
But the common people did not discriminate, and believed that
when they bought an Indulgence they were purchasing pardon from
sin; and Luther placed himself in the position of the ordinary
Christian uninstructed in the niceties of theological distinctions.

His Ninety-five Theses made six different assertions about In-
dulgences and their efficacy : —

136

LUTHER, MARTIN

i. An Indulgence is and can only be the remission of a merely
ecclesiastical penalty; the church can remit what the church has
imposed ; it cannot remit what God has imposed.

li. An Indulgence can never remit guilt ; the pope himself cannot
do such a thing; God has kept that in His own hand.

iii. It cannot remit the divine punishment for sin ; that also is in
the hands of God alone.

iv. It can have no efficacy for souls in Purgatory; penalties
imposed by the church can only refer to the living; death dissolves
them; what the pope can do for souls in Purgatory is by prayer,
not by jurisdiction or the power of the keys.

v. The Christian who has true repentance has already received
pardon from God altogether apart from an Indulgence, and does
not need one; Christ demands this true repentance from every one.

vi. The Treasury of Merits has never been properly denned; it
is hard to say what it is, and it is not properly understood by the
people; it cannot be the merits of Christ and of His saints, because
these act of themselves and quite apart from the intervention of the
pope; it can mean nothing more than that the pope, having the
power of the keys, can remit ecclesiastical penalties imposed by the
church ; the true Treasure-house of merits is the Holy Ghost of the
grace and glory of God.

The unexpected effect of the Theses was that the sale of
Indulgences began to decline rapidly, and the archbishop of
Mainz, disappointed in his hopes of revenue, sent a copy to Rome.
The pope thinking that the whole dispute was a monkish quarrel,
contented himself with asking the general of the Augustinian
Eremites to keep his monks quiet. This was not easy. Tetzel,
in conjunction with a friend, Conrad Wimpina, had published
a set of counter-theses. John Mayr of Eck, a noted contro-
versialist and professorof theology in the university of Ingolstadt,
scented the Hussite heresy in the Theses, and denounced them
in a tract entitled Obelisks. Luther at once answered in his
Asterisks. A controversy raged in Germany. Meanwhile, at
Rome, Silvester Mazzolini of Prierio, a Dominican monk and
Inquisitor, had been studying the Theses, was profoundly
dissatisfied with them, and wrote a Dialogue about the Power
of the Pope, against the presumptuous conclusions of Martin
Luther. This book reached Germany about the middle of
January 1518, and increased the tumult.

Luther's friends had been provokingly silent about the Theses;
but in April 1518, at the annual chapter of the Augustinian
Eremites held at Heidelberg, Luther heard his positions temper-
ately discussed, and found somewhat to his astonishment that his
views were not acceptable to all his fellow monks. On his return
to Wittenberg he began an answer to his opponents. He care-
fully considered his positions, found them unassailable, and
published his Resolutions, the most carefully written of all his
works. The book practically discarded all the ideas and practices
concerning Indulgences which had come into the medieval
church since the beginning of the I3th century, and all the
ingenious explanations of the scholastic theologians from
Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas downwards. The effect of
the controversy was a great decrease in the sale of Indulgences
in Germany, and the Papal Curia saw with alarm a prolific
source of revenue decaying. It was felt that Luther must be
silenced. He was accordingly summoned to Rome. To obey
would have meant death; to refuse in his own name would
have been contumacy. But the peremptory summons could be
construed as an attack on the university of Wittenberg, and both
the elector of Saxony and the emperor Maximilian so regarded
it. The result was that Pope Leo cancelled the summons, and
it was arranged that Luther should appear before the papal
Legate to the German Diet, Thomas de Vio, Cardinal Cajedtan',
at Augsburg. The interview was not very successful. At its
conclusion Luther wrote two appeals — one from the pope ill-
informed to the pope well-informed, and the other to a General
Council. True to his habit of taking the German people into his
confidence, he wrote an account of his interview with the Legate,
and published it under the title of the Ada Augustana.

The publication greatly increased the sympathy of almost
all classes in Germany for Luther. They saw in him a pious man,
an esteemed professor, who had done nothing but propose a
discussion on the notoriously intricate subject of Indulgences,
peremptorily ordered to recant and to remain silent. The
elector Frederick shared the common feelings and resolved to

defend the man who had made his university so famous. His
action compelled the Roman Curia to pause. Germany was on
the eve, it was believed, of an election of a king of the Romans;
it was possible that an imperial election was not far distant;
Frederick was too important a personage to offend. So the
condemnation by the Cardinal-Legate was withdrawn for the
time, and the pope resolved to deal with the matter otherwise.
He selected one of his chamberlains, Charles von Miltitz, the
elector's private agent at Rome, and commissioned him to
deal with the matter as he best could. Miltitz received the
" golden rose " to give to Frederick, and was furnished with
several letters in all of which the pope spoke of Luther as a
"child of the devil." His holiness had probably forgotten the
fact when he addressed Luther some months later as " his dear
son."

When Miltitz arrived in Germany he discovered that the
movement was much more important than the Roman Curia had
imagined. He had not to deal with the opposition of a recalcitrant
monk, but with the awakening of a nation. He resolved to meet
with Tetzel and with Luther privately before he produced his
credentials. Tetzel he could not see; the man was afraid to leave
his convent; but he had lengthy interviews with Luther in the
house of Spalatin the chaplain and private secretary of the
elector Frederick. There he disowned the sermons of the pardon-
sellers, let it be seen that he did not approve of the action of the
Legate, and so prevailed with Luther that the latter promised to
write a submissive letter to the pope, to exhort people to rever-
ence the Roman See, to say that Indulgences were useful to remit
canonical penances, and to promise to write no more on the
matter unless he happened to be attacked. Luther did all this.
A reconciliation might have taken place had the Roman Curia
supported Miltitz. But the Curia did not support Miltitz,
and placed more faith in Eck, who was eager to extinguish
Luther in a public discussion.

Luther had been spending the time between his interview
with the Legate at Augsburg (Oct. 1518) and the Leipzig Dis-
putation (June 1519) in severe and disquieting studies. He
had found that all his opponents had pursued one line of argu-
ment: the power to issue an Indulgence is simply one case of
the universal papal jurisdiction; Indulgences are what the
pope proclaims them to be, and to attack them is to attack the
power of the pope; the pope represents the Roman church,
which is actually the universal church, and to oppose the pope
is to defy the whole church of Christ; whoever attacks such
a long-established system as that of Indulgences is a heretic.
Such was the argument. Luther felt himself confronted with
the pope's absolute supremacy in all ecclesiastical matters.
It was a plea whose full force he felt. The papal supremacy was
one of his oldest inherited beliefs. He re-examined his convictions
about justifying faith and whether they did lead to his declara-
tions about Indulgences. He could come to no other con-
clusion. It then became necessary to examine the papal claims.
He set himself to study the Decretals, and to his amazement
and indignation he found that they were full of frauds. It is
hard to say whether the discovery brought him more joy or more
grief. His letters show him half-exultant and half-terrified.
While he was in this state of mind he received Eck's challenge
to dispute with him at Leipzig on the papal supremacy.

This Leipzig Disputation was perhaps the most important
point in Luther's career. He met Eck in June 1519. It soon
appeared that the intention of that practised debater was to
force Luther into some admission which would justify opponents
in accusing him of holding the opinions of Huss, who had been
condemned by the great German Council of Constance. In
this he was eminently successful. Eck left Leipzig triumphant,
and Luther returned to Wittenberg much depressed. As usual
he wrote out and published an account of the Disputation,
which was an appeal to his fellow Germans. The result surpassed
his expectations. The Disputation made him see that his protest
against the abuses of Indulgences was no criticism of an ex-
crescence on the medieval ecclesiastical system, but an attack
on its centre of existence. He saw that he stood for the spiritual

LUTHER, MARTIN

137

priesthood of all believers and that medievalism in religion
neant that man cannot approach God without a priestly
oediator. The people also saw his position and rallied round
him; and the Humanists discerned in him a champion against the
old intolerance against which they had been revolting in vain.
Luther's depression fled. Sermons, pamphlets, letters from his
tireless pen flooded the land, and Luther began to be the leader
of a German revolt against Rome.

The year 1520 saw the publication of his three most important
vorks, all written at a time when he was fully convinced that
he had broken for ever with Rome. They were, On the Liberty
of a Christian Man, An Address to the Nobility of the German
Nation, and On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church of God —
he three primary treatises, as they have been called.

Meanwhile at Rome the pope had entrusted Eck and Prierias
vith the preparation of a bull (Exurge Domine) against Luther —

bull which followed the line of Eck's charges at Leipzig.
The reformer had been expecting it ever since the Disputation
at Leipzig, and had resolved to answer it by one striking act
which would impress the imagination of every man. He posted
up a notice inviting the Wittenberg students to witness the
burning of the bull (loth of December 1520). Rome had shot
its last ecclesiastical bolt. Nothing remained but an appeal
to the secular power, and this was at once prepared.

The emperor Maximilian had died suddenly (i2th January
1519), and for long Germany was disturbed with intrigues about
the succession — the papal policy being specially tortuous.
The widely expressed desire for a German emperor secured the
unanimous election of Charles, the grandson of Maximilian
and the king of Spain. Never were a people more mistaken and
disappointed. The veins of Charles were full of German blood,
but he was his mother's son. It was the Spaniard, not the
German, who faced Luther at Worms.

Charles was crowned at Aachen, 23rd of October 1520, and
opened his first German diet at Worms, 22nd of January 1521.
The pope had selected two envoys to wait on the young emperor,
one of them, Jerome Aleander, being specially appointed to
secure the outlawry of Luther. The agenda of the diet contained
many things seriously affecting all Germany, but the one problem
which every one was thinking about was how Luther would be
dealt with. The Electoral College was divided. The archbishop
of Cologne, the elector of Brandenburg and his brother the
archbishop of Mainz were for instant outlawry, while the elector
of Saxony, who was resolved to protect Luther, had great
influence with the archbishop of Trier and the Count Palatine
of the Rhine.

Aleander had no difficulty in persuading Charles, while both
were still in the Netherlands, to put Luther under the ban
within his hereditary dominions, and the papal nuncio expected
that the decree would be extended to the whole German empire.
But Charles at first refused to deal summarily with Luther so
far as Germany was concerned. The emperor even wrote to the
elector of Saxony, asking him to bring Luther with him to the
diet for examination. Gradually he came to think that Luther
might be condemned without appearing. The members of the
diet were slow to come to any conclusion. At last they made
up their minds, and presented a memorial to the emperor
(igth of February 1521) in which they reminded him that no
imperial edict could be published against Luther without their
sanction, and proposed that he should be invited to Worms under
a safe-conduct and be there examined. They also suggested
that Luther should be heard upon the papal claims, and ended
by asking the emperor to deliver Germany from the papal
tyranny. The emperor agreed to summon Luther under a safe-
conduct, and that he should be heard; but he refused to mix
his case with that of grievances against Rome. He had no
sooner made the promise than he seems to have repented it.
He saw no need for Luther's appearance. He tried to get him
condemned unheard. An edict against Luther had been drafted
(iSth of February) which the diet refused to sanction. A few
days later a second edict was drafted which ordered the burning
of Luther's books. The diet again objected. Finally four days

after the safe-conduct had been despatched the emperor revised
this second edict, limited it to the seizure of Luther's books,
and published it on his own authority without consulting the
diet (loth March). After Luther had begun his journey, this
edict was posted up along his route in order to intimidate him ;
other means were taken to make him turn aside from Worms;
but he was resolved to go there and nothing daunted him. He
reached the town (i6th April) and was met by encouraging
crowds. He was summoned to appear before the diet on the
1 7th and measures were taken to prevent him doing more than
answering definite questions put to him. He was asked whether
certain books had been written by him and whether he was
prepared to maintain or to abjure what he had written. He
asked time to prepare an answer to the second question. The
diet was anxious to hear Luther, if the emperor was not, and his
request was granted. He thus defeated the plot to keep him
silent. On the i8th he made his second appearance and delivered
the speech, which electrified his audience. At the close he was
threatened by Spaniards in the diet. The Germans ringed him
round, and, with their hands raised high in the fashion of a
landsknecht who had struck a successful blow, passed out into
the street and escorted him to his lodgings. Next day (April
i gth) the emperor proposed to place Luther under the ban of
the empire and read to the assembly a brief statement of his
own views. The diet objected, and asked for a conference
between Luther and some selected members. Conferences were
held, but came to nothing. No compromise was possible between
the declaration that man's conscience could only be bound by
the Word of God and the emperor's belief in the infallibility of a
general council. The commission had to report that its efforts
had failed. Luther was ordered to leave Worms and to return
to Wittenberg. His safe-conduct was to expire twenty-one
days after the i6th of April. Then he was liable to be seized
and put to death as a pestilent heretic. There only remained
to draft and publish the edict containing the ban. Days passed
and it did not appear. Suddenly the startling news reached
Worms that Luther had disappeared, no one knew where. It
was reported that his body had been found in a silver-mine
pierced with a dagger. The news flew over Germany and
beyond it that he had been slain by papal emissaries. At Worms
the indignation of the populace was intense. The public buildings
were placarded during the night with an intimation that four
hundred knights had sworn not to leave Luther unavenged, and
the ominous words Bundschuh, Bundschuh, Bundschuh (the
watchword of peasant revolts) were written at the foot. The
combination suggested an alliance between the lesser knights
and the peasants, dreaded by all the ruling classes. The true
story of Luther's disappearance was not known until long after-
wards. After the failure of the conference the elector of
Saxony had commissioned two of the councillors to convey
Luther to a place of safety without telling him where it was.
Many weeks elapsed before Frederick himself learned that
Luther was safe in his own castle of the Wartburg. The dis-
appearance did not mean that Luther had ceased to be a leader
of men; but it marked the beginning of an organized national
opposition to Rome.

It was not till the 25th of May that the edict against Luther
was presented to a small number of members of the diet, after
the elector of Saxony and many important members had left
Worms. It threatened all Luther's sympathisers with extermina-
tion, and practically proclaimed an Albigensian war in Germany.
But few public documents prepared with so much care have
proved so futile. The latter half of 1521 saw the silent spread
of Lutheran opinions all over Germany. This was not un-
accompanied with dangers. Every movement for reform
carries within it the seeds of revolution, and Luther's was no
exception to the rule.

The revolution began in Wittenberg during Luther's seclusion
in the Wartburg. Andrew Boden of Carlstadt, a colleague of
Luther's in the university of Wittenberg, was strongly impressed
with the contradiction which he believed to exist between
evangelical teaching and the usages of medieval ecclesiastical

138

LUTHER, MARTIN

life. He denounced monastic vows, a distinctive dress for the
clergy, the thought of a propitiatory mass, and the presence of
images and pictures in the churches. Zwilling, a young Augus-
tinian Eremite, added his fiery denunciations. His preaching
stirred the commonalty. Turbulent crowds invaded two of the
churches and rioted inside. The excitement of the people was
increased by the arrival of three men known in history as the
Zwickau prophets. Melanchthon felt himself powerless to restrain
the tumult. The magistrates of the town were won over and
issued an ordinance which attempted to express in legislation
the new evangelical ideas. Duke George of Saxony, a resolute
opponent of the Reformation, threatened to make the diet
interfere. Luther became alarmed, and, not without a private
hint from the elector of Saxony,1 left his retreat and appeared
among his townsmen. His presence and exertions restored
order, and the conservative reformation resumed its quiet course.
From this time onwards to the outbreak of the Peasants' War
(1525) Luther was the real leader of the German nation, and every-
thing seemed to promise a gradual reformation without tumult.

The Peasants' War ended this anticipation. From one point
of view this insurrection was simply the last, the most wide-
spreading and the most disastrous of these revolts, which had
been almost chronic in Germany during the later decades of the
1 5th and earlier years of the i6th century and which had been
almost continuous between 1503 and 1517. All the social and
economic causes which produced them were increasingly active
in 1524 and 1525. But it is undoubted that the religious revolt
intensified the rebellion of the lower classes. Luther's voice
awoke echoes he never dreamt of. The times were ripe for
revolution, and the message which spoke of a religious democracy
could not fail to suggest the social democracy also. In his
appeal to the Nobility of the German Nation he had stated with
severe precision the causes of social discontent. Himself a
peasant's son and acquainted with the grievances under which
the peasant lived, he had at various times formulated most
of the demands which afterwards figured conspicuously in the
Twelve Articles. The insurgents had good cause to regard him
as a sympathiser. But Luther, rightly or wrongly, believed
that of the two ways in which wrongs can be set right — the
way of war and the path of peace — the latter is the only sure
road in the long run. He did his best therefore to prevent the
rising and risked his life among the infuriated peasants as
readily as when he stood before the emperor and the diet.
When the rebellion was at its height and Thomas Mtinzer had
sent forth fiery proclamations urging the peasantry " not to let
the blood cool on their swords," Luther issued the pamphlet,
which casts a stain on his whole life, in which he hounds on the
ruling classes to suppress the insurgents with all violence. In
the end the rebellion, formidable as it seemed for a few months,
was crushed, and a heavier yoke was laid on the shoulders of the
unfortunate peasants.

This year, 1525, saw the parting of the ways in the movement
for reform. It ceased to be national and became ecclesiastical.
It divided into three separate parts. One, guided by Luther
himself, ended, after a long struggle with pope and emperor,
in the establishment of evangelical churches under the rule of
the secular authorities of the territories which adopted the
Lutheran Reformation. Another, remaining true to the prin-
ciples, doctrines, usages and hierarchy of the medieval church,
dreamt only of a purification of moral life, and saw its end
realised in the reforms of the council of Trent. The third,
gathering together the more revolutionary impulses, expanded
into that complex movement called Anabaptism — which
spread over western Europe from England to Poland and
from Scandinavia to northern Italy, and endured a long and
sanguinary persecution at the hands of the civil authorities
in most European countries. Its strength and popularity,
especially among the artizan classes, have been very much
underrated by most historians.

1 Enders, Dr Martin Luther's Briefwechsel, iii. 292-295 ; von
Bezold, Zcitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte xx. 186 sqq.; Barge, Andreas
Bodenstein von Karlstadt, i. 432 sqq.

During the storm of the Peasants' War (i3th of June 1525)
Luther married Catherine von Bora, the daughter of a noble
but impoverished family belonging to Meissen. She had been
a Cistercian nun in the convent of Nimtzch near Grimma — a
convent reserved for ladies of noble birth. Luther's writings,
circulating through Saxony, had penetrated the convent walls
and had convinced most of the inmates of the unlawfulness of
monastic vows. Catherine and eight companions resolved to
escape. Their relatives refused to aid them, and they applied
to Luther. He entrusted the business to Leonhard Koppe of
Torgau, and the rescue was safely carried out( 4th of April 1523).
The rescued nuns found places of refuge in the families of
Wittenberg burghers. The elector John of Saxony (who had
succeeded his brother Frederick) gave Luther the house which
had served as the Augustinian Convent. The family gathered
in this three-storeyed building, with its back windows looking
over the Elbe and its front door opening on a great garden, was
latterly Luther and his wife, their three sons and two daughters,
Magdelena von Bora, Catherine's aunt, two orphan nieces and a
grandniece. At the beginning of his married life Luther must
have been in straitened circumstances. He married a portionless
nun. On to 1532 his salary was two hundred gulden annually
(about £160 in present money); after 1532 the stipend was
increased to £240 with various payments in kind — corn, wood,
malt, wine, &c. — which meant a great deal more. The town
added occasional gifts to enable Luther to entertain the great
personages who came to consult him frequently. Princes made
him presents in money. This enabled Luther to purchase from
his wife's brother the small estate of Zulsdorf . Catherine, too,
was an excellent house-wife. She made the long-neglected
garden profitable; kept pigs and poultry; rented other gardens;
stocked a fishpond; farmed in a small way; and had her house
full of boarders. Luther had a high opinion of her intelligence;
she took rank among those consulted on ah1 important occasions;
in one letter to her, seldom quoted, he gives the fairest statement
he ever made about the views of Zwingli on the Sacrament of
the Supper.

The diet of Speyer (1526) saw Germany divided into a Pro-
testant and a Romanist party. After much debate a compromise
was arrived at, which foreshadowed the religious peace of
Augsburg of 1555. It was resolved that the Word of God should
be preached without disturbance, that indemnity should be
given for past offences against the edict of Worms, and that
meanwhile each state should live religiously as it hoped to
answer for its conduct to God and the emperor. The Lutherans
interpreted this to mean the right to frame ecclesiastical regula-
tions for various principalities and to make changes in public
worship. Luther busied himself in simplifying the service, in
giving advice, anxiously sought for, about the best modes of
organising ecclesiastical affairs. In the diet held at Speyer
in 1529 a compact Roman Catholic majority faced a weak
Lutheran minority. The emperor declared through his com-
missioners that he abolished " by his imperial and absolute
authority" the clause in the ordinance of 1526 on which the
Lutherans had relied when they began to organize their territorial
churches. The majority of the diet supported the emperor
in this, and further proceeded to decree that no ecclesiastical
body was to be deprivedof itsrevenuesorauthority. Thismeant
that throughout all Germany medieval ecclesiastical rule was
to be upheld, and that none of the revenues of the medieval
church could be appropriated for Protestant uses. On this
a portion of the Protestant minority drafted a legal protest, in
which the signers declared that they meant to abide by the
decision of the diet of 1526 and refused to be bound by that of
1529. From this protest came the name Protestant.

A minority in such a case could only maintain their protest
if they were prepared to defend each other by force in case of an
attack. Three days after the protest had been read, many
of the protesting cities and states concluded " a secret and
particular treaty," and Philip of Hesse, the ablest statesmah
among the Protesters, saw the need for a general union of all
evangelical Christians in the empire. The difficulties in the way

LUTHER, MARTIN

139

were great. The Saxons and the Swiss, Luther and Zwingli,
were in fierce controversy about the true doctrine of the sacra-
ment of the Supper. Luther was a patriotic German who was
for ever bewailing the disintegration of the Fatherland; Zwingli
was full of plans for confederations of Swiss cantons with South
German cities, which could not fail to weaken the empire.
Luther had but little trust in the " common man "; Zwingli
was a thorough democrat. When Luther thought of the Swiss
reformer he muttered as Archbishop Parker did of John Knox —
" God keep us from such visitations as Knox hath attempted in
Scotland; the people to be orderers of things." Above all
Luther had good grounds for believing that at the conference at
Memmingen friends of Zwingli had helped to organize a Peasants'
War and to link the social revolution to the religious awakening.
All these suspicions were in Luther's mind when he consented
very half-heartedly to meet Zwingli at a conference to be held
in Philip of Hesse's castle at Marburg. The debate proceeded
as such debates usually do. Zwingli attacked the weakest part
of Luther's theory — the ubiquity of the body of Christ; and
Luther attacked Zwingli's exegesis of the words of the institution.
Neither sought to bring out their points of agreement. Yet the
conference did good; it showed that the Protestants were
agreed on all doctrinal points but one. If union was for the
present impossible, there were hopes for it in the future.

In 1530 the emperor Charles, resolved to crush the Reforma-
tion, himself presided at the diet. The Protestant divisions
were manifest. Three separate confessions were presented to
the emperor — one from Zwingli, one by the theologians of the
four cities of Strassbourg, Constance, Lindau and Memmingen
(Confessio TelrapolUa.no) , and the Augsburg Confession, the future
symbol of the Lutheran church. The third was the most im-
portant, and the emperor seriously set himself to see whether it
might not be made the basis of a compromise. He found that
reconciliation was hopeless. Thereupon the diet resolved that
the edict of Worms was to be enforced against Luther and his
partizans; that the ecclesiastical jurisdictions were to be pre-
served; and that all the church property taken possession of by
the Lutheran princes was to be restored; and that in all cases of
dispute the last court of appeal was to be the Imperial Court of
Appeals. The last provision meant that the growing Protestant-
ism was to be fought by harrassing litigation — nicht fechten
sondern rechten was the phrase.

Luther was not present at the diet nor at the negotiations.
He was still an outlaw according to imperial ideas. Melanchthon
took his place as leader.

The decision of the diet compelled the Protestant princes to
face the new and alarming situation. They met in conference in
mid-winter at the little town of Schmalkald, and laid the founda-
tions of what became the powerful Schmalkald League, which
effectually protected the Protestants of Germany until it was
broken up by the intrigues of the imperial party. From the time
of the formation of this league, Luther retired gradually from
the forefront of a reformation movement which had become
largely political, and busied himself with reforms in public
worship and suggestions for an organization of the polity of the
Evangelical church. In this work his natural conservatism is
apparent, and he contented himself with such changes as would
make room for the action of evangelical principles. He dis-
claimed the right of suggesting a common order of worship or a
uniform ecclesiastical polity; and Lutheran ritual and polity,
while presenting common features, did not follow one common
use. It may be said generally that while Luther insisted on a
service in the vernacular, including the singing of German
hymns, he considered it best to retain most of the ceremonies,
the vestments and the uses of lights on the altar, which had
existed in the unreformed church, while he was careful to explain
that their retention might be dispensed with if thought necessary.
To the popular mind the great distinction between the Lutheran
and the medieval church service, besides the use of the vernacular
and the supreme place assigned to preaching, was that the people
partook of the cup in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; and
the Lutheran service became popularly distinguished from the

Reformed because it retained, while the Reformed did away
with, most of the medieval ceremonies and vestments (see
LUTHERANS). The variations in the details of the polity of the
Lutheran churches were very numerous, but they all preserved
the same distinctive principles. Two conceptions lay at the
basis — the thought of the spiritual priesthood of all believers
and the belief that the state was a divine ordinance, that the
magistracy might represent the whole body of believers and that
discipline and administration might be exercised through courts
constituted somewhat like the consistorial courts of the medieval
bishops, their members being appointed by the magistracy.

The last years of Luther's life were spent in incessant labour
disturbed by almost continuous ill-health. He was occupied in
trying to unite firmly together the whole evangelical movement ;
he laboured to give his countrymen a good system of schools;
he was on the watch to defeat any attempt of the Roman Curia
to regain its hold over Germany; and he was the confidential
adviser of a large number of the evangelical princes. Luther's
intimacy with his own elector, first John, then John Frederick,
helped to give him the place accorded to him by the princes.
The chiefs of the Houses of Anhalt and Luneburg, Duke Henry
of Saxony, Joachim II. of Brandenburg, Albert of Brandenburg
and the counts of Mansfeld, were among Luther's most devoted
supporters and most frequently sought his advice. Princely
correspondence was not always pleasant. It took its most dis-
agreeable form when Philip of Hesse besieged Luther with
requests to give his sanction to taking a second wife while his
first was still alive. Luther's weakness brought the second great
blot on his career. The document sanctioning the bigamy of the
landgrave was signed by Martin Bucer, Luther and Melanchthon,
and is a humiliating paper. It may be thus summarized.
According to the original commandment of God, marriage is
between one man and one woman, and this original precept has
been confirmed by our Lord; but sin brought it about that
first Lamech, then the heathen, and then Abraham, took more
than one wife, and this was permitted under the law. We are
now living under the Gospel, which does not give prescribed
rules for the external life and has not expressly prohibited
bigamy. The law of the land expresses the original command-
ment of God, and the plain duty of the pastorate is to denounce
bigamy. Nevertheless, the pastorate, in single cases of the direst
need and to prevent worse, may sanction bigamy in a purely
exceptional way. Such a bigamous marriage is a true marriage
in the sight of God (the necessity being proved), but it is not a
true marriage in the eye of public law and custom. Such a
marriage and the dispensation for it ought to be kept secret;
if it is made known, the dispensation becomes eo ipso invalid
and the marriage is mere concubinage. The principle which
underlies this extraordinary paper is probably the conception
that the Protestant church has the same dispensing power
which the medieval church claimed, but that it was to be exercised
altogether apart from fees of any kind.

In his later years Luther became more tolerant on the sacra-
mental question which divided him from the South German
cities, although he never departed from his strong opposition
to the supposed views of Zwingli himself. He consented to a
conference, which, as he was too ill to leave home, met at Witten-
berg (May-June 1536). After prolonged discussion the differ-
ences were narrowed to one point — the presence of the body of
Christ extended in space in the sacrament of the Supper. It was
agreed in the Wittenberg Concord to leave this an open question.
Thus North and South Germany were united. It is possible that
had Luther lived longer his followers might have been united
with the Swiss. He repeatedly expressed an admiration for
Calvin's writings on the subject of the sacrament ; and Melanch-
thon believed that if the Swiss accepted Calvin's theory of the
Supper, the Wittenberg Concord could be extended to include
them. But the Consensus Tigurinus, which dates the adhesion
of the Swiss to the views of Calvin, was not signed until 1549,
when Luther was already dead.

Year by year Luther had been growing weaker, his attacks of
illness more frequent and his bodily pains more continuous.

140

LUTHERANS

Despite the entreaties of wife and elector he resolved to do
what he could to end some trifling dispute about inheritance
which threatened the peace of the House of Mansfeld. He left
Wittenberg in bitterly cold weather on the 23rd of January 1546,
and the journey was tedious and hazardous. He was accepted as
arbiter and his decision brought an end to the strife. He
preached in Eisleben (February 14) with all his old fervour;
but suddenly said quietly: " This and much more is to be said
about the Gospel; but I am too weak and we will close here."
These were his last words in the pulpit. On the i6th and i7th
the deeds of reconciliation were signed and Luther's work was
done. The end came swiftly. He was very ill on the evening
of the I7th; he died on the early morning of the i8th of February
1546 in his sixty-third year.

The elector of Saxony and Luther's family resolved that he
must be buried at Wittenberg, and on the 2oth the funeral pro-
cession began its long march. The counts of Mansfeld, the
magistrates of the city and all the burghers of Eisleben accom-
panied the coffin to the gates of their town. A company of fifty
light-armed troops commanded by the young counts of Mansfeld
headed the procession and went with it all the way to Witten-
berg. The following was temporarily swelled as it passed
through villages and towns. Delegates from the elector of
Saxony met it as it crossed the boundaries of the principality.
Luther was laid to rest in the Castle church on whose door he
had nailed the theses which had kindled the great conflagration.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (a) For Luther's life as a whole: Melanchthon,
" Historia de vita et actis Lutheri " (Wittenberg, 1545), in the
Corpus Reformaiorum, vi. ; Mathesius, Historien von . . . Martini
Lutheri, Anfang, Lehre, Leben und Sterben (Prague, 1896) ; Myconius,
Historia. Reformationis 1517-1542 (Leipzig, 1718); Ratzeberger,
Geschichte iiber Luther und seine Zeit (Jena, 1850); Wrampelmeyer,
Tagebuch iiber Dr Martin Luther gefiihrt von Dr Conrad Cordatus,
1537 (Halle, 1885); Forstemann, Neues Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte
der evangelischen Kirchenreformation (Hamburg, 1842); Kolde,
Analecta Lutherana (Gotha, 1883); G. Losche, Analecta Lutherana
et Melanchthoniana (Gotha, 1892); G. Losche, Vollstdndige Refor-
mations-Acta und Documenta (Leipzig, 1720-1729); Enders, Dr
Martin Luther's Briefwechsel (5 vols., Frankfurt, 1884-1893);
J. Cochlaeus (Rom. Cath.), Commentarius de actis et scnptis M.
Lutheri, &c. (St Victor prope Moguntium). See also J. Kostlin,
Martin Luther, sein Leben und seine Schriften (2 vols., Berlin, 1889);
Th. Kolde, Martin Luther, Eine Biographic (2 vols., Gotha, 1884-
1893); A. Hausrath, Luther's Leben (2 vols., Berlin, 1904); Lindsay,
Luther and the German Reformation (Edinburgh, 1900); Cambridge
Modern History, ii. (Cambridge, 1903) ; History of the Reformation, \.
(Edinburgh, 1906).

(6) For special incidents: The Theses and their publication:
W. Kohler, Luthers 95 Theses sammt seinen Resolutwnen, den Gegen-
schriften von Wimpina-Tetzel, Eck and Prierias, und den Antworten
Luthers darauf (Leipzig, 1903); Emil Reich, Select Documents
illustrating Medieval and Modern History (London, 1905) ; The
Leipzig Disputation: Seidemann, Die Leipziger Disputation im
Jahre 1519 (Dresden, 1843); Luther before the Diet of Worms:
Deutsche Reichstagsakten unter Kaiser Karl V. (Gotha, 1893-1901), ii.;
The Marburg Colloquy; Schirrmacher, Brief e und Aden zu der
Geschichte des Religionsgespr aches zu Marburg, 1529, und des Reichs-
tages zu Augsburg 1530 (Gotha, 1876); Hospinian, Historia Sacra-
mentaria, ii. I23&-I266; Ehrard, Das Dogma vom heuigen Abendmahl
und seine Geschichte, ii. (Frankfurt a M., 1846); The Augsburg
Confession : Schaff , The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches
(London, 1877), History of the Creeds of Christendom (London, 1877).

(T. M. L.)

LUTHERANS, the general title given to those Christians who
have adopted the principles of Martin Luther in his opposition
to the Roman Church, to the followers of Calvin, and to the
sectaries of the times of the Reformation. Their distinctive
name is the Evangelical, as opposed to the Reformed church.
Their dogmatic symbols are usually said to include nine separate
creeds which together form the Book of Concord (Liber Concordiae) .
Three belong to the Early Christian church — the Apostles'
Creed, the Nicene Creed (in its Western form, i.e. with the
filioque), and the so-called Athanasian Creed; six come from
the 1 6th century — the Augsburg Confession, the Apology for the
Augsburg Confession, the Schmalkald Articles, Luther's two
Catechisms, and the Form of Concord. But only the three
early creeds and the Augsburg Confession are recognized by
all Lutherans. Luther's Catechisms, especially the shorter
of the two, have been almost universally accepted, but the

Form of Concord was and is expressly rejected by many Lutheran
churches. The Augsburg Confession and Luther's Short Cate-
chism may therefore be said to contain the distinctive principles
which all Lutherans are bound to maintain, but, as the principal
controversies of the Lutheran church all arose after the publica-
tion of the Augsburg Confession and among those who had
accepted it, it does not contain all that is distinctively Lutheran.
Its universal acceptance is perhaps due to the fact that it exists
in two forms (the variata and the invariata) which vary slightly
in the way in which they state the doctrine of the sacrament
of the Supper. The variola edition was signed by Calvin, in the
meaning, he said, of its author Melanchthon.

After Luther's death the more rigid Lutherans declared it
to be their duty to preserve the status religionis in Germania
per Lulherum instauratus, and to watch over the depositum Jesu
Christi which he had committed to their charge. As Luther was
a much greater preacher than a systematic thinker, it was not
easy to say exactly what this deposit was, and controversies
resulted among the Lutheran theologians of the i6th century.
The Antinomian controversy was the earliest (1537-1560).
It arose from differences about the precise meaning of the word
" law " in Luther's distinction between law and gospel. Luther
limited the meaning of the word to mean a definite command
accompanied by threats, which counts on terror to produce
obedience. He declared that Christ was not under the dominion
of the law in this sense of the word, and that believers enter
the Christian life only when they transcend a rule of life which
counts on selfish motives for obedience. But law may mean
ethical rule, and the Antinomians so understood it, and inter-
preted Luther's declaration to mean that believers are not under
the dominion of the moral law. The controversy disturbed the
Lutheran church for more than twenty years.

The Arminian controversy in the Reformed church, the
Jansenist controversy in the Roman Catholic church, had their
parallel in three separate disputes among the Lutherans lasting
from 1550 to 1580. (i) George Major, discussing the relation
of good works to conversion, declared that such works were
both useful and necessary to holiness. He was attacked by
Flacius and Amsdorf, and after a long controversy, full of
ambiguities and lacking in the exhibition of guiding principles,
he was condemned because his statement savoured of Pelagian-
ism. (2) The same problem took a new form in the Synergist
controversy, which discussed the first impulse in conversion.
One party taught that while the first impulse must come from
the Holy Spirit the work might be compared to reviving a man
apparently dead. It was answered that the sinner was really
dead, and that the work of the Spirit was to give an actually
new life. The latter assertion was generally approved of. (3)
Then a fresh controversy was started by the assertion that sin
was part of the substance of man in his fallen condition. It
was answered that sin had not totally destroyed man's ethical
nature, and that grace changed what was morally insensitive
into what was morally sensitive, so that there could be a co-
operation between God's grace and man's will.

The controversy raised by Andrew Osiander was more im-
portant. He felt that Luther had omitted to make adequate
answer to an important practical question, how Christ's death
on the cross could be brought into such actual connexion with
every individual believer as to be the ground of his actual
justification. The medieval church had spanned the centuries
by supposing that Christ's death was continuous down through
the age in the sacrifice of the Mass; Protestant theology had
nothing equivalent. He proposed to supply the lack by the
theory that justification is a real work done in the individual
by the same Christ who died so many centuries ago. Redemption,
he said, was the result of the historical work of Christ; but
justification was the work of the living risen Christ, dwelling
within the believer and daily influencing him. Osiander's
theory did not win much support, but it was the starting-point
of two separate doctrines. In the Lutheran church, Striegel
taught that the principal effect of Christ's work on the cross
was to change the attitude of God towards the whole human

LUTHERANS

141

race, and that, in consequence, when men come into being and
have faith, they can take advantage of the change of attitude
effected by the past historical work of Christ. The Reformed
church, on the other hand, constructed their special doctrine
of the limited reference in the atonement.

The other controversies concerned mainly the doctrine of
the sacrament of the Supper, and Luther's theory of Con-
substantiation. This required a doctrine of Ubiquity, or the
omnipresence of the body of Christ extended in space, and
therefore of its presence in the communion elements. Calvin
had taught that the true way to regard substance was to think
of its power (vis), and that the presence of a substance was the
immediate application of its power. The presence of the body
of Christ in the sacramental elements did not need a presence
extended in space. Melanchthon and many Lutherans accepted
the theory of Calvin, and alleged that Luther before his death
had approved of it. Whereupon the more rigid Lutherans
accused their brethren of Crypto-Calvinism, and began contro-
versies which dealt with that charge and with a defence of the
idea of ubiquity.

The university of Jena, led by Matthias Flacius, was the
headquarters of the stricter Lutherans, while Wittenberg and
Leipzig were the centres of the Philippists or followers of
Melanchthon. Conferences only increased the differences.
The Lutheran church seemed in danger of falling to pieces.
This alarmed both parties. New conferences were held and
various articles of agreement were proposed, the most notable
being the Torgau Book (1576). In the end, the greater proportion
adopted the Book of Concord (1577), drafted chiefly by Jacob
Andreae of Tubingen, Martin Chemnitz of Brunswick and
Nicolas Selnecker of Leipzig. Its recognition was mainly due
to the efforts of Augustus, elector of Saxony. This Book of
Concord was accepted by the Lutheran churches of Sweden and
of Hungary in 1593 and 1597; but it was rejected by the
Lutheran churches of Denmark, of Hesse, of Anhalt, of Pomerania
and of several of the imperial cities. It was at first adopted and
then rejected by Brunswick, the Palatinate and Brandenburg.
The churches within Germany which refused the Book of Concord
became for the most part Calvinistic or Reformed. They
published, as was the fashion among the Reformed churches,
separate creeds for themselves, but almost all accepted the
Heidelberg Catechism. These differences in the German Pro-
testant churches of the second half of the i6th century are
reflected in the great American Lutheran church. The church
exists in three separate organizations. The General Synod of
the Evangelical Church of the United States, organized in 1820,
has no other creed than the Augsburg Confession, so liberally
interpreted as not to exclude Calvinists. The Synodical Con-
ference of North America, organized in 1872, compels its pastors
to subscribe to the whole of the nine creeds contained in the
Book of Concord. The General Council, a secession from the
General Synod, was organized in 1867, and accepts the " un-
altered " (invariala) Augsburg Confession in its original sense,
and the other Lutheran symbols as explanatory of the Augsburg
Confession.

The divided state of German Protestantism, resulting from
these theological differences, contributed in no small 'degree
to the disasters of the Thirty Years' War, and various attempts
were made to unite the two confessions. Conferences were held
at Leipzig (1631), Thorn (1645), Cassel (1661); but without
success. At length the union of the two churches was effected
by the force of the civil authorities in Prussia (1817), in Nassau
(1817), in Hesse (1823), in Anhalt-Dessau (1827) and elsewhere.
These unions for the most part aimed, not at incorporating the
two churches in doctrine and in worship, but at bringing churches
or congregations professing different confessions under one
government and discipline. They permitted each congregation
to use at pleasure the Augsburg Confession or the Heidelberg
Catechism. The enforced union in Prussia was combined with
the publication of a new liturgy intended for common use. This
led to secessions from the state church. These seceders were
at first treated with great harshness, but have won their

way to toleration, and form the Lutheran Free churches of
Germany.

The most important of these latter is the Evangelical Lutheran
church of Prussia, sometimes called the Old Lutherans. It
camq into being in 1817 and gradually gained the position of a
tolerated nonconformist church (1845 being the date of its
complete recognition by the state). At the 1005 census it
numbered 51,600 members under 75 pastors. Its affairs are
managed by an Oberkirchencollegium, with four ordained and
two lay members. The Evangelical Lutheran Immanuel Synod
came into being in 1864, and has a membership of 5300 with
13 ordained pastors. Its headquarters is Liegnitz. The In-
dependent Evangelical Lutheran church in the lands of Hesse
arose partly on account of the slumbering opposition to the
union of 1823 and more particularly in consequence of an attempt
made at a stricter union in 1874. It has a membership of about
1800. The renilente church of Lower Hesse has a membership
of 2400. The Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Hanover
has a membership of 3050 under 10 ordained pastors. The
Hermannsburg Free Church has a membership of about 2000
under 2 pastors. The Evangelical Lutheran Community in
Baden has a membership of about 1 100 with 2 ordained pastors.
The Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Saxony has a member-
ship of about 3780 with 1 5 ordained pastors. < These free churches
exist separate from the State Evangelical United Church (Evan-
gelische unirte Landskircke).

The general system of ecclesiastical government which prevails
among all Lutheran churches is called the consistorial. It
admits of great variety of detail under certain common features
of organization. It arose partly from the makeshift policy of
the times of the Reformation, and partly from Luther's strong
belief that the jus episcopate belonged in the last resort to the
civil authorities. It may be most generally described by saying
that the idea was taken from the consistorial courts through
which the medieval bishops managed the affairs of their dioceses.
Instead of the appointments to the membership of the con-
sistories being made by the bishops, they were made by the
supreme civil authority, whatever that might be. Richter, in
his Evangelische Kirchenordnungen des i6ten Jahrhunderts
(2 vols., 1846), has collected more than one hundred and eight
separate ecclesiastical constitutions, and his collection is con-
fessedly imperfect. The publication of a complete collection
by Emil Sehling was begun in 1902.

The liturgies of the Lutheran churches exhibit the same
diversities in details as appear in their constitutions. It may
be said in general that while Luther insisted that public worship
ought to be conducted in a language understood by the people,
and that all ideas and actions which were superstitious and
obscured the primary truth of the priesthood of all believers
should be expurged, he wished to retain as much as possible
of the public service of the medieval church. The external
features of the medieval churches were retained; but the minor
altars, the labernacula to contain the Host, and the light per-
manently burning before the altar, were done away with. The
ecclesiastical year with its fasts and festivals was retained in
large measure. In 1526 Luther published the German Mass and
order of Divine Service, which, without being slavishly copied,
served as a model for Lutheran communities. It retained the
altar, vestments and lights, but explained that they were not
essential and might be dispensed with. The peril attending the
misuse of pictures in churches was recognized, but it was believed
to be more than counterbalanced by the instruction given through
them when their presence was not abused. In short Luther
contented himself with setting forth general principles of divine
service, leaving them to be applied as his followers thought best.
The consequence was that there is no uniform Lutheran liturgy.
In his celebrated Codex Liturgicus Ecclesiae Luthcranae in
epitomen redactus (Leipzig, 1848), Daniel has used 98 different
liturgies and given specimens to show the differences which they
exhibit.

The divergences in ritual and organization, the principle
underlying all the various ecclesiastical unions, viz. to combine

142

LUTHER LEAGUE— LUTTERWORTH

two different confessions under one common government, and,
resulting from it, the possibility of changing from one confession
to another, have all combined to free the state churches from any
rigid interpretation of their theological formulas. A liberal and
a conservative theology (rationalist and orthodox) exist side by
side within the churches, and while the latter clings to the
theology of the i6th century, the former ventures to raise doubts
about the truth of such a common and simple standard as the
Apostles' Creed. The extreme divergence in doctrinal position
is fostered by the fact that the theology taught in the univer-
sities is in a great measure divorced from the practical religious
life of the people, and the theological opinions uttered in the
theological literature of the country cannot be held to express
the thoughts of the members of the churches. In each state the
sovereign is still held to be the summus episcopus. He appoints
a minister of public worship, and through him nominates the
members of the governing body, the Oberkirchenrath or Con-
sislorium or Directorium. This council deals with the property,
patronage and all other ecclesiastical matters. But each parish
elects its own council for parochial affairs, which has a legal
status and deals with such matters as the ecclesiastical assess-
ments. Delegates from these parish councils form the Landes-
synode. In cases that call for consultation together, the Con-
sislorium and the Synod appoint committees to confer. In
Alsace-Lorraine about half of those entitled to vote appear at
the polls; but in other districts of Germany very little interest
is shown in the elections to the parish councils.

The income of the state churches is derived from four sources.
The state makes an annual provision for the stipends of the
clergy, for the maintenance of fabrics and for other ecclesiastical
needs. The endowments for church purposes, of which there
are many, and which are destined to the support of foreign
missions, clerical pensions, supply of books to the clergy, &c.
are administered by the supreme council. The voluntary
contributions of the people are all absorbed in the common
income of the national churches and are administered by the
supreme council. Each parish is legally entitled to levy ecclesi-
astical assessments for defined purposes.

Appointments to benefices are in the hands of the state
(sometimes with consent of parishes), of private patrons and
of local parish councils. The number of these benefices is always
increasing; and in 1897 they amounted to 16,400, or 300 more
than in 1890. The state appoints to 56% , private and municipal
patrons to 34%, and congregations to 10% of the whole.
Customs vary in different states; thus in Schleswig-Holstein
the state nominates but the parish elects; in Alsace-Lorraine
the directorium or supreme consistory appoints, but the
appointment must be confirmed by the viceroy; in Baden the
state offers the parish a selection from six names and then
appoints the one chosen.

The Lutheran state churches of Denmark, Sweden and Norway
have retained the episcopate. In all of them the king is recog-
nized to be the summus episcopus or supreme authority in all
ecclesiastical matters, but in Norway and Sweden his power is
somewhat limited by that of parliament. The king exercises
his ecclesiastical authority through a minister who super-
intends religion and education. The position and functions of
the bishops vary in the different countries. In all the rite of
ordination is in their hands. In Denmark they are the inspectors
of the clergy and of the schools. In Sweden they preside over
local consistories composed of clerical and lay members. The
episcopate in all three countries accommodates itself to some-
thing like the Lutheran consistorial system of ecclesiastical
government.

The two leading religions within Germany are the Evangelical
(Lutheran) and the Roman Catholic, including respectively 58
and 39% of the population. The proportions are continually
varying, owing to the new migratory habits of almost every
class of the population. Generally speaking, the Roman Catholics
are on the increase in Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Wiirttem-
burg; and the Evangelicals in the other districts of Germany,
especially in the large cities. There is a growing tendency to

mixed marriages, which are an important factor in religious
changes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Richter, Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des
sechzehnten Jahrhunderts (Weimar, 1846); Sehling, Die evangelischen
Kirchenordnungen des idten Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1902, &c.);
Richter, Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts
(8th ed., Leipzig, 1886); Hundeshagen, Beitrage zur Kirchenver-
fassungsgeschichte und Kirchenpolitik inbesondere des Prolestantismus,
i. (Wiesbaden, 1864), or in Ausgewahlte hi. Schriften, ii. (Gotha,
1875); Hofling, Grundsdtze der evangelischen- Lutherischen Kirchen-
verfassung (Erlangen, 1850, 3rd ed., 1853); Drews, Das kirchl.
Leben d. deutschen evangelischen Landeskirchen (Tubingen, 1902);
Erich Fprster, Die Enstehung der preussischen Landeskirchen unter
der Regierung Konig Friedrich WUhelms III,, i. (Tubingen, 1905);
Emil Sehling, Geschichte der protestantischen Kirchenverfassung
(Leipzig, 1907); articles in Herzog's Realencyklopddie fur protest.
Theologie (3rd ed.), on Kirchenregiment, Kirchenrecht, Kirchen-
ordnung, Konsistorien, Episcopalsystem, Gemeinde, Kollegial-
system, Territorialsystem ; Schaff, History of the Creeds of Christen-
dom (London. 1877). (T. M. L.)

LUTHER LEAGUE, a religious association for young people
in the United States of America. It began with a local society
founded by delegates of six Lutheran church societies in New
York City in 1888. The first national convention was held at
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 3oth and 3ist of October 1895.
The basis of the league is the Augsburg Confession. Its member-
ship is open to " any society of whatever name connected with a
Lutheran congregation or a Lutheran institution of learning."
According to the constitution its objects are " to encourage
the formation of the young people's societies in all Lutheran
congregations in America, to urge their affiliation with their
respective state or territorial leagues, and with this league to
stimulate the various young people's societies to greater Christian
activity and to foster the spirit of loyalty to the church." The
league publishes a monthly paper, The Luther League Review, in
Washington. According to its official report it had 70,000
members in 1906, which had increased to more than 100,000 in
1910.

LUTQN, a market town and municipal borough in the southern
or Luton parliamentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 30 m.
N.W. by N. of London by the Midland railway, served also by a
branch of the Great Northern. Pop. (1901) 36,404. It lies in a
narrow valley on the south flank of the Chiltern Hills, on the
upper part of the river Lea. The church of St Mary is mainly
Decorated, but has portions of Early English and Perpendicular
work. It has brasses and monuments of interest and a late
Decorated baptistery of stone, an ornate roofed structure,
octagonal in form. The font within it is Early English. Luton
is the principal seat in England of the straw-plait manufacture,
and larga quantities of hats and other straw goods have been
exported, though in recent years the industry has suffered from
increased foreign competition. The industry originated with the
colony of straw-plaiters transplanted by James I. from Scotland,
whither they had been brought from Lorraine by Queen Mary.
The town has also foundries, motor car works and other manu-
factures. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
councillors. Area, 3133 acres.

LUTSK (Polish, Luck}, a town of southern Russia, in the
government of Volhynia, on the Styr, 51 m. by rail N.W. of
Kovel. Pop. (1900) 17,701. It is supposed to have been founded
in the 7th century; in the nth century it was known as Luchesk,
and was the chief town of an independent principality. In the
iSth century it was the seat of a bishop and became wealthy, but
during the wars between Russia and Poland in the second half
of the i6th century, and especially after the extermination of
its 40,000 inhabitants, it lost its importance. In 1791 it was
taken by Russia. Its inhabitants, many of them Jews, live
mainly by shipping goods on the Styr. Among its buildings is a
16th-century castle. Lutsk is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop.

LUTTERWORTH, a market town in the Harborough parlia-
mentary division of Leicestershire, England; 90 m. N.N.W.
from London by the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 1734.
It lies in a pleasant undulating country on the small river Swift,
an affluent of the Avon. The church of St Mary is a fine building,

LUTTRELL— LUTZEN

mainly Decorated and Perpendicular, wherein are preserved
relics of John Wycliffe, who was rector here from 1374 until his
death in 1384. The exhumation and burning of his body in
1428, when the ashes were cast into the Swift, gave rise to the
saying that their distribution by the river to the ocean resembled
that of Wycliffe's doctrines over the world. Wycliffe is further
commemorated by a modern obelisk in the town. Trade is
principally agricultural.

LUTTRELL, HENRY (c. 1765-1851), English wit and writer of
society verse, was the illegitimate son of Henry Lawes Luttrell,
2nd earl of Carhampton (1743-1821), a grandson of Colonel
Henry Luttrell (c. 1655-1717), who served James II. in Ireland
in 1689 and 1690, and afterwards deserted him, being murdered
in Dublin in November 1717. Colonel Luttrell's son Simon
(1713-1787) was created earl of Carhampton in 1785, and the
latter's son was Henry Lawes Luttrell. Before succeeding to the
peerage, the 2nd earl, then Colonel Luttrell, had won notoriety
by opposing John Wilkes at the Middlesex election of 1769.
He was beaten at the poll, but the House of Commons declared
that he and not Wilkes had been elected. In 1796 he was made
commander of the forces in Ireland and in 1798 he became a
general. Being an Irish peer, Carhampton was able to sit in
the English parliament until his death in April 1821. The earl-
dom became extinct on the death of his brother John, the 3rd
earl, in 1829.

Henry Luttrell secured a seat in the Irish parliament in 1798
and a post in the Irish government, which he commuted for a
pension. Introduced into London society by the duchess of
Devonshire, his wit made him popular. Soon he began to write
verse, in which the foibles of fashionable people were outlined.
In 1820 he published his Advice to Julia, of which a second edition,
altered and amplified, appeared in 1823 as Letters to Julia in
Rhyme. This poem, suggested by the ode to Lydia in the first
book of Horace's Odes, was his most important work. His more
serious literary contemporaries nicknamed it " Letters of a
Dandy to a Dolly." In 1827 in Crockford House he wrote a satire
on the high play then in vogue. Byron characterized him as
" the best sayer of good things, and the most epigrammatic
conversationist I ever met "; Sir Walter Scott wrote of him as
" the great London wit," and Lady Blessington described him
as the one talker " who always makes me think." Luttrell died
in London on the igth of December 1851.

LUTTRINGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
Rhine province, 6 m. S.E. of Elberfeld by rail. Pop. (1905)
11,829. It is the seat of various iron and other metal industries,
and has cloth and calico mills.

LUTZEN, a town in Prussian Saxony, in the circle of Merseburg
(pop. in 1905, 3981), chiefly famous as the scene of a great battle
fought on the 6/i6th of November 1632 between the Swedes,
under King Gustavus Adolphus, and the Imperialists, under
Wallenstein. On the 5/1 5th November, Gustavus, with some
20,000 men, advanced from Naumburg on the Saale to meet a
contingent of his German allies at Grimma, S.E. of Leipzig, but
becoming aware of the presence of Wallenstein's army near
Ltitzen, and that it had been weakened by a large detachment
sent away under Pappenheim towards Halle, he turned towards
Liitzen. Wallenstein's posts at Weissenfels and Rippach pre-
vented him from fighting his main battle the same evening, and
the Swedes went into camp near Rippach, a little more than an
hour's march from Liitzen.

Wallenstein made ready to give battle on the following day
and recalled Pappenheim. The latter had taken a small castle,
the reduction of which was one of the objects of his expedition,
but his men had dispersed to plunder and could not be rallied
before the following morning. Gustavus had now to choose
between proceeding to Grimma and fighting Wallenstein on the
chance that Pappenheim had not rejoined. He chose the latter.
In the mist of the early morning Wallenstein's army was formed
in line of battle along the Leipzig road with its right on Liitzen.
Its left was not carried out as far as the Flossgraben in order
to leave room on that flank for Pappenheim. His infantry
was ai ranged in five huge oblongs, four of which (in lozenge

formation) formed the centre and one the right wing at Ltitzen.
These " battalias " had their angles strengthened in the old-
fashioned way that had prevailed since Marignan, with small
outstanding bodies of musketeers, so that they resembled
rectangular forts with bastions. On either side of this centre
was the cavalry in two long lines, while in front of the centre
and close to the right at Ltitzen were the two batteries of heavy
artillery. Ltitzen was set on fire as a precaution. Skirmishers
lined the bank and the ditch of the Leipzig road. The total
strength of the Imperial army was about 12,000 foot and 8000
horse.

Gustavus's hopes of an early decision were frustrated by the
fog, which delayed the approach and deployment of the Swedes.
It was 8 A.M. before all was ready. The royal army was in two
lines. The infantry in the centre was arrayed in the small and
handy battalions then peculiar to Gustavus's army, the horse
on either wing extended from opposite Liitzen to some distance
beyond Wallenstein's left, which Pappenheim was to extend
on his arrival. By the accident of the terrain, or perhaps,
following the experience of Breitenfeld (q.v.), by design, the
right of the Swedes was somewhat nearer to the enemy than
the left. In front, near the centre, were the heavy guns and
each infantry battalion had its own light artillery. The force

BATTLE OF LUTZEN

November i6th., 1632

Scale. 1:60,000

Barman Army ] [L>I

Swedish Armu

of infantry and cavalry on either side was about equal, the
Swedes had perhaps rather less cavalry and rather more infantry,
but their artillery was superior to Wallenstein's. Not until
ii was it possible to open fire, for want of a visible target, but
about noon, after a preliminary cannonade, Gustavus gave the
word to advance.

The king himself commanded the right wing, which had to
wait until small bodies of infantry detached for the purpose had
driven in the Imperialist skirmish line, and had then to cross
a ditch leading the horses. They were not charged by the
Imperialists at this moment, for Pappenheim had not yet
arrived, and the usual cavalry tactics of the day were founded
on the pistol and not on the sword and the charging horse.
Gaining at last room to form, the Swedes charged and routed
the first line of the Imperial cavalry but were stopped by the
heavy squadrons of cuirassiers in second line, and at that
moment Gustavus galloped away to the centre where events
had taken a serious turn. The Swedish centre (infantry) had
forced their way across the Leipzig road and engaged Wallen-
stein's living forts at close quarters. The " Blue " brigade —
Gustavus's infantry wore distinctive colours — overran the

144

LUTZOW— LUXEMBURG, DUKE OF

battery of heavy guns, and the " Swedish " l and " Yellow "
brigades engaged the left face of the Imperialist lozenge with
success. But a gap opened between the right of the infantry
and the left of the cavalry and Wallenstein's second line squadrons
pressed into it. It was this which brought Gustavus from the
extreme right, and he was killed here in leading a counter charge.

On the extreme left, meanwhile, the " Green " brigade had
come to close quarters with Wallenstein's infantry and guns
about Liitzen, and the heavy artillery had gone forward to
close range between the ".Green " and the " Yellow " infantry.
But the news of Gustavus's death spread and the fire of the
assault died out. Wallenstein advanced in his turn, recaptured
his guns and drove the Swedes over the road.

But the fiery Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar took up the
command and ordered a fresh advance. He was too good a
soldier to waste his reserves and only brought up a few units
of the second line to help the disordered brigades of the first.
Again the Imperialists were driven in and their guns recaptured,
this time all along the line. About three in the afternoon the
Swedes were slowly bearing back Wallenstein's stubborn infantry
when Pappenheim appeared. The famous cavalry leader had
brought on his mounted men ahead of the infantry and asking,
" Where is the king of Sweden?" charged at once in the direction
of the enemy's right. Wallenstein thus gained time to re-
establish his order, and once more the now exhausted brigades
of the Swedish first line were driven over the road. But Pappen-
heim fell in the moment of victory and his death disheartened
the Imperialists almost as much as the fall of Gustavus had
disheartened the Swedes. For the last time Bernhard, wounded
as he was, forced the Swedish army to the attack. The three
infantry brigades of his second line had not been engaged,2
and as usual the last closed reserve, resolutely handled, carried
the day. Wallenstein's army gave way at all points and the
Swedes slept on the battlefield. The infantry of Pappenheim 's
corps did not appear on the field until the battle was over.
Of the losses on either side no accurate statement can be given,
but the Swedish " Green " and " Yellow " brigades are said to
have lost five-sixths of their numbers. Near the spot where
Gustavus fell a granite boulder was placed in position on the
day after the battle. A canopy of cast-iron was erected over
this " Schwedenstein " in 1832, and close by, a chapel, built
by Oskar Ekman, a citizen of Gothenburg (d. 1907), was dedicated
on the 6th of November 1907.

Liitzen is famous also as the scene of a victory of Napoleon over
the Russians and Prussians on the 2nd of May 1813 (see NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS). This battle is often called Gross Gorschen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The foregoing account of Gustavus's last victory
is founded chiefly upon Lieut.-Colonel Hon. E. Noel's Gustaf Adolf
(London, 1904) and a paper by the same officer in the Journal of the
United States Institution of India (Oct. 1908), which should be con-
sulted for further details.

LUTZOW, ADOLF, FREIHERR VON (1782-1834), Prussian
lieutenant-general, entered the army in 1795, and eleven years
later as a lieutenant took part in the disastrous battle of Auer-
stadt. He achieved distinction in the siege of Colberg, as the
leader of a squadron of Schill's volunteers. In 1808, as a major,
he retired from the Prussian army, indignant at the humiliating
treaty of Tilsit. He took part in the heroic venture of his old
chief Schill in 1809; wounded at Dodendorf and left behind,
he thereby escaped the fate of his comrades. In 1811 he was
restored to the Prussian army as major, and at the outbreak
of the " war of liberation " received permission from Scharnhorst
to organize a " free corps " consisting of infantry, cavalry and
Tirolese marksmen, for operating in the French rear and rallying
the smaller governments into the ranks of the allies. This
corps played a marked part in the campaign of 1813. But
Liitzow was unable to coerce the minor states, and the wanderings
of the corps had little military influence. At Kitzen (near
Leipzig) the whole corps, warned too late of the armistice of
Poischwitz, was caught on the French side of the line of demarca-

1 So called as being the only brigade containing no foreign
elements in the army.

4 They had, however, found detachments to reinforce the first line.

tion and, as a fighting force, annihilated. Liitzow himself,
wounded, cut his way out with the survivors, and immediately
began reorganizing and recruiting. In the second part of the
campaign the corps served in more regular warfare under
Wallmoden. Liitzow and his men distinguished themselves
at Gadebusch (where Korner fell) and Gohrde (where Liitzow
himself, for the second time, received a severe wound at the
head of the cavalry). Sent next against Denmark, and later
employed at the siege of Jiilich, Liitzow in 1814 fell into the hands
of the French. After the peace of 1814 the corps was dissolved,
the infantry becoming the 25th Regiment, the cavalry the 6th
Ulans. At Ligny he led the 6th Ulans to the charge, but they
were broken by the French cavalry, and he finally remained in
the hands of the enemy, escaping, however, on the day of
Waterloo. Made colonel in this year, his subsequent promotions
were: major-general 1822, and lieutenant-general (on retire-
ment) 1830. He died in 1834. One of the last acts of his
life for which Liitzow is remembered is his challenge (which was
ignored) to Bliicher, who had been ridden down in the rout of
the 6th Ulans at Ligny, and had made, in his official report,
comments thereon, which their colonel considered disparaging.

See Koberstein in Preussisches Jahrbuch, vol. xxiii (Berlin, 1868),
and Preussisches Bilderbuch (Leipzig, 1889) ; K. von Liitzow, Adolf
Lutzows Freikorps (Berlin, 1884) ; Fr. von Tagwitz, Geschichte des
Liitzow'schen Freikorps (Berlin, 1892) ; and the histories of the
campaigns of 1813 and 1815.

LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCY-
BOUTEVILLE, DUKE or (1628-1695), marshal of France, the
comrade and successor of the great Conde, was born at Paris
on the 8th of January 1628. His father, the comte de Mont-
morency-Bouteville, had been executed six months before his
birth for killing the marquis de Beuvron in a duel, but his aunt,
Charlotte de Montmorency, princess of Cond6, took charge of
him and educated him with her son, the due d'Enghien. The
young Montmorency (or Bouteville as he was then called)
attached himself to his cousin, and shared his successes and
reverses throughout the troubles of the Fronde. He returned
to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Conde, then much
attached to the duchesse de Chatillon, Montmorency's sister,
contrived the marriage of his adherent and cousin to the greatest
heiress in France, Madeleine de Luxemburg-Piney, princesse
de Tingry and heiress of the Luxemburg dukedom (1661),
after which he was created due de Luxembourg and peer of
France. At the opening of the War of Devolution (1667-68),
Conde, and consequently Luxemburg, had no command, but
during the second campaign he served as Conde's lieutenant-
general in the conquest of Franche Comte. During the four
years of peace which followed Luxemburg cultivated the favour
of Louvois, and in 1672 held a high command against the Dutch.
He defeated the prince of Orange at Woerden and ravaged
Holland, and in 1673 made his famous retreat from Utrecht to
Maestricht with only 20,000 men in face of 70,000, an exploit
which placed him in the first rank of generals. In 1674 he was
made captain of the gardes du corps, and in 1675 marshal of
France. In 1676 he was placed at the head of the army of the
Rhine, but failed to keep the duke of Lorraine out of Philipsburg;
in 1677 he stormed Valenciennes; and in 1678 he defeated the
prince of Orange, who attacked him at St Denis after the signa-
ture of the peace of Nijmwegen. His reputation was now high,
and it is reputed that he quarrelled with Louvois, who managed
to involve him in the " affair of the poisons " (see LA VOISIN,
CATHERINE) and get him sent to the Bastille. Rousset in his
Histoire de Louvois has shown that this quarrel is probably
apocryphal. There is no doubt that Luxemburg spent some
months of 1680 in the Bastille, but on his release took up his
post at court as capitaine des gardes. When the war of 1690
broke out, the king and Louvois recognized that Luxemburg
was the only general fit to cope with the prince of Orange, and
he was put in command of the army of Flanders. On the ist
of July 1690 he won a great victory over the prince of Waldeck at
Fleurus. In the following year he commanded the army which
covered the king's siege of Mons and defeated William HI.

LUXEMBURG

of England at Leuze on September 18, 1691. Again in the
next campaign he covered the king's siege of Namur, and
defeated William at Steenkirk (q.v.) on June 5, 1692; and on
July 29, 1693, he won his greatest victory over his old adversary
at Neerwinden, after which he was called le tapissier de Notre
Dame from the number of captured colours that he sent to the
cathedral. He was received with enthusiasm at Paris by all
but the king, who looked coldly on a relative and adherent of
the Cond6s. St Simon describes in the first volume of his
Memoirs how, instead of ranking as eighteenth peer of France
according to his patent of 1661, he claimed through his wife
to be due de Piney of an old creation of 1571, which would place
him second on the roll. The affair is described with St Simon's
usual interest in the peerage, and was chiefly checked through
his assiduity. In the campaign of 1694, Luxemburg did little
in Flanders, except that he conducted a famous march from
Vignamont to Tournay in face of the enemy. On his return to
Versailles for the winter he fell ill, and died on January 4, 1695.
In his last moments he was attended by the famous Jesuit
priest Bourdaloue, who said on his death, " I have not lived his
life, but I would wish to die his death." Luxemburg's morals
were bad even in those times, and he had shown little sign of
religious conviction. But as a general he was Conde's grandest
pupil. Though slothful like Conde in the management of a
campaign, at the moment of battle he seemed seized with happy
inspirations, against which no ardour of William's and no
steadiness of Dutch or English soldiers could stand. His death
and Catinat's disgrace close the second period of the military
history of the reign of Louis XIV., and] Catinat and Luxemburg,
though inferior to Cond6 and Turenne, were far superior to
Tallard and Villeroi. He was distinguished for a pungent wit.
One of his retorts referred to his deformity. " I never can
beat that cursed humpback," William was reputed to have said
of him. " How does he know I have a hump ? " retorted
Luxemburg, " he has never seen my back." He left four sons,
the youngest of whom was a marshal of France as Marechal
de Montmorency.

See, besides the various memoirs and histories of the time, Beau-
rain's Histoire militaire du due de Luxembourg (Hague and Paris,
1756); Memoires pour servir a Vhistoire du marechal due de Luxem-
bourg (Hague and Paris, 1758); Courcelles, Dictionnaire des generaux
franc,ais (Paris, 1823), vol. viii. There are some interesting facts in
Desormeaux's Histoire de la maison de Montmorency (1764), vols. iv.
and v. Camille Rousset's Louvois and the recent biography of
Luxemburg by Count de Se'gur (1907) should also be studied.

LUXEMBURG, a district in the European low countries,
of which the eastern part forms the grand-duchy of Luxemburg,
and the western is the Belgian province of that name (for map,
see BELGIUM). The name is derived from the chief town.

Under the Romans the district was included in the province
of Belgica prima, afterwards forming part of the Prankish
kingdom of Austrasia and of the empire of Charlemagne. About
1060 it came under the rule of Conrad (d. 1086), who took the
title of count of Luxemburg. His descendants ruled the county,
first in the male and then in the female line, until the death of
the emperor Sigismund in 1437. Through the marriage of
Sigismund's daughter, Elizabeth, with the German king, Albert II.,
Luxemburg, which had been made a duchy in 1354, passed to
the house of Habsburg, but was seized in 1443 by Philip III.
the Good, duke of Burgundy, who based his claim upon a bargain
concluded with Sigismund's niece Elizabeth (d. 1451). Regained
by the Habsburgs in 1477 when Mary, daughter and heiress of
duke Charles the Bold, married the German king Maximilian I.,
the duchy passed to Philip II. of Spain in 1555, though subject
to the laws of the empire, of which it still formed part. After
a section had been ceded to France in 1659, the remainder was
given to the emperor Charles VI. by the treaty of Utrecht in
1713- It was conquered by France in 1795, and retained by
that power until the end of the Napoleonic wars. The congress
of Vienna (1814-1815) erected Luxemburg into a grand-duchy,
added part of the duchy of Bouillon to it, and assigned it to
William I., king of the Netherlands, in return for the German
territories of the house of Orange-Nassau, which Napoleon had

confiscated in 1806, and which were given by the congress to the
king of Prussia. In 1830 when the Belgian provinces separated
from Holland, an effort was made to include Luxemburg in the
new kingdom of the Belgians; but in November 1831 the powers
decided that part of the grand-duchy should be retained by
the king of Holland, who refused to accept this arrangement.
Consequently the whole of Luxemburg remained in the possession
of the Belgians until 1838, when the treaty of the igth of April,
concluded at the conference of London, enforced the partition
of 1831.

The grand-duchy of Luxemburg, the portion under the rule
of William I. retaining the name, was ruled by the kings of
Holland until the death of William III. in 1890. William's
daughter, Wilhelmina, succeeded to the throne of Holland,
but under the Salic law ' the grand-duchy passed to his kinsman,
Adolphus, duke of Nassau, who died in 1005, and was succeeded
by his son William (b. 1852).

By modifications of the treaty of Vienna the garrisoning of
the fortress of Luxemburg had passed into Prussian hands,
an arrangement wnich lasted until 1867. In the previous year
the German Confederation, to which the grand-duchy of Luxem-
burg had belonged since 1815, had been dissolved; but the
Prussians maintained their garrison in Luxemburg, which was
not included in the new North German Confederation, while
King William III. proposed to sell his rights over the grand-duchy
to France. The Prussians were irritated by this proposal, but
war was averted, and the question was referred to a conference
of the powers in London. The treaty of London, signed on the
nth of May 1867, decided that the Prussian garrison must be
withdrawn and the fortress dismantled, which was done in 1872.
At the same time the great powers guaranteed the neutrality
of the grand-duchy, and although a member of the German
Zollverein, Luxemburg now forms a sovereign and independent
state.

The GRAND-DUCHY lies S.E. of Belgium. Its area is 999 sq. m.,
with a population (1905) of 246,455. The people are nearly
all Catholics. The country is rich in iron ore. The hills in the
south of the duchy are a continuation of the Lorraine plateau,
and the northern districts are crossed in all directions by out-
runners from the Ardennes. The streams mostly join the Moselle,
which forms the boundary between Luxemburg and the Rhine
province for about 20 m. The Sure or Sauer, the most important
stream in the duchy, rises at Vaux-les-Rosieres in Belgian
Luxemburg, crosses the duchy, and forms the eastern boundary
from the confluence of the Our till it joins the Moselle after a
course of 50 m., during which it receives the Wiltz, Attert,
Alzette, White and Black Ernz, &c. The soil of Luxemburg is
generally good; the southern districts are on the whole the most
fertile as well as the most populous. Building materials of all
sorts are obtained throughout the duchy. Besides the iron
furnaces, situated in the south near the Lorraine plateau, there
are tanneries, weaving and glove-making factories, paper-mills
for all sorts of paper, breweries and distilleries, and sugar refineries.
A German patois mixed with French words is spoken throughout
the country; but French, which is employed by the commercial
community, is also the common speech on the French and
Belgian frontiers. Though liberty of worship prevails, Roman
Catholicism is almost the sole form. The government is in the
hands of the grand-duke, who sanctions and promulgates the
laws. There is a council (staatsrat) of 15 members. There is a
chamber of deputies with 48 members elected by the cantons
(12 in number) for six years, half the body being elected every
three years. No law can be passed without the consent of the
chamber. Bills are introduced by the grand-duke, but the
house has also the right of initiative. A single battalion (150)
of volunteers composes the grand-ducal army. The gendarmerie
consists of about 150 men. There are cantonal courts and two

1 It should be noticed, however, that the Salic law is subordinate
to the Nassau family law, which provides for the succession in
the case of the complete extinction of males. Thus Article xlii. of
the Nassau Pact of the 3Oth of June 1783 provides " that in the
event of the extinction of males, the rights of succession pass to the
daughter or nearest heiress of the last male."

146

LUXEMBURG— LUXOR

district courts, one at Luxemburg, the other at Diekirch, and
a high court at Luxemburg. The bishopric of Luxemburg
holds its authority directly from the Holy See. From 13,000,000
to 17,000,000 francs is the annual amount of the state budget,
and the debt, consisting of loans contracted principally for the
construction of railways, of which there are about 350 m., is
12,000,000 francs.

Among towns next to the capital, Luxemburg, are Echternach
and Diekirch, both worthy of note for their blast furnaces.
Grevenmacher is the centre of a great wine district.

The PROVINCE or LUXEMBURG is the largest and least populous
of the nine provinces of Belgium. Its capital is Arlon, which lies
near the borders of the grand-duchy. A considerable part of
the province is forested and the state requires systematic re-
planting. Marble, granite and slate quarries are worked in
different districts. Successful attempts have been made to
introduce fruit cultivation. The province is well watered by
the Ourthe, the Semois and the Sure. The general elevation of
the country is about 500 ft., but the hills and plateaus which
form the prominent feature in the scenery of Luxemburg range
from 1200 to 1500 ft. The highest point of the province is the
Baraque de Fraiture (1980 ft.), N.E. of La Roche. The woods
are well stocked with red and roe deer, wild boar, hares, rabbits,
pheasants, woodcock and snipe. The area of the province is
1725 sq. m. The population was 225,963 in 1904.

The HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG was descended from Count Conrad
(d. 1086), and its fortunes were advanced through the election of
Count Henry IV. as German king in 1308 and his coronation as
emperor under the title of Henry VII. Henry's son was John, king
of Bohemia, who fell on the field of CrtJcy, and John's eldest son
was the emperor Charles IV., while another famous member of the
family was Baldwin, archbishop of Treves (1285-1354), who took an
active part in imperial affairs. Two of the sons of Charles IV.,
Wenceslaus and Sigismund, succeeded in turn to the imperial
throne, and one of his nephews, Jobst, margrave of Moravia, was
chosen German king in opposition to Sigismund in 1410. The
French branch of the Luxemburg family was descended from
Waleran (d. 1288), lord of Ligny and Roussy, a younger son of
Count Henry II. Waleran's great-grandson was Guy (d. 1371), who
married Matilda, sister and heiress of Guy V., count of Saint-Pol
(d. 1360), and was created count of Ligny in 1567. Guy's son,
Waleran (d. 1417), who became constable of France in 1412, had been
carried as a prisoner to England, and had married Matilda, daughter
of Thomas Holland, earl of Kent (d. 1360) and half-sister of King
Richard II. To avenge Richard's death he made a raid on the Isle
of Wight, and then took part in the civil wars in France. He left
no sons, and was succeeded by his nephew, Peter, count of Brienne
(d. 1433), who, like his brother Louis (d. 1443), cardinal archbishop
of Rouen and chancellor of France, was found on the side of the
English in their struggle against France. Another of Peter's brothers,
John (d. 1440), a stout supporter of England, was made governor of
Paris by Henry V. He sold Joan of Arc to the English. Peter's son
and successor, Louis, fought at first for England, but about 1440 he
entered the service of France and obtained the office of constable.
King Louis XI. accused him of treachery, and he took refuge with
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; but the duke handed him
over to the king and he was beheaded in 1475. The elder branch of
his descendants became extinct in the male line in 1482, and was
merged through the female line in the house of Bourbon- Venddme.
Louis's third son, Anthony (d. 1510), founded the family of Luxem-
burg-Brienne, the senior branch of which became extinct in >6o8.
A junior branch, however, was the family of the duke of Luxemburg-
Piney, whose last representative, Margaret-Charlotte (d. 1680),
married firstly Le<m d'Albert de Luynes (d. 1630) and secondly
Charles Henry de Clermont-Tonnerre (d. 1674). Her daughter by
her second husband, Madeleine Charlotte, married Francis 'Henry
de Montmorenci (d. 1695) and de Luynes, and, subsequently,
members of the family of Montmorenci claimed the title of duke of
Luxemburg. The Luxembourg palace in Paris owes its name to
the fact that itjwas built on a site belonging to the duke of Luxemburg-
Piney.

See N. van Werveke, Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Luxemburger
Landes (Luxemburg, 1886-1887); J- Schotter, Geschichte des Luxem-
burger Landes (Luxemburg, 1882); and N. Vigner, Histoire de la
maison de Luxembourg (Paris, 1619).

LUXEMBURG, or LUTZELBURG (i.e. the little fortress or
town), the capital of the grand-duchy of the same name (see
above), situated on the Alzette, a tributary of the Sure. Pop.
(1905) 20,984. The situation is romantic, steep cliffs over-
hanging the winding river, and the principal portion of the
town with the palace and public buildings covering a central

plateau. The more densely populated parishes of Clausen,
Pfaffenthal and Grund lie in the valley. As a fortress Luxem-
burg was considered the strongest in Europe after Gibraltar,
which it was supposed to resemble because many of its casemates
were cut into the rock. It was dismantled in 1867. Two colossal
viaducts carry the railway and the approach from the railway
station to the town. Since the place ceased to be a fortress the
population has more than doubled, and the Alzette is lined
with tanneries, breweries and distilleries. The Hotel de Ville
dates from 1844 and contains a collection of antiquities. The
church of Notre Dame was built in 1613, and that of St Michael,
with parts dating from 1320, contains the tomb of blind John of
Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, slain at Crecy. There are two
annual fete days, one in honour of Our Lady of Luxemburg,
patroness of the city, held on the Sunday before Ascension Day,
and the other the annual fair or Schobermesse (tent fair),
instituted in 1340 and held each year on the 24th of August.

LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the
department of H<tute-Sa6ne, 18 m. N.E. of Vesoul. Pop. (1906)
5195. It is situated in a region of forests on the right bank of
the Breuchin. It has an abbey-church dating from the i3th
and I4th centuries, containing a curious 17th-century organ
loft in the form of an immense bracket supported by a colossal
figure of Hercules. The abbot's palace (i6th and i8th centuries)
serves as presbytery and town hall. A cloister of the isth
century and other buildings of the I7th century also remain.
There are several mansions and houses dating from various
periods from the I4th to the i6th century. The Maison Carree,
once the town hall, an interesting specimen of isth-century
architecture, was built by Perrin Jouffroy, father of Cardinal
Jouffroy. The cardinal, who was born at Luxeuil in 1412, built
the house with a graceful balcony and turret which faces the
Maison Carree. The Maison de la Bailie and the Maison Francois
I. are of the Renaissance period. The fine modern Grammont
Hospital is in the style of Louis XIII. Luxeuil is renowned for
its mineral springs, of which there are seventeen, two being
ferruginous, and the rest charged with chloride of sodium;
their temperatures range from 70° to 158° F. The water is
employed for drinking and for baths. The bathing establishment
contains a museum of Gallo-Roman antiquities and there are
also remains of Roman baths and aqueducts to be seen in or
near it. Luxeuil has a communal college. Copper-founding,
the spinning and weaving of cotton, lace-making, dyeing and
the distilling of kirsch are carried on.

Luxeuil was the Roman Lixovium and contained many fine
buildings at the time of its destruction by the Huns under
Attila in 451. In 590 St Columban here founded a monastery,
afterwards one of the most famous in Franche Comte. In the
8th century it was destroyed by the Saracens; afterwards
rebuilt, monastery and town were devastated by the Normans
in the gth century and pillaged on several occasions afterwards.
The abbey schools were celebrated in the middle ages and the
abbots had great influence; but their power was curtailed by
the emperor Charles V. and the abbey was suppressed at the
Revolution.

See H. Beaumont, £tude hist, sur I'abbaye de Luxeuil, 590-1790
(Lux. 1895); Grandmongin and A. Gamier, Hist, de la mile el des
thermes de Luxeuil (Paris, 1866), with 16 plates.

LUXOR, more properly El-Aksur, " The Castles" (plur. of
kasr), a town of Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile 450 m.
above Cairo by river and 418 by rail. Pop. (1907 census)
12,644. It is the centre for visitors to the ruins of and about
Thebes, and is frequented by travellers and invalids in the winter
season, several fine hotels having been built for their accom-
modation. There are Anglican and Roman Catholic churches,
and a hospital for natives, opened in 1891. The district is the
seat of an extensive manufacture of forged antiques.
, The temple of Luxor is one of the greatest of the monuments
of Thebes (?.».). It stands near the river bank on the S.W. side
of the town and measures nearly 300 yds. from back to front.
There may have been an earlier temple here, but the present
structure, dedicated to the Theban triad of Ammon, Mut and

LUXORIUS— LUZAN

Khons, was erected by Amenophis III. The great colonnade,
which is its most striking feature, was apparently intended for
the nave of a hypostyle hall like that of Karnak, but had to
be hastily finished without the aisles. After the heresy of
Amenophis IV. (Akhenaton), the decoration of this incomplete
work was taken in hand by Tutenkhamun and Haremhib. The
axis of the temple ran from S.W. to N.E.; a long paved road
bordered by recumbent rams led from the facade to the temples
of Karnak (q.v.) in a somewhat more easterly direction, and
Rameses II. adopted the line of this avenue in adding an extensive
court to the work of Amenophis, producing a curious change of
axis. He embellished the walls and pylons of his court with
scenes from his victories over Hittites and Syrians, and placed
a number of colossal statues within it. In front of the pylon
Rameses set up colossi and a pair of obelisks (one of which was
taken to Paris in 1831 and re-erected in the Place de la Concorde).
A few scenes and inscriptions were added by later kings, but the
above is practically the history of the temple until Alexander
the Great rebuilt the sanctuary itself. The chief religious
festival of Thebes was that of " Southern Opi," the ancient name
of Luxor. The sacred barks of the divinities preserved in the
sanctuary of Karnak were then conveyed in procession by water
to Luxor and back again; a representation of the festal scenes
is given on the walls of the great colonnade. The Christians built
churches within the temple. The greater part of the old village
of Luxor lay inside the courts: it was known also as Abu '1
Haggag from a Moslem saint of the 7th century, whose tomb-
mosque, mentioned by Ibn Batuta, stands on a high heap of
d6bris in the court of Rameses. This is the last of the buildings
and rubbish which encumbered the temple before the expro-
priation and clearances by the Service des Antiquites began in
1885. The principal street of Luxor follows the line of the
ancient avenue.

See G. Daressy, Notice explicative des mines du temple de Louxor
(Cairo, 1893) ; Baedeker's Egypt. (F. LL. G.)

LUXORIUS, Roman writer of epigrams, lived in Africa during
the reigns of the Vandal kings Thrasamund, Hilderic and
Gelimer (A.D. 496-534). He speaks of his poor circumstances,
but from the superscription clarissimus and spectabUis in one
MS., he seems to have held a high official position. About a
hundred epigrams by him in various metres (the elegiac pre-
dominating) have been preserved. They are after the manner of
Martial, and many of them are coarse. They deal chiefly with
the games of the circus and works of art, and the language shows
the author to have been well acquainted with the legends and
antiquities of the classical period of Rome.

Luxorius also wrote on grammatical subjects (see R. Ellis in
Journal of Philology, viii., 1879). The epigrams are contained in
the Anthologia Latma, edited by F. Bucheler and A. Riese (1894).

LUYNES, a territorial name belonging to a noble French
house. The family of Albert, which sprang from Thomas
Alberti (d. 1455), seigneur de Boussargues, battli of Viviers and
Valence, and viguier of Bagnolsand Pont St Esprit in Languedoc,
acquired the estate of Luynes (dep. of Indre-et-Loire) in the
i6th century. Honore d'Albert (d. 1592), seigneur de Luynes,
was in the service of the three last Valois kings and of Henry IV.,
and became colonel of the French bands, commissary of artillery
in Languedoc and governor of Beaucaire. He had three sons:
Charles (1578-1621), first duke of Luynes, and favourite of
Louis XIII.; Honore (1581-1649), seigneur de Cadenet, who
married Charlotte Eugenie d'Ailly, countess of Chaulnes, in 1619,
and was created duke of Chaulnes in 1621; and Leon, seigneur
de Brantes, who became duke of Luxemburg-Piney by his
marriage in 1620 with Margaret Charlotte of Luxemburg.

By her marriage with Claude of Lorraine, duke of Chevreuse,
Marie de Rohan, the widow of the first duke of Luynes, acquired
in 1655 the duchy of Chevreuse, which she gave in 1663 to Louis
Charles d'Albert, her son by her first husband; and from that
time the title of duke of Chevreuse and duke of Luynes was borne
by the eldest sons of the family of Luynes, which also inherited
the title of duke of Chaulnes on the extinction of the descendants
of Honor6 d'Albert in 1698. The branch of the dukes of Luxem-
burg-Piney became extinct in 1697.

Charles (1578-1621), the first duke of Luynes, was brought up
at court and attended the dauphin, who later became Louis XIII.
The king shared his fondness for hunting and rapidly advanced
him in favour. In 1615 he was appointed commander of the
Louvre and counsellor, and the following year grand falconer
of France. He used his influence over the king in the court
intrigues against the queen-mother Marie de Medici and her
favourite Concini. It was Luynes who, with Vitry, captain
of the guard, arranged the plot that ended in Concini's assassina-
tion (1617) and secured all the latter's possessions in Italy and
France. In the same year he was appointed captain of the
Bastille and lieutenant-general of Normandy, and married Marie
de Rohan, daughter of the duke of Montbazon. He employed
extreme measures against the pamphleteers of the time, but
sought peace in Italy and with the Protestants. In 1619 he
negotiated the treaty of Angouleme by which Marie de Medici
was accorded complete liberty. He was made governor of
Picardy in 1619; suppressed an uprising of nobles in 1620; and
in 1621, with slight military ability or achievement, was ap-
pointed constable of France. His rapid rise to power made him
a host of enemies, who looked upon him as but a second Concini.
In order to justify his newly-won laurels, Luynes undertook an
expedition against the Protestants, but died of a fever in the
midst of the campaign, at Longueville in Guienne, on the isth
of December 1621.

His brother Honor6 (1581-1649), first duke of Chaulnes, was
governor of Picardy and marshal of France (1619), and defended
his province successfully in 1625 and 1635. Louis Auguste
d'Albert d'Ailly (1676-1744), duke of Chaulnes, also became
marshal of France (1741). Louis Joseph d'Albert de Luynes
(1670-1750), prince of Grimberghen, was in the service of the
emperor Charles VII., and became field-marshal and ambassador
in France.

Several members of the family of Albert were distinguished
in letters and science. Louis Charles d'Albert (1620-1690),
duke of Luynes, son of the constable, was an ascetic writer
and friend of the Jansenists; Paul d'Albert de Luynes (1703-
1788), cardinal and archbishop of Sens, an astronomer; Michel
Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly (1714-1769), duke of Chaulnes, a
writer on mathematical instruments, and his son Marie Joseph
Louis (1741-1793), a chemist; and Honor6 Theodore Paul
Joseph (1802-1867), duke of Luynes, a writer on archaeology.

For the first duke see Recueil des pieces les plus curieuses qui ent
este faites pendant le regne du connestable M. de Luynes (2nd ed.,
1624); Le Vassor, Histoire de Louis XIII. (Paris, 1757); Griffet,
Histoire du regne de Louis XIII., roi de France el de Navarre (Paris,
I758); V. Cousin, " Le Due et conne'table de Luynes," in Journal
des savants (1861-1863) : B. Zeller, Etudes critiques sur le regne de
Louis XIII.: le connetable de Luynes, Montauban et la Valteline
(Paris, 1879); E. Pavie, La Guerre entre Louis XIII. et Marie de
Medicis (Paris, 1899); Lavisse, Histoire de France, vi.J, 141-216
(Paris, 1905).

LUZAN CLARAHUNT DE SUELVES T 6URREA, IGNACIO

(1702-1754), Spanish critic and poet, was born at Saragossa on
the 28th of March 1702. His youth was passed under the care
of his uncle, and, after studying at Milan, he graduated in
philosophy at the university of Catania. In 1723 he took minor
orders, but abandoned his intention of entering the church and
took up his residence at Naples, where he read assiduously.
Business took him to Spain in 1733, and he became known in
Madrid as a scholar with a tendency towards innovations in
literature. La Poitica, 6 Reglas de la poesia en general y de sus
principals especies (1737) proved that this impression was
correct. He at once took rank as the leader of the literary
reformers, and his courteous determination earned him the
respect of his opponents. In 1747 he was appointed secretary to
the Spanish embassy in Paris and, on returning to Madrid in
1750, was elected to the " Academia Poe'tica del Buen Gusto,"
where, on account of his travels, he was known by the sobriquet
of El Peregrine. He became master of the mint and treasurer of
the royal library. He died at Madrid, after a short illness, on
the 1 9th of May 1754. Luzan was not the pioneer of Franco-
Italian theories in Spain, but he was their most powerful

148

LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR— LYALL, EDNA

exponent, and his Poetica is an admirable example of destructive
criticism. The defects of Lope de Vega and Calderon are indi-
cated with vigilant severity, but on the constructive side Luzan
is notably weak, for he merely proposes to substitute one ex-
hausted convention for another. The doctrine of the dramatic
unities had not the saving virtues which he ascribed to it, and,
though he succeeded hi banishing the older dramatists from
the boards, he and his school failed to produce a single piece of
more than mediocre merit. His theories, derived chiefly from
Muratori, were ineffective in practice; but their ingenuity
:annot be denied, and they acted as a stimulus to the partisans
of the national tradition.

LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR, a town of south-western France in
the department of Hautes-Pyren6es, 21 m. S. of Lourdes by rail.
Pop. (1906) 1069. Luz is beautifully situated at a height of
2240 ft. on the Bastan. It has a remarkable church, built by the
Templars in the I2th and isth centuries and fortified later.
The crenelated ramparts with which it is surrounded, and the
tower to the north of the apse resembling a keep, give it the aspect
of a fortress; other interesting features are the Romanesque
north door and a chapel of the i6th century. The village of St
Sauveur lies a little above Luz on the left bank of the gorge of
the Gave de Pau, which is crossed higher up by the imposing
Pont Napoleon (1860). It is a pleasant summer resort, and is
visited for its warm sulphurous springs. Discovered in the i6th
century, the waters came into vogue after 1820, in which year
they were visited by the duchesses of Angouleme and Berry.
There is much picturesque mountain scenery hi the vicinity;
12 m. to the south is the village of Gavarnie, above which is the
magnificent rock amphitheatre or cirque of Gavarnie, with its
cascade, one of the highest in Europe.

LUZZATTI, LUIGI (1841- ), Italian economist and
financier, was born of Jewish parents at Venice on the nth of
March 1841. After completing his studies in law at theuniversity
of Padua, he attracted the attention of the Austrian police by his
lectures on political economy, and was obliged to emigrate.
In 1863 he obtained a professorship at the Milan Technical
Institute; in 1867 he was appointed professor of constitutional
law at Padua, whence he was transferred to the university
of Rome. Gifted with eloquence and energy, he popularized
in Italy the economic ideas of Schultze-Delitzsch, worked for
the establishment of a commercial college at Venice, and contri-
buted to the spread of people's banks on a basis of limited
liability throughout the country. In 1869 he was appointed by
Minghetti under secretary of state to the ministry of agriculture
and commerce, in which capacity he abolished government
control over commercial companies and promoted a state
inquiry into the conditions of industry. Though theoretically a
free trader, he was largely instrumental in creating the Italian
protective system. In 1877 he participated in the commercial
negotiations with France, in 1878 compiled the Italian customs
tariff, and subsequently took a leading part in the negotiations
of all the commercial treaties between Italy and other countries.
Appointed minister of the treasury in the first Di Rudini cabinet
of 1891, he imprudently abolished the system of frequent clear-
ings of bank-notes between the state banks, a measure which
facilitated the duplication of part of the paper currency and
hastened the bank crisis of 1893. In 1896 he entered the second
Di Rudini cabinet as minister of the treasury, and by timely
legislation helped to save the bank of Naples from failure.
After his fall from office in June 1898, his principal achievement
was the negotiation of the Franco-Italian commercial treaty,
though, as deputy, journalist and professor, he continued to take
an active part in all political and economic manifestations.
He was again minister of the treasury from November 1903 to
March 1905 in Giolitti's second administration, and for the third
time from February to May 1906, under Sonnino's premiership.
During the latter term of office he achieved the conversion of the
Italian 5% debt (reduced to 4% by the tax) to 3!% to be
eventually lowered to 3!%, an operation which other ministers
had attempted without success; although the actual con-
version was not completed until after the fall of the cabinet of

which he formed part the merit is entirely his. In 1907 he was
president of the co-operative congress at Cremona.

See L. Carpi's Risorgimento Ilaliano, vol. ii. (Milan, 1886), which
contains a biographical sketch of Luzzatti.

LUZZATTO, MOSES flAYIM (1707-1747), Hebrew dramatist
and mystic, was born in Padua 1707, and died at Acre 1747. He
was influenced by Isaac Luria (q.v.) on the mystical side, and
on the poetical side by Italian drama of the school of Guarini
(q.v.). He attacked Leon of Modena's anti-Kabbalistic treatises,
and as a result of his conflict with the Venetian Rabbinate left
Italy for Amsterdam, where, like Spinoza, he maintained him-
self by grinding lenses. Here, in 1740, he wrote his popular
religious manual the Path of the Upright (Messilath Yesharim)
and other ethical works. He visited London, but finally settled
in Palestine, where he died. Luzzatto's most lasting work is in
the realm of Hebrew drama. His best-known compositions are:
the Tower of Victory (Migdal 'Oz) and Glory to the Upright
(Layesharim Tehittah). Both of these dramas, which were not
printed at the time but were widely circulated in manuscript, are
of the type which preceded the Shakespearean age — they are
allegorical and all the characters are types. The beautiful
Hebrew style created a new school of Hebrew poetry, and the
Hebrew renaissance which resulted from the career of Moses
Mendelssohn owed much to Luzzatto.

See Gratz, History of the Jews, v. ch. vii. ; I. Abrahams, Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages, pp. 190, 268; N. Slouschz, The Renascence
of Hebrew Literature, ch. i. (I. A.)

LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID (1800-1865), Jewish scholar,
was born at Trieste in 1800, and died at Padua in 1865. He was
the most distinguished of the Italian Jewish scholars of the igth
century. The first Jew to suggest emendations to the text of the
Hebrew Bible, he edited Isaiah (1856-1867), and wrote a com-
mentary on the Pentateuch (1871). His grammatical works
were mostly written in Italian. He also contributed to the
history of the Synagogue liturgy, and enjoys with Geiger (q.v.)
and Zunz (q.v.) the honour of reviving interest in the medieval
Hebrew hymnology and secular verse.

See Gratz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), v. 622 seq. ; N.
Slouschz, The Renascence of Hebrew Literature, pp. 84-92; the
Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 225-226, with list of works. (I. A.)

LYALL, 'SIR ALFRED COMYN (1835- ), Anglo-Indian
civil servant and man of letters, son of the Rev. Alfred Lyall,
was born hi 1835, and educated at Eton and Haileybury. He
entered the Bengal civil service in 1855, saw service during
the Mutiny in the Bulandshahr district, at Meerut, and with the
Khaki Risala of volunteers. He was commissioner in Berar
(1867), secretary to the government of India in the Home and
Foreign departments, lieutenant-governor of the North-western
Provinces (1882-1887), and member of the Council of India
(1888-1903). Among his writings, his Verses Written in India
(1889) attained considerable popularity, and in his Asiatic
Studies (1882 and 1899) he displays a deep insight into Indian
life and character. He wrote the Life of Lord Dufferin (1905),
and made numerous contributions to periodical literature.

LYALL, EDNA, the pen-name of ADA ELLEN BAYLY (i8s7-«
1903), English novelist. She was born at Brighton in 1857, the
daughter of a barrister. Her parents died while she was a child,
and she was brought up at Caterham, Surrey. At Eastbourne,
where most of her life was spent, she was well known for her
philanthropic activity. She died on the 8th of February 1903.
Edna Lyall's vogue as a novelist was the result of a combination
of the story-teller's gift with a sincere ethical and religious spirit
of Christian tolerance, which at the time was new to many
readers. Though her Won by Waiting (1879) had some success,
it was with Donovan (1882) and We Two (1884), in which the
persecuted atheist was inevitably identified with Charles Brad-
laugh, that she became widely popular. Other novels were
In the Golden Days (1885), a story of the Great Rebellion;
Knight Errant (1887); Autobiography of a Slander (1887); A
Hardy Norseman (1889); Derrick Vaughan, The Story of a
Novelist (1889); To Right the Wrong (1892); Doreen (1894), a
statement of the case for Irish Home Rule; The Autobiography
of a Truth (1896), the proceeds of which were devoted to the

LYALLPUR— LYCANTHROPY

149

Armenian Relief Fund; In Spite of All (1901), which had origin-
ally been produced by Mr Ben Greet as a play; and The Bruges
Letters (1002), a book for children.

A Life by J. N. Escreet appeared in 1904, and a shorter account of
her by the Rev. G. A. Payne was printed at Manchester in 1903.

LYALLPUR, a district of India, in the Multan division of the
Punjab. It was constituted in 1904 to comprise the " Chenab
Colony," being the waste portion of the former Jhang district
that is now irrigated by the Lower Chenab canal. Area, 3075
sq. m.; pop. (1906) 654,666. It is traversed by a section of the
North-western railway. The headquarters . are at Lyallpur
town (pop. in 1906, 13,483), named after Sir James Lyall, a
lieutenant-governor. It contains several factories for ginning
and pressing cotton.

See Chenab Colony Gazetteer (Lahore, 1904).

LYCAEUS (Mons Lycaeus, Afaaioi' 6poj: mod. Diaphorti),
a mountain in Arcadia, sacred to Zeus Lycaeus, who was said
to have been born and brought up on it, and the home of Pelasgus
and his son Lycaon, who is said to have founded the ritual of
Zeus practised on its summit. This seems to have involved a
human sacrifice, and a feast in which the man who received the
portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as Lycaon
had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of a
great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no
shadows fell within the precincts; and that any who entered it
died within the year.

LYCANTHROPY (Gr. X6/»s, wolf, AvOpuiros, man), a name
employed (i) in folk-lore for the liability or power of a human
being to undergo transformation into an animal; (2) in pathology
for a form of insanity in which the patient believes that he is
transformed into an animal and behaves accordingly.

I. Although the term lycanthropy properly speaking refers to
metamorphosis into a wolf (see WERWOLF), it is in practice used
of transformation into any animal. The Greeks also spoke of
kynanthropy (KUUV, dog); in India and the Asiatic islands the
tiger is the commonest form, in North Europe the bear, in Japan
the fox, in Africa the leopard or hyena, sometimes also the lion,
in South America the jaguar; but though there is a tendency
for the most important carnivorous animal of the area to take
the first place in stories and beliefs as to transformation, the less
important beasts of prey and even harmless animals like the deer
also figure among the wer-animals.

Lycanthropy is often confused with transmigration; but the
essential feature of the wer-animal is that it is the alternative
form or the double of a living human being, while the soul-animal
is the vehicle, temporary or permanent, of the spirit of a dead
human being. The vampire is sometimes regarded as an example
of lycanthropy; but it is in human form, sometimes only a head,
sometimes a whole body, sometimes that of a living person,
at others of a dead man who issues nightly from the grave to prey
upon the living.

Even if the denotation of lycanthropy be limited to the animal-
metamorphosis of living human beings, the beliefs classed
together under this head are far from uniform, and the term is
somewhat capriciously applied. The transformation may be
voluntary or involuntary, temporary or permanent; the wer-
animal may be the man himself metamorphosed, it may be his
double whose activity leaves the real man to all appearance
unchanged, it may be his soul, which goes forth seeking whom
it may devour and leaving its body in a state of trance; or it
may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a real
animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connexion with its
owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by
a phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding
injury to the human being.

The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal meta-
morphosis, or of sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, as a
messenger, and the supernormal powers conferred by association
with such a familiar, are also attributed to the magician, male
and female, all the world over; and witch superstitions are
closely parallel to, if not identical with, lycanthropic beliefs,
the occasional involuntary character of lycanthropy being

almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another direction the
phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself in con-
nexion with the bush-soul of the West African and the nagual of
Central America; but though there is no line of demarcation to
be drawn on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician
and the intimate association of the bush-soul or the nagual with
a human being are not termed lycanthropy. Nevertheless it will
be well to touch on both these beliefs here.

In North and Central America, and to some extent in West
Africa, Australia and other parts of the world, every male
acquires at puberty a tutelary spirit (see DEMONOLOGY); in
some tribes of Indians the youth kills the animal of which he
dreams in his initiation fast; its daw, skin or feathers are put
into a little bag and become his " medicine " and must be care-
fully retained, for a " medicine " once lost can never be replaced.
In West Africa this relation is said to be entered into by means
of the blood bond, and it is so close that the death of the animal
causes the man to die and vice versa. Elsewhere the possession
of a tutelary spirit in animal form is the privilege of the magician.
In Alaska the candidate for magical powers has to leave the
abodes of men; the chief of the gods sends an otter to meet him,
which he kills by saying " O " four times; he then cuts out its
tongue and thereby secures the powers which he seeks. The
Malays believe that the office of pawang (priest) is only hereditary
if the soul of the dead priest, in the form of a tiger, passes into
the body of his son. While the familiar is often regarded as the
alternative form of the magician, the nagual or bush-soul is
commonly regarded as wholly distinct from the human being.
Transitional beliefs, however, are found, especially in Africa,
in which the power of transformation is attributed to the whole
of the population of certain areas. The people of Banana are
said to change themselves by magical means, composed of human
embryos and other ingredients, but in their leopard form they
may do no hurt to mankind under pain of retaining for ever
the beast shape. In other cases the change is supposed to be
made for the purposes of evil magic and human victims are
not prohibited. We can, therefore, draw no line of demarcation,
and this makes it probable that lycanthropy is connected with
nagualism and the belief in familiar spirits, rather than with
metempsychosis, as Dr Tylor argues, or with totemism, as sug-
gested by J. F. M'Lennan. A further link is supplied by the Zulu
belief that the magician's familiar is really a transformed human
being; when he finds a dead body on which he can work his
spells without fear of discovery, the wizard breathes a sort of
life into it, which enables it to move and speak, it being thought
that some dead wizard has taken possession of it. He then burns
a hole in the head and through the aperture extracts the tongue.
Further spells have the effect of changing the revivified body
into the form of some animal, hyena, owl or wild cat, the latter
being most in favour. This creature then becomes the wizard's
servant and obeys him in all things; its chief use is, however,
to inflict sickness and death upon persons who are disliked by
its master.

Lycanthropy in Europe. — The wolf is the commonest form of the
wer-animal (see WERWOLF), though in the north the bear disputes
its pre-eminence. In ancient Greece the dog was also associated
with the belief. Marcellus of Sida, who wrote under the Antonines,
gives an account of a disease which befell people in February; but
a pathological state seems to be meant.

Lycanthropy in Africa. — In Abyssinia the power of transformation
is attributed to the Boudas, and at the same time we have records
of pathological lycanthropy (see below). Blacksmiths are credited
with magical powers in many parts of the world, and it is significant
that the Boudas are workers in iron and clay; in the Ltfe of N.
Pearce (i. 287) a European observer tells a story of a supposed trans-
formation which took place in his presence and almost before his
eyes; but it does not appear how far hallucination rather than
coincidence must be invoked to explain the experience.

The Wer-tiger of the East Indies. — The Posp-Alfures of central
Celebes believe that man has three souls, the inosa, the antga and
the tanoana. The inosa is the vital principle; it can be detected
in the veins and arteries; it is given to man by one of the_ great
natural phenomena, more especially the wind. The angga is the
intellectual part of man; its seat is unknown; after death it goes
to the under-world, and, unlike the inosa, which is believed to
be dissolved into its original elements, takes possession of an

LYCAON

immaterial body. The tanoana is the divine in man and after death
returns to its lord, Ppewempala boeroe. It goes forth during sleep,
and all that it sees it whispers into the sleeper's ear and then he
dreams. According to another account, the tanoana. is the sub-
stance by which man lives, thinks and acts; the tanoana of man,
plants and animals is of the same nature. A man's tanoana can be
strengthened by those of others; when the tanoana is long away or
destroyed the man dies. The tanoana seems to be the soul of which
lycanthropic feats are asserted.

Among the Toradjas of central Celebes it is believed that a man's
" inside can take the form of a cat, wild pig, ape, deer or other
animal, and afterwards resume human form; it is termed lamboyo.
The exact relation of the lamboyo to the tanoana does not seem to be
settled ; it will be seen below that the view seems to vary. According
to some the power of transformation is a gift of the gods, but others
hold that werwolfism is contagious and may be acquired by eating
food left by a werwolf or even by leaning one's head against the same
pillar. The Todjoers hold that any one who touches blood becomes
a werwolf. In accordance with this view is the belief that wer-
wolfism can be cured; the breast and stomach of the werman must
be rubbed and pinched, just as when any other witch object has to
be extracted. The patient drinks medicine, and the contagion leaves
the body in the form of snakes and worms. There are certain marks
by which a werman can be recognized. His eyes are unsteady and
sometimes green with dark shadows underneath. He does not sleep
soundly and fireflies come out of his mouth. His lips remain red in
spite of betel chewing, and he has a long tongue. The Todjoers add
that his hair stands on end.

Some of the forms of the lamboyo are distinguishable from ordinary
animals by the fact that they run about among the houses ; the wer-
buffalo has only one horn, and the wer-pig transforms itself into an
ants' nest, such as hangs from trees. Some say that the werman
does not really take the form of an animal himself, but, like the
sorcerer, only sends out a messenger. The lamboyo attacks by prefer-
ence solitary individuals, for he does not like to be observed. The
victim feels sleepy and loses consciousness; the lamboyo then assumes
human form (his body being, however, still at home) and cuts up his
victim, scattering the fragments all about. He then takes the liver
and eats it, puts the body together again, licks it with his long
tongue and joins it together. When the victim comes to himself
again he has no idea that anything unusual has happened to him.
He goes home, but soon begins to feel unwell. In a few days he dies,
but before his death he is able sometimes to name the werman to
whom he has fallen a victim.

From this account it might be inferred that the lamboyo was
identical with the tanoana; the absence of the lamboyo seems to
entail a condition of unconsciousness, and it can assume human
form. In other cases, however, the lamboyo seems to be analogous
to the familiar of the sorcerer. The Toradjas tell a story of how
a man once came to a house and asked the woman to give him a
rendezvous; it was night and she was asleep; the question was put
three times before the answer was given " in the tobacco plantation."
The husband was awake, and next day followed his wife, who was
irresistibly drawn thither. The werman came to meet her in human
form, although his body was engaged in building a new house, and
caused the woman to faint by stamping three times on the ground.
Thereupon the husband attacked the werman with a piece of wood,
and the latter to escape transformed himself into a leaf; this the
husband put into a piece of bamboo and fastened the ends so that he
could not escape. He then went back to the village and put the
bamboo in the fire. The werman said " Don't," and as soon as it
was burnt he fell dead.

In another case a woman died, and, as her death was believed to
be due to the malevolence of a werwolf, her husband watched by
her body. For, like Indian witches, the werwolf, for some reason,
wishes to revive his victim and comes in human form to carry off
the coffin. As soon as the woman was brought to life the husband
attacked the werwolf, who transformed himself into a piece of wood
and was burnt. The woman remained alive, but her murderer died
the same night.

According to a third form of the belief, the body of the werman
is itself transformed. One evening a man left the hut in which a
party were preparing to pass the night; one of his companions
heard a deer and fired into the darkness. Soon after the man came
back and said he had been shot. Although no_marks were to be
seen he died a few days later.

In Central Java we meet with another kind of wer-tiger. The
power of, transformation is regarded as due to inheritance, to the
use of spells, to fasting and will-power, to the use of charms, &c.
Save when it is hungry or has just cause for revenge it is not hostile
to man; in fact, it is said to take its animal form only at night
and to guard the plantations from wild pigs, exactly as the balams
(magicians) of Yucatan were said to guard the corn fields in animal
form. Variants of this belief assert that the werman does not recog-
nize his friends unless they call him by name, or that he goes out as
a mendicant and transforms himself to take vengeance on those who
refuse him alms. Somewhat similar is the belief of the Khonds; for
them the tiger is friendly; he reserves his wrath for their enemies,
and a man is said to take the form of a tiger in order to wreak a just
vengeance.

Lycanthropy in South America. — According to K. F. P. v. Martius
the kanaima is a human being who employs poison to carry out his
function of blood avenger; other authorities represent the kanaima
as a jaguar, which is either an avenger of blood or the familiar of a
cannibalistic sorcerer. The Europeans of Brazil hold that the
seventh child of the same sex in unbroken succession becomes a
wer-man or woman, and takes the form of a horse, goat, jaguar
or pig.

II. As a pathological state lycanthropy may be described
as a kind of hysteria, and may perhaps be brought into con-
nexion with the form of it known as latah. It is characterized
by the patient's belief that he has been metamorphosed into an
animal, and is often accompanied by a craving for strange
articles of food, including the flesh of living beings or of corpses.
In the lower stages of culture the state of the patient is commonly
explained as due to possession, but where he leaves the neighbour-
hood of man real metamorphosis may be asserted, as in ordinary
lycanthropic beliefs. Marcellus of Sida says that in Greece the
patients frequented the tombs at night; they were recognizable
by their yellow complexion, hollow eyes and dry tongue. The
Garrows of India are said to tear their hair when they are seized
with the complaint, which is put down to the use of a drug
applied to the forehead; this recalls the stories of the witch's
salve in Europe. In Abyssinia the patient is usually a woman ;
two forms are distinguished, caused by the hyena and the leopard
respectively. A kind of trance ushers in the fit; the fingers are
clenched, the eyes glazed and the nostrils distended; the patient,
when she comes to herself, laughs hideously and runs on all
fours. The exorcist is a blacksmith; as a rule, he applies onion
or garlic to her nose and proceeds to question the evil spirit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the anthropological side of the subject see
bibliography to WERWOLF ; also Tijdskrift voor indische Taal, Land
en Volkenkunde, xxviii. 338, xli. 548, 568; Med. Zendelingsgenoot-
schap, xxxix. 3, 16; O. Stoll, Suggestion, p. 418; W. H. Brett,
Indians of British Guiana. For the pathological side, see Hack
Tuke, Diet, of Psychological Medicine, s.v. " Lycanthropy "; Diet,
des sciences medicales; Waldmeier, Autobiography, p. 64; A. J
Hayes, Source of Blue Nile, p. 286 seq. ; Abh. phil.-hist. Klasse kgl.
sdchsische Gesettschaft der Wiss. 17, No. 3. (N. W. T.)

LYCAON, in Greek mythology, son of Pelasgus, the mythical
first king of Arcadia. He, or his fifty impious sons, entertained
Zeus and set before him a dish of human flesh; the god pushed
away the dish in disgust and either killed the king and his sons
by lightning or turned them into wolves (Apollodorus iii. 8;
Ovid, Metam. i. 198). Some say that Lycaon slew and dished
up his own son Nyctimus (Clem. Alex. Protrept. ii. 36; Nonnus,
Dionys. xviii. 20; Arnobius iv. 24). The deluge was said to
have been sent by Zeus in the time of Deucalion in consequence
of the sons' impiety. Pausanias (viii. 2) says that Lycaon
sacrificed a child to Zeus on the altar on mount Lycaeus, and
immediately after the sacrifice was turned into a wolf. This
gave rise to the story that a man was turned into a wolf at each
annual sacrifice to Zeus Lycaeus, but recovered his human form
if he abstained from human flesh for ten years. The oldest
city, the oldest cultus (that of Zeus Lycaeus), and the first
civilization of Arcadia are attributed to Lycaon. His story
has been variously interpreted. According to Weizsacker, he
was an old Pelasgian or pre-Hellenic god, to whom human
sacrifice was offered, bearing a non-Hellenic name similar to
Xwcos, whence the story originated of his metamorphosis into a
wolf. His cult was driven out by that of the Hellenic Zeus, and
Lycaon himself was afterwards represented as an evil spirit,
who had insulted the new deity by setting human flesh before
him. Robertson Smith considers the sacrifices offered to the
wolf-Zeus in Arcadia to have been originally cannibal feasts of
a wolf-tribe, who recognized the wolf as their totem. Usener
and others identify Lycaon with Zeus Lycaeus, the god of light,
who slays his son Nyctimus (the dark) or is succeeded by him,
in allusion to the perpetual succession of night and day. Accord-
ing to Ed. Meyer, the belief that Zeus Lycaeus accepted human
sacrifice in the form of a wolf was the origin of the myth that
Lycaon, the founder of his cult, became a wolf, i.e. participated
in the nature of the god by the act of sacrifice, as did all who
afterwards duly performed it. W. Mannhardt sees in the
ceremony an allusion to certain agricultural rites, the object of

LYCAONIA— LYCIA

which was to prevent the failure of the crops and to avert
pestilence (or to protect them and the flocks against the ravages
of wolves). Others (e.g. V. Be>ard) take Zeus Lycaeus for a
Semitic Baal, whose worship was imported into Arcadia by the
Phoenicians; Immerwahr identifies him with Zeus Phyxios,
the god of the exile who flees on account of his having shed blood.
Another explanation is that the place of the sacred wolf once
worshipped in Arcadia was taken in cult by Zeus Lycaeus, and
in popular tradition by Lycaon, the ancestor of the Arcadians,
who was supposed to have been punished for his insulting treat-
ment of Zeus. It is possible that the whole may be merely a
reminiscence of a superstition similar to the familiar werwolf
stories.

See articles by P. Weizsacker in Roscher's Lexikon and by G.
Fougeres (s.v. " Lykaia ") in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire
des antiquites; W. Immerwahr, Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens, I.
(1891), p. 14; L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, i. (1896), p. 40;
A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religton (1899); C. Pascal, Studii di
antichita e mitologia (1896), who sees in Lycaon a god of death
honoured by human sacrifice; Ed. Meyer, Forschungen zur alien
Geschichte, i. (1892), p. 60; W. Mannhardt, Wold- und Feldkulte, ii.
(1905); G. Fougeres, Mantinee et FArcadie orientale (1898),
p. 202; V. Berard, De I'origine des cultes arcadiens (1894); H. D.
Muller, Mythologie der griechischen Stdmme, ii. (1861), p. 78; H.
Usener, Rheinisches Museum, liii. (1898), p. 375; G. Gorres, Berliner
Studienfiir classische Philologie, x. i (1889), who regards the Lycaea
as a funeral festival connected with the changes of vegetation;
Vollgraf, De Ovidii mythopoeia; a concise statement of the various
forms of the legend in O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii. p. 920,
n. 4; see also LYCANTHROPY; D. Bassi, " Apollo Liceo," in Rivista
di storia antica, i. (1895) ; and Frazer's Pausanias, iv. p. 189.

Q- H. F.)

LYCAONIA, in ancient geography, a large region in the
interior of Asia Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded
on the E. by Cappadocia, on the N. by Galatia, on the W. by
Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the S. it extended to the chain of
Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the country popularly
called in earlier times Cilicia Tracheia and in the Byzantine
period Isauria; but its boundaries varied greatly at different
times. The name is not found in Herodotus, but Lycaonia is
mentioned by Xenophon as traversed by Cyrus the younger on
his march through Asia. That author describes Iconium as
the last city of Phrygia; and in Acts xiv. 5 St Paul, after leaving
Iconium, crossed the frontier and came to Lystra in Lycaonia.
Ptolemy, on the other hand, includes Lycaonia as a part of the
province of Cappadocia, with which it was associated by the
Romans for administrative purposes; but the two countries
are clearly distinguished both by Strabo and Xenophon and by
authorities generally.

Lycaonia is described by Strabo as a cold region of elevated
plains, affording pasture to wild asses and to sheep; and at the
present day sheep abound, but asses are practically unknown.
Amyntas, king of Galatia, to whom the district was for a time
subject, maintained there not less than three hundred flocks.
It forms part of the interior tableland of Asia Minor, and has
an elevation of more than 3000 ft. It suffers from want of water,
aggravated in some parts by abundance of salt in the soil, so
that the northern portion, extending from near Iconium to the
salt lake of Tatta and the frontiers of Galatia, is almost wholly
barren, only small patches being cultivated near Iconium and
the large villages. The soil, where water is supplied, is produc-
tive. In ancient times great attention was paid to storing and
distributing the water, so that much land now barren was
formerly cultivated and supported a large number of cities.

The plain is interrupted by some minor groups of mountains,
of volcanic character, of which the Kara Dagh in the south, a
few miles north of Karaman, rises above 7000 ft., while the
Karadja Dagh, north-east of it, though of inferior elevation,
presents a striking range of volcanic cones. The mountains in
the north-west, near Iconium and Laodicea, are the termination
of the Sultan Dagh range, which traverses a large part of Phrygia.

The Lycaonians appear to have been in early times to a great
extent independent of the Persian empire, and were- like their
neighbours the Isauria ns a wild and lawless race of freebooters;
but their country was traversed by one of the great natural lines

of high road through Asia Minor, from Sardis and Ephesus to the
Cilician gates, and a few considerable towns grew up along or
near this line. The most important was Iconium, in the most
fertile spot in the country, of which it was always regarded by
the Romans as the capital, although ethnologically it was
Phrygian. It is still called Konia, and it was the capital of the
Seljuk Turkish empire for several centuries. A little farther
north, immediately on the frontier of Phrygia, stood Laodicea
(Ladik), called Combusta, to distinguish it from the Phrygian
city of that name; and in the south, near the foot of Mount
Taurus, was Laranda, now called Karaman, which has given
name to the province of Karamania. Derbe and Lystra, which
appear from the Acts of the Apostles to have been considerable
towns, were between Iconium and Laranda. There were many
other towns, which became bishoprics in Byzantine times.
Lycaonia was Christianized very early; and its ecclesiastical
system was more completely organized in its final form during
the 4th century than that of any other region of Asia Minor.

After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, Lycaonia was given
by the Romans to Eumenes II., king of Pergamos. About 160
B.C. part of it, the " Tetrarchy of Lycaonia," was added to
Galatia; and in 129 B.C. the eastern half (usually called during
the following 200 years Lycaonia proper) was given to Cappa-
docia as an eleventh strategia. In the readjustment of the
Provinciae, 64 B.C., by Pompey after the Mithradatic wars, he
gave the northern part of the tetrarchy to Galatia and the
eastern part of the eleventh strategia to Cappadocia. The re-
mainder was attached to Cilicia. Its administration and group-
ing changed often under the Romans. In A.D. 371 Lycaonia was
first formed into a separate province. It now forms part of the
Konia vilayet.

The Lycaonians appear to have retained a distinct nationality
in the time of Strabo, but their ethnical affinities are unknown.
The mention of the Lycaonian language in the Acts of the
Apostles (xiv. ii) shows that the native language was spoken by
the common people at Lystra about A.D. 50; and probably it
was only later and under Christian influence that Greek took its
place.

See Sir W. M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890),
Historical Commentary on Galatians (1809) and Cities of St Paul
(1907); also an article on the topography in the Jahreshefte des
Oesterr.Archaeolog. Instituts, 194 (Beiblatt) pp. 57-132.

(W. M. RA.)

LYCEUM, the latinized form of Gr. AvKtiov, the name of a
gymnasium and garden with covered walks, near the temple of
Apollo Lyceus ('AntfXXtti' Awceios) at Athens. Aristotle taught
here, and hence the name was applied to his school of philosophy.
The name had been used in many languages for places of instruc-
tion, &c. In France the term lycie is given to the secondary
schools which are administered by the state, in contradistinction
to the communal colleges.

LYCIA, in ancient geography, a district in the S.W. of Asia
Minor, occupying the coast between Caria and Pamphylia, and
extending inland as far as the ridge of Mt Taurus. The region
thus designated is a peninsula projecting southward from the
great mountain masses of the interior. It is for the most part a
rugged mountainous country, traversed by offshoots of the
Taurus range, which terminate on the coast in lofty promontories.
The coast, though less irregular than that of Caria, is indented by
a succession of bays — the most marked of which is the Gulf of
Macri (anc. Glaucus Sinus) in the extreme west. A number of
smaller bays, and broken rocky headlands, with a few small
islets, constitute the coast-line thence to the S.E. promontory of
Lycia, formed by a long narrow tongue of rocky hill, known in
ancient times as the " Sacred Promontory " (Hiera Acra), with
three small adjacent islets, called the Chelidonian islands, which
was regarded by some ancient geographers as the commencement
of Mt. Taurus. Though the mountain ranges of Lycia are all
offshoots of Mt. Taurus, in ancient times several of them were
distinguished by separate names. Such were Daedala in the
west, adjoining the Gulf of Macri, Cragus on the sea-coast, west
of the valley of the Xanthus, Massicytus (10,000 ft.) nearly in

r

LYCIA

the centre of the region, and Solyma in the extreme east above
Phaselis (7800 ft.). The steep and rugged pass between Solyma
and the sea, called the Climax (" Ladder" ), was the only direct
communication between Lycia and Pamphylia.

The only two considerable rivers are: (i) the Xanthus, which
descends from the central mass of Mt Taurus, and flows through
a narrow valley till it reaches the city of the same name, below
which it forms a plain of some extent before reaching the sea, and
(2) the Limyrus, which enters the sea near Limyra. The small
alluvial plains at the mouths of these rivers are the only level
ground in Lycia, but the hills that rise thence towards the
mountains are covered with a rich arborescent vegetation. The
upper valleys and mountain sides afford good pasture for sheep,
and the main Taurus range encloses several extensive upland
basin-shaped valleys (vailas), which are characteristic of that
range throughout its extent (see ASIA MINOR).

The limits of Lycia towards the interior seem to have varied at
different times. The high and cold upland tract to the north-east,
called Milyas, was by some writers included in that province, though
it is naturally more connected with Pisidia. According to Artemi-
dorus (whose authority is followed by Strabo), the towns that
formed the Lycian league in the days of its integrity were twenty-
three in number; but Pliny states that Lycia once possessed seventy
towns, of which only twenty-six remained in his day. Recent re-
searches have fully confirmed the fact that the sea-coast and the
valleys were thickly studded with towns, many of which are proved
by existing remains to have been places of importance. By the aid
of inscriptions the position of the greater part of the cities mentioned
in ancient authors can be fixed. On the gulf of Glaucus, near the
frontiers of Caria, stood Telmessus, an important place, while a short
distance inland from it were the small towns of Daedala and Cady-
anda. At the entrance of the valley of the Xanthus were Patara,
Xanthus itsejf, and, a little higher up, Pinara on the west and Tlos
on the east side of the valley, while Araxa stood at the head of the
valley, at the foot of the pass leading into the interior. Myra, one
of the most important cities of Lycia, occupied the entrance of the
valley of the Andriacus; on the coast between this and the mouth
of the Xanthus stood Antiphellus, while in the interior at a short
distance were found Phellus, Cyaneae and Candyba. In the alluvial
plain formed by the rivers Arycandus and Limyrus stood Limyra,
and encircling the same bay the three small towns of Rhodiapolis,
Corydalla and Gagae. Arycanda commanded the upper valley of
the river of the same name. On the east coast stood Olympus, one
of the cities of the league, while Phaselis, a little farther north,
which was a much more important place, never belonged to the
Lycian league and appears always to have maintained an independent
position.

The cold upland district of the Milyas does not seem to have
contained any town of importance. Podalia appears to have been
its chief place. Between the Milyas and the Pamphylian Gulf was
the lofty mountain range of Solyma, which was supposed to derive
its name from the Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer in con-
nexion with the Lycians and the story of Bellerophon. In the flank
of this mountain, near a place called Deliktash, was the celebrated
fiery source called the Chimaera, which gave rise to many fables.
It has been visited in modern times by Captain F. Beaufort, T. A. B.
Spratt and Edward Forbes, and other travellers, and is merely a
stream of inflammable gas issuing from crevices in the rocks, such
as are found in several places in the Apennines. No traces of recent
volcanic action exist in Lycia.

History. — The name of the Lycians, Lukki, is first met with in
the Telel-Amarna tablets (1400 B.C.) and in the list of the
nations from the eastern Mediterranean who invaded Egypt in
the reign of Mineptah, the successor of Rameses II. At that
time they seem to have occupied the Cilician coast. Their
occupation of Lycia was probably later, and since the Lycian
inscriptions are not found far inland, we may conclude that they
entered the country from the sea. On the other hand the name
appears to be preserved in Lycaonia, where some bands of them
may have settled. According to Herodotus they called them-
selves Termilae, written Trmmile in the native inscriptions, and
he further states that the original inhabitants of the country
were the Milyans and Solymi, the Lycians being invaders from
Crete. In this tradition there is a reminiscence of the fact that
the Lycians had been sea-rovers before their settlement in Lycia.
The Lycian Sarpedon was believed to have taken part in the
Trojan war. The Lydians failed to subdue Lycia, but after the
fall of the Lydian empire it was conquered by Harpagus the
general of Cyrus, Xanthus or Arnna, the capital, being com-
pletely destroyed. While acknowledging the suzerainty of

Persia, however, the Lycians remained practically independent,
and for a time joined the Delian league. " The son of Harpagus "
on the obelisk of Xanthus boasts of having sacked numerous
cities in alliance with the Athenian goddess. The Lycians were
incorporated into the empire of Alexander and his successors,
but even after their conquest by the Romans, preserved their
federal institutions as late as the time of Augustus. According
to Strabo the principal towns in the league were Xanthus,
Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra and Tlos; each of these had
three votes in the general assembly, while the other towns had
only two or one. Taxation and the appointment of the Lyciarch
and other magistrates were vested in the assembly. Under
Claudius Lycia was formally annexed to the Roman empire, and
united with Pamphylia: Theodosius made it a separate province.

Antiquities. — Few parts of Asia Minor were less known in
modern times than Lycia up to the ipth century. Captain
Beaufort was the first to visit several places on the sea-coast,
and the remarkable rock-hewn tombs of Telmessus had been
already described by Dr Clarke, but it was Sir Charles Fellows
who first discovered and drew attention to the extraordinary rich-
ness of the district in ancient remains, especially of a sepulchral
character. His visits to the country in 1838 and 1840 were
followed by an expedition sent by the British government in
1842 to transport to England the valuable monuments now in the
British Museum, while Admiral Spratt and Edward Forbes
explored the interior, and laid down its physical features on an
excellent map. The monuments thus brought to light are among
the most interesting of those discovered in Asia Minor, and prove
the existence of a distinct native architecture, especially in the
rock-cut tombs. But the theatres found in almost every town,
some of them of very large size, are sufficient to attest the per-
vading influence of Greek civilization; and this is confirmed by
the sculptures, which are for the most part wholly Greek. None
of them, indeed, can be ascribed to a very early period, and hardly
any trace can be found of the influence of Assyrian or other
Oriental art.

One of the most interesting results of these recent researches
has been the discovery of numerous inscriptions in the native
language of the country, and written in an alphabet peculiar to
Lycia. A few of these inscriptions are bilingual, in Greek and
Lycian, and the clue thus afforded to their interpretation has been
followed up, first by Daniel Sharpe and Moritz Schmidt, and in
more recent years by J. Imbert, W. Arkwright, V. Thomsen,
A. Torp, S. Bugge and E. Kalinka.

The alphabet was derived from the Doric alphabet of Rhodes,
but ten other characters were added to it to express vocalic and
other sounds not found in Greek. The attempts to connect the
language with the Indo-European family have been unsuccessful;
it belongs to a separate family of speech which we may term
" Asianic." Most of the inscriptions are sepulchral; by far the
longest and most important is that on an obelisk found at
Xanthus, which is a historical document, the concluding part of
it being in a peculiar dialect, supposed to be an older and poetical
form of the language. Among the deities mentioned are Trzzube
(Trosobis) and Trqqiz or Trqqas.

Lycian art was modelled on that of the Greeks. The rock-cut
tomb usually represented the house of the living, with an
elaborate facade, but in one or two instances, notably that of
the so-called Harpy-tomb, the facade is surmounted by a tall,
square tower, in the upper part of which is the sepulchral chamber.
Lycian sculpture followed closely the development of Greek
sculpture, and many of the sculptures with which the tombs are
adorned are of a high order of merit. The exquisite bas-reliefs
on a Lycian sarcophagus now in the museum of Constantinople
are among the finest surviving examples of classical art. The
bas-reliefs were usually coloured. For the coinage, see NUMIS-
MATICS, section "Asia Minor."

AUTHORITIES. — C. Fellows, Journal in Asia Minor (1839) and
Discoveries in Lycia (1841); T. A. B. Spratt and E. Forbes, Travels
in Lycia (1847) ; O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, Reisen im sudwest-
lichen Kleinasien (1884); E. Pstersen and F. von Luschan, Reisen
in Lykien (1889) ; O. Treuber, Geschichte der Lykier (1887) ; G. Perrot
and C. Chipiez, Histoire de I'art dans I'antiquite, v. (1890); P.

LYCK— LYCURGUS

Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache \
(1896); S. Bugge, Lykische Studien (from 1897), A. Torp, Lykische \
Beitrdge (from 1898); V. Thomsen, £tudes lyciennes (1899); E. |
Kalinka and R. Heberdey, Tituli Asiae Minoris, i. (1901); see also
articles XANTHUS, MYRA, PATARA. (A. H. S.)

LYCK, or LYK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of East Prussia, 112 m. by rail S.E. of Konigsberg, and close to
the frontier of Poland, on a lake and river of the same name.
Pop. (1900) 11,386. It is the chief town of the region known as
Masuria. On an island in the lake is a castle formerly belonging
to the Teutonic order, and dating from 1273, now used as a
prison. There are iron-foundries, distilleries, breweries, tan-
neries, paper mills and flour mills, and a trade in grain and
cattle.

LYCOPHRON, Greek poet and grammarian, was born at
Chalcis in Euboea. He flourished at Alexandria in the time of
Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). According to Suidas, he
was the son of Socles, but was adopted by Lycus of Rhegium.
He was entrusted by Ptolemy with the task of arranging the
comedies in the Alexandrian library, and as the result of his
labours composed a treatise On Comedy. His own compositions,
however, chiefly consisted of tragedies (Suidas gives the titles
of twenty, of which very few fragments have been preserved),
which secured him a place in the Pleiad of Alexandrian tragedians.
One of his poems, Alexandra or Cassandra, containing 1474
iambic lines, has been preserved entire. It is in the form of a
prophecy uttered by Cassandra, and relates the later fortunes of
Troy and of the Greek and Trojan heroes. References to events
of mythical and later times are introduced, and the poem ends
with a reference to Alexander the Great, who was to unite Asia
and Europe in his world-wide empire. The style is so enigmatical
as to have procured for Lycophron, even among the ancients,
the title of "obscure" (ff/coTeuw) . The poem is evidently
intended to display the writer's knowledge of obscure names
and uncommon myths; it is full of unusual words of doubtful
meaning gathered from the older poets, and many long-winded
compounds coined by the author. It has none of the qualities
of poetry, and was probably written as a show-piece for the
Alexandrian school. It was very popular in the Byzantine
period, and was read and commented on very frequently; the
collection of scholia by Isaac and John Tzetzes is very valuable,
and the MSS. of the Cassandra are numerous.1 A few well-turned
lines which have been preserved from Lycophron's tragedies
show a much better style; they are said to have been much
admired by Menedemus of Eretria, although the poet had
ridiculed him in a satyric drama. Lycophron is also said to have
been a skilful writer of anagrams.

Editio princeps (1513); J. Potter (1697, 1702); L. Sebastian!
(1803); L. Bachmann (1830); G. Kinkel (1880); E. Scheer (1881-
1908"). vol. ii. containing the scholia. The most complete edition is
by C. von Holzinger (with translation, introduction and notes,
1895). There are translations by F. Deheque. (1853) and Viscount
Royston (1806; a work of great merit). See also Wilamowitz-
Mollendorff, De Lycophronis Alexandra (1884); J. Konze, De Dic-
tione Lycophronis (1870). The commentaries of the brothers Tzetzes
have been edited by C. O. Muller (1811).

LYCOPODIUM, the principal genus of the Lycopodiaceae, a
natural order of the Fern-allies (see PTERIDOPHYTA). They are
flowerless herbs, with an erect, prostrate or creeping widely-
branched stem, with small simple leaves which thickly cover
the stem and branches. The " fertile " leaves are arranged in
cones, and bear spore-cases (sporangia) in their axils, containing
spores of one kind only. The prothallium developed from the
spore is a subterranean mass of tissue of considerable size, and
bears the male and female organs (antheridia and archegonia).
There are about a hundred species widely distributed in tem-
perate and tropical climates; five occur in Britain on heaths and
moors, chiefly in mountainous districts, and are known as club-

*Two passages of the Cassandra, 1446-1450 and 1226-1282, in
which the career of the Roman people and their universal empire are
spoken of, could not possibly have been written by an Alexandrian
poet of 250 B.C. Hence it has been maintained by Niebuhr and
others that the poem was written by a later poet mentioned by
Tzetzes, but the opinion of Welcker that these paragraphs are a later
interpolation is generally considered more probable.

mosses. The commonest species, L. davatum, is also known as
stag-horn moss.

Gerard, in 1597, described two kinds of lycopodium (Herball,
P- 1373) under the names Muscus denticulatus and Muscus davatus
(L. davatum) as " Club Mosse or Woolfes Clawe Mosse," the names
being in Low Dutch, " Wolfs Clauwen," from the resemblance of the
club-like or claw-shaped shoots to the toes of a wolf, " whereupon we
first named it Lycopodion." Gerard also speaks of its emetic and
many other supposed virtues. L. Selago and L. catharticum (a native
of the Andes) have been said to be, at least when fresh, cathartic;

From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. I. — Lycopodium davatum.

A, Old prothallus. the specialized erect branches

B, Prothallus bearing a young bearing the strobile or cones.

sporophyte. H, Sporophyte bearing the single

G, Polian of a mature plant, sporangium on its upper

showing the creeping habit, surface,

the adventitious roots and J, Spore.

but, with the exception of the spores of L. davatum (" lycopodium
powder "), lycopodium as a drug has fallen into disuse. The powder
is used for rolling pills in, as a dusting powder for infants' sores, &c.
A tinctura lycopodii, containing one part of the powder to ten of
alcohol (ox %), has been given, in doses of 15 to 60 minims, in cases of
irritation and spasm of the bladder. The powder is highly inflam-
mable, and is used in pyrotechny and for artificial lightning on the
stage. If the hand be covered with the powder it cannot be wetted
on being plunged into water. Another use of lycopodium is for
dyeing; woollen cloth boiled with species of lycopodium, as L.
davatum, becomes blue when dipped in a bath of Brazil wood.

LYCOSURA (mod. Palaeokastro or Siderokastro) , a city of
Arcadia, reputed to be the most ancient city in Greece, and to
have been founded by Lycaon the son of Pelasgus. Its fame in
later times was chiefly associated with the temple of Despoena,
containing the colossal group made by Damophon of Messene,
of Despoena and Demeter seated, with Artemis and the Titan
Anytus standing beside them. The temple and considerable
remains of the group of sculpture were found in 1889. The date
of both has been a matter of dispute, Damophon being placed
at dates varying from the 4th century B.C. to the age of Hadrian.
But it has now been shown that he lived in the 2nd century B.C.
Remains of a portico, altars and other structures have also been
found.

See npoKTixt. rijj''Apx. 'Eroipioi (1896); G. Dickens, Annual of
British School at Athens, xii. and xiii.

LYCURGUS (Gr. \vKovpyos), in Greek history, the reputed
founder of the Spartan constitution. Plutarch opens his

154

LYCURGUS

biography of Lycurgus with these words: " About Lycurgus the
lawgiver it is not possible to make a single statement that is not
called in question. His genealogy, his travels, his death, above
all, his legislative and constitutional activity have been variously
recorded, and there is the greatest difference of opinion as to his
date. " Nor has modern historical criticism arrived at any certain
results. Many scholars, indeed, suppose him to be in reality a
god or hero, appealing to the existence of a temple and cult of
Lycurgus at Sparta as early as the time of Herodotus, (i. 66),
and to the words of the Delphic oracle (Herod, i. 65) —

dXX' irt Kdi juoXXov Otov e\;ro/icu, a \VKoopyf.

If this be so, he is probably to be connected with the cult of
Apollo Lycius or with that of Zeus Lycaeus. But the majority
of modern historians agree in accepting Lycurgus as an historical
person, however widely they^may differ about his work.

According to the Spartan tradition preserved by Herodotus,
Lycurgus was a member of the Agiad house, son of Agis I. and
brother of Echestratus. On the death of the latter he became
regent and guardian of his nephew Labotas (Leobotes), who was
still a minor. Simonides, on the other hand, spoke of him as a
Eurypontid, son of Prytanis and brother of Eunomus, and later
the tradition prevailed which made him the son of Eunomus and
Dionassa, and half-brother of the king Polydectes, on whose
death he became guardian of the young king Charillus. Accord-
ing to Herodotus he introduced his reforms immediately on
becoming regent, but the story which afterwards became gener-
ally accepted and is elaborated by Plutarch represented him as
occupying for some time the position of regent, then spending
several years in travels, and on his return to Sparta carrying
through his legislation when Charillus was king. This latter
version helped to emphasize the disinterestedness of the lawgiver,
and also supplied a motive for his travels — the jealousy of those
who accused him of trying to supplant his nephew on the throne.
He is said to have visited Crete, Egypt and Ionia, and some
versions even took him to Spain, Libya and India.

Various beliefs were held as to the source from which Lycurgus
derived his ideas of reform. Herodotus found the tradition
current among the Spartans that they were suggested to Lycurgus
by the similar Cretan institutions, but even in the sth century
there was a rival theory that he derived them from the Delphic
oracle. These two versions are united by Ephorus, who argued
that, though Lycurgus had really derived his system from Crete,
yet to give it a religious sanction he had persuaded the Delphic
priestess to express his views in oracular form.

The Reforms. — Herodotus says that Lycurgus changed " all
the customs," that he created the military organization of
ivuftorlai. (enomolies), TpiijKoSts (triecades) and ffvffffiria. (syssitia),
and that he instituted the ephorate and the council of elders.
To him, further, are attributed the foundation of the apella
(the citizen assembly) , the prohibition of gold and silver currency,
the partition of the land (yfjs bvaSacrnfa) into equal lots, and, in
general, the characteristic Spartan training (ayuyi]). Some
of these statements are certainly false. The council of elders
and the assembly are not in any sense peculiar to Sparta, but are
present in the heroic government of Greece as depicted in the
Homeric poems. The ephors, again, are almost universally
held to be either an immemorial heritage of the Dorian stock or
— and this seems more probable — an addition to the Spartan con-
stitution made at a later date than can be assigned to Lycurgus.
Further, the tradition of the Lycurgan partition of the land is
open to grave objections. Grote pointed out (History of Greece,
pt. ii. ch. 6) that even from the earliest historical times we find
glaring inequalities of property at Sparta, and that the tradition
was apparently unknown to all the earlier Greek historians and
philosophers down to Plato and Aristotle: Isocrates (xii. 259)
expressly denied that a partition of land had ever taken place
in the Spartan state. Again, the tradition presupposes the
conquest by the Spartans of the whole, or at least the greater
part, of Laconia, yet Lycurgus must fall in the period when the
Spartans had not yet subjugated even the middle Eurotas plain,
in which their city lay. Finally, we can point to an adequate

explanation of the genesis of the tradition in the ideals of the
reformers of the latter part of the 3rd century, led by the kings
Agis IV. and Cleomenes III. (q.v.). To them the cause of Sparta's
decline lay in the marked inequalities of wealth, and they looked
upon a redistribution of the land as the reform most urgently
needed. But it was characteristic of the Greeks to represent
the ideals of the present as the facts of the past, and so such a
story as that of the Lycurgan -yijj toafiaaijos may well have arisen
at this time. It is at least noteworthy that the plan of Agis to
give 4500 lots to Spartans and 15,000 to perioeci suspiciously
resembles that of Lycurgus, in whose case the numbers are said
to have been 9000 and 30,000 respectively. Lastly, the prohibi-
tion of gold and silver money cannot be attributed to Lycurgus,
for at so early a period coinage was yet unknown in Greece.

Lycurgus, then, did not create any of the main elements of the
Spartan constitution, though he may have regulated their
powers and defined their position. But tradition represented him
as finding Sparta the prey of disunion, weakness and lawlessness,
and leaving her united, strong and subject to the most stable
government which the Greek world had ever seen. Probably
Grote comes near to the truth when he says that Lycurgus
" is the founder of a warlike brotherhood rather than the law-
giver of a political community." To him we may attribute the
unification of the several component parts of the state, the strict
military organization and training which soon made the Spartan
hoplite the best soldier in Greece, and above all the elaborate
and rigid system of education which rested upon, and in turn
proved the strongest support of, that subordination of the
individual to the state which perhaps has had no parallel in the
history of the world.

Lycurgus's legislation is very variously dated, and it is not
possible either to harmonize the traditions or to decide with
confidence between them. B.Nlese (Hermes, xlii. 440 sqq.) assigns
him to the first half of the 7th century B.C. Aristotle read
Lycurgus's name, together with that of Iphitus, on the discus
at Olympia which bore the terms of the sacred truce, but even
if the genuineness of the document and the identity of this
Lycurgus with the Spartan reformer be granted, it is uncertain
whether the discus belongs to the so-called first Olympiad,
7 76 B.C., or to an earlier date. Most traditions place Lycurgus in
the gth century: Thucydides, whom Grote follows, dates his
reforms shortly before 804, Isocrates and Ephorus go back to 869,
and the chronographers are divided between 821, 828 and 834 B.C.
Finally, according to a tradition recorded by Xenophon (Resp.
Laced, x. 8), he was contemporary with the Heraclidae, in which
case he would belong to the loth century B.C.

AUTHORITIES. — Our chief ancient authorities, besides Plutarch's
biography, are: — Herodotus i. 65; Xenophon, Respublica Lacedae-
moniorum; Ephorus ap. Strabo x. 481, 482; Aristotle, Politics, ii. ;
Pausanias iii. and v. 4; and scattered passages in Plato, Isocrates,
Polybius, Diodorus, Polyaenus, &c. Of modern works the most im-
portant are: E. Meyer, Lykurgos von Sparta," in Forschungen zur
alien Geschichte (Halle, 1892), i. 211 sqq.; A. Kopstadt, De rerum
Laconicarum constitutions Lycurgeae origine et indole (Greifswald,
1849); H. K. Stein, Kritik der Oberlieferung uber den spartanischen
Gesetzgeber Lykurg (Glatz, 1882); S. Wide, " Bemerkungen zur
spartanischen Lykurglegende," in Skand. Archiv. i. (1891), 90 sqq.;
E. Nusselt, Das Lykurgproblem (Erlangen, 1898); H. Bazin, De
Lycurgo (Paris, 1885); C. Reuss, De Lycurgea quae fertur agrorum
divisione (Pforzheim, 1878); A. Busson, Lykurgos und die grosse
Rhetra (Innsbruck, 1887); H. Gelzer, "Lykurg und die delphische
Priesterschaft " in Rhein. Mus. xxviii. I sqq. ; F. Winicker, Stand der
Lykurgischen Frage (Graudenz, 1884); G. Attinger, Essai sur
Lycurgue et ses institutions (Neuchatel, 1892); the general Greek
histories, and the works on the Spartan constitution cited under
SPARTA. (M. N. T.)

LYCURGUS (c. 396-325 B.C.), one of the " ten " Attic orators.
Through his father, Lycophron, he belonged to the old Attic
priestly family of the Eteobutadae. He is said to have been
a pupil both of Plato and of Isocrates. His early career is
unknown, but after the real character of the struggle with
Philip of Macedon became manifest he was recognized, with
Demosthenes and Hypereides, as one of the chiefs of the national
party. He left the care of external relations to his colleagues,
and devoted himself to internal organization and finance. He

LYCURGUS— LYDENBURG

155

managed the finances of Athens for twelve successive years
(338-326), at first directly as treasurer of the revenues (6 «ri rjj
SuHKyaei) for four years, and in two succeeding terms, when
the actual office was forbidden him by law, through his son and
a nominal official chosen from his party. Part of one of the deeds
in which he rendered account of his term of office is still preserved
in an inscription. During this time he raised the public income
from 600 to 1200 talents yearly. He increased the navy, re-
paired the dockyards, and completed an arsenal, the aKevodrjicr]
designed by the architect Philo. He was also appointed to
various other offices connected with the preservation and improve-
ment of the city. He was very strict in his superintendence of the
public morals, and passed a sumptuary law to restrain extrava-
gance. He did much to beautify the city; he reconstructed
the great Dionysiac theatre and the gymnasium in the Lyceum,
and erected the Panathenaic stadium on the Ilissus. He is
mentioned as the proposer of five laws, of which the most famous
was that statues of the three great tragedians should be erected
in the theatre, and that their works should be carefully edited
and preserved among the state archives. For his services he was
honoured with crowns, statues and a seat in the town hall;
and after his death his friend Stratocles drew up a decree (still
extant in pseudo-Plutarch, Vit. dec. oral. p. 851; see also
E. L. Hicks, Greek Historical Inscriptions, ist ed., No. 145),
ordering the erection of a statue of bronze to Lycurgus, and
granting the honours of the Prytaneum to his eldest son. He
was one of the orators whose surrender was demanded by
Alexander the Great, but the people refused to give him up.
He died while president of the theatre of Dionysus, and was
buried on the road leading to the Academy at the expense of the
state.

Lycurgus was a man of action; his orations, of which fifteen
were published, are criticized by the ancients for their awkward
arrangement, harshness of style, and the tendency to digressions
about mythology and history, although their noble spirit and
lofty morality are highly praised. The one extant example,
Against Leocraies, fully bears out this criticism. After the
battle of Chaeroneia (338), in spite of the decree which forbade
emigration under pain of death, Leocrates had fled from Athens.
On his return (probably about 332) he was impeached by
Lycurgus, but acquitted, the votes of the judges being equally
divided.

The speech has been frequently edited. Editio princeps (Aldine,
1513) ; F. G. Kiessling (1847) with M. H. E. Meier's commentary on
pseudo- Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus and the fragments of his speeches ;
C. Rehdantz (1876); T. Thalheim (1880); C. Scheibe (1885); F.
Blass (ed. major, 1889), with bibliography of editions and articles
(ed. minor, 1902); E. Sofer (Leipzig, 1905), with notes and introd.
There is an index to Andocides, Lycurgus and Dinarchus by L. L.
Forman (Oxford, 1897). The exhaustive treatise of F. Dun-bach,
L'Orateur Lycurgue (1890), contains a list of the most important
review articles on the financial and naval administration of Lycurgus
and on his public works; see also C. Droege, De Lycurgo publicarum
pecuniarum administratore (Minden, 1880). Several fragments of his
various laws have been preserved in inscriptions (Corpus inscrip-
tionum atticarum, ii. 162, 163, 173, 176, 180). On the history of the
period see authorities under DEMOSTHENES.

LYCURGUS, " THELocOTHETE " (1772-1851), Greek leader in
the War of Independence, was born in the island of Samos. He
was educated at Constantinople, received the usual training, and
followed the customary career of a Phanariot Greek. He
accompanied Constantino Ypsilanti when he was appointed
hospodar of Walachia, as secretary, and served Ypsilanti's
successor, Alexander Soutzos, as treasurer and chancellor
(Logothete). In 1802 he returned to Samos, and having become
suspected by the Turkish government was imprisoned. He fled
to Smyrna, when he was pardoned and released by the Turks.
When the War of Independence began he induced his country-
men to declare Samos independent, and was chosen ruler. His
share in the War of Independence is chiefly memorable because
he provoked the massacre of Chios in 1822. Lycurgus con-
ducted an expedition of 2500 to that island, which was held
by a Turkish garrison under Velna Pasha. His force was in-
sufficient, the time was ill-chosen, for a strong Turkish fleet was
at sea, and Lycurgus displayed utter incapacity as a military

leader. After these events, he was deposed by the Samians,
but recovered some influence and had a share in the defence of
Samos against the Turks in 1824. When the island was left
under the authority of Turkey by the protocol of the 3rd of
February 1830, he helped to obtain autonomy for the Samians.
He retired to Greece and died on the 22nd of May 1851.
See G. Finlay, History of the Creek Revolution (London, 1861).

LYDD, a market town and municipal borough in the southern
parliamentary division of Kent, England, 71$ m. S.E. by E.
of London by a branch of the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway. Pop. (1901) 2675. It lies in the open lowland of
Dunge Marsh. To the south-east are the bare shingle banks
of the promontory of Dungeness. Its church of All Saints has
a beautiful Perpendicular tower with rich vaulting within.
The neighbourhood affords pasture for large flocks of sheep.
On the land known as the Rypes, in the neighbourhood, there
is a military camp, with artillery and rifle ranges; hence the
name given to the explosive " lyddite." The town is governed
by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 12,043
acres.

The first settlement at Lydd (Hlide, Lide, Lyde) was probably
due to its convenience as a fishing-station. After the Conquest
it became a seaport of some consequence and although now,
owing to the alteration of the coast, it stands nearly 3 m. inland
a number of its inhabitants are still fishermen. In 774 land in
Lydd was granted by Off a to the monks of Christ Church,
Canterbury, and the archbishop of Canterbury evidently held
the lordship of the town from an early date. At some time
before the reign of Edward I. Lydd was made a member of the
Cinque Port of Romney, and in 1290 was granted the same
liberties and free customs as the Cinque Ports on condition of
aiding the service of its head-port to the crown with one ship.
This charter was confirmed by Edward III. in 1365. The
corporation also possesses documents of 1154, 1399 and 1413,
granting to the archbishop's men of Lydd the privileges enjoyed
by the Cinque Ports and confirming all former privileges. Lydd
is called a borough in the Hundred Rolls. Its incorporation
under a bailiff, of which there is evidence in the isth century,
may have been due to the archbishop or to the court of Shepway,
but it was not incorporated by the crown until 1885, when, by a
charter under the Municipal Acts, the last bailiff was elected
the first mayor. In 1494 a grant was made to the bailiff, jurats
and commonalty of a yearly fair on the i2th of July and two
days following. A fair was held under this grant until 1874.

LYDENBURG, a town and district of the Transvaal, South
Africa. The town is 60 m. by rail N.N.E. of Belfast on the
Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway. Pop. (1904) 1523. It is pictur-
esquely situated on the Spekboom tributary of the Olifants
river at an altitude of 4900 ft. Some 15 m. E. is the Mauchberg
(8725 ft.), the highest point in the Transvaal. The town is the
chief centre for the Lydenburg goldfields. Next to Lydenburg
the most important settlement in these goldfields is Pilgrim's
Rest, pop. (1904) 1188, 23 m. N.E. of Lydenburg. Lydenburg
(the town of suffering) was founded in 1846 by Boers who two
years previously had established themselves farther north at
Ohrigstad, which they abandoned on account of the fever
endemic there. Lydenburg at once became the capital of a
district (of the same name) which then embraced all the eastern
part of the Transvaal. In 1836 the Boers of Lydenburg separated
from their brethren and proclaimed an independent republic,
which was, however, incorporated with the South African
Republic in 1860. The discovery of gold near the town was
made in 1869, and in 1873 the first successful goldfield in the
Transvaal was opened here. It was not until 1910, however,
that Lydenburg was placed in railway communication with the
rest of the country. The present district of Lydenburg consists
of the north-east and central parts of the original district. In
the Lulu Mountains, a spur of the Drakensberg, and some 40 m.
N.W. of Lydenburg, was the stronghold of the Kaffir chief
Sikukuni, whose conflict with the Boers in 1876 was one of the
causes which led to the annexation of the Transvaal by Great
Britain in 1877. (See TRANSVAAL: History.)

iS6

LYDFORD— LYDGATE

LYDFORD, or LIDFORD, a village, once an important town,
in the western parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
near the western confines of Dartmoor, 27 m. N. of Plymouth
by the London & South-Western railway. From its Perpen-
dicular church of St Petrock fine views of the Dartmoor tors are
seen. The village stands on the small river Lyd, which traverses
a deep narrow chasm, crossed by a bridge of single span; and at
a little distance a tributary stream forms a cascade in an exquisite
glen. Close to the church are slight remains of the castle of
Lydford.

Lydford (Lideford) was one of the four Saxon boroughs of
Devon, and possessed a mint in the days of /Ethelred the Unready.
It first appears in recorded history in 997, when the Danes
made a plundering expedition up the Tamar and Tavy as far
as " Hlidaforda." In the reign of Edward the Confessor it
was the most populous centre in Devonshire after Exeter, but
the Domesday Survey relates that forty houses had been laid
waste since the Conquest, and the town never recovered its
former prosperity; the history from the isth century centres
round the castle, which is first mentioned in 1216, when it was
granted to William Briwere, and was shortly afterwards fixed
as the prison of the stannaries and the meeting-place of the
Forest Courts of Dartmoor. A gild at Lideford is mentioned
in 1180, and the pipe roll of 1195 records a grant for the re-
establishment of the market. In 1238 the borough, which had
hitherto been crown demesne, was bestowed by Henry III.
on Richard, earl of Cornwall, who in 1 268 obtained a grant of a
Wednesday market and a three days' fair at the feast of St
Petrock. The borough had a separate coroner and bailiff in
1275, but it was never incorporated by charter, and only once,
in 1300, returned members to parliament. Lydford prison is
described in 1512 as " one of the most hainous, contagious and
detestable places in the realm," and " Lydford Law " was a
by-word for injustice. At the time of the Commonwealth the
castle was entirely in ruins, but in the i8th century it was
restored and again used as a prison and as the meeting-place
of the manor and borough courts.

LYDGATE, JOHN (c. 1370-0. 1451), English poet, was born at
the village of Lydgate, some 6 or 7 m. from Newmarket. It is,
however, with the Benedictine abbey of Bury St Edmunds
that he is chiefly associated. Probably he was educated at the
school attached to the monastery, and in his Testament he has
drawn a lively picture of himself as a typical orchard-robbing
boy, who had scant relish for matins, fought, and threw creed
( and paternoster at the cock. He was ordained sub-deacon in
' 1389, deacon in 1393, and priest in 1397. These dates are valuable
as enabling us to fix approximately the date of his birth, which
must have occurred somewhere about 1370. Lydgate passed
as a portent of learning, and, according to Bale, he pursued his
studies not only at both the English universities but in France
and Italy. Koeppel (see Laurents de Premierjait und John
Lydgates Bearbeilungen von Boccaccios De Casibus, Munich, 1885)
has thrown much doubt on this statement as regards Italy, but
Lydgate knew France and visited Paris in an official capacity
in 1426. Bale is also the authority for another assertion that
figures in what has been aptly termed the poet's " traditional
biography," viz. that Lydgate, on completing his own education,
kept school for the sons of noblemen and gentlemen. This
"traditional biography" prolongs his life to the year 1461,
but it is quite improbable that he lived many years after 1446,
when Abbot Curteys died and John Baret, treasurer of Bury,
signed an extant receipt for a pension which he shared with
Lydgate, and which continued to be paid till 1449. If it be true,
as Bishop Alcock of Ely affirms, that Lydgate wrote a poem on
the loss of France and Gascony, it seems necessary to suppose
that he lived two years longer, and thus indications point to the
year 1451, or thereabouts, as the date of his death.

Lydgate had a consuming passion for literature, and it was
probably that he might indulge this taste more fully that in
1434 he retired from the priorate of Hatfield Broadoak (or
Hat field Regis), to which he had been appointed in June 1423.
After 1390 — but whilst he was still a young man — he made the

acquaintance of Geoffrey Chaucer, with whose son Thomas
he was on terms of considerable intimacy. This friendship
appears to have decided Lydgate's career, and in his Troy-book
and elsewhere are reverent and touching tributes to his " master."
The passages in question do not exaggerate his obligations to
the " well of English." The themes of all his more ambitious
poems can be traced to Chaucerian sources. The Story of
Thebes, for instance, was doubtless suggested by the " romance "
which Cressida and her companions are represented as reading
when interrupted by Pandarus ( Troilus and Cressida, II. xii.-xvi.) .
The Falls oj Princes, again, is merely the Monk's Tale " writ
large."

Lydgate is a most voluminous writer. The Falls of Princes
alone comprises 7000 stanzas; and his authentic compositions
reach the enormous total of 150,000 lines. Cursed with such
immoderate fluency Lydgate could not sustain himself at the
highest level of artistic excellence; and, though imbued with a
sense of the essentials of poetry, and eager to prove himself in
its various manifestations, he stinted himself of the self -discipline
necessary to perfection of form. As the result the bulk of his
composition is wholly or comparatively rough-hewn. That he
was capable of better work than is suggested by his average
accomplishment is shown by two allegorical poems — the
Complaint of the Black Knight and the Temple of Glass (once
attributed to Hawes). In these he reveals himself as a not
unworthy successor of Chaucer, and the pity of it is that he should
have squandered his powers in a futile attempt to create an
entire literature. For a couple of centuries Lydgate's reputation
equalled, if it did not surpass, that of his master. This was in
a sense only natural, since he was the real founder of the school
of which Stephen Hawes was a distinguished ornament, and
which " held the field " in English letters during the long and
dreary interval between Chaucer and Spenser. One of the most
obvious defects of this school is excessive attachment to poly-
syllabic terms. Lydgate is not quite so great a sinner in this
respect as are some of his successors, but his tendency cannot
be mistaken, and John Metham is amply justified in his censure —
Eke John Lydgate, sometime monk of Bury,
His books indited with terms of rhetoric
And half-changed Latin, with conceits of poetry.

Pedantry was an inevitable effect of the early Renaissance.
French literature passed through the same phase, from which
indeed it was later in emerging; and the ultimate consequence
was the enrichment of both languages. It must be conceded
as no small merit in Lydgate that, in an age of experiment
he should have succeeded so often in hitting the right word.
Thomas Warton remarks on his lucidity. Since his writings are
read more easily than Chaucer's, the inference is plain — that he
was more effectual as a maker of our present English. In spite
of that, Lydgate is characteristically medieval — medieval in his
prolixity, his platitude, his want of judgment and his want of
taste; medieval also in his pessimism, his Mariolatry and his
horror of death. These attributes jarred on the sensitive Ritson,
who racked his brains for contumelious epithets such as " stupid
and disgusting," " cart-loads of rubbish," &c.; and during the
greater part of the i8th and igth centuries Lydgate's reputation
was at its lowest ebb. Recent criticism has been far more
impartial, and almost too much respect has been paid to his
attainments, especially in the matter of metre, though Lydgate
himself, with offensive lightheartedness, admits his poor crafts-
manship.

Lydgate's most doughty and learned apologist is Dr Schick, whose
preface to the Temple of Glass embodies practically all that is known
or conjectured concerning this author, including the chronological
order of his works. With the exception of the Damage and Destruc-
tion in Realms — an account of Julius Caesar, his wars and his death —
they are all in verse and extremely multifarious — narrative, de-
votional hagiological, philosophical and scientific, allegorical and
moral, historical, satirical and occasional. The Troy-book, under-
taken at the command of Henry V., then prince of Wales, dates from
1412-1420; the Story of Thebes from 1420-1422; and the Falls of
Princes towards 1430. His latest work was Secreta Secretorum or
Secrets of Old Philosophers, rhymed extracts from a pseudo- Aristotelian
treatise. Lydgate certainly possessed extraordinary versatility,

LYDIA

1S7

which enabled him to turn from elaborate epics to quite popular
poems like the Mumming at Hertford, A Ditty of Women's Horns and
London Lickpenny. The humour of this last is especially bright and
effective, but, unluckily for the author, the piece is believed to have
been retouched by some other hand. The longer efforts partake of
the nature of translations from sundry medieval compilations like
those of Guido di Colonna and Boccaccio, which are in Latin.

See publications of the Early English Text Society, especially the
Temple of Glass, edited by Dr Scnick; Koeppel's Lydgate's Story
of Thebes, eine Quellenuntersuchung (Munich, 1884), and the same
scholar's Laurents de Premierfait und John Lydgates Bearbeitungen von
BoccacCios De Casibus lUustrium Virorum (Munich, 1885); Walton's
History of English Poetry; Kit son's Bibliotheca Anglo-Poetica;
Furnivall's Political Poems (E. E. T. S.); and Sidney Lee's article
in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (F. J. S.)

LYDIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor, the
boundaries of which it is difficult to fix, partly because they
varied at different epochs. The name is first found under the
form of Luddi in the inscriptions of the Assyrian king Assur-
bani-pal, who received tribute from Gyges about 660 B.C. In
Homer we read only of Maeonians (//. ii. 865, v. 43, x. 431), and
the place of the Lydian capital Sardis is taken by Hyde (//. xx.
385), unless this was the name of the district in which Sardis
stood (see Strabo xiii. p. 626).' The earliest Greek writer who
mentions the name is Mimnermus of Colophon, in the 3yth
Olympiad. According to Herodotus (i. 7), the Meiones (called
Maeones by other writers) were named Lydians after Lydus, the
son of Attis, in the mythical epoch which preceded the rise of the
Heraclid dynasty. In historical times the Maeones were a tribe
inhabiting the district of the upper Hermus, where a town called
Maeonia existed (Pliny, N.H. v. 30; Hierocles, p. 670). The
Lydians must originally have been an allied tribe which bordered
upon them to the north-west, and occupied the plain of Sardis or
Magnesia at the foot of Tmolus and Sipylus. They were cut off
from the sea by the Greeks, who were in possession, not only of the
Bay of Smyrna, but also of the country north of Sipylus as far as
Temnus in the pass (boghaz), through which the Hermus forces its
way from the plain of Magnesia into its lower valley.2 In a
Homeric epigram the ridge north of the Hermus, on which the
ruins of Temnus lie, is called Sardene. Northward the Lydians
extended at least as far as the Gygaean Lake (Lake Coloe, mod.
Mermereh), and the Sardene range (mod. Dumanli Dagh). The
plateau of the Bin Bir Tepe, on the southern shore of the Gygaean
Lake, was the chief burial-place of the inhabitants of Sardis, and
is still thickly studded with tumuli, among which is the " tomb
of Alyattes " (260 ft. high). Next to Sardis the chief city was
Magnesia ad Sipylum (q.v.), in the neighbourhood of which is the
famous seated figure of " Niobe " (//. xxiv. 614-617), cut out of the
rock, and probably intended to represent the goddess Cybele, to
which the Greeks attached their legend of Niobe. According to
Pliny (v. 31), Tantalis, afterwards swallowed up by earthquake
in the pool Sale or Saloe, was the ancient name of Sipylus and
" the capital of Maeonia " (Paus. vii. 24; Strabo xii. 579).
Under the Heraclid dynasty the limits of Lydia-must have been
already extended, since according to Strabo (xiii. 590), the
authority of Gyges reached as far as the Troad. Under the
Mermnads Lydia became a maritime as well as an inland power.
The Greek cities were conquered, and the coast of Ionia included
within the Lydian kingdom. The successes of Alyattes and of
Croesus finally changed the Lydian kingdom into a Lydian empire,
and all Asia Minor westward of the Halys, except Lycia, owned
the supremacy of Sardis. Lydia never again shrank back into
its original dimensions. After the Persian conquest the Maeander
was regarded as its southern boundary, and in the Roman
period it comprised the country between Mysia and Caria on the
one side and Phrygia and the Aegean on the other.

Lydia proper was exceedingly fertile. The hill-sides were
clothed with vine and fir, and the rich broad plain of Hermus
produced large quantities of corn and saffron. The climate of
the plain was soft but healthy, though the country was subject
to frequent earthquakes. The Pactolus, which flowed from the
fountain of Tarne in the Tmolus mountains, through the centre
of Sardis, into the Hermus, was believed to be full of golden sand;

1 Pliny (v. 30) makes it the Maeonian name.

1 See Sir W. M. Ramsay in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, ii. 2.

and gold mines were worked in Tmolus itself, though by the time
of Strabo the proceeds had become so small as hardly to pay for
the expense of working them (Strabo xiii. 591). Maeonia on the
east contained the curious barren plateau known to the Greeks as
the Katakekaumene (" Burnt country "), once a centre of volcanic
disturbance. The Gygaean lake (where remains of pile dwellings
have been found) still abounds with carp.

Herodotus (i. 171) tells us that Lydus was a brother of Mysus
and Car. The statement is on the whole borne out by the few
Lydian, Mysian and Carian words that have been preserved, as
well as by the general character of the civilization prevailing
among the three nations. The race was probably a mixed one,
consisting of aborigines and Aryan immigrants. It was character-
ized by industry and a commercial spirit, and, before the Persian
conquest, by bravery. The religion of the Lydians resembled
that of the other civilized nations of Asia Minor. It was a nature
worship, which at times became wild and sensuous. By the side
of the supreme god Medeus stood the sun-god Attis, as in Phrygia
the chief object of the popular cult. He was at once the son and
bridegroom of Cybele (q.v.) or Cybebe, the mother of the gods,
whose image carved by Broteas, son of Tantalus, was adored
on the cliffs of Sipylus (Paus. iii. 22). The cult may have been
brought westward by the Hittites who have left memorials of
themselves in the pseudo-Sesostris figures of Kara-bel (between
Sardis and Ephesus) as well as in the figure of the Mother-
goddess, the so-called Niobe. At Ephesus, where she was adored
under the form of a meteoric stone, she was identified with the
Greek Artemis (see also GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). Her
mural crown is first seen in the Hittite sculptures of Boghaz
Keui (see PTERIA and HITTITES) on the Halys. The priestesses
by whom she was served are depicted in early art as armed with
the double-headed axe, and the dances they performed in her
honour with shield and bow gave rise to the myths which saw in
them the Amazons, a nation of woman-warriors. The pre-
Hellenic cities of the coast — Smyrna, Samorna (Ephesus),
Myrina, Cyme, Priene and Pitane — were all of Amazonian origin,
and the first three of them have the same name as the Amazon
Myrina, whose tomb was pointed out in the Troad. The prosti-
tution whereby the Lydian girls gained their dowries (Herod, i.
93) was a religious exercise, as among the Semites, which marked
their devotion to the goddess Cybele. In the legend of Heracles,
Omphale takes the place of Cybele, and was perhaps her Lydian
title. Heracles is here the sun-god Attis in a new form; his
Lydian name is unknown, since E. Meyer has shown (Zeilsckr. d.
Morg. Gesell. xxxi. 4) that Sandon belongs not to Lydia but to
Cilicia. By the side of Attis stood Manes or Men, identified later
with the Moon-god.

According to the native historian Xanthus (460 B.C.) three
dynasties ruled in succession over Lydia. The first, that of the
Attiads, is mythical. It was headed by a god, and included
geographical personages like Lydus, Asies and Meles, or such
heroes of folk-lore as Cambletes, who devoured his wife. To this
mythical age belongs the colony which, according to Herodotus
(i. 94), Tyrsenus, the son of Attis, led to Etruria. Xanthus,
however, puts Torrhebus in the place of Tyrsenus, and makes
him the eponym of a district in Lydia. It is doubtful whether
Xanthus recognized the Greek legends which brought Pelops
from Lydia, or rather Maeonia, and made him the son of Tantalus.
The second dynasty was also of divine origin, but the names
which head it prove its connexion with the distant East. Its
founder, a descendant of Heracles and Omphale, was, Herodotus
tellsus(i. 7),asonof Ninus and grandson of Belus. The Assyrian
inscriptions have shown that the Assyrians had never crossed the
Halys, much less known the name of Lydia, before the age of
Assur-bani-pal, and consequently the theory which brought the
Heraclids from Nineveh must be given up. But the Hittites,
another Oriental people, deeply imbued with the elements of
Babylonian culture, had overrun Asia Minor and established
themselves on the shores of the Aegean before the reign of the
Egyptian king Rameses II.

The subject allies who then fight under their banners include
the Masu or Mysians and the Dardani of the Troad, while the

i58

LYDUS— LYELL, SIR CHARLES

Hittites have left memorials in Lydia. G. Dennis discovered an
inscription in Hittite hieroglyphics attached to the figure of
" Niobe " on Sipylus, and a similar inscription accompanies the
figure (in which Herodotus, ii. 106, wished to see Sesostris or
Rameses II.) in the pass of Karabel. We learn from Eusebius
that Sardis was first captured by the Cimmerii 1078 B.C.; and
since it was four centuries later before the real Cimmerii (q.v.)
appeared on the horizon of history, we may perhaps find in the
statement a tradition of the Hittite conquest. As the authority
of the Hittite satraps at Sardis began to decay the Heraclid
dynasty arose. According to Xanthus, Sadyattes and Lixus were
the successors of Tylon the son of Omphale. After lasting five
hundred and five years, the dynasty came to an end in the person
of Sadyattes, as he is called by Nicolas of Damascus, whose
account is doubtless derived from Xanthus. The name Can-
daules, given him by Herodotus, meant " dog strangler " and
was a title of the Lydian Hermes. Gyges (q.v.) put him to death
and established the dynasty of the Mermnads, 687 B.C. Gyges
initiated a new policy, that of making Lydia a maritime power;
but towards the middle of his reign the kingdom was overrun
by the Cimmerii. The lower town of Sardis was taken, and Gyges
sent tribute to Assur-bani-pal, as well as two Cimmerian chief-
tains he had himself captured in battle. A few years later
Gyges joined in the revolt against Assyria, and the Ionic and
Carian mercenaries he despatched to Egypt enabled Psam-
metichus to make himself independent. Assyria, however, was
soon avenged. The Cimmerian hordes returned, Gyges was
slain in battle (652 B.C.), and Ardys his son and successor returned
to his allegiance to Nineveh. The second capture of Sardis on
this occasion was alluded to by Calh'sthenes (Strabo xiii. 627).
Alyattes, the grandson of Ardys, finally succeeded in extirpating
the Cimmerii, as well as in taking Smyrna, and thus providing
his kingdom with a port. The trade and wealth of Lydia rapidly
increased, and the Greek towns fell one after the other before the
attacks of the Lydian kings. Alyattes's long reign of fifty-seven
years saw the foundation of the Lydian empire. All Asia Minor
west of the Halys acknowledged his sway, and the six years'
contest he carried on with the Medes was closed by the marriage
of his daughter Aryenis to Astyages. The Greek cities were
allowed to retain their own institutions and government on con-
dition of paying taxes and dues to the Lydian monarch, and
the proceeds of their commerce thus flowed into the imperial
exchequer. The result was that the king of Lydia became the
richest prince of his age. Alyattes was succeeded by Croesus
(q.v.) , who had probably already for some years shared the royal
power with his father, or perhaps grandfather, as V. Floigl thinks
(Geschichte des semitischen Alterthums, p. 20). He reigned alone
only fifteen years, Cyrus the Persian, after an indecisive battle
on the Halys, marching upon Sardis, and capturing both acropolis
and monarch (546 B.C.). The place where the acropolis was
entered was believed to have been overlooked by the mythical
Meles when he carried the lion round his fortress to make it
invulnerable; it was really a path opened by one of the landslips,
which have reduced the sandstone cliff of the acropolis to a mere
shell, and threaten to carry it altogether into the plain below.
The revolt of the Lydians under Pactyas, whom Cyrus had
appointed to collect the taxes, caused the Persian king to disarm
them, though we can hardly credit the statement that by this
measure their warlike spirit was crushed. Sardis now became
the western capital of the Persian empire, and its burning by
the Athenians was the indirect cause of the Persian War. After
Alexander the Great's death, Lydia passed to Antigonus; then
Achaeus made himself king at Sardis, but was defeated and put
to death by Antiochus. The country was presented by the
Romans to Eumenes, and subsequently formed part of the
proconsular province of Asia. By the time of Strabo (xiii.
631) its old language was entirely supplanted by Greek.

The Lydian empire may be described as the industrial power
of the ancient world. The Lydians were credited with being the
inventors, not only of games such as dice, huckle-bones and ball
(Herod, i. 94), but also of coined money. The oldest known coins are
the electrum coins of the earlier Mermnads (Madden, Coins of the
Jews, pp. 19-21), stamped on one side with a lion's head or the

figure of a king with bow and quiver; these were replaced by Croesus
with a coinage of pure gold and silver. To the latter monarch were
probably due the earliest gold coins of Ephesus (Head, Coinage of
Ephesus, p. 1 6). The electrum coins of Lydia were of two kinds, one
weighing 168-4 grains for the inland trade, and another of 224 grains
for the trade with Ionia. The standard was the silver mina of
Carchemish (as the Assyrians called it) which contained 8656 grains.
Originally derived by the Hittites from Babylonia, but modified by
themselves, this standard was passed on to the nations of Asia
Minor during the period of Hittite conquest, but was eventually
superseded by the Phoenician mina of 11,225 grains, and continued
to survive only in Cyprus and Cilicia (see also NUMISMATICS). The
inns, which the Lydians were said to have been the first to establish
(Herod, i. 94), were connected with their attention to commercial

Cursuits. Their literature has wholly perished. They were cele-
rated for their music and gymnastic exercises, and their art formed
a link between that of Asia Minor and that of Greece. R. Heberdey's
excavations at Ephesus since 1896, like those of D. G. Hogarth in 1905,
belong to the history of Greek and not native art. The ivory figures,
however, found by Hogarth on the level of the earliest temple of
Artemis show Asiatic influence, and resemble the so-called " Phoe-
nician " ivories from the palace of Sargon at Calah (Nimrud). For a
description of a pectoral of white gold, ornamented with the heads of
animals, human faces and the figure of a goddess, discovered in a
tomb on Tmolus, see Academy, January 15, 1881, p. 45. Lydian
sculpture was probably similar to that of the Phrygians. Phallic
emblems, for averting evil, were plentiful ; the summit of the tomb
of Alyattes is crowned with an enormous one of stone, about 9 ft. in
diameter. The tumulus itself is 281 yds. in diameter and about half
a mile in circumference. It has been partially excavated by G.
Spiegelthal and G. Dennis, and a sepulchral chamber discovered in
the middle, composed of large well-cut and highly polished blocks of
marble, the chamber being n ft. long, nearly 8 ft. broad and 7 ft.
high. Nothing was found in it except a few ashes and a broken vase
of Egyptian alabaster. The stone basement which, according to
Herodotus, formerly surrounded the mound has disappeared.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A. von Olfers, Vber die lydischen Konigsgraber
bei Sardes (1858); H. Gelzer in the Kheinisches Museum (1874);
R. Schubert, Geschichte der Konige von Lydien (1884); G. Perrot
and C. Chipiez, Histoire de I' art dans VantiquM, v. (1890) ; O. Radet,
La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades (1893); G.
Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, pp. 232-301 (1892) and Passing of the
Empires, pp. 339,388,603-621 (1900); J.KeilandA. von Premerstein,
Bericht uber eine Reise in Lydien (1908). (A. H. S.)

LYDUS ("THE LYDIAN"), JOANNES LAURENTIUS, Byzan-
tine writer on antiquarian subjects, was born at Philadelphia
in Lydia about A.D. 490. At an early age he set out to seek his
fortune in Constantinople, and held high court and state offices
under Anastasius and Justinian. In 552 he lost favour, and was
dismissed. The date of his death is not known, but he was
probably alive during the early years of Justin II. (reigned 565-
578). During his retirement he occupied himself in the compila-
tion of works on the antiquities of Rome, three of which have
been preserved: (i) DeOstentis (Ilepi 5io<njiJ£i£>v), on the origin
and progress of the art of divination; (2) De Magistralibus
reipublicae Romanae (Hep! apx&v rijs 'Pupa'aav iroXtreios),
especially valuable for the administrative details of the time of
Justinian; (3) De Mensibus (Ilepi tirivuv), a history of the different
festivals of the year. The chief value of these books consists
in the fact that' the author made use of the works (now lost) of
old Roman writers on similar subjects. Lydus was also com-
missioned by Justinian to compose a panegyric on the emperor,
and a history of his successful campaign against Persia; but
these, as well as some poetical compositions, are lost.

Editions of (i) by C. Wachsmuth (1897), with full account of the
authorities in the prolegomena; of (2) and (3) by R. Wunsch (1898-
1903); see also the essay by C. B. Hase (the first editor of the De
Ostentis) prefixed to I. Bekker's edition of Lydus (1837) in the Bonn
Corpus scriptorum hist. Byzantinae.

LYE (O. Eng. Hag, cf. Dutch loog, Ger. Lauge, from the root
meaning to wash, see in Lat. lavare, and Eng. " lather," froth of
soap and water, and " laundry "), the name given to the solution
of alkaline salts obtained by leaching or lixiviating wood ashes
with water, and sometimes to a solution of a caustic alkali.
Lixiviation (Lat. lixivium, lye, /*'*, ashes) is the action of separat-
ing, by the percolation of water, a soluble from an insoluble
substance. " Leaching," the native English term for this process,
is from " leach," to water, the root probably being the same as
in " lake."

LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875), British geologist, was
the eldest son of Charles Lyell of Kinnordy, Forfarshire, and

LYLY, JOHN

'59

was born on the I4th of November 1797, on the family estate in
Scotland. His father (1767-1849) was known both as a botanist
and as the translator of the Vita Numia and the Convilo of Dante:
the plant Lyellia was named after him. From his boyhood Lyell
had a strong inclination for natural history, especially ento-
mology, a taste which he cultivated at Hartley Lodge in the New
Forest, to which his family had removed soon after his birth.
In 1816 he entered Exeter College, Oxford, where the lectures
of Dr Buckland first drew his attention to geological study.
After taking his degree of B.A. in 1819 (M.A. in 1821) he entered
Lincoln's Inn, and in 1825, after a delay caused by chronic
weakness of the eyes, he was called to the bar, and went on the
western circuit for two years. During this time he was slowly
gravitating towards the life of a student of science. In 1819 he
had been elected a fellow of the Linnean and Geological Societies,
communicating his first paper, " On a Recent Formation of Fresh-
water Limestone in Forfarshire," to the latter society in 1822,
and acting as one of the honorary secretaries in 1823. In that
year he went to France, with introductions to Cuvier, Hum-
boldt and other men of science, and in 1824 made a geological
tour in Scotland in company with Dr Buckland. In 1826 he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, from which in later
years he received both the Copley and Royal medals; and in
1827 he finally abandoned the legal profession, and devoted
himself to geology.

At this time he had already begun to plan his chief work, The
Principles of Geology. The subsidiary title, " An Attempt to
Explain the Former Changes of the Earth's Surface by Reference
to Causes now in Operation," gives the keynote of the task to
which Lyell devoted his life. A journey with Murchison in 1828
gave rise to joint papers on the volcanic district of Auvergne and
the Tertiary formations of Aix-en-Provence. After parting
with Murchison he studied the marine remains of the Italian
Tertiary Strata and then conceived the idea of dividing this
geological system into three or four groups, characterized by the
proportion of recent to extinct species of shells. To these groups,
after consulting Dr Whewell as to the best nomenclature, he
gave the names now universally adopted — Eocene (dawn of
recent), Miocene (less of recent), and Pliocene (more of recent);
and with the assistance of G. P. Deshayes he drew up a table of
shells in illustration of this classification. The first volume of
the Principles of Geology appeared in 1830, and the second in
January 1832. Received at first with some opposition, so far as
its leading theory was concerned, the work had ultimately a
great success, and the two volumes had already reached a second
edition in 1833 when the third, dealing with the successive forma-
tions of the earth's crust, was added. Between 1830 and 1872
eleven editions of this work were published, each so much
enriched with new material and the results of riper thought as
to form a complete history of the progress of geology during
that interval. Only a few days before his death Sir Charles
finished revising the first volume of the i2th edition; the revision
of the second volume was completed by his nephew Mr (after-
wards Sir) Leonard Lyell; and the work appeared in 1876.

In August 1838 Lyell published the Elements of Geology,
which, from being originally an expansion of one section of the
Principles, became a standard work on stratigraphical and
palaeontological geology. This book went through six editions
in Lyell's lifetime (some intermediate editions being styled
Manual of Elementary Geology), and in 1871 a smaller work, the
Student's Elements of Geology, was based upon it. His third
great work, The Antiquity of Man, appeared in 1863, and ran
through three editions in one year. In this he gave a general
survey of the arguments for man's early appearance on the earth,
derived from the discoveries of flint implements in post-Pliocene
strata in the Somme valley and elsewhere; he discussed also
the deposits of the Glacial epoch, and in the same volume he
first gave in his adhesion to Darwin's theory of the origin of
species. A fourth edition appeared in 1873.

In 1831-1833 Lyell was professor of geology at King's College,
London, and delivered while there a course of lectures, which
became the foundation of the Elements of Geology. In 1832 he

married Mary (1800-1873) eldest daughter of Leonard Homer
(q.v.), and she became thenceforward associated with him in
all his work, and by her social qualities making his home a centre
of attraction. In 1834 he made an excursion to Denmark and
Sweden, the result of which was his Bakerian lecture to the
Royal Society " On the Proofs of the gradual Rising of Land
in certain Parts of Sweden." He also brought before the
Geological Society a paper " On the Cretaceous and Tertiary
Strata of Seeland and Moen." In 1835 he became president
of the Geological Society. In 1837 he was again in Norway
and Denmark, and in 1841 he spent a year in travelling through
the United States, Canada and Nova Scotia. This last journey,
together with a second one to America in 1845, resulted not only
in papers, but also in two works not exclusively geological,
Travels in North America (1845) and A Second Visit to the United
States (1849). During these journeys he estimated the rate of
recession of the falls of Niagara, the annual average accumulation
of alluvial matter in the delta of the Mississippi, and studied
those vegetable accumulations in the " Great Dismal Swamp "
of Virginia, which he afterwards used in illustrating the forma-
tion of beds of coal. He also studied the coal-formations in
Nova Scotia, and discovered in company with Dr (afterwards Sir
J. W.) Dawson (q.v.) of Montreal, the earliest known landshell,
Pupa vetusta, in the hollow stem of a Sigillaria. In bringing
a knowledge of European geology to bear upon the extended
formations of North America Lyell rendered immense service.
Having visited Madeira and Teneriffe in company with
G. Hartung, he accumulated much valuable evidence on the age
and deposition of lava-beds and the formation of volcanic cones.
He also revisited Sicily in 1858, when he made such observations
upon the structure of Etna as refuted the theory of " craters
of elevation " upheld by Von Buch and Elie de Beaumont (see
Phil. Trans., 1859).

Lyell was knighted in 1848, and was created a baronet in
1864, in which year he was president of the British Association
at Bath. He was elected corresponding member of the French
Institute and of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and
was created a knight of the Prussian Order of Merit.

During the later years of his life his sight, always weak, failed
him altogether. He died on the 22nd of February 1875, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey. Among his characteristics
were his great thirst for knowledge, his perfect fairness and
sound judgment; while the extreme freshness of his mind
enabled him to accept and appreciate the work of younger
men.

The LYELL MEDAL, established in 1875 under the will of Sir Charles
Lyell, is cast in bronze and is to be awarded annually (or from time
to time) by the Council of the Geological Society. The medallist may
be of any country or either sex. Not less than one-third of the
annual interest of a sum of £2000 is to be awarded with the medal ;
the remaining interest, known as the LYELL GEOLOGICAL FUND, is to
be given in one or more portions at the discretion of the Council for
the encouragement of geological science.

See Life, Letters and Journals of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., edited by
his sister-in-law, Mrs Lyell (2 vols., 1881) ; Charles Lyell and Modern
Geology, by T. G. Bonney (1895). (H. B. Wo.)

LYLY (LILLY, or LYLIE), JOHN (1553-1606), English writer,
the famous author of Euphues, was born in Kent in 1553 or 1554.
At the age of sixteen, according to Wood, he became a student
of Magdalen College, Oxford, where in due time he proceeded
to his bachelor's and master's degrees (1573 and 1575), and from
whence we find him in 1574 applying to Lord Burghley " for
the queen's letters to Magdalen College to admit him fellow."
The fellowship, however, was not granted, and Lyly shortly
after left the university. He complains of what seems to have
been a sentence of rustication passed upon him at some period
in his academical career, in his address to the gentlemen scholars
of Oxford affixed to the second edition of the first part of Euphues,
but in the absence of any further evidence it is impossible to
fix either its date or its cause. If we are to believe Wood, he
never took kindly to the proper studies of the university. " For
so it was that his genius being naturally bent to the pleasant
paths of poetry (as if Apollo had given .to him a wreath of his
own bays without snatching or struggling) did in a manner

i6o

LYLY, JOHN

neglect academical studies, yet not so much but that he took
the degrees in arts, that of master being compleated 1575."
After he left Oxford, where he had already the reputation of " a
noted wit," Lyly seems to have attached himself to Lord Burgh-
ley. " This noble man," he writes in the " Glasse for Europe,"
in the second part of Euphues (1580), " I found so ready being
but a straunger to do me good, that neyther I ought to forget
him, neyther cease to pray for him, that as he hath the wisdom
of Nestor, so he may have the age, that having the policies of
Ulysses he may have his honor, worthy to lyve long, by whom
so many lyve in quiet, and not unworthy to be advaunced by
whose care so many have been preferred." Two years later
we possess a letter of Lyly to the treasurer, dated July 1582,
in which the writer protests against some accusation of dis-
honesty which had brought him into trouble with his patron,
and demands a personal interview for the purpose of clearing
his character. What the further relations beween them were
we have no means of knowing, but it is clear that neither from
Burghley nor from the queen did Lyly ever receive any sub-
stantial patronage. In 1578 he began his literary career by the
composition of Euphues, or the Anatomy of Wit, which was
licensed to Gabriel Cawood on the 2nd of December, 1578, and pub-
lished in the spring of 1 579. In the same year the author was incor-
porated M.A. at Cambridge, and possibly saw his hopes of court
advancement dashed by the appointment in July of Edmund
Tylney to the office of master of the revels, a post at which, as
he reminds the queen some years later, he had all along been
encouraged to " aim his courses." Euphues and his England
appeared in 1580, and, like the first part of the book, won im-
mediate popularity. For a time Lyly was the most successful
and fashionable of English writers. He was hailed as the author
of "a new English," as a " raffineur de PAnglois"; and, as
Edmund Blount, the editor of his plays, tells us in 1632, " that
beautie in court which could not parley Euphuism was as little
regarded as she which nowe there speakes not French." After
the publication of Euphues, however, Lyly seems to have entirely
deserted the novel form himself, which passed into the hands
of his imitators, and to have thrown himself almost exclusively
into play-writing, probably with a view to the mastership of
revels whenever a vacancy should occur. Eight plays by him
were probably acted before the queen by the children of the
Chapel Royal and the children of St Paul's between the years
1584 and 1589, one or two of them being repeated before a
popular audience at the Blackfriars Theatre. Their brisk
lively dialogue, classical colour and frequent allusions to persons
and events of the day maintained that popularity with the
court which Euphues had won. Lyly sat in parliament as
member for Hindon in 1589, for Aylesbury in 1593, for Appleby
in 1597 and for Aylesbury a second time in 1601. In 1589 Lyly
published a tract in the Martin Marprelate controversy, called
Pappe with an hatchet, alias a figge for my Godsonne; Or Crack
me this nut; Or a Country Cuffe, &C.1 About the same time
we may probably date his first petition to Queen Elizabeth.
The two petitions, transcripts of which are extant among the
Harleian MSS., are undated, but in the first of them he speaks
of having been ten years hanging about the court in hope of
preferment, and in the second he extends the period to thirteen
years. It may be conjectured with great probability that the
ten years date from 1579, when Edmund Tylney -was appointed
master of the revels with a tacit understanding that Lyly was
to have the next reversion of the post. " I was entertained your
Majestie's servaunt by your own gratious favor," he says,
" strengthened with conditions that I should ayme all my
courses at the Revells (I dare not say with a promise, but with
a hopeful Item to the Revercion) for which these ten yeres I
have attended with an unwearyed patience." But in 1589
or 1590 the mastership of the revels was as far off as ever —
Tylney in fact held the post for thirty-one years — and that
1 The evidence for his authorship may be found in Gabriel Harvey's
Piercc's Supererogation (written November 1589, published 1593), in
Nash's Have with you to Saffron Walden (1596), and in various
allusions in Lyly's own plays. See Fairholt's Dramatic Works of
John Lilly, \. 20.

Lyly's petition brought him no compensation in other directions
may be inferred from the second petition of 1593. " Thirteen
yeres your highnes servant but yet nothing. Twenty freinds
that though they saye they will be sure, I finde them sure to be
slowe. A thousand hopes, but all nothing; a hundred promises
but yet nothing. Thus casting up the inventory of my friends,
hopes, promises and tymes, the summa totalis amounteth to just
nothing." What may have been Lyly's subsequent fortunes
at court we do not know. Edmund Blount says vaguely that
Elizabeth " graced and rewarded " him, but of this there is no
other evidence. After 1590 his works steadily declined in
influence and reputation; other stars were in possession of the
horizon; and so far as we know he died poor and neglected
in the early part of James I.'s reign. He was buried in London
at St Bartholomew the Less on the 2oth of November, 1606. He was
married, and we hear of two sons and a daughter.

Comedies. — In 1632 Edmund Blount published " Six Court
Comedies," including Endymion (1591), Sappho and Phao (1584),
Alexander and Campaspe (1584), Midas (1592), Mother Bombie
(1594) and Gallathea (1592). To these should be added the
Woman in the Moone (Lyly's earliest play, to judge from a
passage in the prologue and therefore earlier than 1584, the date
of Alexander and Campaspe}, and Love's Metamorphosis, first
printed in 1601. Of these, all but the last are in prose. A
Warning for Faire Women (1599) and The Maid's Metamorphosis
(1600) have been attributed to Lyly, but on altogether insufficient
grounds. The first editions of all these plays were issued between
1584 and 1601, and the majority of them between 1584 and
1592, in what were Lyly's most successful and popular years.
His importance as a dramatist has been very differently esti-
mated. Lyly's dialogue is still a long way removed from the
dialogue of Shakespeare. But at the same time it is a great
advance in rapidity and resource upon anything which had gone
before it; it represents an important step in English dramatic
art. His nimbleness, and the wit which struggles with his
pedantry, found their full development in the dialogue of
Twelfth Night and Much Ado about Nothing, just as " Marlowe's
mighty line " led up to and was eclipsed by the majesty and
music of Shakespearian passion. One or two of the songs
introduced into his plays are justly famous and show a real
lyrical gift. Nor in estimating his dramatic position and his
effect upon his time must it be forgotten that his classical and
mythological plots, flavourless and dull as they would be to a
modern audience, were charged with interest to those courtly
hearers who saw in Midas Philip II., Elizabeth in Cynthia and
perhaps Leicester's unwelcome marriage with Lady Sheffield
in the love affair between Endymion and Tellus which brings
the former under Cynthia's displeasure. As a matter of fact
his reputation and popularity as a play-writer were considerable.
Gabriel Harvey dreaded lest Lyly should make a play upon their
quarrel; Meres, as is well known, places him among " the best
for comedy "; and Ben Jonson names him among those foremost
rivals who were " outshone " and outsung by Shakespeare.

Euphues. — It was not, however, as a dramatist, but as the
author of Euphues, that Lyly made most mark upon the Eliza-
bethan world. His plays amused the court circle, but the
" new English " of his novel threatened to permanently change
the course of English style. The plot of Euphues is extremely
simple. The hero, whose name may very possibly have been
suggested by a passage in Ascham's Schoolmaster, is introduced
to us as still in bondage to the follies of youth, " preferring fancy
before friends, and this present humour before honour to come."
His travels bring him to Naples, where he falls in love with
Lucilla, the governor's light-minded daughter. Lucilla is
already pledged to Euphues's friend Philautus, but Euphues's
passion betrays his friendship, and the old lover finds himself
thrown over by both friend and mistress. Euphues himself,
however, is very soon forsaken for a more attractive suitor.
He and Philautus make up their quarrel, and Euphues writes
his friend " a cooling card," to be " applied to all lovers," which
is so severe upon the fair sex that Lyly feels it necessary to
balance it by a sort of apology addressed " to the grave matrons

LYLY, JOHN

161

and honest maidens of Italy." Euphues then leaves Naples
for his native Athens, where he gives himself up to study, of
which the first fruits are two long treatises— the first, " Euphues
and his Ephoebus," a disquisition on the art of education
addressed to parents, and the second, " Euphues and Atheos,"
a discussion of the first principles of religion. The remainder
of the book is filled up with correspondence between Euphues
and his friends. We have letters from Euphues to Philautus
on the death of Lucilla, to another friend on the death of his
daughter, to one Botonio " to take his exile patiently," and to the
youth Aldus, remonstrating with him on his bad behaviour at
the university. Finally a pair of letters, the first from Livia
" at the emperour's court to Euphues at Athens," answered by
" Euphues to Livia," wind up the first part, and announce to us
Euphues's intention of visiting England. An address from
Lyly to Lord Delawarr is affixed, to which was added in the
second edition " An Address to the Gentlemen Scholars of
England."

Euphues aitd his England is rather longer than the first part.
Euphues and Philautus travel from Naples to England. They
arrive at Dover, halt for the night at Fidus's house at Canterbury,
and then proceed to London, where they make acquaintance
with Surius, a young English gentleman of great birth and
noble blood; Psellus, an Italian nobleman reputed " great in
magick "; Martius, an elderly Englishman; Camilla, a beautiful
English girl of insignificant family; Lady Flavia and her niece
Fraunces. After endless correspondence and conversation on
all kinds of topics, Euphues is recalled to Athens, and from there
corresponds with his friends. " Euphues' Glasse for Europe "
is a flattering description of England sent to Livia at Naples.
It is the most interesting portion of the book, and throws light
upon one or two points of Lyly's own biography. The author
naturally seized the opportunity for paying his inevitable
tribute to the queen, and pays it in his most exalted style.
" O fortunate England that hath such a queene, ungratefull
if thou praye not for hir, wicked if thou do not love Mr, miserable
if thou lose hir! " — and so on. The book ends with Philautus's
announcement of his marriage to Fraunces, upon which Euphues
sends characteristic congratulations and retires, " tormented
in body and grieved ih mind," to the Mount of Silexedra, " where
I leave him to his musing or Muses."

Such is a brief outline of the book which for a time set the
fashion for English prose. Two editions of each part appeared
within the first year after publication, and thirteen editions
of both are enumerated up to 1636, after which, with the excep-
tion of a modernized version in 1718, Euphues was never reprinted
until 1868, when Dr Arber took it in hand. The reasons for its
popularity are not far to seek. As far as matter was concerned
it fell in with all the prevailing literary fashions. Its long
disquisitions on love, religion, exile, women or education, on
court life and country pleasures, handled all the most favourite
topics in the secularized speculation of the time; its foreign
background and travel talk pleased a society of which Lyly
himself said " trafic and travel hath woven the nature of all
nations into ours and made this land like arras full of device
which was broadcloth full of workmanship"; and, although
Lyly steered clear in it of the worst classical pedantries of the
day, the book was more than sufficiently steeped in classical
learning, and based upon classical material, to attract a literary
circle which was nothing if not humanist. A large proportion
of its matter indeed was drawn from classical sources. The
general tone of sententious moralizing may be traced to Plutarch,
from whom the treatise on education, " Euphues and his
Ephoebus," and that on exile, " Letter to Botonio to take his
exile patiently," are literally translated, as well as a number of
other shorter passages either taken direct from the Latin versions
or from some of the numerous English translations of Plutarch
then current. The innumerable illustrations based upon a kind
of pseudo natural history are largely taken from Pliny, while
the mythology is that of Virgil and Ovid.

It was not the matter of Euphues, however, so much as the style
which made it famous (see EUPHUISM). The source of Lyly's

xvii. 6

peculiar style has been traced by Dr Landmann (Der Euphuismus,
sein Wesen, seine Quelle, seine Geschichte, &c. Giessen, 1881) to
the influence of Don Antonio de Guevara, whose Libra Aureo de
Marco Aurelio (1529)— a sort of historical romance based upon
Plutarch and upon Marcus Aurelius's Meditations, the object of
which was to produce a " mirror for princes," of the kind so
popular throughout the Renaissance — became almost immedi-
ately popular in England. The first edition, or rather a French
version of it, was translated into English by Lord Berners in
1531, and published in 1534. Before 1560 twelve editions of
Lord Berners's translation had been printed, and before 1578
six different translators of this and later works of Guevara had
appeared. The translation, however, which had most influence
upon English literature was that by North, the well-known
translator of Plutarch, in 1557, called The Dial for Princes,
Compiled by the Reverend Father in God Don Antony of Guevara,
Byshop of Guadix, &•<;., Englished out of the Frenche by Th. North.
The sententious and antithetical style of the Dial for Princes
is substantially that of Euphues, though Guevara on the whole
handles it better than his imitator, and has many passages of
real force and dignity. The general plan of the two books is also
much the same. In both the biography is merely a peg on
which to hang moral disquisitions and treatises. The use made
of letters is the same in both. Even the names of some of the
characters are similar. Thus Guevara's Lucilla is the flighty
daughter of Marcus Aurelius. Lyly's Lucilla is the flighty
daughter of Ferardo, governor of Naples; Guevara's Livia is
a lady at the court of Marcus Aurelius, Lyly's Livia is a lady at
the court " of the emperor," of whom no further description is
given. The gth, loth, nth and izth chapters of the Dial for
Princes suggested the discussion between Euphues and Atheos.
The letter from Euphues to Aldus is substantially the same
in subject and treatment as that from Marcus Aurelius to his
nephew Epesipo. Both Guevara and Lyly translated Plutarch's
work De educatione liberorum, Lyly, however, keeping closer
than the Spanish author to the original. The use made by Lyly
of the university of Athens was an anachronism in a novel in-
tended to describe his own time. He borrowed it, however, from
Guevara, in whose book a university of Athens was of course
entirely in place. The " cooling card for all fond lovers " and
the address to the ladies and gentlemen of Italy have their
counterparts among the miscellaneous letters by Guevara affixed
by North to the DM for Princes; and other instances of Lyly's
use of these letters, and of two other treatises by Guevara on
court and country life, could be pointed out.

Lyly was not the first to appropriate and develop the Guevar-
istic style. The earliest book in which it was fully adopted was
A petite Pallace of Pettie his Pleasure, by George Pettie, which
appeared in 1576, a production so closely akin to Euphues in tone
and style that it is difficult to believe it was not by Lyly. Lyly.
however, carried the style to its highest point, and made it the
dominant literary fashion. His principal followers in it were
Greene, Lodge and Nash, his principal opponent Sir Philip
Sidney; the Arcadia in fact supplanted Euphues, and the
Euphuistic taste proper may be said to have died out about
1 590 after a reign of some twelve years. According to Landmann,
Shakespeare's Love's Labour Lost is a caricature of the Italianate
and pedantic fashions of the day, not of the peculiar style of
Euphues. The only certain allusion in Shakespeare to the
characteristics of Lyly's famous book is to be found inHenrylV..
where Falstaff, playing the part of the king, says to Prince Hal,
" Harry, I do not only marvel where thou spendest thy time, but
also how thou art accompanied; for, though the camomile the
more it is trodden on the faster it grows, yet youth the more it is
wasted the sooner it wears." Here the pompous antithesis is
evidently meant to caricature the peculiar Euphuistic sentence of
court parlance. (M. A. W.)

See Lyly's Complete Works, ed. R. W. Bond (3 vols., 1902);
Euphues, from early editions, by Edward Arber (1868) ; A. W. Ward,
English Dramatic Literature, i. 151 ; J. P. Collier, History of Dramatic
Poetry, iii. 172 ;" John Lilly and Shakespeare," by C. C. Hense in the
Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakesp. Gcsettschaft, vols. vii. and viii. (1872,
1873); F. W. Fairholt, Dramatic Works of John Lilly (2 vols..

162

LYME REGIS— LYMPH AND LYMPH FORMATION

1858); Shakespeare's Euphuism, by W. L. Rushton; H. Morley,
"Euphuism" in the Quarterly Review (1861); R. W. Bond,
" John Lyly, Novelist and Dramatist," in the Quarterly Review

JJan. 1896); J. A. Symonds, Shakespeare's Predecessors (1883);
. D. Wilson, John Lyly (Cambridge, 1905) ; A. Ainger, " Euphuism,"
in Lectures and Essays (1905); and Albert Feuillerat, John Lyly.

}. D. Wilson, John Lyly (Cambridge, 1905) ; A. Ainger, " Euphuism,"
in Lectures and Essays (1905); and Albert Feuillerat, John ~
Contribution d I'histoire de la Renaissance en Angleterre (1910).

LYME REGIS, a market town and municipal borough and
watering-place in the western parliamentary division of Dorset-
shire, England, 151 m. W.S.W. of London by the London & South
Western railway, the terminus of a light railway from Axminster.
Pop. (1001) 2095. It is situated at the mouth of a narrow combe
or valley opening upon a fine precipitous coast-line; there is a
sandy shore affording excellent bathing, and the country inland is
beautiful. The church of St Michael and All Angels is mainly
Perpendicular, but the tower (formerly central) and the portion
west of it are Norman. A guildhall and assembly rooms are the
chief public buildings. The principal industries are stone-
quarrying and the manufacture of cement. There is a curved
pier of ancient foundation known as the Cobb. The harbour,
with a small coasting trade, is under the authority of the corpora-
tion. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 1237 acres.

No evidence of settlement on the site of Lyme Regis exists
before that afforded by a grant, dated 774, purporting to be by
Cynewulf , king of the West-Saxons, of land here to the church of
Sherborne, and a similar grant by King ..Ethelstan to the church
of Glastonbury. In 1086 three manors of Lyme are mentioned:
that belonging to Sherborne abbey, which was granted at the
dissolution to Thomas Goodwin, who alienated it in the following
year; that belonging to Glastonbury, which seems to have
passed into lay lands during the middle ages, and that belonging
to William Belet. The last was acquired by the family of Bayeux,
from whom it passed by marriage to Elias de Rabayne, whose
nephew, Peter Baudrat, surrendered it to the crown in 1315-1316
when the king became lord of one moiety of the borough, hence-
forth known as Lyme Regis. Lyme ranked as a port in 1234, and
Edward I. in 1284 granted to the town a charter making it a free
borough, with a merchant gild, and in the same year the mayor
and bailiffs are mentioned. In the following January the bailiffs
were given freedom from pleading without the borough, freedom
from toll and privileges implying considerable foreign trade;
the importance of the port is also evident from the demand of
two ships for the king's service in 1311. In 1332-1333 Edward
III. granted Lyme to the burgesses at a fee-farm of 32 marks;
on the petition of the inhabitants, who were impoverished by
tempests and high tides, this was reduced to 100 shillings in
1410 and to 5 marks in 1481. In 1591 Elizabeth incorporated
Lyme, and further charters were obtained from James I.,
Charles II. and William III. Lyme returned two members to
parliament from 1295 to 1832 when the representation was
reduced to one. The borough was disfranchised in 1867. The
fairs granted in 1553 for the ist of February and the 2oth of
September are now held on altered dates. Trade with France in
wine and cloth was carried on as early as 1284, but was probably
much increased on the erection of the Cobb, first mentioned
in 1328 as built of timber and rock. Its medieval importance as
the only shelter between Portland Roads and the river Exe
caused the burgesses to receive grants of quayage for its mainten-
ance in 1335 and many subsequent years, while its convenience
probably did much to bring upon Lyme the unsuccessful siege
by Prince Maurice in 1644. In 1685 Lyme was the scene of the
landing of James, duke of Monmouth, in his attempt upon the
throne.

LYMINGTON, a municipal borough and seaport in the New
Forest parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 98 m.
S.W. from London by the London & South Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 4165. It lies on the estuary of the Lymington,
which opens into the Solent. The church of St Thomas a Becket
is an irregular structure, dating from the reign of Henry VI.,
but frequently restored. There is some coasting trade, and
yacht-building is carried on. Regular .passenger steamers serve
Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight. In summer the town is fre-

quented for sea-bathing. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 1515 acres.

There was a Roman camp near Lymington (Lentiuie, Lementon),
and Roman relics have been found, but there is no evidence that a
town existed here until after the Conquest. Lymington dates its
importance from the grant of the town to Richard de Redvers,
earl of Devon, in the reign of Henry I. No charter has been
found, but a judgment given under a writ of quo ivarranto in
1578 confirms to the burgesses freedom from toll, passage and
pontage, the tolls and stallage of the quay and the right to hold
two fairs — privileges which they claimed under charters of
Baldwin de Redvers and Isabel de Fortibus, countess of Albe-
marle, in the i3th century, and Edward Courtenay, earl of
Devon, in 1405. The town was governed by the mayor and
burgesses until the corporation was reformed in 1835. A writ
for the election of a member to parliament was issued in the
reign of Edward III., but no return was made. From 1585 two
members were regularly returned; the number was reduced
to one in 1867, and in 1885 the representation was merged in
that of the county. Fairs on the I3th and I4th of May and the
2nd and 3rd of October, dating from the I3th century, are
still held. The Saturday market probably dates from the same
century. Lymington was made a port in the reign of Henry I.,
and its large shipping trade led to frequent disputes with South-
ampton as to the levying of duties. The case was tried in 1329
and decided against Lymington, but in 1750 the judgment was
reversed, and since then the petty customs have been regularly
paid. From an early date and for many centuries salt was the
staple manufacture of Lymington. The rise of the mineral salt-
works of Cheshire led to its decline in the i8th century, and later
the renewed importance of Southampton completed its decay.

See E. King, Borough and Parish of Lymington (London, 1879).

LYMPH and LYMPH FORMATION. Lying close to the
blood-vessels of a limb or organ a further set of vessels may be
observed. They are very pale in colour, often almost trans-
parent and very thin-walled. Hence they are frequently difficult
to find and dissect. These are the lymphatic vessels, and they
are found to be returning a fluid from the tissues to the blood-
stream. When traced back to the tissues they are seen to divide
and ultimately to form minute anastomosing tubules, the lymph
capillaries. The capillaries finally terminate in the spaces
between the structures of the tissue, but whether their free ends
are closed or are in open communication with the tissue spaces
is still undecided. The study of their development shows that
they grow into the tissue as a closed system of minute tubes,
which indicates that in all probability they remain permanently
closed. If we trace the lymphatic vessels towards the thorax we find
that in some part of their course they terminate in structures
known as lymphatic glands. From these again fresh lymphatic
vessels arise which carry the fluid towards the main lymph-
vessel, the thoracic duct. This runs up the posterior wall of the
thorax close to the aorta, and fir-ally opens into the junction of
the internal jugular and left subclavian veins. The lymph-
vessels from the right side of the head and neck and from the
right arm open, however, into the right subclavian vein (see
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM below).

Chemical Constitution of Lymph. — The lymph collected
from the thoracic duct during hunger is almost water clear and
yellowish in colour. Its specific gravity varies from 1015 to
1025. It tastes salt and has a faint odour. It is alkaline in
reaction, but is much less alkaline than blood-serum. Like blood
it clots, but clots badly, only forming a soft clot which quickly
contracts. The lymph collected from a lymphatic before it has
passed through a lymph gland contains a few leucocytes, and
though the number of lymphocytes is greater in the lymph after
it has flowed through a gland it is never very great. In normal
states there are no red blood corpuscles.

The total solids amount to 3-6 to 5-7%, the variations
depending upon the amount of protein present. The lymph
during hunger contains only a minute quantity of fat. Sugar
(dextrose) is present in the same concentration as in the blood.
The inorganic constituents are the same as in blood, but

LYMPH AND LYMPH FORMATION

163

apparently the amounts of Ca, Mg and P2OS are rather less than
in serum. Urea is present to the same amount as in blood.
If the lymph be collected after a meal, one important
alteration is to be found. It now contains an abundance of
fat in a very fine state of subdivision, if fat be present in the
food. The concentrations of protein and dextrose are not
altered during the absorption of these substances.

The Significance of Lymph. — In considering the signi-
ficance and use of lymph we must note in the first place that it
forms an alternative medium for the removal of water, dissolved
materials, formed elements or particles away from the tissues.
All materials supplied to a tissue are brought to it by the blood,
and are discharged from the blood through the capillary wall.
They thus come to lie in the tissue spaces between the cells, and
from this supply of material in a dissolved state the cells take up
the food they require. In the opposite direction the cell dis-
charges its waste products into this same tissue fluid. The
removal of material from the tissue fluid may be effected either
by its being absorbed through the capillary wall into the blood-
stream, or by sending it into the lymphatic vessels and thus
away from the tissue. From this point of view the lymphatics
may be looked upon in a sense as a drainage system of the
tissues. Again, besides discharging fluid and dissolved material
into the tissue spaces, the blood may also discharge leucocytes,
and under many conditions this emigration of leucocytes may be
very extensive. These also may leave the tissue space by the
path of the lymph channels. Moreover, the tissues are at any
time liable to be injured, and the injury as well as damaging many
cells may cause rupture of capillaries (as in bruising) with escape
of red blood-cells into the tissue spaces. If this occurs we know
that the damaged cells are destroyed and their debris removed
either by digestion by leucocytes or by disintegration and
solution. The damage of a tissue also commonly involves an
infection of the damaged area with living micro-organisms, and
these are at once admitted to the tissue spaces. Hence we see
that the lymphatics may be provided as channels by which a
variety of substances can be removed from the tissue spaces.
The question at once arises, is the lymph channel at all times
open to receive the materials present in the tissue space? If
such be the case, lymph is simply tissue fluid, and anything
that modifies the constitution or amount of the tissue fluid
should in like proportion lead to a variation in the amount
and constitution of the lymph. But if the lymph capillary is
a closed tubule at its commencement this does not follow.

From these considerations we see that in the first instance
the whole problem of lymph formation is intimately bound up
with the study of the interchanges of material between the blood
and the various tissue cells. The exchange of material between
blood and tissue cell may possibly be determined in one or both
of two ways. Either it may result from changes taking place
within the tissue cell, or the tissue cell remaining passive material
may be sent to or withdrawn from it owing to a change occurring
either in the composition of the blood or to a change in the
circulation through the tissue. Let us take first the results
following increased activity of a tissue. We know that increased
activity of a tissue means increased chemical change within the
tissue and the production of new chemical bodies of small
molecular size (e.g. water, carbonic acid, &c.). The production of
these metabolites means the destruction of some of the tissue
substance, and to make good this loss the tissue must take a
further amount of material from the blood. We know that this
takes place, and moreover that the waste products resulting
from activity are ultimately removed. The question then
becomes: When does this restoration take place, and what is
the intermediate state of the tissue? We know that increased
activity is always accompanied by an increase in the blood-
supply, indicating a greater supply of nutritive material, though
it may be that the increased supply required at the actual time
of activity is oxygen only. Simultaneously the opportunity for
a more rapid removal of the waste products is provided. We
have to inquire then: Does this increased vascularity neces-
sarily mean an increased outpouring of water and dissolved

material into the tissues, for this might follow directly from the
greater filling of the capillaries, or from the increased attracting
power of the tissues to water (osmotic effect) due to the sudden
production of substances of small molecular size within the
tissue? The other possibility is that the increased volume of
blood sent to the tissue is for the sole purpose of giving it a more
rapid supply of oxygen, and that the ordinary normal blood-supply
would amply suffice for renewing the chemical material used up
during activity. Tissues undoubtedly vary among themselves
in the amount of water and other materials they take from the
blood when thrown into activity, and their behaviour in this
respect depends upon the work they are called upon to perform.
We must discriminate between the substance required by and
consumed by the tissue, the chemical food which on combustion
yields the energy by which the tissue performs work, and, on the
other hand, the substance taken from the blood and either with
or without further elaboration discharged from the tissue (as,
for instance, in the process of secretion). The tissue contains in
itself a store of food amply sufficient to enable it to continue
working for a long time after its blood-supply has been stopped,
and everything indicates that the supply of chemical energy to
the tissue may be slow or even withheld for a considerable time.
Hence we are led to conclude that the increased flow of blood
sent to a tissue when it is thrown into activity is first and fore-
most to give that tissue an increased oxygen supply; secondly,
to remove waste carbonic acid; thirdly, and only in the case of
some tissues, to provide water salts and other materials for the
outpouring of a secretion, as an instance of which we may take
the kidney as a type. Hence there is no need to suppose that an
extensive accumulation of fluid and dissolved substances takes
place within a tissue when it becomes active. This must be an
accumulation which would lead to an engorgement of the tissue
spaces and then to a discharge of fluid along the lymph channels.
To enable us to determine the various points just raised we must
know whether an increased blood-supply to a tissue necessarily
means an increased exudation of fluid into the tissue spaces,
and moreover we must study the exchange of fluid between a
tissue and the blood under as varied a series of conditions as
possible, subsequently examining whether exchange of fluid and
other substances between the tissue and the blood necessarily
determines quantitatively the amount of lymph flowing from
the tissue. Hence we will first study the exchanges between
the blood and a tissue, and then turn our attention to the
lymph-flow from the tissues.

The Exchanges of Fluids and dissolved Substances between
the Blood and the Tissues. — Numerous experiments have
been performed in studying the conditions under which fluid
passes into the tissues and tissue spaces — or in the reverse
direction into the blood. We may group them into (i)
conditions during which the total volume of circulating
fluid is increased or decreased; (2) conditions in which the
character of the blood is altered, e.g. it is made more watery
or its saline concentration is altered; (3) conditions in which
the blood-supply to the part is altered; (4) conditions in which
the physical character of the capillary wall is altered.

i. The total volume of blood in an animal has been increased
among other ways by the transfusion of the blood of one animal
directly into the veins of a second of the same species. It is
found that within a very short time a large percentage of the
plasma has been discharged from the blood-vessels. It has been
sent into the tissues, notably the muscles, and it may be noted
in passing without producing any increase in the lymph-flow
from these vessels. An analogous experiment, but one which
avoids the fallacy introduced by injecting a second animal's
blood, has been performed by driving all the blood out of one
hind limb by applying a rubber bandage tightly round it from
the foot upwards. This increases the volume of blood circulating
in the rest of the body, and again a rapid disappearance of the
fluid part of the blood from the vessels was observed — the fluid
being mainly sent into the muscles, as was indicated by showing
that the specific gravity of the muscles fell during the experiment.
The experiments converse to these have also been studied.

164

LYMPH AND LYMPH FORMATION

Bleeding is very rapidly followed by a large inflow of fluid into
the circulating blood — this fluid being derived from all the tissues,
and especially again from the muscles. Or again, when the
bandage from the limb in the above-cited experiment was
removed, the total capacity of the circulatory system was
thereby suddenly increased, and it was found that the total
volume of blood increased correspondingly, the increased volume
of fluid being drawn from the tissues and especially again from
the muscles. The rapidity with which this movement of fluid
into or out of the blood takes place is very striking. The ex-
planation usually offered is that the movement is effected by
changes in the capillary pressure due to the alteration in the
volume of blood circulating. While this seems feasible when the
volume of blood is increased, it does not offer a satisfactory
explanation of the rapid movement of fluid from the tissues
when the volume of the blood is decreased. One must therefore
look for yet further factors in this instance.

2. Let us next turn attention to the second of our three main
variations, viz. that in which the composition of the blood is
altered. It has long been known that the injection of water,
or of solutions of soluble bodies such as salts, urea, sugar, &c.,
leads to a very rapid exchange of water and salts between the
blood and the tissues. Thus if a solution less concentrated
than the blood be injected, the blood is thereby diluted, but
with very great rapidity water leaves the blood and is taken up
by the tissues. Again, if a strong sugar or salt solution be
injected, the first effect is a big discharge of water from the tissues
into the blood and the movement of fluid is effected with great
rapidity. In these instances a new physical factor is brought
into play, viz. that of osmosis. When a solution of lower osmotic
pressure than the blood is injected the osmotic pressure of the
blood falls temporarily below that of the tissues, and water is
therefore attracted to the tissues. The converse is the case
when a solution of osmotic pressure higher than the blood is
injected. This at first sight seems to be an all-sufficient ex-
planation of the results recorded, but difficulties arise when we
find that the tissues are not equally active in producing the
effects. Thus it is found that the muscles and skin act as the
chief water depot, while such tissues as the liver, intestines or
pancreas take a relatively small share in the exchange. Again,
when a strong sodium chloride solution is injected a considerable
part of the sodium chloride is soon found to have left the blood,
and it has been shown that the chloride depot is not identical
with the water depot. The lung, for instance, is found to take
up relatively far more of the'salt than other tissues. Simultane-
ously with the passage of the salt into the tissue an exchange of
water from the tissue into the blood can be observed, both
processes being carried out very rapidly. The result is that the
blood very quickly returns to a state in which its osmotic pressure
is only slightly raised; the tissue, on the other hand, loses water
and gains salt, and its osmotic pressure and specific gravity
therefore rises. Again, the tissues do not participate equally in
producing the final result, nor is the tissue which gives up the
largest amount of water necessarily that which gains the largest
amount of salt. The results following the injection of solutions
of other bodies of small molecular size, e.g. urea or sugar, are
quite analogous to those above described in the case of the non-
toxic salt solutions. Hence we see that the rate of exchange of
fluid and dissolved substance between a tissue and the blood can
be extremely rapid and that the exchange can take place in
either direction. We may also conclude that the main cause
of the exchange, and possibly the only one, is the osmotic action
set up by the solution injected, and that muscle tissue is partic-
larly active in the process.

Seeing that a very considerable amount of water or of dis-
solved substance can be taken up from the blood into a tissue,
the question next arises: Where is this material held, in the
tissue cell or in the tissue space? Immediately the water or
salt leaves the blood it reaches the tissue space, but unless the
process be extreme in amount it probably passes at once into
the tissue cell itself and is stored there. If the process is excessive
oedema is set up and fluid accumulates in the tissue space.

These, taken quite briefly, are some of the more important
conditions under which fluid exchanges take place. They are
selected here because of the extent and rapidity of the changes
effected.

3. The third factor which may bring about a change in the
amount of fluid sent to a tissue is a variation in the capillary
pressure. A rise in capillary pressure will, if filtration can occur
through the capillary wall, cause an increased exudation of fluid
from the blood. Thus the rise in general blood-pressure following
the injection of a salt solution could cause an increased filtration
into the tissues. Or again, the hydraemia following a salt in-
jection would favour an increased exudation because the blood
would be more readily filtrable. We, however, know very little
of the effect of changes in capillary pressure upon movement
of fluid into the tissue spaces and tissues, most of such observa-
tions being confined to a study of their effect upon lymph-flow.
We will therefore return to them in this connexion.

4. The remaining factor to be mentioned is a change in the
character of the capillary wall. It is well known that many
poisons can excite an increased exudation from the blood and
the tissue may become oedematous. Of such bodies we may
mention cantharidin and the lymphogogues of Class i (see later).
A like change is also probably the cause of the oedema of nephritis
and of heart disease. It has also been suggested that the capil-
laries of different organs show varying degrees of permeability,
a suggestion to which we will return later.

Lymph Formation. — There are two theories current at the
present day offering explanations of the manner in which lymph
is formed. The first, which owes its inception to Ludwig, explains
lymph formation upon physical grounds. Thus according to
this theory the lymphatics are open capillary vessels at their
origin in the tissues along which the tissue fluid is driven. The
tissue fluid is discharged from the blood by filtration, and there-
fore its amount varies directly with the capillary pressure. The
amount of fluid movement also is further determined by osmotic
actions and by the permeability of the capillary wall.

The second theory first actively enunciated by Heidenhain
regards lymph formation as a secretory process of the capillary
wall, i.e. one in the discharge of which these cells perform work
and are not merely passive as in the former theory. As we shall
see, it is now probable that neither theory is completely correct.

In considering lymph formation we have to examine both
the total amount of lymph formed in the body and the variations
in amount leaving each separate organ under different conditions.
In most investigations the lymph was collected from the thoracic
duct, i.e. it was the lymph returned from all parts of the body
with the exception of the right arm and right side of the head and
neck. The collection of the lymph from organs is much more
difficult to effect, and hence has not, to the present, been so
extensively studied. We will consider first variations in the
amount of the thoracic duct lymph. Lymph is always flowing
along the thoracic duct, and if the body is at rest, it has been
shown that this lymph is coming practically entirely from the
intestines and liver, chiefly, moreover, from the liver. The
variations in the amount flowing under various conditions has
been extensively studied. We will discuss them under the follow-
ing headings: Changes brought about (a) by altered circulatory
conditions, (6) by the injection of -various substances, and (c) as
a result of throwing an organ into activity.

Ligature of the portal vein leads to an increased flow of duct
lymph. Ligature of the inferior vena cava above the diaphragm
also leads to a large increase in the flow of duct lymph. Ligature
of the aorta may result in either an increased or decreased
flow of direct lyrnph. One explanation of these results has been
offered from a study of the changes in capillary pressure set up
in the main organs involved. Thus, after ligature of the portal
vein the capillary pressure in the intestines rises, and it was
proved that the increase in thoracic duct lymph came from the
intestines. Ligaturing the inferior vena cava causes a big rise
n the pressure in the liver capillaries, the intestinal capillary
pressure remaining practically unaltered. Here it was proved
:hat the increase in lymph-flow came from the liver and was

LYMPH AND LYMPH FORMATION

165

more copious in amount than in the former instance. A further
difference is that this lymph is more concentrated, a feature
which always characterizes liver lymph. Ligature of the aorta
may or may not cause a rise in the liver capillary pressure, and
it has been shown that if the pressure rises there is an increased
lymph-flow from the liver and conversely. The increase of
lymph comes entirely in this instance also from the liver. It is
in fact but a special instance of the former experiment. From
these results it has been argued that lymph formation is simply
a filtration fundamentally, and the lymph-flow is determined
mainly by the capillary pressure. Variations in the quantity of
lymph issuing from different organs have been on this theory
ascribed to differences in the permeability of the capillaries of
the organs. Thus as liver lymph is richest in protein content
and is produced in greatest amount, it has been concluded
that the liver capillaries possess the highest permeability. The
intestines stand next in producing a concentrated lymph, and
their capillaries are therefore assumed to stand second as regards
permeability. Lastly, the lymph coming from limbs and other
organs is much poorer in solids and much less copious in amount.
Hence it is argued that their capillaries show the least perme-
ability. It is, however, very unsafe to compare the liver capil-
laries with those of other organs, since they are not in reality
capillaries but rather venous sinuses, and their relation to the
liver cells is characteristically different from that of ordinary
capillaries. If an animal is at rest, no lymph flows from the hind
limbs. To obtain a sample of limb lymph it is necessary to
massage the limb. If, however, the veins to the limb be liga-
tured, we obtain a flow of lymph. The ligature of course causes
a rise of the capillary pressure, and it has been argued that
this rise of pressure starts a nitration through the capillary wall
and hence a flow of lymph. But the stoppage of the blood-flow
also damages the capillary wall and tissue cells by asphyxiation,
and the resulting lymph-flow is in all probability the resultant
of many complex processes. This case is analogous to the pro-
duction of oedema in cases of heart disease where the circulation
is feeble and the oxygen supply to the parts deficient. The
results of these experiments form the main evidence in support
of the filtration theory of lymph formation. They were first
systematically studied by Heidenhain, to whom we owe so much
of our knowledge of lymph formation. He did not, however,
conclude that they established the filtration theory.

In continuing his observations Heidenhain next studied the
results following the injection of a number of substances into
the blood. He found many which on injection gave rise 'to an
increased lymph-flow from the thoracic duct, and arranged them
in two classes. As instances of lymphogogues of the first class
we may mention extract of mussels, leech extract, peptone,
extract of crayfish muscle, extract of strawberries, of raspberries
and many other like substances. Lymphogogues of the second
class comprise neutral salt solutions, urea, sugar, &c. Considering
the latter class first we may take as a type a solution of sodium
chloride. Injection of such a solution causes a large increase in
the lymph-flow, and it has been proved that the lymph comes
from the liver and intestines only — chiefly from the former.
It is especially to be noted that there is no lymph-flow from the
limbs, and the same is true for all lymphogogues of this class.
As indicated above, the injection of a saline solution leads to a
large and rapidly effected transport of fluid from the blood into
muscle tissue, but though there is this large increase in tissue
fluid, no lymph flows from the tissue. This result very power-
fully disfavours the filtration theory of lymph formation. It
practically refutes the idea that lymph formation is solely de-
pendent upon such processes as filtration, osmosis and capillary
permeability only. It brings out quite clearly that the exchange
of fluid and dissolved salts, &c., between the blood and a tissue,
and the flow of lymph from that tissue, are two separate and
distinct processes, and especially that the first does not determine
the second. Also it is to be noted that the injection of a strong
salt solution also excites a flow of duct lymph, again arising from
the liver and intestines, but none from the limbs. In this in-
stance, as previously stated, the muscles of the limbs are losing

water, and so presumably are the liver and intestinal cells.
This independence of tissue-blood exchange and lymph-flow
is distinctly in favour of the view, which is rapidly gaining ground
from histological observations, that in all instances the lymphatics
commence in a tissue as closed capillary vessels.

Turning, in the next place, to the lymphogogues of the first
class, it has been proved that the origin of this increase of flow
is again from the liver. Very many of the substances of this
class are bodies which may when taken cause urticarial (nettle-
rash) eruptions, a state which is generally regarded as being due
to an action upon the capillary endothelium. Their action as
lymphogogues is also generally ascribed to an effect upon the
capillary wall rendering it according to some more permeable,
according to others leading to a direct secretory action on the
part of the endothelium. We also know that many of the bodies
of this class act upon the liver in other directions than in excit-
ing an increased lymph production. Thus they may cause an
increase in bile secretion, or, as in the case of peptone, the liver
cells may be excited to produce a new chemical material, in this
instance an antithrombin.

We have now to consider the effect of throwing an organ into
activity upon the lymph-flow from the organ. In all cases in
which it has been examined it is found that increased activity
is accompanied by increased lymph-flow. Thus, to take the
instance of the submaxillary gland, which at rest does not dis-
charge any lymph, stimulation of the chorda tympani is followed
by a flow of lymph accompanying the flow of saliva simul-
taneously excited. The stimulation of the nerve also produces
dilatation of the blood-vessels and therefore a rise in capillary
pressure. But that this vascular change is not the factor
determining the lymph-flow is proved by the administration of
a small dose of atropine, which arrests the secretion without
influencing the vascular reaction following chorda stimulation.
After the atropine no lymph-flow occurs on stimulating the
nerve. Many other instances of a similar kind might be ad-
duced. Thus, we have seen that peptone specifically excites
the liver cells and also causes an increased lymph-flow from the
liver; or, as a last instance, the injection of bile salt excites a
flow of bile and also excites a flow of lymph from the liver.
The supporters of the filtration theory have argued that as
activity of a tissue is necessarily accompanied by the discharge
of metabolites from the active tissue cells, and as these are of
small molecular size, they must set up an osmotic effect. Water
is therefore drawn into the tissue spaces, and this rise in fluid
•content results mechanically in a flow of lymph from the organ.
The lymph simply drains away along the open lymphatics.
This argument, however, loses all its force when we recall the
fact that we may set up an enormous flow of fluid and salt into
a tissue and its tissue spaces without causing the least flow of
lymph. Further, there is no reason to suppose that the meta-
bolites discharged from a tissue during activity are produced in
large quantities. The chief metabolite is undoubtedly carbonic
acid, and this diffuses very rapidly and is quickly carried away
by the blood. If, moreover, as is probably the case, the lym-
phatics commence as closed capillaries, we have a further difficulty
in explaining how the fluid is driven through the lymphatic wall.
Either we must imagine the wall to be porous or there must be
a greater pressure outside than inside, and it is very difficult
to conceive how this is possible. As a general conclusion, then, it
seems much more probable that we are here dealing with a
secretory process, and that the active tissue produces some
substance or substances — it may be carbonic acid — which
throws the lymphatic capillary cells into activity.

To sum up in a few words the present state of our knowledge
as to lymph formation we may say that the exchange of water
and salts between the blood and the tissues is probably entirely
determined by processes of filtration and osmosis. Further, that
the physical condition of the capillary cells is frequently altered
by many chemical substances, and that in consequence it may
permit exudation into the tissue spaces much more freely.
In the next place, the flow of lymph from a tissue is not solely
determined by the amount of the tissue fluids. The lymph

i66

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

capillaries start as closed tubules, and the endothelial walls of
these tubules play an active part (secretory) in determining
when water and other substances shall be admitted into the
capillary and further determine the quantity of such discharge.
Apparently, too, these cells are specifically excited when the
tissue is thrown into activity, the exciting substance being a
metabolite from the active tissue. Leucocytes also are capable
of passing through or between the endothelial cells of the lymph
capillary. (T. G. Br.)

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. In anatomy, the lymphatic system
(Lat. lympha, clear water) comprises the lymphoid or adenoid
tissue so plentifully distributed about the body, especially in the
course of the alimentary canal (see CONNECTIVE TISSUES),
lymph spaces, lymphatic vessels of which the lacteals are modi-
fications, lymphatic glands, haemolymph glands, and the thoracic
and right lymphatic ducts by which the lymph (q.v.) finally reaches
the veins.

Lymph spaces are mere spaces in the connective tissue, which
usually have no special lining, though sometimes there is a layer
of endothelial cells like those of the lymphatic and blood vessels.
Most of these spaces are very small, but sometimes, as in the case
of the sub-epicranial space of the scalp, the capsule of Tenon in
the orbit, and the retropharyngeal space in the neck, they are
large and are adaptations to allow free movement. Opening from
these spaces, and also communicating with the serous membranes
by small .openings called stomata,1 are the lymph capillaries (see
VASCULAR SYSTEM), which converge to the lymphatic vessels.
These resemble veins in having an internal layer of endothelium,
a middle unstriped muscular coat, and an external coat of
fibrous tissue, though in the smaller vessels the middle coat is
wanting. They have numerous endothelial valves, formed of
two crescentic segments allowing the lymph to pass toward the
root of the neck. When the vessels are engorged these valves are
marked by a constriction, and so the lymphatics have a beaded
appearance. The vessels divide and anastomose very freely,
and for this reason they do not, like the veins, increase in calibre
as they approach their destination. It is usual to divide the
lymphatic vessels into a superficial and a deep set; speaking
generally, the superficial ones are found near the course of the
superficial veins, while the deeper ones accompany the arteries.
Probably any single drop of lymph passes sooner or later through
one or more lymphatic glands, and so those vessels which are
approaching a gland are called afferent, while those leaving are
spoken of as efferent lymphatics. The lacteals are special
lymphatic vessels which carry the chyle from the intestine;
they begin in lymphatic spaces in the villi and round the
solitary and agminated glands, and pass into the mesentery,
where they come in contact with a large number of mesenleric
glands before reaching the receptaculum chyli.

The lymphatic glands are pink bodies situated in the course
of the lymphatic vessels, to which they act as filters. They
are generally oval in shape and about the size of a bean, but
sometimes, especially in the groin, they form irregular flattened
masses 2 in. long, while, at other times, they are so small as
almost to escape notice. They are usually found in groups.

Each gland has a fibrous capsule from which trabeculae pass
toward the centre, where they break up and interlace, forming a net-
work, and in this way a cortical and medullary region for each gland
is distinguished; the intervals are nearly filled by lymphoid tissue,
but close to the trabeculae is a lymph path or sinus, which is only
crossed by the reticular stroma of the lymphoid tissue, and this
probably acts as a mechanical sieve, entangling foreign particles;
as an example of this the bronchial glands are black from carbon
strained off in its passage from the lungs, while the axillary glands
in a tattooed arm are blue. The blood-vessels enter at one spot, the
hilum, and are distributed along the trabeculae. In addition to
their function as filters the lymphatic glands are probably one of the
sources from which the leucocytes are derived.

The exact position of the various groups of glands is very im-
portant from a medical point of view, but here it is only possible to
give a brief sketch which will be helped by reference to the ac-
companying diagram. In the head are found occipital and mastoid
glands (fig. 1,0), which drain the back of the scalp ; internal maxillary

1 It has recently been stated that stomata do not exist in the
peritoneum.

glands, in the zygomatic fossa, draining the orbit, palate, nose and
membranes of the brain; preauricular glands (fig. i, a), embedded
in the parotid, draining the side of the scalp, pinna, tympanum and
lower eyelid; and buccal glands, draining the cheek region. In the
neck are the superficial cervical glands (fig. 1,7), along the course of the
external jugular vein, draining the surface of the neck; the sub-
maxillary glands (fig. i, S), lying just above the salivary gland of the
same name and draining the front of the face and scalp; the sub-
mental glands (fig. I, e), Deneath the chin, draining the lower lip, as
well as sometimes the upper, and the front of the tongue; the
retropharyngeal glands, draining the naso-pharynx and tympanum ;
the pretracheal glands, draining the trachea and lower part of the
thyroid body; and the deep cervical glands, which are by far the
most important and form a great mass close to the internal jugular
vein; they receive afferent vessels from most of the glands already
mentioned and so are liable to be affected in any trouble of the head
or neck, especially of the deeper parts. Into them the lymphatics of
the brain pass directly. The lower part of this mass is sometimes
distinguished as a separate group
called the supra-clavicular glands,
which drain the back of the neck
and receive afferents from the
occipital and axillary glands. The
efferents from the deep cervical
glands join to form a common
vessel known as the jugular lym-
phatic trunk, and this usually opens
into the thoracic duct on the left
side and the right lymphatic duct
on the right.

In the thorax are found intercostal
glands (fig. 2, I.), near the vertebral
column draining the back of the
thoracic walls and pleura; internal
mammary glands, draining the front
of the same parts as well as the
inner part of the breast and the
upper part of the abdominal wall ;
diaphragmatic glands, draining that
structure and the convex surface
of the liver; anterior, middle, pos-
terior and superior mediastinal
glands, draining the contents of
those cavities. The bronchial glands,
draining the lungs, have already
been referred to.

In the abdomen and pelvis the
glands are usually grouped round
the large arteries and are divided
into visceral and parietal. Among
the visceral are the gastric glands,
draining the stomach (these are
divided into coronary, subpyloric FIG. i. — Superficial Lymphatic
and retropyloric groups) ; the splenic Vessels and Glands.

glands at the hilum of the spleen, o, Preauricular.
draining that organ, the tail of the 0, Mastoid.
pancreas and the fundus of the y,
stomach; the hepatic glands in the i,
small omentum, draining the lower e,
surface and deep parts of the liver; f,
the pancreatic glands, behind the i/,
lesser sac of the peritoneum, drain- g,
ing the head and body of the i,
pancreas, the superior mesenteric K,
glands; from one to two hundred /,
in number, lying in the mesentery-

Superficial cervical.

Submaxillary.

Submental.

Infraclavicular.

Anterior axillary.

Supratrochlear.

Antecubital.

Inguinal.

Superficial femoral.

and receiving the lacteals; the ileo-caecal glands, draining the caecum,
one of which is known as the appendicular gland and drains the
vermiform appendix and right ovary ; the colic glands along the right
and middle colic arteries, draining the ascending and transverse
colon ; the inferior mesenteric glands in the course of that artery, drain-
ing the descending iliac and pelvic colons; the rectal glands, behind
the rectum, draining its upper part.

Among the parietal glands are the external iliac glands, divided into
a lateral and mesial set (see fig. 2, E.I.), and receiving the inguinal
efferent vessels and lymphatics from the bladder, prostate, cervix
uteri, upper part of the vagina, glans penis vel clitoridis and urethra.
The supra and infra-umbilical glands receive the deep lymphatics of
the abdominal wall, the former communicating with the liver, the
latter with the bladder. From the latter, vessels pass to the epi-
gastric gland lying in front of the termination of the external iliac
artery. The internal iliac glands (fig. 2, I. I.) are situated close to the
branches of this artery and drain the rectum, vagina, prostate,
urethra, buttock and perinaeum. Common iliac glands (fig. 2, C.I.)
lie around that artery and receive afferents from the external and
internal iliac glands as well as a few from the pelvic viscera.2 The

1 For further details of the pelvic glands see " Seventh Report of
the Committee of Collective Investigation," Journ. Anat. and Phys.
xxxii. 164.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

167

aortic glands are grouped all round the length of the aorta, and are
divided into pre-, retro- and lateral aortic groups (fig. 2 P.A. and L),
all of which communicate freely. The upper preaortic glands are
massed round the coeliac axis, and receive anerents from the gastric,
hepatic, splenic and pancreatic glands; they are known as coeliac
glands. The lateral aortic glands drain the kidney, adrenal, testis,
ovary, fundus of uterus and lateral abdominal walls. In the upper
extremity a few small glands are sometimes found near the deep
arteries of the forearm. At the bend of the elbow are the ante-
cubital glands (fig. I X) and just above the internal condyle, one or

M

From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text-boot of Anatomy.

FIG. 2. — Deep -Lymphatic Glands and Vessels of the Thorax and
Abdomen (diagrammatic). Afferent vessels are represented by continuous
lines and efferent and interglandular vessels by dotted lines.

C. Common iliac glands.
C.I. Common intestinal trunk.
D.C. Deep cervical glands.
E.I. External iliac glands.
I. Intercostal glands and

vessels.

I.I. Internal iliac glands.
L. Lateral aortic glands.

M.

Mediastinal glands and
vessels. [vessels.

Pre-aortic glands and
Receptaculum chylii.

R.L.D. Right lymphatic duct.

S. Sacral glands.

S.A. Scalenus anticus muscle.

T.D. Thoracic duct.

P.A.
R.C.

two supra-trochlear glands (fig. I, 8). The axillary glands (fig. I, ij)
are perhaps the most practically important in the body. They are
divided into four sets: (i) external, along the axillary vessels,
draining the greater part of the arm; (2) anterior, behind the lower
border of the pectoralis major muscle, draining the surface of the
thorax including the breast and upper part of the abdomen; (3)
posterior along the subscapular artery, draining the back and side of
the trunk as low as the umbilical zone; (4) superior or infra-clavicular
glands (fig. I, f), receiving the efferents of the former groups as well
as lymphatics accompanying the cephalic vein. In the lower limb
all the superficial lymphatics pass up to the groin, where there are
two sets of glands arranged like a T. The superficial femoral glands
(fig. i, X) are the vertical ones, and are grouped round the internal
saphenous vein; they are very large, drain the surface of the leg,
and are usually in two parallel rows. The inguinal glands form the

cross bar of the T (fig. i,/e),and drain part of the buttock, the surface
of the abdomen below the umbilicus and the surface of the genital
organs. The deep lymphatics of the leg drain into the anttrior tibiat
gland on that artery, the popliteal glands in that space, and the deep
femoral glands surrounding the common femoral vein.

The thoracic duct begins as an irregular dilatation known as the
receptaculum chyli, opposite the first and second lumbar verte-
brae, which receives all the abdominal lymphatics as well as
those of the lower intercostal spaces. The duct runs up on the
right of the aorta through the posterior mediastinum and
then traverses the superior mediastinum to the left of the
oesophagus. At the root of the neck it receives the
lymphatics of the left arm and left side of the neck and
opens into the beginning of the left innominate vein, usually
by more than one opening.

The right lymphatic duct collects the lymphatics from the
right side of the neck and thorax, the right arm, right
lung, right side of the heart and upper surface of the liver;
it is often represented by several ducts which open separately
into the right innominate vein.

Haemolymph glands are structures which have only been
noticed since 1884. They differ from lymphatic glands in
their much greater vascularity. They assist the spleen in
the destruction of red blood corpuscles, and probably
explain or help to explain the fact that the spleen can be
removed without ill effects. In man they extend along
the vertebral column from the coeliac axis to the pelvis,
but are specially numerous close to the renal arteries.

T. Lewis suggests that lymphatic and haemolymph glands
should be classified in the following way: —
' Haemal glands. J Simple.

( Specialized (Spleen).

Haemolymph _ fi. Blood and lymph

Glands. -I Haemal lymphatic I sinuses separate,

glands. 1 2. Blood lymph sinuses.

[3. Other combined forms.
L Lymphatic glands.

Details and references will be found in papers by T. Lewis,
/. Anal. & Phys. vol. xxxviii. p. 312; W. B. Drummond,
Journ. Anat. and Phys. vol. xxxiv. p. 198; A. S. Warthin,
Journ. Med. Research, 1901, p. 3, and H. Dayton, Am. Journ.
of Med. Sciences, 1904, p. 448. For further details of man's
lymphatic system see The Lymphatics by Delamere, Poiricr
and Cuneo, translated by C. H. Leaf (London, 1903).

Embryology. — The lymphatic vessels are possibly developed
by the hollowing out of mesenchyme cells in the same way that
the arteries are; these cells subsequently coalesce and form
tubes (see VASCULAR SYSTEM). There is, however, a good
deal of evidence to show that they are originally offshoots of
the venous system, and that their permanent openings into
the veins are either their primary points of communication or
are secondarily acquired. The lymphatic and haemolymph
glands are probably formed by the proliferation of lympho-
cytes around networks of lymphatic vessels; the dividing
lymphocytes form the lymphoid tissue, and eventually the
network breaks up to form distinct glands into which blood
vessels penetrate. If the blood vessels enlarge more than the
lymphatic, haemolymph glands result, but if the lymphatic
vessels become predominant^ ordinary lymphatic glands are
formed. At an early stage in the embryo pig two thoracic
ducts are formed, one on either side of the aorta, and the
incomplete fusion of these may account for the division often
found in man's duct. In the embryo pig too there have
been found two pairs of lymph hearts for a short period.

See A. S_. Warthin, Journ. Med. Research, vol. vii. p. 435 ;
F. R. Sabin, Am. Journ. of Anat. i., 1902; and, for litera-
ture, Development of the Human Body, by J. P. McMurrich
(London, 1906), and Quain's Anatomy (vol. i., London, 1908).
Comparative Anatomy. — A lymphatic system is recognized in
all the Cramata, and in the lower forms (fishes and Amphibia) it
consists chiefly of lymph spaces and sinuses in communication with
the coelom. In fishes, for instance, there is a large subvertebral
lymph sinus surrounding the aorta and another within the spinal
canal. In Amphibia t'ne subvertebral sinus is also found, and in the
Anura (frogs and toads) there is a great subcutaneous lymph sinus.
Lymph hearts are muscular dilatations of vessels and are found in
fishes, amphibians, reptiles and bird embryos, and drive the lymph
into the veins; they are not known in adult mammals.

In birds the thoracic duct is first recognized, and opens into both
right and left precaval veins, as it always does in some mammals.
In birds, however, some of the lymphatics open into the sacral
veins, and it is doubtful whether true lymphatic glands ever occur.
In birds and mammals lymphatic vessels become more definite and
numerous and are provided with valves.

r68

LYNCH

Haemolymph glands are present in mammals and birds, but have
not been seen lower in the scale, though S. Vincent and S. Harrison
point out the resemblance of the structure of the head kidney of
certain Teleostean fishes to them (Journ. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxxi.
p. 176).

For further details see Comparative Anal, of Vertebrates, by R.
Wiedersheim (London, 1907). (F. G. P.)

Diseases of the Lymphatic System and Ductless Glands.

Lymphadenitis or inflammatory infection of the lymphatic glands,
is a condition characterized by hyperaemia of and exudation into
the gland, which becomes redder, firmer and larger than usual.
Three varieties may be distinguished : simple, suppurative and
tuberculous. The cause is always the absorption of some toxic or
infective material from the periphery. This may take place in
several of the acute infectious diseases, notably in scarlet fever,
mumps, diphtheria and German measles, or may be the result of
poisoned wounds. The lymphatic glands are also affected in con-
stitutional diseases such as syphilis. Simple lymphadenitis usually
subsides of its own accord, but if toxins are produced in the inflamed
area the enlargement is obvious and painful, while if pyogenic
organisms are absorbed the inflammation progresses to suppuration.
Tuberculous lymphadenitis (scrofula) is due to the infection of the
lymph glands by Koch's tubercle bacillus. This was formerly known
as " King's Evil," as it was believed that the touch of the royal hand
had power to cure it. It occurs most commonly in children and
young adults whose surroundings are unhealthy, and who are liable
to develop tuberculous disease from want of sufficient food and fresh
air. Some local -focus of irritation is usually present. The ways in
which the tubercle bacillus enters the body are much disputed, but
catarrh of the mucous membranes is regarded as a predisposing
factor, and the tonsils as a probable channel of infection. Any
lymphoid tissue in the body may be the seat of tuberculous disease,
but the glands of the neck are the most commonly involved. The
course of the disease is slow and may extend over a period of years.
The earliest manifestation is an enlargement of the gland. It is
possible in this stage for spontaneous healing to take place, but
usually the disease progresses to caseation, in which tuberculous
nodules are found diffused throughout the gland. Occasionally this
stage may end in calcification of the caseous matter, the gland shrink-
ing and becoming hard; but frequently suppuration follows from
liquefaction of the caseating material. Foci of pus occur throughout
the gland, causing destruction of the tissue, so that the gland may
become a single abscess cavity. If left to itself the abscess sooner or
later bursts at one or several points, leaving ulcerated openings
through which a variable amount of pus escapes. Temporary healing
may take place, to be again followed by further breaking down of the
gland. This condition, if untreated, may persist for years and may
finally give rise to a general tuberculosis. The treatment consists
mainly in improving the general health with good diet, fresh air
(particularly sea air), cod-fiver oil and iron, and the removal of all
sources of local irritation such as enlarged tonsils, adenoids, &c. Vac-
cination with tuberculin (TR) may be useful. Suppuration and ex-
tension of the disease require operative measures, and removal of
the glands en masse can now be done through so small an opening as
to leave only a very slight scar.

In Tabes mesenterica (tuberculosis of the mesenteric glands),
usually occurring in children, the glands of the mesentery and retro-
peritonaeum become enlarged, and either caseate or occasionally
suppurate. The disease may be primary or may be secondary to
tuberculous disease of the intestines or to pulmonary phthisis.
The patients are pale, wasted and anaemic, and the abdomen may
be enormously enlarged. There is usually moderate fever, and thin
watery diarrhoea. The caseating glands may liquefy and give rise
to an inflammatory attack which may simulate appendicitis. Limited
masses are amenable to surgical treatment and may be removed,
while in the earlier stages constitutional treatment gives good
results. Tuberculous peritonitis frequently supervenes on this
condition.

Lymphadenoma (Hodgkin's Disease), a disease which was first fully
described by Hodgkin in 1832, is characterized by a progressive
enlargement of the lymphatic glands all over the body, and generally
starts in the glands of the neck. The majority of cases occur in young
adults, and preponderate in the male sex. The first symptom is
usually enlargement of a gland in the neck, with generally progressive
growth of the glands in the submaxillary region and axilla. The
inguinal glands are early involved, and after a time the internal
lymph glands follow. The enlargements are at first painless, but
in the later stages symptoms are caused by pressure on the surround-
ing organs, and when the disease starts in the deeper structures the
first symptoms may be pain in the chest and cough, pain in the
abdomen, pain and oedema in the legs. The glands may increase
until they are as large as eggs, and later may become firmly adherent
one to another, forming large lobulated tumours. _ Increase of
growth in this manner in the neck may cause obstructive dyspnoea
and even death. In the majority of cases the spleen enlarges, and
in rare instances lymphoid tumours may be found on its surface.
Anaemia is common and is secondary in character; slight irregular
fever is present, and soon a great and progressive emaciation takes

place. The cases are of two types, the acute cases in which the en-
largements take place rapidly and death may occur in two to
three months, and the chronic cases in which the disease may remain
apparently stationary. In acute lymphadenoma the prognosis is
very unfavourable. Recovery sometimes takes place in the chronic
type of the disease. Early surgical intervention has in some cases
been followed by success. The application of X-rays is a valuable
method of treatment, superficial glands undergoing a rapid diminu-
tion in size. Of drugs arsenic is of the most service, and mercurial
inunction has been recommended by Dreschfeld. Organic extracts
have of late been used in the treatment of lymphadenoma.

Glandular Fever is an acute infectious fever, generally occurring in
epidemics, and was first described by E. Pfeiffer in 1889. It usually
affects childrenand has a tendency to run through all the children of
a family. The incubation period is said to be about 7 days. The
onset is sudden, with pain in the neck and limbs, headache, vomiting,
difficulty in swallowing and high temperature. On the second day, or
sometimes on the first, swelling of the cervical glands is noticed, and
later the posterior cervical, axillary and inguinal glands become
enlarged and tender. In about half the cases the spleen and liver
are enlarged and there is abdominal tenderness. West found the
mesenteric nodes enlarged in 37 cases. Nephritis is an occasional
complication, and constipation is very usual. The disease tends to
subside of itself, and the fever usually disappears after a few days ;
the glandular swellings may, however, persist from one to three
weeks. Considerable anaemia has been noticed to follow the illness.
Rest in bed while the glands are enlarged, and cod-liver oil and iron
to meet the anaemia, are the usual treatment.

Status lymphaticus (lymphatism) is a condition found in children
and some adults, characterized by an enlargement of the lymphoid
tissues throughout the body and more particularly by enlargement
of the thymus gland. There is a special lowering of the patient's
powers of resistance, and it has been said to account for a number of
cases of sudden death. In all cases of status lymphaticus the thymus
has been found enlarged. At birth the gland (according to Bovaird
and Nicoll) weighs about 6 grammes, and does not increase after
birth. In lympnatism it may weigh from 10 to 50 grammes. The
clinical features are indefinite, and the condition frequently passes
unrecognized during life. In most cases there is no hint of danger
until the fatal syncope sets in, which may be after any slight exertion
or shock, the patient becoming suddenly faint, gasping and cyanosed,
and the heart stopping altogether before the respirations have
ceased. The most trifling causes have brought on fatal issues, such as
a wet pack (Escherich) or a hypodermic injection, or even a sudden
plunge into water though the head is not immersed. The greater
number of deaths occur during the administration of anaesthetics,
which seem peculiarly dangerous to these subjects. When an attack
of syncope takes place no treatment is of any avail.

virchow, West and Goodhardt have described a form of asthma
in adults which they ascribe to a hypertrophied thymus gland and
term " thymic asthma."

Diseases of the Spleen. — Physiological variations and abnormalities
and absence of the spleen are so rare as to require no comment. The
most usual pathological condition which gives rise to symptoms is
that of wandering spleen, which may or may not be secondary to a
wandering left kidney. It may produce symptoms of dragging and
discomfort, dyspepsia, vomiting and abdominal pain, and sometimes
jaundice (Treves), or the pedicle may become twisted, producing
extremely severe symptoms. The treatment is entirely surgical.
Abscess in the spleen occasionally occurs, usually in association with
infective endocarditis or with general pyaemia. The spleen may be
the seat of primary new growths, but these are rare, and only in a
small portion of cases does it share in the metastatic reproduction of
carcinoma. Infection of the spleen plays a prominent part in many
diseases, such as malaria, typhoid fever, lymphadenoma and
leucaemia.

Diseases of the thyroid gland (see GOITRE) and Addison's disease
(of the suprarenal glands) are treated separately. (H. L. H.)

LYNCH, PATRICK) (1825-1886) Chilean naval officer, was born
in Valparaiso on the i8th of December 1825, his father being
a wealthy Irish merchant resident in Chile, and his mother,
Carmen Solo de Saldiva, a descendant of one of the best-known
families in the country. Entering the navy in 1837, he took part
in the operations which led to the fall of the dictator, Santa Cruz.
Next, he sought a wider field, and saw active service in the China
War on board the British frigate " Calliope." He was mentioned
in despatches for bravery, and received the grade of midshipman
in the British service. Returning to Chile in 1847 he became
lieutenant, and seven years later he received the command of a
frigate, but was deprived of his command for refusing to receive
on board his ship political suspects under arrest. The Spanish
War saw him again employed, and he was successively maritime
prefect of Valparaiso, colonel of National Guards, and, finally,
captain and minister of marine in 1872. In the Chile-Peruvian
War a brilliant and destructive naval raid, led by him, was

LYNCHBURG— LYNCH LAW

169

followed by the final campaign of Chorrillos and Miraflores (1880),
in which he led at first a brigade (as colonel) and afterwards
a division under Baquedano. His services at the battle of
Chorrillos led to his appointment to command the Army of
Occupation in Peru. This difficult post he filled with success,
but his action in putting the Peruvian president, Garcia Calderon,
under arrest excited considerable comment. His last act was
to invest Iglesias with supreme power in Peru, and he returned
to his own country in 1883. Promoted rear-admiral, he served
as Chilean Minister at Madrid for two years, and died at sea in
1886. Lynch is remembered as one of the foremost of Chile's
naval heroes.

LYNCHBURG, a city of Campbell county, Virginia, U.S.A.,
on the James river, about 125 m. W. by S. of Richmond. Pop.
(1900) 18,891, of whom 8254 were negroes; (1910) 29,494. It is
served by the Southern, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk
& Western railways. Its terraced hills command fine views of
mountain, valley and river scenery, extending westward to the
noble Peaks of Otter and lesser spurs of the Blue Ridge about
20 m. distant. On an elevation between Rivermont Avenue and
the James river are the buildings of Randolph-Macon Woman's
college (opened in 1893), which is conducted by a self-perpetuat-
ing board under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
South, and is one of the Randolph-Macon system of colleges and
academies (see ASHLAND, VA.). In Lynchburg, too, are the
Virginia Christian college (co-educational, 1903), and the
Virginia collegiate and industrial school for negroes. The city
has a public library, well-equipped hospitals, public parks and
the Rivermont Viaduct, noo ft. long and 140 ft. high. Lynch-
burg is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Tobacco
of a superior quality and large quantities of coal, iron ore and
granite are produced in the neighbourhood. Good water power
is furnished by the James river, and Lynchburg is one of the
principal manufacturing cities of the state. The boot and shoe
industry was established in 1900, and is much the most important.
In 1905 the city was the largest southern manufacturer of these
articles and one of the largest distributors in the country. The
factory products increased in value from $2,993,551 in igoo to
$4,965,435 in 1905, or 65-9%.

Lynchburg, named in honour of John Lynch, who inherited
a large tract of land here and in 1757 established a ferry across
the James, was established as a village by Act of Assembly' in
1786, was incorporated as a town in 1805, and became a city in
1852. During the Civil War it was an important base of supplies
for the Confederates; on the i6th of June 1864 it was invested
by Major-General David Hunter (1802-1886), but three days
later he was driven away by General Jubal A. Early. In 1908
the city's corporate limits were extended.

LYNCH LAW, a term loosely applied to various forms of
executing rough popular justice, or what is thought to be justice,
for the punishment of offenders by a summary procedure, ignor-
ing, or even contrary to, the strict forms of law. The word
lynching " originally signified a whipping for reformatory
purposes with more or less disregard for its legality " (Cutler), or
the infliction of minor punishments without recourse to law;
but during and after the Reconstruction Period in the United
States, it came to mean, generally, the summary infliction of
capital punishment. Lynch law is frequently prevalent in
sparsely settled or frontier districts where government is weak
and officers of the law too few and too powerless to enforce law
and preserve order. The practice has been common in all
countries when unsettled frontier conditions existed, or in periods
of threatened anarchy. In what are considered civilized countries
it is now found mainly in Russia, south-eastern Europe and in
America , but it is essentially and almost peculiarly an American
institution. The origin of the name is obscure; different writers
have attempted to trace it to Ireland, to England, to South
Carolina, to Pennsylvania and to Virginia. It is certain that the
name was first used in America, but it is not certain whether it
came from Lynch's Creek, South Carolina, where summary
justice was administered to outlaws, or from Virginia and
Pennsylvania, where men named Lynch were noted for dealing

out summary punishment to offenders.1 In Europe early
examples of a similar phenomenon are found in the proceedings
of the Vehmgerichte in medieval Germany, and of Lydford law,
gibbet law or Halifax law, Cowper justice and Jeddart justice in
the thinly settled and border districts of Great Britain; and
since the term " lynch law " came into colloquial use, it is
loosely employed to cover any case in which a portion of the
community takes the execution of its ideas of justice into its
own hands, irrespective of the legal authorities.

In America during the i8th and igth centuries the population
expanded westward faster than well-developed civil institutions
could follow, and on the western frontier were always desperadoes
who lived by preying on the better classes. To suppress these
desperadoes, in the absence of strong legal institutions, resort was
continually made to lynch law. There was little necessity for it
until the settlement crossed the Alleghany Mountains, but the
following instances of lynching in the East may be mentioned:
(i) the mistreatment of Indians in New England and the Middle
Colonies in disregard of laws protecting them; (2) the custom
found in various colonies of administering summary justice to
wife-beaters, idlers and other obnoxious persons; (3) the acts of
the Regulators of North Carolina, 1767-1771; (4) the popular
tribunals of the Revolutionary period, when the disaffection
toward Great Britain weakened the authority of the civil
governments and the war replaced them by popular govern-
ments, at a time when the hostilities between " Patriots " and
" Tories " were an incentive to extra-legal violence. In the
South, lynching methods were long employed in dealing with
agitators, white and black, who were charged with endeavouring
to excite the slaves to insurrection or to crime against their
masters, and in dealing with anti-slavery agitators generally.

In the West, from the Alleghanies to the Golden Gate, the
pioneer settlers resorted to popular justice to get rid of bands
of outlaws, and to regulate society during that period when
laws were weak or confused, when the laws made in the East
did not suit western conditions, and when courts and officials
were scarce and distant. The Watauga settlements and the
" State " of Franklin furnished examples of lynch law procedure
almost reduced to organization. Men trained in the rough
school of the wilderness came to have more regard for quick,
ready-made, personal justice than for abstract justice and
statutes; they were educated to defend themselves, to look
to no law for protection or regulation; consequently they
became impatient of legal forms and lawyers' technicalities; an
appeal to statute law was looked upon with suspicion, and, if
some personal matter was involved, was likely to result in deadly
private feuds. Thus were formed the habits of thought and
action of the western pioneers. Lynch law, not civil law, cleared
the western forests, valleys and mountain passes of horse and
cattle thieves, and other robbers and outlaws, gamblers and
murderers. This was especially true of California and the
states of the far West. H. H. Bancroft, the historian of Popular
Tribunals, wrote in 1887 that " thus far in the history of these
Pacific States far more has been done toward righting wrongs
and administering justice outside the pale of law than within
it." However, the lack of regard for law fostered by the con-
ditions described led to a survival of the lynching habit after
the necessity for it passed away. In parts of the Southern states,
where the whites are few and greatly outnumbered by the
blacks, certain of the conditions of the West have prevailed,
and since emancipation released the blacks from restraint
many of the latter have been lawless and turbulent. The
Reconstruction, by giving to the blacks temporary political
supremacy, increased the friction between the races, and greatly

1 The usual explanation is that the name was derived from
Charles Lynch (1736-1796), a justice of the peace in Virginia after
1774, who in 1780, toward the close of the War of Independence,
greatly exceeded his powers in the punishment of Tories or Loyalists
detected in a conspiracy in the neighbourhood of his home in Bedford
county, Va. Lynch was a man of influence in his community, was
for many years a member of the Virginia legislature, was a member
of the famous Virginia Convention of 1776 and was later (in 1781) an
officer in the American army. See an article, " The Real Judge
Lynch," in the Atlantic Monthly, vol. Ixxxviii. (Boston, 1901).

170

deepened prejudice. The numerous protective societies of
whites, 1865-1876, culminating in the Ku Klux movement,
m^y be described as an application of lynch law. With the
increase of negro crimes came an increase of lynchings, due to
prejudice, to the fact that for some time after Reconstruction
the governments were relatively weak, especially in the districts
where the blacks outnumber the whites, to the fact that
negroes nearly always shield criminals of their own race
against the whites, and to the frequent occurrence of the crime
of rape by negro men upon white women.

Since 1882 the Chicago Tribune has collected statistics of
lynching, and some interesting facts may be deduced from these
tables.1 During the twenty-two years from 1882 to 1903 in-
clusive, the total number of persons lynched in the United States
was 3337) tne number decreasing during the last decade; of
these 2385 were in the South and 752 in the North; of those
lynched in the East and West 602 were white and 75 black,
and of those in the South 567 were white and 1985 black.2
Lynchings occur mostly during periods of idleness of the lower
classes; in the summer more are lynched for crimes against
the person and in the winter (in the West) for crimes against
property; the principal causes of lynching in the South are
murder and rape, in the North and West, murder and offences
against property; more blacks than whites were lynched
between 1882 and 1903, the numbers being 2060 negroes, of
whom 40 were women, and 1 169 whites, of whom 23 were women;
of the 707 blacks lynched for rape 675 were in the South; 783
blacks were lynched for murder, and 753 of these were in the
South; most of the lynchings of whites were in the West; the
lynching of negroes increased somewhat outside of the South
and decreased somewhat in the South. Lynching decreases
and disappears in a community as the population grows denser
and civil institutions grow stronger; as better communications
and good police make it harder to commit crime; and as public
sentiment is educated to demand legal rather than illegal and
irregular infliction of punishment for even the most horrible
of crimes.

See James E. Cutler, Lynch Law (New York, 1905), an ad-
mirable and unbiased discussion of the subject; H. H. Bancroft,
Popular Tribunals (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887); C. H. Shinn,
Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government (New
York, 1885); and J. C. Lester and D. L. Wilson, Ku Klux Klan
(New York, 1905). (W. L. F.)

LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, BARON (1772-
1863), lord chancellor of England, was born at Boston, Massa-
chusetts, in 1772. He was the son of John Singleton Copley,
the painter. He was educated at a private school and Cambridge
university, where he was second wrangler and fellow of Trinity.
Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1804, he gained a consider-
able practice. In 1817 he was one of the counsel for Dr J.
Watson, tried for his share in the Spa Fields riot. On this
occasion Copley so distinguished himself as to attract the atten-
tion of Castlereagh and other Tory leaders, under whose patron-
age he entered parliament as member for Yarmouth in the Isle
of Wight. He afterwards sat for Ashburton, 1818-1826, and
for Cambridge university 1826-1827. HC was solicitor-general
in 1819, attorney-general in 1824, master of the rolls in 1826
and lord chancellor in 1827, with the title of Lord Lyndhurst.
Before being taken up by the Tories, Copley was a man of the
most advanced views, a republican and Jacobin; and his
accession to the Tories excited a good deal of comment, which
he bore with the greatest good humour. He gave a brilliant and
eloquent but by no means rancorous support to all the re-
actionary measures of his chief. The same year that he became

1 They have been corrected and somewhat modified by Dr. J. E.
Cutler, from whose book the figures above have been taken. Lynch-
ing as used in this connexion applies exclusively to the illegal in-
fliction of capital punishment.

2 For present purposes the former slave states (of 1860) constitute
the South; the West is composed of the territory west of the
Mississippi river, excluding Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas
and Oklahoma; the East includes those states east of the Mississippi
river not included in the Southern group; the East and the West
make up the North as here used — that is, the former free states of
i860.

LYNDHURST— LYNDSAY

solicitor-general he married the beautiful and clever widow of
Lieut.-Colonel Charles Thomas of the Coldstream Guards, and
began to take a conspicuous place in society, in which his noble
figure, his ready wit and his never-failing bonhomie made him
a distinguished favourite.

As solicitor-general he took a prominent part in the trial of
Queen Caroline. To the great Liberal measures which marked
the end of the reign of George IV. and the beginning of that
of William IV. he gave a vigorous opposition. He was lord
chief baron of the exchequer from 1831 to 1834. During the
Melbourne administration from 1835 to 1841 he figured con-
spicuously as an obstructionist in the House of Lords. In these
years it was a frequent practice with him, before each prorogation
of parliament, to entertain the House with a " review of the
session," in which he mercilessly attacked the Whig government.
His former adversary Lord Brougham, disgusted at his treatment
by the Whig leaders, soon became his most powerful ally in
opposition; and the two dominated the House of Lords.
Throughout all the Tory governments from 1827 Lyndhurst
held the chancellorship (1827-1830 and 1834-1835); and in
the Peel administration (1841-1846) he resumed that office for
the last time. As Peel never had much confidence in Lyndhurst ,
the latter did not exert so great an influence in the cabinet as
his position and experience entitled him to do. But he con-
tinued a loyal member of the party. As in regard to Catholic
emancipation, so in the agitation against the corn laws, he
opposed reform till his chief gave the signal for concession, and
then he cheerfully obeyed. After 1846 and the disintegration
of the Tory party consequent on Peel's adoption of free trade,
Lord Lyndhurst was not so assiduous in his attendance in
parliament. Yet he continued to an extreme old age to take
a lively interest in public affairs, and occasionally to astonish
the country by the power and brilliancy of his speeches. That
which he made in the House of Lords on the igth of June 1854,
on the war with Russia, made a sensation in Europe; and
throughout the Crimean War he was a strong advocate of the
energetic prosecution of hostilities. In 1859 he denounced with
his old energy the restless ambition of Napoleon III. When
released from office he came forward somewhat as the advocate
of liberal measures. His first wife had died in 1834, and in
August 1837 he had married Georgina, daughter of Lewis Gold-
smith. She was a Jewess; and it was therefore natural that
he strenuously supported the admission of Jews into parliament.
He also advocated women's rights in questions of divorce. At
the age of eighty-four he passed the autumn at Dieppe, " helping
to fly paper kites, and amusing himself by turns with the writings
of the Greek and Latin fathers on divorce and the amorous
novels of Eugene Sue." His last speech, marked by " his wonted
brilliancy and vigour," was delivered in the House of Lords at
the age of eighty-nine. He died in London on the I2th of
October 1863. He left no male issue and the title became
extinct.

See Lives of the Lord Chancellors of England, vol. viii. (Lords
Lyndhurst and Brougham) , by Lord Campbell ( 1 869) . Campbell was
a personal friend, but a political opponent. Brougham's Memoirs;
Greville Memoirs; Life of Lord Lyndhurst (1883) by Sir Theodore
Martin; J. B. Atlay, The Victorian Chancellors (1906).

LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID (c. ugo-c. 1555), Scottish poet, was
the son of David Lyndsay of the Mount, near Cupar-Fife, and
of Garmylton, near Haddington. His place of birth and his
school are undetermined. It is probable that his college life
was spent at St Andrews university, on the books of which
appears an entry "Da Lindesay " for the session 1508-1509.
He was engaged at court, first as an equerry, then as an " usher "
to the young Prince James, afterwards James V. In 1522 he
married Janet Douglas, a court seamstress, and seven years
later was appointed Lyon King of Arms, and knighted. He
was several times engaged in diplomatic business (twice on
embassies abroad — to the Netherlands and France), and he was,
in virtue of his heraldic office, a general master of ceremonies.
After the death of James V., in 1542, he continued to sit in
parliament as commissioner for Cupar-Fife; and in 1548 he

LYNEDOCH, BARON

171

was member of a mission to Denmark which obtained certain
privileges for Scottish merchants. There is reason to believe
that he died in or about 1555.

Most of Lyndsay's literary work, by which he secured great
reputation in his own day and by which he still lives, was written
during the period of prosperity at court. In this respect he is
unlike his predecessor Gavin Douglas (<?.*.), who forsook literature
when he became a politician. The explanation of the difference
is partly to be found in the fact that Lyndsay's muse was more
occasional and satirical, and that the time was suitable to the
exercise of his special gifts. It is more difficult to explain how
he enjoyed a freedom of speech which is without parallel even
in more secure times. He chastised all classes, from his royal
master to the most simple. There is no evidence that he abjured
Catholicism; yet his leading purpose was the exposure of its
errors and abuses. His aid was readily accepted by the reforming
party, and by their use of his work he shared with their leaders
throughout many generations a reputation which is almost
exclusively political and ecclesiastical.

Lyndsay's longer poems are The Dreme (1134 lines), The
Testament and Complaynt of the Papynago (1190 lines), The
Testament of Squyer Meldrum (1859 lines), Ane Dialog betwix
Experience and ane Courteour of the Miserabyll Estait of the
World (6333 lines), and Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis
(over 4000 lines) . These represent , with reasonable completeness,
the range of Lyndsay's literary talent. No single poem can give
him a chief place, though here and there, especially in the last,
he gives hints of the highest competence. Yet the corporate
effect of these pieces is to secure for him the allowance of more
than mere intellectual vigour and common sense. There is in
his craftsmanship, in his readiness to apply the traditional
methods to contemporary requirements, something of that
accomplishment which makes even the second-rate man of letters
interesting.

Lyndsay, the last of the Makars, is not behind his fellow-poets
in acknowledgment to Chaucer. As piously as they, he repro-
duces the master's forms; but in him the sentiment and outlook
have suffered change. His nearest approach to Chaucer is in
The Testament of Squyer Meldrum, which recalls the sketch of
the "young squire"; but the reminiscence is verbal rather than
spiritual. Elsewhere his memory serves him less happily, as
when he describes the array of the lamented Queen Magdalene
in the words which Chaucer had applied to the eyes of his
wanton Friar. So too, in the Dreme, the allegorical tradition
survives only in the form. " Remembrance " conducts the poet
over the old-world itinerary, but only to lead him to specula-
tion on Scotland's woes and to an " Exhortatioun to the Kingis
Grace " to bring relief. The tenor is well expressed in the motto
from the Vulgate — " Prophetias nolite spernere. Omnia autem
probate: quod bonum est tenete." This didactic habit is freely
exercised in the long Dialog (sometimes called the Monarche),
a universal history of the medieval type, in which the falls of
princes by corruption supply an object lesson to the unreformed
church of his day. The Satyre is more direct in its attack on
ecclesiastical abuse; and its dramatic form permits more
lively treatment. This piece is of great historical interest, being
the only extant example of a complete Scottish morality. It
is in respect of literary quality Lyndsay's best work, and in
dramatic construction and delineation of character it holds a
high place in this genre. The farcical interludes (in places too
coarse for modern taste) supply many touches of genuine comedy;
and throughout the play there are passages, as in the speeches of
Veritie in the First Part and of Dame Chastitie in the " Interlude
of the Sowtar and the Taylor," in which word and line are happily
conceived. The Testament of the Papyngo (popinjay), drawn in
the familiar medieval manner, is another tract for the time,
full of admonition to court and clergy. Of his shorter pieces,
The Complaynt and Public! Confessions of the Kingis A uld Hound,
callit Bagsche, directit to Bawtie, the Kingis best belovit Dog, and
his companyeonis, and the Answer to the Kingis Flyting have a
like pulpit resonance. The former is interesting as a forerunner
of Burns's device in the " Twa Dogs." The Deploratioun of the

Deith of Queen Magdalene is in the extravagant style of com-
memoration illustrated in Dunbar's Elegy on the Lord Aubigny.
The Justing betwix James Watsoun and Jhone Barbour is a
contribution to the popular taste for boisterous fun, in spirit,
if not in form, akin to the Christis Kirk on the Grene series;
and indirectly, with Dunbar's Turnament and Of ane Blak-Moir,
a burlesque of the courtly tourney. Lyndsay approaches Dunbar
in his satire The Supplicatioun in contemptioun of syde taillis
(" wide " trains of the ladies), which recalls the older poet's
realistic lines on the filthy condition of the city streets. In
Lyndsay's Descriptioun of Pedder Coffeis (pedlars) we have an
early example of the studies in vulgar life which are so plentiful
in later Scottish literature. In Kitteis Confessioun he -returns,
but in more sprightly mood, to his attack on the church.

In Lyndsay we have the first literary expression in Scotland
of the Renaissance. His interest lies on the theological side
of the revival; he is in no sense a humanist, and he is indifferent
to the artistic claims of the movement. Still he appeals to the
principle which is fundamental to all. He demands first-hand
impression. He feels that men must get their lesson direct,
not from intermediaries who understand the originals no more
" than they do the ravyng of the rukis." Hence his persistent
plea for the vernacular, nowhere more directly put than in the
Dialog, in the " Exclamatioun to the Redar, toucheyng the
wrytting of the vulgare and maternall language." Though he' is
concerned only in the theological and ecclesiastical application
of this, he undoubtedly stimulated the use of the vernacular
in a Scotland which in all literary matters beyond the concern
of the irresponsible poet still used the lingua franca of Europe.

A complete edition of Lyndsay's poetical works was published by
David Laing in 3 yols. in 1879. This was anticipated during the
process of preparation by a cheaper edition (slightly expurgated) by
the same editor in 1871 (2 vols.). The E.E.T.S. issued the first
part of a complete edition in 1865 (ed. F. Hall). Five parts have
appeared, four edited by F. Hall, the fifth by J. A. H. Murray. For
the bibliography see Laing "s 3 vol. edition, u.s. iii. pp. 222 et seq.,
and the E.E.T.S. edition passim. See also the editions by Pmkerton
(1792), Sibbald (1803), and Chalmers (1806); and the critical ac-
counts in Henderson's Scottish Vernacular Literature (1898), Gregory
Smith's Transition Period (1900), and J. H. Millar's Literary History
of Scotland (1903). A professional work prepared by Lyndsay in the
Lyon Office, entitled the Register of Scottish Arms (now preserved in
MS. in the Advocates' Library), was printed in 1821 and reprinted in
1878. It remains the most authoritative document on Scottish
heraldry. (G. G. S.)

LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM, IST BARON (1748-1843),
British general, was the son of Thomas Graeme, laird of Bal-
gowan, and was born on the igth of October 1748. He was
educated by private tutors, among whom was James Macpherson
(q.v.), and was a gentleman commoner of Christ Church, Oxford,
between 1766 and 1768. He then travelled on the continent of
Europe, and in 1772 unsuccessfully contested a parliamentary
seat in Perthshire. In 1774 he married a daughter of the ninth
Lord Cathcart, and took a house in the Leicestershire hunting
country. After a few years, owing to the state of his wife's
health, Graham was compelled to live mainly in the south of
Europe, though while at home he was a prominent sportsman
and agriculturist. In 1787 he bought the small estate of Lyne-
doch or Lednock, a few miles from Perth. In 1791 his wife died
in the Mediterranean, off Hyeres. Graham tried to find dis-
traction in renewed travels, and during his wanderings fell in
with Lord Hood's fleet on its way to Toulon. He joined it as a
volunteer, served on Lord Mulgrave's staff during the British
occupation of Toulon, and returned, after the failure of the ex-
pedition, to Scotland, where he organized a regiment of infantry,
the goth Foot, Perthshire Volunteers (now 2nd Battalion Scottish
Rifles). Graham's men were the first regiment in the army to be
equipped and trained wholly as light infantry, though they were
not officially recognized as such for many years. In the same
year (1794) Graham became member of parliament, in the Whig
interest, for the county of Perth. He saw some active service in
1795 in " conjunct expeditions " of the army and navy, and in
1796, being then a brevet colonel, he was appointed British com-
missioner at the headquarters of the Austrian army in Italy. He
took part in the operations against Napoleon Bonaparte, was shut

172

LYNN— LYNX

up in Mantua with WUrmser's army, escaped in disguise, and
after many adventures reached the relieving army of Alvinzi
just before the battle of Rivoli. On returning to his regiment he
served in more " conjunct " expeditions, in one of which, at
Messina, he co-operated with Nelson, and in 1799 he was sent as
brigadier-general to invest the fortress of Valetta, Malta. He
blockaded the place for two years, and though Major-General
Pigot arrived shortly before the close of the blockade and
assumed command, the conquest of Malta stands almost wholly
to the credit of Graham and his naval colleague Sir Alexander
Ball. In 1801 Graham proceeded to Egypt, where his regiment
was engaged in Abercromby's expedition, but arrived too late
to take part in any fighting. He took the opportunity afforded
by the peace of Amiens to visit Turkey, Austria, Germany and
France, and only resumed command of his regiment in 1804.
When the latter was ordered to the West Indies he devoted
himself to his duties as a member of parliament. He sat for
Perthshire until 1807, when he was defeated, as he was again
in 1812. Graham was with Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in
Spain 1808-1809, and was present at his death at the battle of
Corunna. In 1809 he became a major-general, and after taking
part in the disastrous Walcheren expedition he was promoted
lieutenant-general and sent to Cadiz (1810).

In 1811, acting in conjunction with the Spanish army under
General la Pefia (see PENINSULAR WAR), he took the offensive,
and won the brilliant action of Barossa (sth of March). The
victory was made barren of result by the timidity of the Spanish
generals. The latter nevertheless claimed more than their share
of the credit, and Graham answered them with spirit. One of
the Spanish officers he called out, fought and disarmed, and after
refusing with contempt the offer of a Spanish dukedom, he
resigned his command in the south and joined Wellington in
Portugal. His seniority as lieutenant-general made him second
in command of Wellington's army. He took part in the siege of
Ciudad Rodrigo, and commanded a wing of the army in the siege
of Badajoz and the advance to Salamanca. In July 1812, his
eyesight becoming seriously impaired, he went home, but re-
joined in time to lead the detached wing of the army in the wide-
ranging manoeuvre which culminated in the battle of Vittoria.
Graham was next entrusted with the investment and siege of
San Sebastian, which after a desperate defence fell on the 9th of
September 1813. He then went home, but in 1814 accepted the
command of a corps to be despatched against Antwerp. His
assault on Bergen op Zoom was, however, disastrously repulsed
(3rd of February 1814).

At the peace Graham retired from active military employment.
He was created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan in the peerage of
the United Kingdom, but refused the offered pension of £2000
a year. In 1813 he proposed the formation of a military club
in London, and though Lord St Vincent considered such an
assemblage of officers to be unconstitutional, Wellington sup-
ported it and the officers of the army and navy at large received
the idea with enthusiasm. Lynedoch's portrait, by Sir T.
Lawrence, is in possession of this club, the (Senior) United
Service. In his latter years he resumed the habits of his youth,
travelling all over Europe, hunting with the Pytchley so long as
he was able to sit his horse, actively concerned hi politics and
voting consistently for liberal measures. At the age of ninety-
two he hastened from Switzerland to Edinburgh to receive
Queen Victoria when she visited Scotland after her marriage.
He died in London on the i8th of December 1843. He had been
made a full general in 1821, and at the time of his death was a
G.C.B., Colonel of the ist (Royal Scots) regiment, and governor
of Dumbarton Castle.

See biographies by John Murray Graham (2nd ed., Edinburgh,
1877) and Captain A. M. Delavoye (London, 1880); also the latter's
History of the goth (Perthshire Volunteers) (London, 1880), Philip-
parts' Royal Military Calendar (1820), ii. 147, and Gentleman's
Magazine, new series, xxi. 197.

LYNN, a city and seaport of Essex county, Massachusetts,
9 m. N.E. of Boston, on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay.
Pop. (1900) 68,513, of whom 17,742 were foreign-born (6609

being English Canadians, 5306 Irish, 1527 English and 1280
French Canadians), and 784 were negroes; (1910 census)
89,336. It is served by the Boston & Maine and the Boston,
Revere Beach & Lynn railways, and by an interurban electric
railway, and has an area of 10-85 SQ- m- The business part is
built near the shore on low, level ground, and the residential
sections are on the higher levels. Lynn Woods, a beautiful park,
covers more than 2000 acres. On the shore, which has a fine
boulevard, is a state bath house. The city has a handsome city
hall, a free public library, founded in 1862, a soldiers' monument
and two hospitals. Lynn is primarily a manufacturing city.
The first smelting works in New England were established here
in 1643. More important and earlier was the manufacture of
boots and shoes, an industry introduced in 1636 by Philip Kert-
land, a Buckingham man; a corporation of shoemakers existed
here in 1651, whose papers were lost in 1765. There were many
court orders in the seventeenth century to butchers, tanners,
bootmakers and cordwainers; and the business was made
more important by John Adam Dagyr (d. 1808), a Welshman
who came here in 1750 and whose work was equal to the best in
England. In 1767 the output was 80,000 pairs; in 1795 about
300,000 pairs of women's shoes were made by 600 journeymen
and 200 master workmen. The product of women's shoes had
become famous in 1764, and about 1783 the use of morocco had
been introduced by Ebenezer Breed. In 1900 and 1905 Lynn
was second only to Brockton among the cities of the United
States in the value of boots and shoes manufactured, and out-
ranked Brockton in the three allied industries, the manufacture
of boots and shoes, of cut stock and of findings. In the value of its
total manufactured product Lynn ranked second to Boston in
the state in 1905, having been fifth in 1900; the total number of
factories in 1905 was 431; their capital was $23,139,185; their
employees numbered 21,540; and their product was valued at
$55>°°3,°23 (as compared with $39,347,493 in 1900). Patent
medicines and compounds and the manufacture of electrical
machinery are prominent industries. The Lynn factories of the
General Electric Company had in 1906 an annual product worth
between $15,000,000 and $20,000,000. The foreign export of
manufactured products is estimated at $5,000,000 a year.

Lynn was founded in 1629 and was called Saugus until 1637,
when the present name was adopted, from Lynn Regis, Norfolk,
the home of the Rev. Samuel Whiting (1597-1679), pastor at
Lynn from 1636 until his death. From Lynn Reading was
separated in 1644, Lynnfield in 1782, Saugus in 1815, and, after
the incorporation of the city of Lynn in 1850, Swampscott in
1852, and in 1853 Nahant, S. of Lynn, on a picturesque peninsula
and now a fashionable summer resort.

See James R. Newhall, History of Lynn (Lynn, 1883), and H. K.
Sanderson, Lynn in the Revolution (1910).

LYNTON and LYNMOUTH, two seaside villages in the Barn-
staple parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the
Bristol Channel; 17 m. E. of Ilfracombe, served by the Lynton
light railway, which joins the South Western and Great Western
lines at Barnstaple. Both are favoured as summer resorts.
Lynmouth stands where two small streams, the East Lyn and
West Lyn, flow down deep and well-wooded valleys to the sea.
Lynton is on the cliff-edge, 430 ft. above. A lift connects the
villages. The1' .industries are fishing and a small coasting trade.
Not far off are the Doone Valley, part of the vale of the East Lyn,
here called Badgeworthy water, once the stronghold of a notorious
band of robbers and famous through R. D. Blackmore's novel
Lorna Doone; Watersmeet, where two streams, the Tavy and
Walkham, join amid wild and beautiful scenery; and the
Valley of Rocks, a narrow glen strewn with immense boulders.
Lynton is an urban district, with a population (1901) of 1641.

LYNX (Lat. Lynx, Gr. \vy!-, probably connected with Xeuoo-eiv,
to see), a genus of mammals of the family Felidae, by some
naturalists regarded only as a subgenus or section of the typical
genus Felis (see CARNIVORA) . As an English word(lynx)the name
is used of any animal of this group. It is not certain to which
of these, if to any of them, the Greek name Xfryfc was especially
applied, though it was more probably the caracal (q.v.) than any

LYON, MARY M.— LYON, N.

173

of the northern species. The so-called lynxes of Bacchus were
generally represented as resembling leopards rather than any of
the species now known by the name. Various fabulous properties
were attributed to the animal, whatever it was, by the ancients,
that of extraordinary powers of vision, including ability to see
through opaque substances, being one; whence the epithet
" lynx-eyed," which has survived to the present day.

Lynxes are found in the northern and temperate regions of
both the Old and New World; they are smaller than leopards,
and larger than true wild cats, with long limbs, short stumpy tail,
ears tufted at the tip, and pupil of the eye linear when contracted.
Their fur is generally long and soft, and always longish upon
the cheeks. Their colour is light brown or grey, and generally
spotted with a darker shade. The naked pads of the feet are
more or less covered by the hair that grows between them. The
skull and skeleton do not differ markedly from those of the other
cats. Their habits are exactly those of the other wild cats. Their
food consists of any mammals or birds which they can overpower.
They commit extensive ravages upon sheep and poultry. They
generally frequent rocky places and forests, being active climbers,
and passing much of their time among the branches of the trees.
Their skins are of considerable value in the fur trade. The
northern lynx (L. lynx or L. borealis) of Scandinavia, Russia,

From a drawing by Wolf in Elliot's Monograph of the Felidae.

European Lynx.

northern Asia, and till lately the forest regions of central Europe,
has not inhabited Britain during the historic period, but its
remains have been found in cave deposits of Pleistocene age.
Dr W. T. Blanford says that the characters on which E. Blyth
relied in separating the Tibetan lynx (L. isabellinus) from the
European species are probably due to the nature of its habitat
among rocks, and that he himself could find no constant character
justifying separation. The pardine lynx (L. pardinus) from
southern Europe is a very handsome species; its fur is rufous
above and white beneath.

Several lynxes are found in North America; the most northerly
has been described as the Canadian lynx (L, canadensis) ; the
bay lynx (L. ruftts), with a rufous coat in summer, ranges south
to Mexico, with spotted and streaked varieties — L. macttlatus
in Texas and southern California, and L.fasciatus in Washington
and Oregon. The first three were regarded by St George Mivart
as local races of the northern lynx. A fifth form, the plateau
lynx (L. baileyi), was described by Dr C. H. Merriam in 1890 , but
the differences between it and the bay lynx are slight and
unimportant.

LYON, MARY MASON (1797-1849), American educationalist,
was born on the 28th of February 1797 on a farm near Buckland,
Franklin county, Massachusetts. She began to teach when she

was seventeen, and in 1817, with the earnings from her spinning
and weaving, she went to Sanderson Academy, Ashfield. She
supported herself there, at Amherst Academy, where she spent
one term, and at the girls' school in Byfield, established in 1819
by Joseph Emerson (1777-1833), where she went in 1821, by
teaching in district schools and by conducting informal normal
schools. In 1822-1824 she was assistant principal of Sanderson
Academy, and then taught in Miss Zilpah P. Grant's Adams
Female Academy, in Londonderry (now Deny), N.H. This
school had only summer sessions, and Miss Lyon spent her
winters in teaching, especially at Buckland and at Ashfield,
and in studying chemistry and natural science with Edward
Hitchcock, the geologist. In 1828-1834 sne taught in Miss Grant's
school, which in 1828 had been removed to Ipswich, and for two
years managed the school in Miss Grant's absence. In 1828-1830
she had kept up her winter " normal " school at Buckland,
and this was the beginning of her greater plan, " a permanent
institution consecrated to the training of young women for
usefulness . . . designed to furnish every advantage which the
state of education in this country will allow ... to put within
reach of students of moderate means such opportunities that
none can find better." She was assisted by Dr Hitchcock,
and her own mystical enthusiasm and practical common sense
secured for her plan ready financial support. In 1835 a site
was selected near the village of South Hadley and Mount Holyoke;
in 1836 the school was incorporated as Mount Holyoke Female
Seminary; and on the 8th of November 1837 it opened with
Mary Lyon as principal, and, as assistant, Miss Eunice Caldwell,
afterwards well known as Mrs J. P. Cowles of Ipswich Academy.
Miss Lyon died at Mount Holyoke on the sth of March 1849,
having served nearly twelve years as principal of the seminary,
on a salary of $200 a year. From her work at Holyoke sprang
modern higher education for women in America.

See Edward Hitchcock, Life and Labors of Mary Lyon (1851);
B. B. Gilchrist, Life of Mary Lyon (Boston, 1910).

LYON, NATHANIEL (1818-1861), American soldier, was born
in Ashford, Connecticut, on the I4th of July 1818, and graduated
at West Point in 1841. He was engaged in the Seminole War and
the war with Mexico, won the brevet of captain for his gallantry
at Contreras and Churubusco, and was wounded in the assault
on the city of Mexico. In 1 850, while serving in California, he con-
ducted a successful expedition against the Indians. He was
promoted captain in 1851, and two years later was ordered to the
East, when he became an ardent opponent of " States' Rights "
and slavery. He was stationed in Kansas and in Missouri on the
eve of the Civil War. In Missouri not only was sentiment divided,
but the two factions were eager to resoVt to force long before they
were in the other border states. Lyon took an active part in
organizing the Union party in Missouri, though greatly hampered,
at first by the Federal government which feared to provoke
hostilities, and afterwards by the military commander of the
department, General W. S. Harney. On Haraey's removal in
April 1 86 1, Lyon promptly assumed the command, called upon
Illinois to send him troops, and mustered the Missouri contingent
into the United States' service. He broke up the militia camp at
St Louis established by the secessionist governor of Missouri, Clai-
borne F. Jackson, and but for the express prohibition of Harney,
who had resumed the command, would have proceeded at once to
active hostilities. In all this Lyon had co-operated closely with
Francis P. Blair, Jr., who now obtained from President Lincoln
the definitive removal of Harney and the assignment of Lyon to
command the Department of the West, with the rank of brigadier-
general. On Lyon's refusal to accede to the Secessionists' proposal
that the state should be neutral, hostilities opened in earnest,
and Lyon, having cleared Missouri of small hostile bands in the
central part of the state, turned to the southern districts, where
a Confederate army was advancing from the Arkansas border.
The two forces came to action at Wilson's Creek on the loth of
August 1 86 1. The Union forces, heavily outnumbered, were
defeated, and Lyon himself was killed while striving to rally
his troops. He bequeathed almost all he possessed, some
$30,000, to the war funds of the national government.

LYONNESSE— LYONS

See A. Woodward, Memoir of General Nathaniel Lyon (Hartford,
1862); James Peckham, Life of Lyon (New York, 1866); and T. L.
Snead, The Fight for Missouri (New York, 1886). Also Last Political
Writings of General Nathaniel Lyon (New York, 1862).

LYONNESSE, LYONESSE, LEONNOYS or LEONAIS, a legendary
country off the south coast of Cornwall, England. Lyonnesse is
the scene of many incidents in the Arthurian romances, and
especially in the romances of Tristram and Iseult. It also plays
an important part in purely Cornish tradition and folklore.
Early English chronicles, such as the Chronicon e chronicis of
Florence of Worcester, who died in 1118, described minutely and
without a suggestion of disbelief the flourishing state of Lyon-
nesse, and its sudden disappearance beneath the sea. The
legend may be a greatly exaggerated version of some actual
subsidence of inhabited land. There is also a very ancient local
tradition, apparently independent of the story of Lyonnesse,
that the Scilly Islands formed part of the Cornish mainland
within historical times.

See Florentii Wigorniensis monachi Chronicon ex chronicis, &c., ed.
B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849).

LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858), British
admiral, was born at Burton, near Christchurch, Hampshire,
on the zist of November 1790. He entered the navy, and served
in the Mediterranean, and afterwards in the East Indies, where in
1810 he won promotion by distinguished bravery. He became
post-captain in 1814, and in 1826 commanded the "Blonde"
frigate at the blockade of Navarino, and took part with the
French in the capture of Kasteo Morea. Shortly before his ship
was paid off in 1835 he was knighted. From 1840 till 1853 Lyons
was employed on the diplomatic service, being successively
minister to Greece, Switzerland and Sweden. On the outbreak
of the war with Russia he was appointed second in command of
the British fleet in the Black Sea under Admiral Dundas, whom
he succeeded in the chief command in 1854. As admiral of the
inshore squadron he had the direction of the landing of the troops
in the Crimea, which he conducted with marvellous energy and
despatch. According to Kinglake, Lyons shared the " intimate
counsels " of Lord Raglan in regard to the most momentous
questions of the war, and toiled, with a " painful consuming
passion," to achieve the object of the campaign. His principal
actual achievements in battle were two — the support he rendered
with his guns to the French at the Alma in attacking the left
flank of the Russians, and the bold and brilliant part he took with
his ship the " Agamemnon " in the first bombardment of the
forts of Sebastopol; but his constant vigilance, his multifarious
activity, and his suggestions and counsels were much more
advantageous to the allied^ cause than his specific exploits. In
1855 he was created vice-admiral; in June 1856 he was raised
to the peerage with the title of Baron Lyons of Christchurch.
He died on the 23rd of November 1858.

See Adam S. Eardley-Wilmot, R.N., Life of Lord Lyons (1898).

LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, IST EARL
(1817-1887), British diplomatist, son of the preceding, was born
at Lymington on the 26th of April 1817. He entered the
diplomatic service, and in 1859-1864 was British minister at
Washington, where, after the outbreak of the Civil War, the
extremely important negotiations connected with the arrest of the
Confederate envoys on board the British mail-steamer "Trent"
devolved upon him. After a brief service at Constantinople,
he succeeded Lord Cowley at the Paris embassy in 1867. In the
war of 1870 he used his best efforts as a mediator, and accom-
panied the provisional government to Tours. He continued to
hold his post with universal acceptance until November 1887. He
died on the sth of December 1887, when the title became extinct.

LYONS (Fr. Lyon), a city of eastern France, capital of the
department of Rh6ne, 315 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 218 m. N. by W.
of Marseilles on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town,
430,186; commune, 472,114. Lyons, which in France is second
only to Paris in commercial and military importance, is situated
at the confluence of the Rhone and the Sa6ne at an altitude of
540 to 1000 ft. above sea-level. The rivers, both flowing south,
are separated on the north by the hill on which lies the populous
working quarter of Croix-Rousse, then by the narrow tongue of

land ending in the Perrache Quarter. The peninsula thus formed
is over 3 m. long and from 650 to 1000 yds. broad. It is traversed
lengthwise by the finest streets of the city, the rue de la Re-
publique, the rue de l'H6tel de Ville, and the rue Victor Hugo.
Where it enters Lyons the Saone has on its right the faubourg of
Vaise and on its left that of Serin, whence the ascent is made to
the top of the hill of Cioix-Rousse. Farther on, its right bank
is bordered by the scarped heights of Fourviere, St Ireneex
Ste Foy, and St Just, leaving room only for the quays and one
or two narrow streets; this is the oldest part of the city. The
river sweeps in a semicircle around this eminence (410 ft. above
it), which is occupied by convents, hospitals and seminaries,
and has at its summit the famous church of Notre-Dame de
Fourviere, the resort of many thousands of pilgrims annually.

On the peninsula between the rivers, at the foot of the hill of
Croix-Rousse, are the principal quarters of the town : the
Terreaux, containing the h6tel de ville, and the chief commercial
establishments; the wealthy residential quarter, centring round
the Place Bellecour, one of the finest squares in France; and the
Perrache. The Rhone and Sa6ne formerly met on the site of this
quarter, till, in the i8th century, the sculptor Perrache reclaimed
it; on the peninsula thus formed stands the principal railway
station, the Gare de Perrache with the Cours du Midi, the most
extensive promenade in Lyons, stretching in front of it. Here,
too, are the docks of the Sa&ne, factories, the arsenal, gas-works
and prisons. The Rhone, less confined than the Sa6ne, flows
swiftly in a wide channel, broken when the water is low in spring
by pebbly islets. On the right hand it skirts first St Clair, sloping
upwards to Croix-Rousse, and then the districts of Terreaux,
Bellecour and Pen-ache; on the left it has a low-lying plain,
occupied by the Pare de la Tete d'Or and the quarters of Brot-
teaux and Guillotiere. The park, together with its lake, com-
prises some 285 acres, and contains a zoological collection,
botanical and pharmaceutical gardens, and the finest greenhouses
in France, with unique collections of orchids, palm-trees and
Cycadaceae. It is defended from the Rhone by the Quai de la
Tele d'Or, while on the east the railway line to Geneva separ-
ates it from the race-course. Brotteaux is a modern residential
quarter. Guillotiere to the south consists largely of workmen's
dwellings, bordering wide, airy thoroughfares. To the east
extend the manufacturing suburbs of Villeurbanne and Montchat.
The population, displaced by the demolition of the lofty old
houses and the widening of the streets on the peninsula, migrates
to the left bank of the Rhone, the extension of the city into the
plain of Dauphin6 being unhindered.

The Rhone and the Sa6ne are bordered by fine quays and
crossed by 24 bridges — n over the Rhone, 12 over the Sa6ne,
and i at the confluence. Of these the Pont du Change over
the Sa6ne and the Pont de la Guillotiere over the Rhone have
replaced medieval bridges, the latter of the two preserving a
portion of the old structure.

Of the ancient buildings Notre-Dame de Fourviere is the most
celebrated. The name originally applied to a small chapel built
in the gth century on the site of the old forum (Jorum p-.t.,,.
veins) from which it takes its name. It has been often Buildings
rebuilt, the chief feature being a modern Romanesque
tower surmounted by a cupola and statue of the Virgin. In
1872 a basilica was begun at its side in token of the gratitude of
the city for having escaped occupation by the Germafl troops.
The building, finished in 1894, consists of a nave without aisles
flanked at each exterior corner by a turret and terminating in
an apse. The facade, the lower half of which is a lofty portico
supported on four granite columns, is richly decorated on its
upper half with statuary and sculpture. Marble and mosaic
have been lavishly used in the ornamentation of the interior and
of the crypt. Round the apse runs a gallery from which, accord-
ing to an old custom, a benediction is pronounced upon the town
annually on the Sth of September. From this gallery a mag-
nificent view of the city and the surrounding country can be
obtained. At the foot of the hill of Fourviere rises the cathedral
of St Jean, one of the finest examples of early Gothic architecture
in France. Begun in the i2th century, to the end of which the

LYONS

175

transept and choir belong, it was not finished till the
century, the gable and flanking towers of the west front being
completed in 1480. A triple portal surmounted by a line of
arcades and a rose window gives entrance to the church. Two
additional towers, that to the north containing one of the largest
bells in France, rise at the extremities of the transept. The
nave and choir contain fine stained glass of the ijth and I4th
centuries as well as good modern glass. The chapel of St Louis
or of Bourbon, to the right of the nave, is a masterpiece of
Flamboyant Gothic. To the right and left of the altar stand
two crosses preserved since the council of 1274 as a symbol of the
union then agreed upon between the Greek and Latin churches.
Adjoining St Jean is the ancient Manecanterie or singers' house,
much mutilated and frequently restored, but still preserving
graceful Romanesque arcades along its front. St Martin d'Ainay,
on the peninsula, is the oldest church in Lyons, dating from the
beginning of the 6th century and subsequently attached to a
Benedictine abbey. It was rebuilt in the loth and nth centuries
and restored in modern times, and is composed of a nave with four
aisles, a transept and choir terminating in three semicircular
apses ornamented with paintings by Hippolyte Flandrin, a
native of Lyons. The church is surmounted by two towers, one
in the middle of the west front, the other at the crossing; the
four columns supporting the latter are said to have come from
an altar to Augustus. A mosaic of the izth century, a high altar
decorated with mosaic work and a beautifully carved confes-
sional are among the works of art in the interior. St Nizier, in
the heart of the city, was the first cathedral of Lyons; and the
crypt in which St Pothinus officiated still exists. The present
church is a Gothic edifice of the isth century, with the exception
of the porch, constructed by Philibert Delorme, a native of
Lyons, in the i6th century. The Church of St Paul (i2th and
iSth centuries), situated on the right bank of the Sa6ne, pre-
serves an octagonal central tower and other portions of Roman-
esque architecture; that of St Bonaventure, originally a chapel
of the Cordeliers, was rebuilt in the isth and ipth centuries.
With the exception of the imposing prefecture, the vast buildings
of the faculties, which are in the Guillotiere quarter, and the law
court, the colonnade of which overlooks the Sa6ne from its right
bank, the chief civil buildings are in the vicinity of the Place des
Terreaux. The east side of this square (so called from the
terreaux or earth with which the canal formerly connecting the
Rhone and the Sa6ne hereabouts was filled) is formed by the
hotel de ville (i7th century), the east facade of which, towards
the Grand Theatre, is the more pleasing. The south side of the
square is occupied by the Palais des Arts, built in the lyth century
as a Benedictine convent and now accommodating the school of
fine arts, the museums of painting and sculpture, archaeology
and natural history, and the library of science, arts and industry.
The museums are second in importance only to those of Paris.
The collection of antiquities, rich in Gallo-Roman inscriptions,
contains the bronze tablets discovered in 1528, on which is
engraved a portion of a speech delivered in A.D. 48, by the
emperor Claudius, advocating the admission of citizens of
Gallia Comata to the Roman senate. The " Ascension," a
masterpiece of Perugino, is the chief treasure of the art collection,
in which are works by nearly all the great masters. A special
gallery contains the works of artists of Lyons, among whom are
numbered Antoine Berjon, Meissonier, Paul Chenavard, Puvis de
Chavannes. In the Rue de la Republique, between the Place de
la Bourse and the Place des Cordeliers, each of which contains
one of its highly ornamented fronts, stands the Palais du
Commerce et de la Bourse, the finest of the modern buildings of
Lyons. The Bourse (exchange) has its offices on the ground
floor round the central glass-roofed hall; the upper storeys
accommodate the commercial tribunal, the council of trade
arbitration, the chamber of commerce and the Musfe historique
des Tissus, in which the history of the weaving industry is
illustrated by nearly 400,000 examples. In the buildings of the
Iyc6e on the right bank of the Rhone are the municipal library
and a collection of globes, among them the great terrestrial
globe made at Lyons in 1701, indicating the great African lakes.

The Hotel Dieu, instituted according to tradition in the
beginning of the 6th century by King Childebert, is still one of
the chief charitable establishments in the city. The present
building dates from the i8th century; its facade, fronting the
west quay of the Rhone for over 1000 ft., was begun according
to the designs of Soufflot, architect of the Pantheon at Paris.
The Hospice de la Charite and the military hospital are on the
same bank slightly farther down stream. The Hospice de
1'Antiquaille, at Fourviere, occupies the site of the palace of the
praetorian prefects, in which Germanicus, Claudius and Caracalla
were born. Each of these hospitals contains more than 1000
beds. Lyons has many other benevolent institutions, and is
also the centre of the operations of the Socie'tS de la Propagation
de la Foi. The chief monuments are the equestrian statue of
Louis XIV. in the Place Bellecour, the monuments of President
Carnot, Marshal Suchet, the physicist Andre-Marie Ampere, and
those in honour of the Republic and in memory of the citizens of
the department who fell in the war of 1870-71. The most note-
worthy fountain is that in the Place des Terreaux with the
leaden group by Bartholdi representing the rivers on their way
to the ocean.

There are Roman remains — baths, tombs and the relics of a
theatre — in the St Just quarter on the right bank of the Saone.
Three ancient aqueducts on the Fourviere level, from Mont-
romant, Mont d'Or and Mont Pilat, can still be traced. Magnifi-
cent remains of the latter work may be seen at St Iren6e and
Chaponost. Traces also exist along the Rhone of a subterranean
canal conveying the water of the river to a naumachia (lake for
mimic sea-fights). Agrippa made Lyons the starting-point of
the principal Roman roads throughout Gaul; and it remains
an important centre in the general system of communication
owing to its position on the natural highway from north to
south-eastern France. The Sa6ne above the town and the Rhone
below have large barge and steamboat traffic. The main line
of the Parjs-Lyon-M6diterranee railway runs first through the
station at Vaise, on the right bank of the Sa6ne, and thence to
that of Perrache, the chief station in the city. The line next
in importance, that to Geneva, has its station in the Brotteaux
quarter, and the line of the eastern Lyonnais to St Genix d'Aoste
has a terminus at Guillotiere; both these lines link up with
the Paris-Lyon main line. The railway to Montbrison starts
from the terminus of St Paul in Fourviere and that to Bourg.
Trevoux and the Dombes region from the station of Croix-Rousse.
A less important line to Vaugneray and Mornant has a terminus
at St Just. Besides the extensive system of street tramways,
cable tramways (ficelles) run to the summits of the eminences of
Croix-Rousse, Fourviere and St Just.

Lyons is, next to Paris, the principal fortress of the interior of
France, and, like the capital, possesses a military governor. The
immediate protection of the city is provided for on the east side by a
modern enceinte, of simple trace, in the plain (subsidiary to this is a
group of fairly modern detached forts forming an advanced position
at the village of Bron), and on the west by a line of detached forts, not
of recent design, along the high ground on the right bank of the Sa6ne.
Some older forts and a portion of the old enceinte are still kept up in
the city itself, and two of these forts, Montessuy and Caluire, situated
on the peninsula, serve with their annexes to connect the northern
extremities of the two lines above mentioned. The main line of
defence is as usual the outer fort-ring, the perimeter of which is more
than 40 m., and the mean distance from the centre of the
city 6} m. This naturally divides into four sections. In Defence.
the eastern plain, well in advance of the enceinte, eight principal
sites have been fortified, Feyzin, Corbas, St Priest, Genas, Azieu,
Meyzieux, D6cines and Chaurant. These form a semicircle from the
lower to the upper reaches of the Rhone. The northern (or north
eastern) section, between the Rhone and the Sa6ne, has forts Neyron
ind Vancia as its principal defences; these and their subsidiary
batteries derive some additional support from the forts Montessuy
and Caluire mentioned above. On the north-west side there is a
strong group of works disposed like a redan, of which the salient, fort
Verdun and annexes, is on the high plateau of Mont d'Or pointing
northward, and the faces, represented by forts Fr6ta and Paillet, are
lower down on the spurs of the ridge, facing north-east and north-
west respectively. The south-western section comprises three
principal groups, Bruisson, C6te-Lorette and Montcorin-Champ-
villard, the last-named crossing its fire over the Lower Rhone with
Fort Feyzin. Lastly a connecting battery was built near Chapoly in
1895 to close the gap between the north-western and south-western

176

LYONS, COUNCILS OF

sections and to command the westward approaches by the valley of
Charbonnieres.

Lyons is the headquarters of the XIV. army-corps, the seat of an
archbishop who holds the title of primate of the Gauls and also that
of archbishop of Vienne, and of a prefect, a court of appeal, a court
of assizes, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, and of two
boards of trade arbitration (conseils de prud' hommes) . It is the
centre of an academie (educational division) and has a university
with faculties of law, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy.
There are also Catholic faculties (facultes libres) of law, theology,
science and letters, three lycees, training colleges for teachers and
numerous minor educational establishments. There are besides
many special schools at Lyons, the more important being the school
of fine arts which was founded in the i8th century to train competent
designers for the textile manufactures, but has also done much for
painting and sculpture; an army medical school, schools of drawing,
agriculture, music, commerce (ecole superieure de commerce), weaving,
tanning, watch-making and applied chemistry, and the ecoles La
Martiniere for free instruction in science and art as applied to
industry. The veterinary school, instituted in 1761, was the first
of its kind in Europe; its laboratory for the study of comparative
physiology is admirably equipped. Besides the Academie des
Sciences, Belles Lettres el Arts (founded in 1700), Lyons possesses
societies of agriculture, natural history, geography, horticulture, &c.

Its trade in silk and silk goods has formed the basis of the prosperity
of Lyons for several centuries. Derived from Italy, this industry
lad strv rapidly developed, thanks to the monopoly granted to the

dt d c'tv m '45° by Charles VII. and to the patronage of
' Francis I., Henry II. and Henry IV. From time to time
new kinds of fabrics were invented— silk stuffs woofed with
wool or with gold and silver threads, shawls, watered silks, poplins,
velvets, satinades, moires,.&c. In the beginning of the lo.th century
J. M. Jacquard introduced his famous loom by which a single work-
man was enabled to produce elaborate fabrics as easily as the
plainest web, and by changing the "cartoons " to make the most
different textures on the same looms. In the I7th century the silk
manufacture employed at Lyons, 9000 to 12,000 looms. After the
revocation of the edict of Nantes the number sank to 3000 or 4000;
but after the Reign of Terror was past it rose again about 1801 to
12,000. Towards the middle of the 10th century the weaving
branch of the industry began to desert Lyons for the surrounding
districts. The city remains the business centre for the trade and
carries on dyeing, printing and other accessory processes. Lyons
disputes with Milan the position of the leading silk market of Europe.
In 1905 the special office (la Condition des soies) which determines
the weight of the silk examined over 4700 tons of silk. France
furnished barely one-tenth of this quantity, two-thirds came from
China and Japan, the rest from Italy and the Levant. The traders
of Lyons re-export seven-twelfths of these silks, the industries of the
town employing the remainder. An almost equal quantity of cotton,
wool and waste-silk threads is mixed with the silk. A few thousand
hand-looms are still worked in the town, more especially producing
the richest materials, 50,000 or 55,000 in the surrounding districts,
and some 33,000 machine looms in the suburbs and neighbouring
departments. Allied industries such as dyeing, finishing and print-
ing, employ 12,000 workers. Altogether 300,000 workpeople depend
upon the silk industry. In 1905 the total value of the manufacture
was £15,710,000, the chief items being pure silk textures (plain)
£3,336,000; textures of silk mixed with other materials £3,180,000;
silk and foulards £1,152,000; muslins £3,800,000, this product
having increased from £100,000 in 1894. Speaking roughly the raw
material represents half the value, and the value of the labour the
remaining half. About 30% of the silk goods of Lyons finds a
market in France. Great Britain imported them to the value of
over £6,000,000, and the United States to the value of over £1,600,000,
notwithstanding the heavy duty. The dyeing industry and the
manufacture of chemicals have both developed considerably to meet
the requirements of the silk trade. Large quantities of mineral and
vegetable colouring matters are produced and there is besides a large
output of glue, gelatine, superphosphates and phosphorus, all made
from bones and hides, of picric, tartaric, sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids, sulphates of iron and copper, and pharmaceutical and other
chemical products.

Lyons does a large trade in metals, iron, steel and copper, and
utilizes them in the manufacture of iron buildings, framework,
bridges, machinery, railway material, scales, metal cables, pins and
needles, copper-founding and the making of clocks and bronzes.
Gold and silver-working is of importance, especially for embroidery
and articles used in religious ceremonies. Other industries are those
of printing, the manufacture of glass goods, of tobacco (by the state),
the preparation of hides and skins (occupying 20,000 workmen), those
connected with the miller's trade, the manufacture of various forms
of dried flour-paste (macaroni, vermicelli, &c.), brewing, hat-making,
the manufacture of chocolate, and the pork-butcher's industry.
Apart from the dealings in silk and silk goods, trade is in cloth, coal
and charcoal, metals and metal goods, wine and spirits, cheese and
chestnuts. Four miles south-west of Lyons is Oullins (pop. 9859)
which has the important works of the Paris-Lyon railway.

Lyons is the seat of important financial companies; of the Credit
Lyonnais, which does business to the amount of £200,000,000 annually

in Lyons alone; also of coal and metallurgical companies and gas
companies, the former extending their operations as far as Russia,
the latter lighting numerous towns in France and foreign countries.

History. — The earliest Gallic occupants of the territory at
the confluence of the Rhone and the Saone were the Segusians?
In 59 B.C. some Greek refugees from the banks of the Herault,
having obtained permission of the natives to establish themselves
beside the Croix-Rousse, called their new town by the Gallic
name Lugudunum (q.v.) or Lugdunum; and in 43 B.C. Lucius
Munatius Plancus brought a Roman colony to Fourvieres from
Vienne. This settlement soon acquired importance, and was
made by Agrippa the starting-point of four great roads.
Augustus, besides building aqueducts, temples and a theatre,
gave it a senate and made it the seat of an annual assembly
of deputies from the sixty cities of Gallia Comata. At the same
time the place became the Gallic centre for the worship of Rome
and the emperor. Under the emperors the colony of Forum
Vetus and the municipium of Lugdunum were united, receiving
the jus senalus. The town was burnt in A.D. 59 and afterwards
rebuilt in a much finer style with money given by Nero; it was
also adorned by Trajan, Adrian and Antoninus. The martyrdom
of Pothinus and Blandina occurred under Marcus Aurelius
(A.D. 177), and some years later a still more savage persecution
of the Christians took place under Septimius Severus, in which
Irenaeus, according to some authors, perished.

After having been ravaged by the barbarians and abandoned
by the empire, Lyons in 478 became capital of the kingdom
of the Burgundians. It afterwards fell into the hands of the
Franks, and suffered severely from the Saracens, but revived
under .Charlemagne, and after the death of Charles the Bald
became part of the kingdom of Provence. From 1032 it was a
fief of the emperor of Germany. Subsequently the authority
over the town was a subject of dispute between the archbishops
of Lyons and the counts of Forez; but the supremacy of the
French kings was established under Philip the Fair in 1312. The
citizens were constituted into a commune ruled by freely elected
consuls (1320). In the I3th century two ecclesiastical councils
were held at Lyons — one in 1245, presided over by Innocent IV.,
at which the emperor Frederick II. was deposed; the second,
the oecumenical, under the presidency of Gregory X., in 1274,
at which five hundred bishops met. Pope Clement V. was
crowned here in 1305, and his successor, John XXII., elected
in 1316. The Protestants obtained possession of the place
in 1562; their acts of violence were fiercely avenged in 1572
after the St Bartholomew massacre. Under Henry III. Lyons
sided with the League; but it pronounced in favour of Henry IV.
The executions of Henri d'Effiat, marquis of Cinq-Mars, and of
Francois de Thou, who had plotted to overthrow Richelieu,
took place on the Place des Terreaux in 1642. In 1793 the
Royalists and Girondists, powerful in the city, rose against the
Convention, but were compelled to yield to the army of the
republic under General Kellermann after enduring a siege of
seven weeks (October 10). Terrible chastisement ensued: the
name of Lyons was changed to that of Ville-affranchie; the
demolition of its buildings was set about on a wholesale scale;
and vast numbers of the proscribed, whom the scaffold had
spared, were butchered with grape shot. The town resumed
its old name after the fall of Robespierre, and the terrorists in
their turn were drowned in large numbers in the Rhone. Napoleon
rebuilt the Place Bellecour, reopened the churches, and made
the bridge of Tilsit over the Sa6ne between Bellecour and
the cathedral. In 1814 and 1815 Lyons was occupied by the
Austrians. In 1831, 1834, 1849, 1870 and 1871 it was the scene
of violent industrial or political disturbances. In 1840 and 1856
disastrous floods laid waste portions of the city. International
exhibitions were held here in 1872 and 1894, the latter occasion
being marked by the assassination of President Carnot.

See S. Charlety, Histoire de Lyon (Lyon, 1903); J. Godart,
L'Ouvrier en soie. Monographic du tisseur lyonnais (Lyon, 1899);
A. Vachet, A travers les rues de Lyon (Lyon, 1902) ; A. Steyert,
Nouvelle Histoire de Lyon et des provinces de Lyonnais Forez,
Beaujolais (3 vols., Lyon, 1895-1899).

LYONS, COUNCILS OF. The first Council of Lyons (the
thirteenth general council) met at the summons of Pope Innocent

LYRA— LYRE

177

IV. in June and July of 1245, to deliberate on the conflict
between Church and emperor, on the assistance to be granted
to the Holy Land and the Eastern empire, on measures of
protection against the Tatars, and on the suppression of heresy.
Among the tasks of the council mentioned in the writs of con-
vocation, the most important, in the eyes of the pope, was that
it should lend him effectual aid in his labours to overthrow the
emperor Frederick II.; and, with this object in view, he had
described the synod as a general council. Since its numbers
were not far in excess of 150 bishops and archbishops, and the
great majority of these came from France, Italy and Spain;
while the schismatic Greeks and the other countries — especially
Germany, whose interests were so deeply involved — were but
weakly represented; the ambassador of Frederick, Thaddaeus
of Suessa, contested its oecumenicity in the assembly itself.
The condemnation of the emperor was a foregone conclusion.
The articles of indictment described him as the " prince of
tyranny, the destroyer of ecclesiastical dogma, the annihilator
of the faith, the master of cruelty," and so forth; while the
grossest calumnies were treated as approved facts. The objec-
tions of the ambassador, that the accused had not been regularly
cited, that the pope was plaintiff and judge in one, and that
therefore the whole process was anomalous, achieved as little
success as his appeal to the future pontiff and to a truly oecumeni-
cal council. The representatives of the kings of England and
France were equally unfortunate in their claim for a prorogation
of the decision. On the iyth of July the verdict was pronounced
by Innocent IV., excommunicating Frederick and dethroning
him on the grounds of perjury, sacrilege, heresy and felony.
All oaths of fealty sworn to him were pronounced null and void,
and the German princes were commanded to proceed with the
election of a new sovereign. In addition the council enacted
decrees against the growing irregularities in the Church, and
passed resolutions designed to support the Crusaders and revive
the struggle for the Holy Land.

See Mansi, Cottectio concttiorum, torn, xxiii.; Huillard-Breholles,
Historia diplomatica Frederici II., 6 torn. (Paris, 1852-1861); Hefele,
Conciliengeschichte, ed. 2, vol. v. (1886), pp. 1105-1126; Fr. W.
Schirrmacher, Kaiser Friederich der Zweite (4 vols., Gottingen, 1859-
1865); H. Schulz, in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, ed. 3, vol. ix.
(1901), p. 122 sqq., s.v. " Innocenz IV. ; A. Folz, Kaiser Friedrich
II. u. Papst Innocenz IV. (Strassburg, 1905).

The second Council of Lyons (the fourteenth general council)
met from the ;th of May to the i7th of July 1274, under the
presidency of Pope Gregory X., and was designed to resolve
three problems: to terminate the Greek schism, to decree a
new Crusade, and to counteract the moral corruption among
clerics and laity. The council entered on its third task at a
very late period, with the result that the requisite time for an
adequate deliberation was not available. Nevertheless, on the
ist of November, Gregory was enabled to publish thirty-one
constitutions, which may be taken to represent the fruits of
the synod and its labours. The most important of the enact-
ments passed is that regulating the papal election. It pre-
scribed that the new election conducted by the college of cardinals
should be held in conclave (?.».), and its duration abridged by
progressive simplification of the cardinal's diet. The motive
for this decision, which has maintained its ground in ecclesi-
astical law, was given by the circumstances which followed the
death of Clement IV. (1268). The pope felt a peculiar interest
in the Holy Land, from which he was recalled by his elevation
to the pontifical throne. He succeeded in bringing influential
interests to work in the cause; but his scheme of a great enter-
prise backed by the whole force of the West came to nothing,
for the day of the Crusades was past. His projected Crusade
was interwoven with his endeavours to end the schism; and
the political straits of the emperor Michael Palaeologus in
Constantinople came to the aid of these aspirations. To ensure
his safety against the attacks of King Charles of Sicily, who
had pledged himself to assist the ex-emperor Baldwin in his
reconquest of the Latin empire, Michael was required to own
the supremacy of the pope in the spiritual domain; while
Gregory, in return, would restrain the Sicilian monarch from his

bellicose policy with regard to the Eastern empire. The ambas-
sadors of the emperor appeared at the council with letters
acknowledging the Roman pontiff and the confession of faith
previously dispatched from the eternal city, and submitted
similarly-worded declarations from the heads of the Byzantine
Church. One member of the embassy, the Logothete Georgius
Acropolites, was authorized by the emperor to take an oath
in his name, renouncing the schism. In short, the subjection
of the East to the Roman see was completed in the most binding
forms, and the long-desired union seemed at last assured.
Gregory himself did not live to discover its illusory character.
The Council of Lyons was, moreover, of importance for the
German dynastic struggle: for Gregory took the first public
step in favour of Count Rudolph of Habsburg, the king-elect,
by receiving his deputy and denying an audience to the delegate
of the rival claimant, King Alphonso of Castile.

See Mansi, Cottectio conciliorum, torn. xxiv. ; Hefele, Conciiien-
geschichte, vol. vi. ed. 2 (1890), p. 1 19 sqq. Also C. Mirbt, in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklop. f. protestantische Theologie, vol. vii. (1899), p.
122, s.v. " Gregor X." (C. M.)

LYRA (" The Harp "), in astronomy, a constellation in the
northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century
B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued 10
stars in this constellation; Tycho Brahe n and Hevelius 17.
a Lyrae or Vega, is the second brightest star in the northern
hemisphere, and notable for the whiteness of its light, which
is about 100 times that of the sun. The name " vega " is a
remnant of an Arabic phrase meaning " falling eagle," " Altair,"
or a Aquttae, is the similar remnant of " flying eagle." e Lyrae
is a multiple star, separated by the naked eye or by a small
telescope into two stars; these are each resolved into two stars
by a 3* telescope, while a more powerful instrument (4') reveals
three smaller stars between the two pairs. /3 Lyrae and R.
Lyrae are short period variables. There is the famous ring or
annular nebula, M . 57 Lyrae, in the middle of which is a very
faint star, which is readily revealed by photography; and also
the meteoric swarm named the Lyrids, which appear in April
and have their radiant in this constellation (see METEOK).

LYRE (Gr. Xvpa), an ancient stringed musical instrument.
The recitations of the Greeks were accompanied by it. Yet
the lyre was not of Greek origin; no root in the language has
been discovered for Xi>pa, although the special names bestowed
upon varieties of the instrument are Hellenic. We have to seek
in Asia the birthplace of the genus, and to infer its introduction
into Greece through Thrace or Lydia. The historic heroes
and improvers of the lyre were of the Aeolian or Ionian colonies,
or the adjacent coast bordering on the Lydian empire, while
the mythic masters, Orpheus, Musaeus and Thamyris, were
Thracians. Notwithstanding the Hermes tradition of the
invention of the lyre in Egypt, the Egyptians seem to have
adopted it from Assyria or Babylonia.

To define the lyre, it is necessary clearly to separate it from
the allied harp and guitar. In its primal form the lyre differs
from the harp, of which the earliest, simplest notion is found in
the bow and bowstring. While the guitar (and lute) can be
traced back to the typical " nefer " of the fourth Egyptian
dynasty, the fretted finger-board of which, permitting the
production of different notes by the shortening of the string,
is as different in conception from the lyre and harp as the flute
with holes to shorten the column of air is from the syrinx or
Pandean pipes. The frame of a lyre consists of a hollow body
or sound-chest (rrxtiov). From this sound-chest are raised two
arms (irrixeu), which are sometimes hollow, and are bent both
outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a
crossbar or yoke (fvybv, fvyu^a, or, from its having once been a
reed, tcdXajuos). Another crossbar 1/adXas. vro\vpu>v), fixed on
the sound-chest, forms the bridge which transmits the vibrations
of the strings. The deepest note was the farthest from the
player; but, as the strings did not differ much in length, more
weight may have been gained for the deeper notes by thicker
strings, as in the violin and similar modern instruments, or they
were turned with slacker tension. The strings were of gut (x<>P&7.

i78

LYRE

•whence chord). They were stretched between the yoke and
bridge, or to a tailpiece below the bridge. There were two ways
of tuning: one was to fasten the strings to pegs which might
be turned (KoXXa/3oi, /coXXoires) ; the other was to change the
place of the string upon the crossbar; probably both expedients
were simultaneously employed. It is doubtful whether 17 xopSoro-
vos meant the tuning key or the part of the instrument where
the pegs were inserted. The extensions of the arms above the
yoke were known as Ktpara, horns.

The number of strings varied at different epochs, and possibly
in different localities — four, seven and ten having been favourite
numbers. They were used without a finger-board, no Greek
description or representation having ever been met with that
can be construed as referring to one. Nor was a bow possible,
the flat sound-board being an insuperable impediment. The
plectrum, however (TT\rJKTpov), was in constant use. It was
held in the right hand to set the upper strings in vibration
(Kp€K&.v, Kpoveiv T<3 v\T]K.T pui) ; at other times it hung from
the lyre by a ribbon. The fingers of the left hand touched the
lower strings (\!/a\\ea>).

With Greek authors the lyre has several distinct names;
but we are unable to connect these with anything like certainty
to the varieties of the instrument. Chelys
(x«Xus, " tortoise ") may mean the smallest
lyre, which, borne by one arm or supported
by the knees, offered in the sound-chest a
decided resemblance to that familiar animal.
That there was a difference between lyre
and cithara (tuBbpa) is certain, Plato and
other writers separating them. Hermes and
Apollo had an altar at Olympia in common
because the former had invented the lyre
and the latter the cithara. The lyre and
chelys on the one hand, and the cithara
and phorminx on the other, were similar
FIG. i.— Chelys or nearjy identical. Apollo is said to have
va'se in'the Brkish carried a 8olden Phorminx. (A. J. H.)

Museum, where also There are three lines of evidence that
are fragments of establish the difference between the lyre
such an instrument, and cithara: (i) There are certain vase

Paintin8s in which the name Mvw accom-
panies the drawing of the instrument,

as, for instance, in fig. 2 where the tortoise-shell lyre is
obviously represented.1 (2) In all legends accounting for the
invention of the lyre, the shell or body of the tortoise is in-
variably mentioned as forming the back of the instrument,
whereas the tortoise has never been connected with the cithara.
(3) The lyre is emphatically distinguished as the most suitable
instrument for the musical training of young
men and maidens and as the instrument of
the amateur, whereas the cithara was the
instrument of citharoedus or citharista, pro-
fessional performers at the Pythian Games,
at ceremonies and festivals, the former using
his instrument to accompany epic recitations
and odes, the latter for purely instrumental
music. The costume worn by citharoedus
and citharista was exceedingly rich and quite
distinct from any other.2 i

We find the lyre represented among scenes
of domestic life, in lessons, receptions, at

' '

Gerhard, A user I.

triech. Vascnoilder.

shelT'Lyre From^a banquets and in mythological scenes; it is
; n found in the hands of women no less than
men, and the costume of the performer

Greek vase

Munich.

is invariably that of an ordinary citizen. Lyres were of

many sizes and varied in outline according to period and

nationality.

We therefore possess irrefutable evidence of identification
in both cases, all of which tallies exactly. Examination of the

1 See Ed. Gerhard, Auserlesene griech. VasenbUder, part iii.
(Berlin, 1847), pi. 236 and p. 157.
1 See Aristotle, Polit. v. 6. 5.

construction of the instruments thus indentified reveals the fact
that both possessed characteristics which have persisted through-
out the middle ages to the present day in various instruments
evolved from these two archetypes. The principal feature of
both lyre and cithara was the peculiar method of construction
adopted in the sound-chest, which may be said to have been
almost independent of the outline. In the lyre the sound-chest
consisted of a vaulted back, in imitation of the tortoise, over
which was directly glued a flat sound-board of wood or parch-
ment. In the cithara (q.v.) the sound-chest was shallower, and
the back and front were invariably connected by sides or ribs.
These two methods of constructing the sound-chests of stringed
instruments were typical, and to one or the other may be referred
every stringed instrument with a neck which can be traced
during the middle ages in miniatures, early printed books, on
monuments and other works of art. (K. S.)

Passing by the story of the discovery of the lyre from a vibrating
tortoise-shell by Hermes, we will glance at the real lyres of Egypt
and Semitic Asia. The Egyptian lyre is unmistakably Semitic.
The oldest representation that has been discovered is in one of the
tombs of Beni Hassan, the date of the painting being in the Xllth
Dynasty, that is, shortly before the invasion of " the shepherd kings "
(the Hyksos). In this painting, which both Rosellini and Lepsius
have reproduced, an undoubted Semite carries a seven or eight-
stringed lyre, or rather cithara in transition, similar to the rotla of
the middle ages. The instrument has a four-cornered body and an
irregular four-cornered frame above it, and the player carries it
horizontally from his breast, just as a modern Nubian would his
kissar. He plays as he walks, using both hands, a plectrum being in
the right. Practical knowledge of these ancient instruments may be
gained through two remarkable specimens preserved in the museums
of Berlin (fig. 3) and Leiden (see CITHARA). During the rule of the
Hyksos the lyre became naturalized in Egypt, and in the i8th
dynasty it is frequently (
depicted, and with finer
grace of form. In the
I9th and 2Oth dynasties
the lyre is sometimes still
more slender, or is quite
unsymmetrical and very
strong, the horns sur-
mounted by heads of
animals as in the Berlin
one, which has horses'
heads at those extremi-
ties. Prokeschcopiedone
in the ruins of Wadi
Haifa, splendid in blue
and gold, with a serpent
wound round it. The
Egyptians always strung
their lyres fan-shaped, F'G- 3-— Egyptian Cithara now at Berlin,
like the modern Nubian kissar. Their paintings show three to
eight or nine strings, but the painters accuracy may not be
unimpeachable; the Berlin instrument had fifteen. The three-
stringed lyre typified the three seasons of the Egyptian year — the
water, the green and the harvest; the seven, the planetary system
from the moon to Saturn. The Greeks had the same notion of the
harmony of the spheres.

There is no evidence as to what the stringing of the Greek lyre
was in the heroic age. Plutarch says that Olympus and Terpander
used but three strings to accompany their recitation. As the four
strings led to seven and eight by doubling the tetrachord, so the
trichord is connected with the hexachord or six-stringed lyre de-
picted on so many archaic Greek vases. We cannot insist on the
accuracy of this representation, the vase painters being little mindful
of the complete expression of details; yet we may suppose their
tendency would be rather to imitate than to invent a number.
It was their constant practice to represent the strings as being
damped by the fingers of the left hand of the player, after having
been struck by the plectrum which he held in the right hand. Before
the Greek civilization had assumed its historic form, there was likely
to be great freedom and independence of different localities in the
matter of lyre stringing, which is corroborated by the antique use of
the chromatic (half-tone) and enharmonic (quarter- tone) tunings,
pointing to an early exuberance, and perhaps also to an Asiatic bias
towards refinements of intonation, from which came the xpoot,
the hues of tuning, old Greek modifications of tetrachords entirely
disused in the classic period. The common scale of Olympus

P

remained, a double trichord which had served as the scaffolding
for the enharmonic varieties.

LYRE-BIRD

179

We may regard the Olympus scale, however, as consisting of two
tetrachords, eliding one interval in each, for the tetrachord, or series
of four notes, was very early adopted as the fundamental principle
of Greek music, and its origin in the lyre itself appears sure. The
basis of the tetrachord is the employment of the thumb and first
three fingers of the left hand to twang as many strings, the little
finger not being used on account of natural weakness. As a succession
of three whole tones would form the disagreeable and untunable
interval of a tritonus, two whole tones and a half-tone were tuned,
fixing the tetrachord in the consonant interval of the perfect fourth.
This succession of four notes being in the grasp of the hand was
called av\\a.0Ti, just as in language a group of letters incapable of
further reduction is called syllable. In the combination of two
syllables or tetrachords the modern diatonic scales resemble the
Greek so-called disjunct scale, but the Greeks knew nothing of our
categorical distinctions of major and minor. We might call the
octave Greek scale minor, according to our descending minor form,
were not the keynote in the middle the thumb note of the deeper
tetrachord. The upper tetrachord, whether starting from the key-
note (conjunct) or from the note above (disjunct), was of exactly the
same form as the lower, the position of the semitones being identical.
The semitone was a limma (X«wia), rather less than the semitone of
our modern equal temperament, the Greeks tuning both the whole
tones in the tetrachord by the same ratio ol 8:9, which made the
major third a dissonance, or rather would have done so had they
combined them in what we call harmony. In melodious sequence the
Greek tetrachord is decidedly more agreeable to the ear than the
corresponding series of our equal temperament. And although our
scales are derived from combined tetrachords, in any system of
tuning that we employ, be it just, mean-tone, or equal, they are less
logical than the conjunct or disjunct systems accepted by the Greeks.
But modern harmony is not compatible with them, and could not
have arisen on the Greek melodic lines.

The conjunct scale of seven notes

attributed to Terpander, was long the norm for stringing and tuning
the lyre. When the disjunct scale

the octave scale attributed to Pythagoras, was admitted, to preserve
the time-honoured seven strings one note had to be omitted; it was
therefore customary to omit the C, which in Greek practice was a
dissonance. The Greek names for the strings of seven and eight
stringed lyres, the first note being highest in pitch and nearest the
player, were as follows: Nete, Paranete, Paramese; Mese, Lichanos,
Parhypate, Hypale; or Nete, Paranete, Trite, Paramese; Mese,
Lichanos, Parhypate, Hypate — the last four from Mese to Hypate
being the finger tetrachord, the others touched with the plectrum.
The highest string in pitch was called the last, y«irjj; the lowest
in pitch was called the highest, iiTdrt), because it was, in theory at
least, the longest string. The keynote and thumb string was M«"J,
middle; the next lower was Mxaros, the first finger or lick-finger
string; TPITIJ, the third, being in the plectrum division, was also
known as <5£«o, sharp, perhaps from the dissonant quality to which
we have referred as the cause of its omission. The plectrum and
finger tetrachords together were Sunraauv, through all: in the dis-
junct scale, an octave.

In transcribing the Greek notes into our notation, the absolute
pitch cannot be represented; the relative positions of the semitones
are alone determined. We have already quoted the scale of Pytha-
goras, the Dorian or true Greek succession : —

Shifting the semitone one degree upwards in each tetrachord, we
have the Phrygian

Another degree gives the Lydian

which would be our major scale of E were not the keynote A. The
names imply an Asiatic origin. We need not here pursue further the
much-debated question of Greek scales and their derivation; it
will suffice to remark that the outside notes of the tetrachords were
fixed in their tuning as perfect fourths — the inner strings being, as
stated, in diatonic sequence, or when chromatic two half-tones were
tuned, when enharmonic two quarter-tones, leaving respectively the
wide intervals of a minor and major third, and both impure, to com-
plete the tetrachord. (A. I. H.)

See the article by Theodore Reinach in Darembere and Saglio,
Antiquites grecques et romaines; Wilhelm Johnsen, Die Lyra, ein

Beitrag zur griechischen Kunstgeschichte (Berlin, 1876); Hortense
Panum, " Harfe und Lyra in Nord Europa," Intern. Mus. Ges., Sbd.
vii. i, pp. 1-40 (Leipzig, 1905); A. J. Hipkins, " Dorian and
Phrygian, reconsidered from a non-harmonic point of view," in
Intern. Mus Ges. (Leipzig. 1903), iv. 3.

LYRE-BIRD, the name by which one of the most remarkable
birds of Australia is commonly known, the Menura superba or
M. novae-hollandiae of ornithologists. It was first observed in
1798 in New South Wales, and though called by its finders a
" pheasant "- -from its long tail — the more learned of the colony
seem to have regarded it as a bird-of-Paradise.1 A specimen
having reached England in 1799, it was described by General
Davies as forming a new genus of birds, in the Linnean Society's
Transactions (vi. p. 207, pi. xxii.), no attempt, however, being
made to fix its systematic place. In 1802 L. P. Vieillot figured
and described it in a supplement to his Oiseaux Doris as a bird-
of-Paradise (ii. pp. 30 seq., pis. 14-1 6) , from drawings by Sydenham
Edwards, sent him by Parkinson, the manager of the Leverian
Museum. The first to describe any portion of its anatomy was
T. C. Eyton, who in 1841 (Ann. Nat. History, vii. pp. 49-53)
perceived that it was a Passerine bird and that it presented some
points of affinity to the South American genus Pteroptochus.
In 1867 Huxley stated that he was disposed to divide his very
natural assemblage the Coracomorphae (essentially identical
with Eyton's Insessores) into two groups, " one containing
Menura, and the other all the other genera which have yet been
examined " (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867, p. 472) — a still further step
in advance.2 In 1875 A. Newton put forth the opinion in his
article on birds, in the gth edition of this Encyclopaedia, that
Menura had an ally in another Australian form, Atrichia (see
SCRUB-BIRD), which he had found to present peculiarities
hitherto unsuspected, and he regarded them as standing by
themselves, though each constituting a distinct family. This
opinion was partially adopted in the following year by A. H.
Garrod, who (Proc. Zool. Society, 1876, p. 518) formally placed
these two genera together in his group of Abnormal Acromyodian
Oscines under the name of Menurinae; omithologists now
generally recognize at once the alliance and distinctness of the
families Menuridae and Atrichiidae, and place them together to
form the group Suboscines of the Diacromyodian Passeres.

Since the appearance in 1865 of J. Gould's Handbook to the
Birds of Australia, little important information has been pub-
lished concerning the habits of this form, and the account therein
given must be drawn upon for what here follows. Of all birds,
says that author, the Menura is the most shy and hard to procure.
He has been among the rocky and thick " brushes " — its usual
haunts — hearing its loud and liquid call-notes for days together
without getting sight of one. Those who wish to see it must
advance only while it is singing or scratching up the earth and
leaves; and to watch its actions they must keep perfectly still.
The best way of procuring an example seems to be by hunting it
with dogs, when it will spring upon a branch to the height of 10 ft.
and afford an easy shot ere it has time to ascend farther or
escape as it does by leaps. Natives are said to hunt it by fixing
on their heads the erected tail of a cock-bird, which alone is
allowed to be seen above the brushwood. The greater part of
its time is said to be passed upon the ground, and seldom are
more than a pair to be found in company. One of the habits of
the cock is to form small round hillocks, which he constantly
visits during the day, mounting upon them and displaying his
tail by erecting it over his head, drooping his wings, scratching
and pecking at the soil, and uttering various cries — some his
own natural notes, others an imitation of those of other animals.
The tail, his most characteristic feature, only attains perfection
in the bird's third or fourth year, and then not until the month
of June, remaining until October, when the feathers are shed to be
renewed the following season. The food consists of insects,
especially beetles and myriapods, as well as snails. The nest is

1 Collins, Account of New South Wales, ii. 87-92 (London, 1802).

1 Owing to the imperfection of the specimen at his disposal,
Huxley's brief description of the bones of the head in Menura is not
absolutely correct. A full description of them, with elaborate
figures, is given by Parker in the same Society's Transactions (ix.
306-309, pi. Ivi. figs. 1-5).

i8o

LYRICAL POETRY

placed near to or on the ground, at the base of a rock or foot of
a tree, and is closely woven of fine but strong roots or other fibres,
and lined with feathers, around all which is heaped a mass, in
shape of an oven, of sticks, grass, moss and leaves, so as to project
over and shelter the interior structure, while an opening in the
side affords entrance and exit. Only one egg is laid, and this of
rather large size in proportion to the bird, of a purplish-grey
colour, suffused and blotched with dark purplish-brown.

Incubation is believed to begin in July or August, and the
young is hatched about a month later. It is at first covered with
dark down, and appears to remain for some weeks in the nest.
It is greatly to be hoped that so remarkable a form as the lyre-
bird, the nearly sole survivor apparently of a very ancient race
of beings, will not be allowed to become extinct — its almost
certain fate so far as can be judged — without many more observa-
tions of its manners being made. Several examples of Menura
have been brought alive to Europe, and some have long survived
in captivity.

Three species of Menura have been indicated — the old M.
superba, the lyre-bird proper, which inhabits New South Wales,
the southern part of Queensland, and
perhaps some parts of Victoria; M.
victoriae, separated from the former by
Gould (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1862, p. 23),
and said to take its place near Mel-
bourne; and M. alberti, first described
by C. L. Bonaparte (Consp. Avium, i.
215) on Gould's authority, and, though
discovered on the Richmond river in New
South Wales, having apparently a more
.northern range than the other two. All
6 those have the apparent bulk of a hen
pheasant, but are really much smaller,
and their general plumage is of a sooty
brown, relieved by rufous on the chin,
throat, some of the wing-feathers and the
tail-coverts. The wings, consisting of
twenty-one remiges, are rather short and
rounded; the legs1 and feet very strong,
with long, nearly straight claws. In
the immature and female the tail is
somewhat long, though affording no very remarkable char-
acter, except the possession of sixteen rectrices; but in the
fully-plumaged male of M. superba and M. vicloriae it is
developed in the extraordinary fashion that gives the bird its
common English name. The two exterior feathers (fig. i, a, b)
have the outer web very narrow, the inner very broad, and they

FIG. i.

FIG. 2. FIG. 3.

curve at first outwards, then somewhat inwards, and near the
tip outwards again, bending round forwards so as to present a
lyre-like form. But this is not all; their broad inner web,
which is of a lively chestnut colour, is apparently notched at
regular intervals by spaces that, according to the angle at which
they are viewed, seem either black or transparent; and this
effect is, on examination, found to be due to the barbs at those
1 The metatarsals are very remarkable in form, as already noticed
by Eyton (loc. cit.), and their tendons strongly ossified.

spaces being destitute of barbules. The middle pair of feathers
(fig. 2, a, b) is nearly as abnormal. These have no outer web,
and the inner web very narrow; near their base they cross each
other, and then diverge, bending round forwards near their tip.
The remaining twelve feathers (fig. 3) except near the base are
very thinly furnished with barbs, about \ in. apart, and those
they possess, on their greater part, though long and flowing,
bear no barbules, and hence have a hair-like appearance. The
shafts of all are exceedingly strong. In the male of M. alberti
the tail is not only not lyriform, but the exterior rectrices are
shorter than the rest. (A.N.)

LYRICAL POETRY, a general term for all poetry which is, or
can be supposed to be, susceptible of being sung to the accom-
paniment of a musical instrument. In the earliest times it may
be said that all poetry was of its essence lyrical. The primeval
oracles were chanted in verse, and the Orphic and Bacchic
Mysteries, which were celebrated at Eleusis and elsewhere,
combined, it is certain, metre with music. Homer and Hesiod
are each of them represented with a lyre, 'yet if any poetry can
be described as non-lyrical, it is surely the archaic hexameter of
the Iliad and the Erga. These poems were styled epic, in direct
contradistinction to the lyric of Pindar and Bacchylides. But
inexactly, since it is plain that they were recited, with a plain
accompaniment on a stringed instrument. However, the distinc-
tion between epical and lyrical, between rd eirrj, what was said,
and rd ju^Xij, what was sung, is accepted, and neither Homer nor
Hesiod is among the lyrists. This distinction, however, is often
without a difference, as for example, in the case of the so-called
Hymns of Homer, epical in form but wholly lyrical in character.
Hegel, who has gone minutely into this question in his Esthelik,
contends that when poetry is objective it is epical, and when it is
subjective it is lyrical. This is to ignore the metrical form of the
poem, and to deal with its character only. It would constrain
us to regard Wordsworth's Excursion as a lyric, and Tennyson's
Revenge (where the subject is treated exactly as one of the
Homeridae would have treated an Ionian myth) as an epic.
This is impossible, and recalls us to the importance of taking the
form into consideration. But, with this warning, the definition
of Hegel is valuable. It is, as he insists, the personal thought, or
passion, or inspiration, which gives its character to lyrical poetry.

The lyric has the function of revealing, in terms of pure art,
the secrets of the inner life, its hopes, its fantastic joys, its
sorrows, its delirium. It is easier to exclude the dramatic species
from lyric than to banish the epic. There are large sections of
drama which it is inconceivable should be set to music, or sung,
or even given in recitative. The tragedies of Racine, for ex-
ample, are composed of the purest poetry, but they are essen-
tially non-lyrical, although lyrical portions are here and there
attached to them. The intensity of feeling and the melody of
verse in Othello does not make that work an example of lyrical
poetry, and this is even more acutely true of Le Misanthrope,
which is, nevertheless, a poem. The tendency of modern drama
is to divide itself further and further from lyric, but in early ages
the two kinds were indissoluble. Tragedy was goat-song, and the
earliest specimens of it were mainly composed of choruses. As
Prof. G. G. Murray says, in the Suppliants of Aeschylus, the
characters " are singing for two-thirds of the play," accompanied
by tumultuous music. This primitive feature has gradually
been worn away; the chorus grew less and less prominent, and
disappeared; the very verse-ornament of drama tends to vanish,
and we have plays essentially so poetical as those of Ibsen and
Maeterlinck written from end to end in bare prose.

To return again to Greece, there was an early distinction, soon
accentuated, between the poetry chanted by a choir of singers,
and the song which expressed the sentiments of a single poet.
The latter, the /icXos or song proper, had reached a height of
technical perfection in " the Isles of Greece, where burning
Sappho loved and sung," as early as the yth century B.C. That
poetess, and her contemporary Alcaeus, divide the laurels of the
pure Greek song of Dorian inspiration. By their side, and later,
flourished the great poets who set words to music for choirs,
Alcman, Arion, Stesichorus, Simonides and Ibycus, who lead us

LYSANDER

181

at the close of the sth century to Bacchylides and Pindar, in
whom the magnificent tradition of the dithyrambic odes reached
its highest splendour of development. The practice of Pindar
and Sappho, we may say, has directed the course of lyrical poetry
ever since, and will, unquestionably, continue to do so. They
discovered how, with the maximum of art, to pour forth strains
of personal magic and music, whether in a public or a private
way. The ecstasy, the uplifted magnificence, of lyrical poetry
could go no higher than it did in the unmatched harmonies of
these old Greek poets, but it could fill a- much wider field and be
expressed with vastly greater variety. It did so in their own
age. The gnomic verses of Theognis were certainly sung; so
were the satires of Archilochus and the romantic reveries of
Mimnermus.

At the Renaissance, when the traditions of ancient life were
taken up eagerly, and hastily comprehended, it was thought
proper to divide poetry into a diversity of classes. The earliest
English critic who enters into a discussion of the laws of prosody,
William Webbe, lays it down, in 1586, that in verse " the most
usual kinds are four, the heroic, elegiac, iambic and lyric."
Similar confusion of terms was common among the critics of the
i Sth and i6th centuries, and led to considerable error. It is
plain that a border ballad is heroic, and may yet be lyrical; here
the word " heroic " stands for " epic." It is plain that whether
a poem is lyrical or not had nothing to do with the question
whether it is composed in an iambic measure. Finally, it is
undoubted that the early Greek " elegies " were sung to an
accompaniment on the flute, whether they were warlike, like
those of Tyrtaeus, or philosophical and amatory like those of
Theognis. But (see ELEGY) the present significance of " elegy,"
and this has been the case ever since late classical times, is
funereal; in modern parlance an elegy is a dirge. Whether the
great Alexandrian dirges, like those of Bion and of Moschus, on
which our elegiacal tradition is founded, were actually sung to an
accompaniment or not may be doubted; they seem too long, too
elaborate, and too ornate for that. But, at any rate, they were
composed on the convention that they would be sung, and it is
conceivable that music might have been wedded to the most
complex of these Alexandrian elegies. Accordingly, although
Lycidas and Adonais are not habitually " set to music," there is
no reason why they should not be so set, and their rounded and
limited although extensive form links them with the song, not
with the epic. There are many odes of Swinburne's for which it
would be more difficult to write music than for his Aveatque Vale.
In fact, in spite of its solemn and lugubrious regularity, the
formal elegy or dirge is no more nor less than an ode, and is
therefore entirely lyrical.

More difficulty is met with in the case of the sonnet, for
although no piece of verse, when it is inspired by subjective
passion, fits more closely with Hegel's definition of what lyrical
poetry should be, yet the rhythmical complication of the sonnet,
and its rigorous uniformity, seem particularly ill-fitted to inter-
pretation on a lyre. When F. M. degli Azzi put the book of
Genesis (1700) into sonnets, and Isaac de Benserade the Meta-
morphoses of Ovid (1676) into rondeaux, these eccentric and
laborious versifiers produced what was epical rather than lyrical
poetry, if poetry it was at all. But the sonnet a* Shakespeare,
Wordsworth and even Petrarch used it was a cry from the heart,
a subjective confession, and although there is perhaps no evi-
dence that a sonnet was ever set to music with success, yet there
is no reason why that might not be done without destroying its
sonnet-character.

Jouffroy was perhaps the first aesthetician to see quite clearly
that lyrical poetry is, really, nothing more than another name
for poetry itself, that it indud'es all the personal and enthusiastic
part of what lives and breathes in the art of verse, so that the
divisions of pedantic criticism are of no real avail to us in its
consideration. We recognize a narrative or epical poetry; we
recognize drama; in both of these, when the individual inspira-
tion is strong, there is much that trembles on the verge of the
lyrical. But outside what is pure epic and pure drama, all, or
almost all, is lyrical. We say almost all, because the difficulty

arises of knowing where to place descriptive and didactic poetry.
The Seasons of Thomson, for instance, a poem of high merit and
lasting importance in the history of literature — where is that to
be placed? What is to be said of the Essay on Man? In
primitive times, the former would have been classed under epic,
the second would have been composed in the supple iambic
trimeter which so closely resembled daily speech, and would not
have been sharply distinguished from prose. Perhaps this
classification would still «serve, were it not for the element of
versification, which makes a sharp line of demarcation between
poetic art and prose. This complexity of form, rhythmical and
stanzaic, takes much of the place which was taken in antiquity
by such music as Terpander is supposed to have supplied. In a
perfect lyric by a modern writer the instrument is the metrical
form, to which the words have to adapt themselves. There is
perhaps no writer who has ever lived in whose work this pheno-
menon may be more fruitfully studied than it may be in the songs
and lyrics of Shelley. The temper of such pieces as " Arethusa "
and " The Cloud " is indicated by a form hardly more ambitious
than a guitar; Hellas is full of passages which suggest the harp;
in his songs Shelley touches the lute or viol de gamba, while in
the great odes to the " West Wind " and to " Liberty " we listen
to a verse-form which reminds us by its volume of the organ
itself. On the whole subject of the nature of lyric poetry no
commentary can be more useful to the student than an examina-
tion of the lyrics of Shelley in relation to those of the song-
writers of ancient Greece.

See Hegel, Die Phdnomenologie des Geistes (1807) ; T. S. Jouffroy,
Cours d'esthetique (1843); W. Christ, Metrik der Griechen und
Romer, 2te. Aufl. (1879). (E. G.)

LYSANOER (Gr. AvaavSpos) , son of Aristocritus, Spartan
admiral and diplomatist. Aelia'n ( Var. Hist. xii. 43) and Phylar-
chus (ap. Athen. vi. 271 e) say that he was a mothax. i.e. the son
of a helot mother (see HELOTS), but this tradition is at least
doubtful; according to Plutarch he was a Heraclid, though not
of either royal family. We do not know how he rose to eminence :
he first appears as admiral of the Spartan navy in 407 B.C. The
story of his influence with Cyrus the Younger, his naval victory off
Notium, his quarrel with his successor Callicratidas in 406, his
appointment as eTrioroXeus in 405, his decisive victory at Aegos-
potami, and his share in the siege and capitulation of Athens
belong to the history of the Peloponnesian War (q.v.). By 404
he was the most powerful man in the Greek world and set about
completing the task of building up a Spartan empire in which
he should be supreme in fact if not in name. Everywhere
democracies were replaced by oligarchies directed by bodies
of ten men (decarchies, 6e/capxieu) under the control of Spartan
governors (harmosts, dp/iooTo!). But Lysander's boundless in-
fluence and ambition, and the superhuman honours paid him,
roused the jealousy of the kings and the ephors, and, on being
accused by the Persian satrap Pharnabazus, he was recalled to
Sparta. Soon afterwards he was sent to Athens with an army
to aid the oligarchs, but Pausanias, one of the kings, followed
him and brought about a restoration of democracy. On the death
of Agis II., Lysander secured the succession of Agesilaus (?.».),
whom he hoped to find amenable to his influence. But in this
he was disappointed. Though chosen to accompany the king to
Asia as one of his thirty advisers (ofyi/JovXoi), he was kept in-
active and his influence was broken by studied affronts, and
finally he was sent at his own request as envoy to the Hellespont.
He soon returned to Sparta to mature plans for overthrowing
the hereditary kingship and substituting an elective monarchy
open to all Heraclids, or even, according to another version, to
all Spartiates. But his alleged attempts to bribe the oracles were
fruitless, and his schemes were cut short by the outbreak of war
with Thebes in 305. Lysander invaded Boeotia from the west,
receiving the submission of Orchomenus and sacking Lebadea,
but the enemy intercepted his despatch to Pausanias, who had
meanwhile entered Boeotia from the south, containing plans for
a joint attack upon Haliartus. The town was at once strongly
garrisoned, and when Lysander marched against it he was defeated
and slain. He was buried in the territory of Panopeus, the

182

LYSANIAS— LYSIAS

nearest Phocian city. An able commander and an adroit
diplomatist, Lysander was fired by the ambition to make
Sparta supreme in Greece and himself in Sparta. To this end
he shrank from no treachery or cruelty; yet, like Agesilaus,
he was totally free from the characteristic Spartan vice of
avarice, and died, as he had lived, a poor man.

See the biographies by Plutarch and Nepos; Xen. Hellenica,
i. 5-iii. 5; Diod. Sic. xiii. 70 sqq., 104 sqq., xiv. 3, 10,13,81 ; Lysias xii.
60 sqq.; Justin v. 5-7; Polyaenus i. 45, vii. 19; Pausanias iii., ix. 32,
5-10, x. 9, 7-11; C. A. Gehlert, Vita Lysandri (Bautzen, 1874); W.
Vischer, Alkibiades und Lysandros (Basel, 1845); O. H. J. Nitzsch,
De Lysandro (Bonn, 1847) ; and the Greek histories in general.

(M. N. T.)

LYSANIAS, tetrarch of Abilene (see ABILA), according to
Luke iii. i, in the time of John the Baptist. The only Lysanias
mentioned in profane history as exercising authority in this
district was executed in 36 B.C. by M. Antonius (Mark Antony).
This Lysanias was the son of Ptolemy Mennaeus, the ruler of an
independent state, of which Abilene formed only a small portion.
According to Josephus (Ant. xix. 5, i) the emperor Claudius
in A.D. 42 confirmed Agrippa I. in the possession of " Abila of
Lysanias " already bestowed upon him by Caligula, elsewhere
described as " Abila, which had formed the tetrarchy of
Lysanias." It is argued that this cannot refer to the Lysanias
executed by M. Antonius, since his paternal inheritance, even
allowing for some curtailment by Pompey, must have been of
far greater extent. It is therefore assumed by some authorities
that the Lysanias in Luke (A.D. 28-29) is a younger Lysanias,
tetrarch of Abilene only, one of the districts into which the
original kingdom was split up after the death of Lysanias I.
This younger Lysanias may have been a son of the latter, and
identical with, or the father of, the Claudian Lysanias. On the
other hand, Josephus knows nothing of a younger Lysanias,
and it is suggested by others that he really does refer to Lysanias I.
The explanation given by M. Krenkel (Josephus und Lucas,
Leipzig, 1894, p. 97) is that Josephus does not mean to imply
that Abila was the only possession of Lysanias, and that he calls
it the tetrarchy or kingdom of Lysanias because it was the last
remnant of the domain of Lysanias which remained under direct
Roman administration until the time of Agrippa. The expression
was borrowed from Josephus by Luke, who wrongly imagined
that Lysanias I. had ruled almost up to the time of the bestowal
of his tetrarchy upon Agrippa, and therefore to the days of John
the Baptist. Two inscriptions are adduced as evidence for
the existence of a younger Lysanias — Bockh, C.I.G. 4521 and
4523. The former is inconclusive, and in the latter the reading
k.va[a.vu>v] is entirely conjectural; the name might equally well
be Lysimachus or Lysias.

See E. Schiirer, Geschichte des judischen Volkes (3rd ed., IQ01). '•
p. 712; and (especially on the inscriptional evidence) E. Kenan,
1 M6moire sur la dynastic des Lysanias d'Abilene " in Memoires de
I'inslilut imperial de France (xxvi., 1870) ; also P. W. Schmiedel in
the Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v.

LYSIAS, Attic orator, was born, according to Dionysius of
Halicarnassus and the author of the life ascribed to Plutarch,
in 459 B.C. This date was evidently obtained by reckoning back
from the foundation of Thurii (444 B.C.), since there was a tradi-
tion that Lysias had gone thither at the age of fifteen. Modern
critics would place his birth later, — between 444 and 436 B.C., —
because, in Plato's Republic, of which the scene is laid about
430 B.C., Cephalus, the father of Lysias, is among the dramatis
personae, and the emigration of Lysias to Thurii was said to
have followed his father's death. The latter statement, however,
rests only on the Plutarchic life; nor can Plato's dialogue be
safely urged as a minutely accurate authority. The higher date
assigned by the ancient writers agrees better with the tradition
that Lysias reached, or passed, the age of eighty.1 Cephalus,
his father, was a native of Syracuse, and on the invitation of
Pericles had settled at Athens. The opening scene of Plato's
Republic is laid at the house of his eldest son, Polemarchus, in
Peiraeus. The tone of the picture warrants the inference that

1 [W. Christ, Gesch. der griech. Litt., gives the date of birth as
about 450.]

the Sicilian family were well known to Plato, and that their
houses must often have been hospitable to such gatherings.

At Thurii, the colony newly planted on the Tarentine Gulf
(see PERICLES), the boy may have seen Herodotus, now a man in
middle life, and a friendship may have grown up between
them. There, too, Lysias is said to have commenced his studies
in rhetoric — doubtless under a master of the Sicilian school-
possibly, as tradition said, under Tisias, the pupil of Corax, whose
name is associated with the first attempt to formulate rhetoric as
an art. In 413 B.C. the'Athenian armament in Sicily was anni-
hilated. The desire to link famous names is illustrated by the
ancient ascription to Lysias of a rhetorical exercise purporting
to be a speech in which the captive general Nicias appealed
for mercy to the Sicilians. The terrible blow to Athens quickened
the energies of an anti-Athenian faction at Thurii. Lysias and
his elder brother Polemarchus, with three hundred other persons,
were " accused of Atticizing." They were driven from Thurii
and settled at Athens (412 B.C.).

Lysias and Polemarchus were rich men, having inherited
property from their father; and Lysias claims that, though
merely resident aliens, they discharged public services with
a liberality which shamed many of those who enjoyed the
franchise (In Eratosth. 20). The fact that they owned house
property shows that they were classed as i<roT«Xets, i.e. foreigners
who paid only the same tax as citizens, being exempt from the
special tax (JJ&TOIKIOV) on resident aliens. Polemarchus occupied
a house in Athens itself, Lysias another in the Peiraeus, near
which was their shield manufactory, employing a hundred
and twenty skilled slaves. In 404 the Thirty Tyrants were
established at Athens under the protection of a Spartan garrison.
One of their earliest measures was an attack upon the resident
aliens, who were represented as disaffected to the new govern-
ment. Lysias and Polemarchus were on a list of ten singled
out to be the first victims. Polemarchus was arrested, and
compelled to drink hemlock. Lysias had a narrow escape,
with the help of a large bribe. He slipped by a back-door out of
the house in which he was a prisoner, and took boat to Megara.
It appears that he had rendered valuable services to the exiles
during the reign of the tyrants, and in 403 Thrasybulus proposed
that these services should be recognized by the bestowal of the
citizenship. The Boule, however, had not yet been reconstituted,
and hence the measure could not be introduced to the ecclesia
by the requisite " preliminary resolution " (irpo/3ou\€u/ia).
On this ground it was successfully opposed.

During his later years Lysias — now probably a comparatively
poor man owing to the rapacity of the tyrants and his own
generosity to the Athenian exiles — appears as a hard-working
member of a new profession — that of writing speeches to be
delivered in the law-courts. The thirty-four extant are but a
small fraction. From 403 to about 380 B.C. his industry must
have been incessant. The notices of his personal life in these
years are scanty. In 403 he came forward as the accuser of
Eratosthenes, one of the Thirty Tyrants. This was his only
direct contact with Athenian politics. The story that he wrote
a defence for Socrates, which the latter declined to use, probably
arose from a confusion. Several years after the death of Socrates
the sophist Polycrates composed a declamation against him,
to which Lysias replied. A more authentic tradition represents
Lysias as having spoken his own Olympiacus at the Olympic
festival of 388 B.C., to which Dionysius I. of Syracuse had sent
a magnificent embassy. Tents embroidered with gold were
pitched within the sacred enclosure; and the wealth of Dionysius
was vividly shown by the number of chariots which he had
entered. Lysias lifted up his voice to denounce Dionysius as,
next to Artaxerxes, the worst enemy of Hellas, and to impress
upon the assembled Greeks that one of their foremost duties
was to deliver Sicily from a hateful oppression. The latest
work of Lysias which we can date (a fragment of a speech
For Pherenicus) belongs to 381 or 380 B.C. He probably died
in or soon after 380 B.C.

Lysias was a man of kindly and genial nature, warm in
friendship, loyal to country, with a keen perception of character.

LYSIAS

183

and a fine though strictly controlled sense of humour. The
literary tact which is so remarkable in the extant speeches
is that of a singularly flexible intelligence, always obedient
to an instinct of gracefulness. He owes his distinctive place to
the power of concealing his art. It was obviously desirable
that a speech written for delivery by a client should be suitable
to his age, station and circumstances. Lysias was the first to
make this adaptation really artistic. His skill can be best
appreciated if we turn from the easy flow of his graceful language
to the majestic emphasis of Antiphon, or to the self-revealing
art of Isaeus. Translated into terms of ancient criticism, he
became the model of the " plain style " ( tox^os Xo-P^^P, wxf'7,
XITT), a$eXi7s Xe£is: genus tenue or subtile). Greek and then
Roman critics distinguished three styles of rhetorical composi-
tion— the " grand " (or " elaborate "), the " plain " and the
" middle," the " plain " being nearest to the language of daily life.
Greek rhetoric began in the " grand " style; then Lysias set an
exquisite pattern of the "plain"; and Demosthenes might be
considered as having effected an almost ideal compromise.

The vocabulary of Lysias is pure and simple. Most of the
rhetorical " figures " are sparingly used — -except such as consist
in the parallelism or opposition of clauses. The taste of the day
— not yet emancipated from the influence of the Sicilian rhetoric
— probably demanded a large use of antithesis. Lysias excels
in vivid description; he has also a happy knack of marking
the speaker's character by light touches. The structure of his
sentences varies a good deal according to the dignity of the
subject. He has equal command over the " periodic " style
UaTtorpa/^uti'ij Xe£«) and the non-periodic or " continuous "
(tipoijJtvri, 8ia\t\vniiH]). His disposition of his subject-matter
is always simple. The speech has usually four parts — introduc-
tion (Trpooifuov) , narrative of facts (diriyriffis) , proofs (Trio-rets),
which may be either external, as from witnesses, or internal,
derived from argument on the facts, and, lastly, conclusion
(«rt\o7os). It is in the introduction and the narrative that
Lysias is seen at his best. In his greatest extant speech — that
Against Eratosthenes — and also in the fragmentary Olympiacus,
he has pathos and fire; but these were not characteristic
qualities of his work. In Cicero's judgment (De Oral. iii. 7, 28)
Demosthenes was peculiarly distinguished by force (vis), Aeschines
by resonance (sonitus), Hypereides by acuteness (acumen),
Isocrates by sweetness (suamlas); the distinction which he
assigns to Lysias is sublilitas, an Attic refinement — which, -as
he elsewhere says (Brutus, 16, 64) is often joined to an admirable
vigour (lacerti). Nor was it oratory alone to which Lysias
rendered service; his work had an important effect on all sub-
sequent Greek prose, by showing how perfect elegance could be
joined to plainness. Here, in his artistic use of familiar idiom,
he might fairly be called the Euripides of Attic prose. And his
style has an additional charm for modern readers, because it is
employed in describing scenes from the everyday life of Athens.1

Thirty-four speeches (three fragmentary) have come down under
the name of Lysias; one hundred and twenty-seven more, now lost,
are known from smaller fragments or from titles. In the Augustan
age four hundred and twenty-five works bore his name, of which
more than two hundred were allowed as genuine by the critics.
Our thirty-four works may be classified as follows: —

A. EPIDEICTIC. — I. Olympiacus, xxxiii. 388 B.C.; 2.Epitaphius,\\.
(purporting to have been spoken during the Corinthian War;
certainly spurious), perhaps composed about 380-340 B.C. (" soon
after 387," Blass).

B. DELIBERATIVE. — Plea for the Constitution, xxxiv., 403 B.C.

C. FORENSIC, IN PUBLIC CAUSES. — I. Relating to Offences directly
against the State (ypa4>al &rntoalo»> dSunjMArui') ; such as treason, mal-
versation in office, embezzlement of public moneys. I. For Poly-
stratus, xx., 407 B.C. ; 2. Defence on a Charge of Taking Bribes, xxi.,
402 B.C. ; 3. Against Ergocles, xxviii., 389 B.C. ; 4. Against Epicrates,
xxvii., 380 B.C.; 5. Against Nicomachus, xxx., 399 B.C.; 6. Against
the Corndealers, xxii., 386 B.C. (?) II. Cause relating to Unconstitu-
tional Procedure (ypcufrii vapavtitur). Cn the Property of the Brother
of Nicias, xviii.,395B.c. III. Causes relating to Claims for Money with-
held from the State (&Troypcut>cLi). i. For the Soldier, ix. (probably not
by Lysias, but by an imitator, writing for a real cause), 394 B.C. (?) ;
2. On the Property of Aristophanes, xix., 387 B.C.; 3. Against Philo-

lSee further Jebb, The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus,
i. 142-316.

crates, xxix., 389 B.C. IV. Causes relating to a Scrutiny
especially the Scrutiny, by the Senate, of Officials Designate, i.
Against Evandrus, xxvi., 382 B.C.; 2. For Mantitheus, xvi., 392 B.C.;
3. Against Philon, xxxi., between 404 and 395 B.C.; 4. Defence on a
Charge of Seeking to Abolish the Democracy, xxv., 401 B.C.; 5. For
the Invalid, xxiv., 402 B.C. (?) V. Causes relating to Military Offences
(ypcufial XiiroTo£loi>, darpaTeiaj). I. Against Alcibiades, I. and II.
(xiv., xv.), 395 B.C. VI. Causes relating to Murder or Intent to
Murder (ypiut>al <t>6mv,Tpal>iJia.Tos in irpovolat). I. Against Eratosthenes,
xii., 403 B.C.; 2. Against Agoratus.xiii., 399 B.C. ; 3. On the Murder
of Eratosthenes, i. (date uncertain); 4. Against Simon, iii., 393 B.C.;
5. On Wounding with Intent, iv. (date uncertain). VII. Causes re-
latingto Impiety (ypcut>aliur(0eias). i. Against Andocides, vi. (certainly
spurious, but perhaps contemporary) ; 2. For Callias, v. (date un-
certain); 3. On the Sacred Olive, vii., not before 395 B.C.

D. FORENSIC, IN PRIVATE CAUSES. — I. Action for Libel («kij
Koxrj-yopfas). AgainstTheomnestus, x., 384-383 B.C. (the so-called second
speech, xi., is merely an epitome of the first). II. Action by a Ward
against a Guardian (8£«j 'cirtTpoinjs) . Against Diogeiton, xxxii.,4OOB.c.
III. Trial of a Claim to Property (Hia&uuurla). On the property of
Eraton, xvii., 397 B.C. IV. Answer to a Special Plea (jrpojraperypa^c).
Against Pancleon, xxiii. (date uncertain).

E. MISCELLANEOUS. — i. To his Companions, a Complaint of
Slanders, viii. (certainly spurious); 2. The cpwruc&s in Plato's
Phaedrus, pp. 230 £-234. This has generally been regarded as Plato's
own work; but the certainty of this conclusion will be doubted by
those who observe (i) the elaborate preparations made in the
dialogue for a recital of the kpurwlK which shall be verbally exact,
and (2) the closeness of the criticism made upon it. If the satirist
were merely analysing his own composition, such criticism would
have little point. Lysias is the earliest writer who is known to have
composed tpairiKol; it is as representing both rhetoric and a false
?POJS that he is the object of attack in the Phaedrus.

F. FRAGMENTS. — Three hundred and fifty-five of these are collected
by Sauppe, Oratores Attici, ii. 170-216. Two hundred and fifty-two of
them represent one hundred and twenty-seven speeches of known
title; and of six the fragments are comparatively large. Of these,
the fragmentary speech For Pherenicus belongs to 381 or 380 B.C.,
and is thus the latest known work of Lysias.2

In literary and historical interest, the first place among the extant
speeches of Lysias belongs to that Against Eratosthenes (403 B.C.),
one of the Thirty Tyrants, whom Lysias arraigns as the murderer of
his brother Polemarchus. The speech js an eloquent and vivid
picture of the reign of terror which the Thirty established at Athens;
the concluding appeal, to both parties among the citizens, is specially
powerful. Next in importance is the speech Against Agoratus
(399 B.C.), one of our chief authorities for the internal history of
Athens during the months which immediatejy followed the defeat
at Aegospotami. The Olympiacus (388 B.C.) is a brilliant fragment,
expressing the spirit of the festival at Olympia, and exhorting Greeks
to unite against their common foes. The Plea for the Constitution
(403 B.C.) is interesting for the manner in which it argues that the
wellbeing of Athens — now stripped of empire — is bound up with the
maintenance of democratic principles. The speech For Mantitheus
(392 B.C.) is a graceful and animated portrait of a young Athenian
Zinrtdj, making a spirited defence of his honour against the charge of
disloyalty. The defence For the Invalid is a humorous character-
sketch. The speech Against Pancleon illustrates the intimate relations
between Athens and Plataea, while it gives us some picturesque
glimpses of Athenian town life. The defence of the person who had
been charged with destroying a moria, or sacred olive, places us amidst
the country life of Attica. And the speech Against Theomnestus
deserves attention for its curious evidence of the way in which the
ordinary vocabulary of Athens had changed between 600 and 400 B.C.

All MSS. of Lysias yet collated have been derived, as H. Sauppe
first showed, from the Codex Palatinus X. (Heidelberg). The next
most valuable MS. is the Laurentianus C (isth century), which
I. Bekker chiefly followed. Speaking generally, we may say that
these two MSS. are the only two which carry much weight where the
text is seriously corrupt. In Oratt. i.-ix. Bekker occasionally con-
sulted eleven other MSS., most of which contain only the above nine
speeches: viz., Marciani F, G, I, K (Venice); Laurentiani D, E
(Florence); VaticaniM.N; ParisiniU, V; UrbinasO.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Editio princeps, Aldus (Venice, 1513); by I.
Bekker (1823) and W. S. Dobson (1828) in Oratores Attici; C.
Scheibe (1852) and T. Thalheim (1901, Teubner series, with biblio-
graphy); C. G. Cobet (dth ed., by j. J. Hartman, 1905); with
variorum notes, by J. J. Reiske (1772). Editions of select speeches
by J. H. Bremi (1845); R. Rauchenstein (1848, revised by C. Fuhr,
1880-1881); H. Frohberger (1866-1871); H. van Herwerden (1863);
A. Weidner (1888); E. S. Shuckburgh (1882); A. Westermann
and W. Binder (1887-1890); G. P. Bristol (1892), M. H. Morgan
(1895), C. D. Adams (1905), all three published in America. There is
a special lexicon to Lysias by D. H. Holmes (Bonn, 1895). See also
Jebb's Attic Orators (1893) and Selections from the Attic Orators (2nd

* [Some remains of the speech against Theozotides have been
found in the Hibeh papyri; see W. H. D. Rouse's The Year's Work
in Classical Studies (1907)].

1 84

LYSIMACHUS— LYTHAM

ed., 1888) and F. Blass, Die Attische Beredsamkeit (2nd cd., 1887-
1898); W. L. Devries, Ethopoiia. A rhetorical study of the types of
character in the orations of Lysias (Baltimore, 1892). (R. C. J.; X.)

LYSIMACHUS (c. 355-281 B.C.), Macedonian general, son
of Agathocles, was a citizen of Pella in Macedonia. During
Alexander's Persian campaigns he was one of his immediate
bodyguard and distinguished himself in India. After Alexander's
death he was appointed to the government of Thrace and the
Chersonese. For a long time he was chiefly occupied with
fighting against the Odrysian king Seuthes. In 315 he joined
Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus against Antigonus, who,
however, diverted his attention by stirring up Thracian and
Scythian tribes against him. In 309, he founded Lysimachia
in a commanding situation on the neck connecting the Cher-
sonese with the mainland. He followed the example of Antigonus
in taking the title of king. In 302 when the second alliance
between Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus was made, Lysi-
machus, reinforced by troops from Cassander, entered Asia
Minor, where he met with little resistance. On the approach
of Antigonus he retired into winter quarters near Heraclea,
marrying its widowed queen Amastris, a Persian princess.
Seleucus joined him in 301, and at the battle of Ipsus Antigonus
was slain. His dominions were divided among the victors,
Lysimachus receiving the greater part of Asia Minor. Feeling
that Seleucus was becoming dangerously great, he now alh'ed
himself with Ptolemy, marrying his daughter Arsinoe. Amastris,
who had divorced herself from him, returned to Heraclea. When
Antigonus's son Demetrius renewed hostilities (297), during his
absence in Greece, Lysimachus seized his towns in Asia Minor,
but in 294 concluded a peace whereby Demetrius was recognized
as ruler of Macedonia. He tried to carry his power beyond
the Danube, but was defeated and taken prisoner by the Getae,
who, however, set him free on amicable terms. Demetrius
subsequently threatened Thrace, but had to retire in consequence
of a rising in Boeotia, and an attack from Pyrrhus of Epirus.
In 288 Lysimachus and Pyrrhus in turn invaded Macedonia,
and drove Demetrius out of the country. Pyrrhus was at first
allowed to remain in possession of Macedonia with the title
of king, but in 285 he was expelled by Lysimachus. Domestic
troubles embittered the last years of Lysimachus's life. Amas-
tris had been murdered by her two sons; Lysimachus treacher-
ously put them to death. On his return Arsinoe asked the gift
of Heraclea, and he granted her request, though he had promised
to free the city. In 284 Arsinoe, desirous of gaining the succes-
sion for her sons in preference to Agathocles (the eldest son
of Lysimachus), intrigued against him with the help of her
brother Ptolemy Ceraunus; they accused him of conspiring
with Seleucus to seize the throne, and he was put to death. This
atrocious deed of Lysimachus aroused great indignation. Many
of the cities of Asia revolted, and his most trusted friends
deserted him. The widow of Agathocles fled to Seleucus, who
at once invaded the territory of Lysimachus in Asia. Lysi-
machus crossed the Hellespont, and in 281 a decisive battle
took place at the plain of Corus (Corupedion) in Lydia. Lysi-
machus was killed; after some days his body, watched by a
faithful dog, was found on the field, and given up to his son
Alexander, by whom it was interred at Lysimachia.

See Arrian, Anab. v. 13, vi. 28; Justin xv. 3, 4, xvii. i; Quintus
Curtius v. 3, x. 30; Diod. Sic. xviii. 3; Polybius v. 67; Plutarch,
Demetrius, 31. 52, Pyrrhus, 12; Appian, Syriaca, 62; Thirlwall,
History of Greece, vol. viii. (1847); J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alex-
ander's Empire; Droysen, Hellenismus (2nd ed., 1877); A. Holm,
Griechische Geschichte, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, Gesch. a. griech. u.
maked. Staaten, vols. i. and ii. (1893, 1899) ; J. Beloch, Griech. Gesch.
vol. iii. (1904); Hiinerwadel, Forschungen zur Gesch. des Konigs
Lysimachus (1900); Possenti, II Re Lisimaco di Tracia (1901);
Ghione, Note sul regno di Lisimaco (Atti d. real. Accad. di Torino,
xxxix.); and MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. (E. R. B.)

LYSIPPUS, Greek sculptor, was head of the school of Argos
and Sicyon in the time of Philip and Alexander of Macedon.
His works are said to have numbered 1500, some of them colossal.
Some accounts make him the continuer of the school of Poly-
clitus; some represent him as self-taught. The matter in
which he especially innovated was the proportions of the male

human body; he made the head smaller than his predecessors,
the body more slender and hard, so as to give the impression of
greater height. He also took great pains with hair and other
details. Pliny (N.H. 34, 61) and other writers mention many
of his statues. Among the gods he seems to have produced new
and striking types of Zeus (probably of the Otricoli class), of
Poseidon (compare the Poseidon of the Lateran, standing with
raised foot), of the Sun-god and others; many of these were
colossal figures in bronze. Among heroes he was specially
attracted by the mighty physique of Hercules. The Hercules
Farnese of Naples, though signed by Glycon of Athens, and a
later and exaggerated transcript, owes something, including
the motive of rest after labour, to Lysippus. Lysippus made
many statues of Alexander the Great, and so satisfied his patron,
no doubt by idealizing him, that he became the court sculptor
of the king, from whom and from whose generals he received
many commissions. The extant portraits of Alexander vary
greatly, and it is impossible to determine which among them go
back to Lysippus. The remarkable head from Alexandria
(Plate II. fig. 56, in GREEK ART) has as good a claim as any.

As head of the great athletic school of Peloponnese Lysippus
naturally sculptured many athletes; a figure by him of a man
scraping himself with a strigil was a great favourite of the
Romans in the time of Tiberius (Pliny, N.H. 34, 61); and
this has been usually regarded as the original copied in the
Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (GREEK ART, Plate VI. fig. 79).
If so, the copyist has modernized his copy, for some features
of the Apoxyomenus belong to the Hellenistic age. With more
certainty we may see a copy of an athlete by Lysippus in the
statue of Agias found at Delphi (GREEK ART, Plate V. fig. 74),
which is proved by inscriptions to be a replica in marble of a
bronze statue set up by Lysippus in Thessaly. And when the
Agias and the Apoxyomenus are set side by side their differences
are so striking that it is difficult to attribute them to the same
author, though they may belong to the same school. (P. G.)

LYSIS OF TARENTUM (d. c. 390 B.C.), Greek philosopher.
His life is obscure, but it is generally accepted, that in the
persecution of the Pythagoreans at Crotona and Metapontum
he escaped and went to Thebes, where he came under the
influence of Philolaus. The friend and companion of Pythagoras,
he has been credited with many of the works usually attributed
to Pythagoras himself. Diogenes Laertius viii. 6 gives him
three, and Mullach even assigns to him the Golden Verses. But
it is generally held that these verses are a collection of lines by
many authors rather than the work of one man.

LYSISTRATUS, a Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C.,
brother of Lysippus of Sicyon. We are told by Pliny (Nat.-
Hist. 35, 153) that he followed a strongly realistic line, being
the first sculptor to take impressions of human faces in plaster.

LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS (1793-1847), Anglican divine and
hymn-writer, was born near Kelso on the ist of June 1793,
and was educated at Enniskillen school and at Trinity College,
Dublin. He took orders in 1815, and for some time held a
curacy near Wexford. Owing to infirm health he came to
England, and after several changes settled, in 1823, in the
parish of Brixham. In 1844 his health finally gave way; and
he died at Nice on the 2oth of November 1847.

Lyte's first work was Tales in Verse illustrative of Several of the
Petitions in the Lord's Prayer (1826), which was written at Lymington
and was commended by Wilson in the Nodes Ambrosianae. He next
published (1833) a volume of Poems, chiefly Religious, and in 1834 a
little collection of psalms and hymns entitled The Spirit of the
Psalms. After his death, a volume of Remains with a memoir was
published, and the poems contained in this, with those in Poems,
chiefly Religious, were afterwards issued in one volume (1868). His
best known hymns are "Abide with me! fast falls the eventide ";
" Jesus, I my cross have taken "; " Praise, my soul, the King of
Heaven "; and " Pleasant are Thy courts above."

LYTHAM, an urban district and watering-place in the Black-
pool parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the
north shore of the estuary of the Kibble, 13^ m. W. of Preston
by a joint line of the London & North Western and Lancashire
& Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 7185. It has a pier, a

LYTTELTON, G. L.--LYTTON, IST BARON

185

pleasant promenade and drive along the shore, and other
appointments of a seaside resort, but it is less wholly devoted
to holiday visitors than Blackpool, which lies 8 m. N.W. A
Benedictine cell was founded here at the close of the izth
century by the lord of the manor, Richard Fitz-Roger.

LYTTELTON, GEORGE LYTTELTON, IST BARON (1709-
1773), English statesman and man of letters, born at Hagley,
Worcestershire, was a descendant of the great jurist Sir Thomas
Littleton (q.v.). He was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Lyttelton,
4th bart. (d. 1751), who at the revolution of 1688 and during
the following reign was one of the ablest Whig debaters of the
House of Commons.1 Lyttelton was educated at Eton and
Oxford, and in 1728 set out on the grand tour, spending con-
siderable periods at Paris and Rome. On his return to England
he sat in parliament for Okehampton, Devonshire, beginning
public life in the same year with Pitt. From 1744 to 1754 he
held the office of a lord commissioner of the treasury. In 1755
he succeeded Legge as chancellor of the exchequer, but in 1756
he quitted office, being raised to the peerage as Baron Lyttelton,
of Frankley, in the county of Worcester. In the political crisis
of 1765, before the formation of the Rockingham administration,
it was suggested that he might be placed at the head of the
treasury, but he declined to take part in any such scheme. The
closing years of his life were devoted chiefly to literary pursuits.
He died on the 22nd of August 1773.

Lyttelton's earliest publication (1735), Letters from a Persian in
England to his Friend at Ispahan, appeared anonymously. Much
greater celebrity was achieved by his Observations on the Conversion
and Apostleship of St Paul, also anonymous, published in 1747. It
takes the form of a letter to Gilbert West, and is designed to show
that St Paul's conversion is of itself a sufficient demonstration of the
divine character of Christianity. Dr Johnson regarded the work as
one " to which infidelity has never been able to fabricate a specious
answer." Lord Lyttelton's Dialogues of the Dead, a creditable per-
formance, though hardly rivalling either Lucian or Landor, appeared
in 1760. His History of Henry II. (1767-1771), the fruit of twenty
years' labour, is not now cited as an authority, but is painstaking and
fair. Lyttelton was also a writer of verse; his Monody on his wife's
death has been praised by Gray for its elegiac tenderness, and his
Prologue to the Coriolanus of his friend Thomson shows genuine
feeling. He was also the author of the well-known stanza in the
Castle of Indolence, in which the poet himself is described. A com-
plete collection of the Works of Lord Lyttelton was published by his
nephew, G. E. Ayscough in 1774.

His son THOMAS (1744-1779), who succeeded as 2nd baron,
played some part in the political life of his time, but his loose
and prodigal habits were notorious, and he is known, in dis-
tinction to his father " the good lord, " as the wicked Lord
Lyttelton. He left no lawful issue, and the barony became
extinct; but it was revived in 1794 in the person of his uncle
WILLIAM HENRY, ist baron of the new creation (1724-1808),
who was governor of S. Carolina and later of Jamaica, and
ambassador to Portugal. The new barony went after him to his
two sons. The 3rd baron (1782-1837) was succeeded by his son
GEORGE WILLIAM LYTTELTON, 4th baron (1817-1876), who was
a fine scholar, and brother-in-law of W. E. Gladstone, having
married Miss Mary Glynne. He did important work in educa-
tional and poor law reform. He had eight sons, of whom the
eldest, CHARLES GEORGE (b. 1842), became 5th baron, and in

1 Sir Thomas (or Thomas de) Littleton, the jurist, had three sons,
William, Richard and Thomas. From the first, William, was
descended Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 1st bart. of Frankley (1596-
1650), whose sons were Sir Henry, 2nd bart. (d. 1693). and Sir Charles,
3rd bart. (1629-1716), governor of Jamaica. The latter's son was
Sir Thomas, 4th bart., above mentioned, who was also the father of
Charles Lyttelton ( 1 7 1 4-1 768) , bishop of Carlisle, and president of the
Society of Antiquaries. The male descendants of the second,
Richard, died out with Sir Edward Littleton, bart., of Pillaton,
Staffordshire, in 1812, but the latter's grandnephew, Edward John
Walhouse (1791-1863) of Hatherton, took the estates by will and
also the name of Littleton, and was created 1st Baron Hatherton in
'835; he was chief secretary for Ireland (1833-1834). From
Thomas, the third son, was descended, in one line, Edward, Lord
Littleton, of Munslow (1589-1645), recorder of London, chief justice
of the common pleas, and eventually lord keeper; and in another
line, the baronets of Stoke St Milborough, Shropshire, of whom the
best known and last was Sir Thomas Littleton, 3rd bart. (1647-
1710), speaker of the House of Commons (1698-1700), and treasurer
of the navy.

1889 succeeded, by the death of the 3rd duke of Buckingham
and Chandos, to the viscounty of COBHAM, in which title the
barony of Lyttelton is now merged. Other distinguished sons
were Arthur Temple Lyttelton (d. 1903), warden of Selwyn
College, Cambridge, and bishop-suffragan of Southampton;
Edward Lyttelton (b. 1855), headmaster of Haileybury (1800-
1905) and then of Eton; and Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857), secre-
tary of state for the colonies (1903-1906). It was a family of
well-known cricketers, Alfred being in his day the best wicket-
keeper in England as well as a fine tennis player.

For the 1st baron see Sir R. Phillimore's Memoirs and Corre-
spondence of Lord Lyttelton, 1734-1773 (2 vols., 1845).

LYTTELTON, a borough of New Zealand, the port of Christ-
church (q.v.) on the E. coast of South Island, on an inlet on the
north-western side of Banks Peninsula. Pop. (1906) 3941. It
is surrounded by abrupt hills rising to 1600 ft., through which
a railway communicates with Christchurch (7 m. N.W.) by a
tunnel if m. long. Great breakwaters protect the harbour,
which has an area of 1 10 acres, with a low-tide depth of 20 to
27 ft. There is a graving dock accessible for vessels of 6000 tons.
The produce of the rich agricultural district of Canterbury is
exported, frozen or preserved. Lyttelton, formerly called Port
Cooper and Port Victoria, was the original settlement in this
district (1850).

LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE EARLE LYTTON, BULWER-
LYTTON, IST BARON (1803-1873), English novelist and politician,
the youngest son of General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon
Hall and Wood Balling, Norfolk, was born in London on the
25th of May 1803. He had two brothers, William (1799-1877)
and Henry (1801-1872), afterwards Lord Balling (q.v.). Bulwer's
father died when the boy was four years old. His mother,
Elizabeth Barbara, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of
Knebworth, Hertfordshire, after her husband's death settled in
London. Bulwer, who was delicate and neurotic, gave evidence
of precocious talent and was sent to various boarding schools,
where he was always discontented, until in the establishment of
a Mr Wallington at Ealing he found in his master a sympathetic
and admiring listener. Mr Wallington induced him to publish,
at the age of fifteen, an immature volume entitled Ishmael and
other Poems. About this time Bulwer fell in love, and became
extremely morbid under enforced separation from the young lady,
who was induced by her father to marry another man. She died
about the time that Bulwer went to Cambridge, and he declared
that her loss affected all his after-life. In 1822 he entered
Trinity College, Cambridge, but removed shortly afterwards to
Trinity Hall, and in 1825 won the Chancellor's medal for English
verse with a poem on " Sculpture." In the following year he
took his B.A. degree and printed for private circulation a small
volume of poems, Weeds and Wild Flowers, in which the influence
of Byron was easily traceable. In 1827 he published O'Neill, or
the Rebel, a romance, in heroic couplets, of patriotic struggle
in Ireland, and in 1831 a metrical satire, The Siamese Twins.
These juvenilia he afterwards ignored.

Meanwhile he had begun to take his place in society, being
already known as a dandy of considerable pretensions, who had
acted as second in a duel and experienced the fashionable
round of flirtation and intrigue. He purchased a commission in
the army, only to sell it again without undergoing any service,
and in August 1827 married, in opposition to his mother's wishes,
Rosina Boyle Wheeler (1802-1882), an Irish beauty, niece and
adopted daughter of General Sir John Boyle. She was a brilliant
but passionate girl, and upon his marriage .with her, Bulwer's
mother withdrew the allowance she had hitherto made him.
He had £200 a year from his father, and less than £100 a year
with his wife, and found it necessary to set to work in earnest.
In the year of his marriage he published Falkland, a novel
which was only a moderate success, but in 1828 he attracted
general attention with Pelham, a novel for which he had gathered
material during a visit to Paris in 1825. This story, with its
intimate study of the dandyism of the age, was immediately
popular, and gossip was busy in identifying the characters of the
romance with the leading men of the time. la the same year he

i86

LYTTON, IST EARL OF

published The Disowned, following it up with Devereux (1829),
Paid Clifford (1830), Eugene Aram (1832) and Godolphin (1833).
All these novels were designed with a didactic purpose, some-
what upon the German model. To embody the leading features
of a period, to show how a criminal may be reformed by the
development of his own character, to explain the secrets of failure
and success in life, these were the avowed objects of his art,
and there were not wanting critics ready to call in question his
sincerity and his morality. Magazine controversy followed, in
which Bulwer was induced to take a part, and about the same
time he began to make a mark in politics. He became a follower
of Bentham, and in 1831 was elected member for St Ives in
Huntingdon. During this period of feverish activity his relations
with his wife grew less and less satisfactory. At first she had
cause to complain that he neglected her in the pursuit of literary
reputation; later on his disregard became rather active than
passive. After a series of distressing differences they decided
to live apart, and were legally separated in 1836. Three years
later his wife published a novel called Cheveley, or the Man of
Honour, in which Bulwer was bitterly caricatured, and in June
1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate
for Hertfordshire, she appeared at the hustings and indignantly
denounced him. She was consequently placed under restraint as
insane, but liberated a few weeks later. For years she continued
her attacks upon her husband's character, and outlived him by
nine years, dying at Upper Sydenham in March 1882. There is
little doubt that her passionate imagination gravely exaggerated
the tale of her wrongs, though Bulwer was certainly no model
for husbands. It was a case of two undisciplined natures in
domestic bondage, and the consequences of their union were as
inevitable as they were unfortunate.

Bulwer, meanwhile, was full of activity, both literary and
political. After representing St Ives, he was returned for Lincoln
in 1832, and sat in parliament for that city for nine years. He
spoke in favour of the Reform Bill, and took the leading part in
securing the reduction, after vainly essaying the repeal, of the
newspaper stamp duties. His pamphlet, issued when the Whigs
were dismissed from office in 1834, and entitled " A Letter to a
Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis," was immensely influential,
and Lord Melbourne offered him a lordship of the admiralty,
which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an
author. At this time, indeed, his pen was indefatigable. Godol-
phin was followed by The Pilgrims of the Rhine (1834), a graceful
fantasy, too German in sentiment to be quite successful in Eng-
land, and then in The Last Days of Pompeii (1834) and Rienzi
(1835) he reached the height of his popularity. He took great
pains with these stories, and despite their lurid colouring and
mannered over-emphasis, they undoubtedly indicate the high-
water mark of his talent. Their reception was enthusiastic, and
Ernest Maltravers (1837) and Alice, or the Mysteries (1838) were
hardly less successful. At the same time he had been plunging
into journalism. In 1831 he undertook the editorship of the
New Monthly, which, however, he resigned in the following year,
but in 1841, the year in which he published Night and Morning,
he started the Monthly Chronicle, a semi-scientific magazine, for
which he wrote Zicci, an unfinished first draft afterwards ex-
panded into Zanoni (1842). As though this multifarious fecundity
were not sufficient, he had also been busy in the field of dramatic
literature. In 1838 he produced The Lady of Lyons, a play which
Macready made a great success at Covent Garden: in 1839
Richelieu and The Sea Captain, and in 1840 Money. All, except
The Sea Captain, were successful, and this solitary failure he
revived in 1869 under the title of The Rightful Heir. Of the
others it may be said that, though they abound in examples of
strained sentiment and false taste, they have nevertheless a
certain theatrical flair, which has enabled them to survive a
whole library of stage literature of greater sincerity and truer
feeling. The Lady of Lyons and Money have long held the stage,
and to the last-named, at least, some of the most talented of
modern comedians have given new life and probability.

In 1838 Bulwer, then at the height of his popularity, was
created a baronet, and on succeeding to the Knebworth estate

in 1843 added Lytton to his surname, under the terms of his
mother's will. From 1841 to 1852 he had no seat in parliament,
and spent much of his time in continental travel. His literary
activity waned somewhat, but was still remarkably alert for a
man who had already done so much. In 1843 he issued The
Last of the Barons, which many critics have considered the most
historically sound and generally effective of all his romances;
in 1847 Lucretia, or the Children of the Night, and in 1848 Harold,
the last of the Saxon Kings. In the intervals between these
heavier productions he had thrown off a volume of poems in
1842, another of translations from Schiller in 1844, and a satire
called The New Timon in 1846, in which Tennyson, who had just
received a Civil List pension, was bitterly lampooned as " school
miss Alfred," with other unedifying amenities; Tennyson
retorted with some verses in which he addressed Bulwer-Lytton
as " you band-box." These poetic excursions were followed by
his most ambitious work in metre, a romantic epic entitled King
Arthur, of which he expected much, and he was greatly dis-
appointed by its apathetic reception. Having experienced some
rather acid criticism, questioning the morality of his novels, he
next essayed a form of fiction which he was determined should
leave no loophole to suspicion, and in The Caxtons (1849), pub-
lished at first anonymously, gave further proof of his versatility
and resource. My Novel (1853) and What will he do with it?
were designed to prolong the same strain.

In 1852 he entered the political field anew, and in the con-
servative interest. He had differed from the policy of Lord John
Russell over the corn laws, and now separated finally from the
liberals. He stood for Hertfordshire and was elected, holding
the seat till 1866, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron
Lytton of Knebworth. His eloquence gave him the ear of the
House of Commons, and he often spoke with influence and
authority. In 1858 he was appointed secretary for the colonies.
In the House of Lords he was comparatively inactive. His
last novels were A Strange Story (1862), a mystical romance
with spiritualistic tendencies; The Coming Race (1871), The
Parisians (1873) — both unacknowledged at the time of his
death; and Kenelm Chillingly, which was in course of publication
in Blackwood's Magazine when Lytton died at Torquay on the
i8th of January 1873. The last three of his stories were classed
by his son, the 2nd Lord Lytton, as a trilogy, animated by a
common purpose, to exhibit the influence of modern ideas upon
character and conduct.

Bulwer-Lytton's attitude towards life was theatrical, the
language of his sentiments was artificial and over-decorated, and
the tone of his work was often so flamboyant as to give an im-
pression of false taste and judgment. Nevertheless, he built up
each of his stories upon a deliberate and careful framework:
he was assiduous according to his lights in historical research;
and conscientious in the details of workmanship. As the
fashion of his day has become obsolete the immediate appeal of
his work has diminished. It will always, however, retain its
interest, not only for the merits of certain individual novels,
but as a mirror of the prevailing intellectual movement of the
first half of the igth century.

See T. H. S. Escott, Edward Bulwer, ist Baron Lytton of Kneb-
worth (1910). (A. WA.)

LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER-LYTTON, IST EARL
OF (1831-1891), English diplomatist and poet, was the only son
of the ist Baron Lytton. He was born in Hertford Street,
Mayfair, on the 8th of November 1831. Robert Lytton and his
sister were brought up as children principally by a Miss Green.
In 1840 the boy was sent to a school at Twickenham, in 1842
to another at Brighton, and in 1845 to Harrow. From his
earliest childhood Lytton read voraciously and wrote copiously,
quickly developing a genuine and intense love of literature and a
remarkable facility of expression. In 1849 he left Harrow and
studied for a year at Bonn with an English tutor, and on his
return with another tutor in England. In 1850 he entered the
diplomatic service as unpaid attache to his uncle, Sir Henry
Bulwer, who was then minister at Washington. His advance

LYTTON, IST EARL OF

187

in the diplomatic service was continuous, his successive appoint-
ments being: as second secretary— 1852, Florence; 1854,
Paris; 1857, The Hague; 1859, Vienna; as first secretary or
secretary of legation — 1863, Copenhagen; 1864, Athens;
1865, Lisbon; 1868, Madrid; 1868, Vienna; 1873, Paris;
as minister — 1875, Lisbon. In 1887 he was appointed to succeed
Lord Lyons as ambassador at Paris, and held that. office until his
death in 1891. This rapid promotion from one European court
to another indicates the esteem in which Lytton was held by
successive foreign secretaries. In 1864, immediately before
taking up his appointment at Athens, he married Edith, daughter
of Edward Villiers, brother of the earl of Clarendon, and in 1873,
upon the death of his father, he succeeded to the peerage and the
estate of Knebworth in Hertfordshire.

Early in 1875 Lord Lytton declined an offer of appointment
as governor of Madras, and in November of that year he was
nominated governor-general of India by Disraeli. The moment
was critical in the history of India. In Central Asia the
advance of Russia had continued so steadily and so rapidly that
Shere Ah', the amir of Afghanistan, had determined to seek
safety as the vassal of the tsar. Lytton went out to India with
express instructions from the British government to recover the
friendship of the amir if possible, and if not so to arrange matters
on the north-west frontier as to be able to be indifferent to his
hostility. For eighteen months Lytton and his council made
every effort to conciliate the friendship of the amir, but when
a Russian agent was established at Kabul, while the mission of
Sir Neville Chamberlain was forcibly denied entrance into the
amir's dominions, no choice was left between acknowledging
the right of a subsidized ally of Great Britain to place himself
within Russian control and depriving Tiim of the office which he
owed to British patronage and assistance. The inevitable war
began in November 1878, and by the dose of that year the forces
prepared by Lytton for that purpose had achieved their task
with extraordinary accuracy and economy. Shere Ali fled from
Kabul, and shortly afterwards died, and once more it fell to the
Indian government to make provision for the future of Afghani-
stan. By the treaty of Gandamak in May 1879 Yakub Khan,
a son of Shere Ali, was recognized as amir, the main conditions
agreed upon being that the districts of Kuram, Pishin and Sibi
should be " assigned " to British administration, and the Khyber
and other passes be under British control; that there should be
a permanent British Resident at Kabul, and that the amir should
be subsidized in an amount to be afterwards determined upon.
The endeavour of the Indian government was to leave the internal
administration of Afghanistan as little affected as possible,
but considerable risk was run in trusting so much, and especially
the safety of a British envoy, to the power and the goodwill of
Yakub Khan. Sir Louis Cavagnari, the British envoy -entered
Kabul at the end of July, and was, with his staff, massacred
in the rising which took place on the 3rd of September. The
war of 1879-80 immediately began, with the occupation of
Kandahar by Stewart and the advance upon Kabul by Roberts,
and the military operations which followed were not concluded
when Lytton resigned his office in April 1880.

A complete account of Lyt ton's viceroyalty, and a lucid
exposition of the principles of his government and the main
outlines of his policy, may be found in Lord Lylton's Indian
Administration, by his daughter, Lady Betty Balfour (London,
1899). The frontier policy which he adopted, after the method
of a friendly and united Afghanistan under Yakub Khan had
been tried and had failed, was that the Afghan kingdom should be
destroyed. The province of Kandahar was to be occupied by
Great Britain, and administered by a vassal chief, Shere Ali Khan,
who was appointed " Wali " with a solemn guarantee of British
support (unconditionally withdrawn by the government succeed-
ing Lytton's). The other points of the Indian frontier were to
be made as secure as possible, and the provinces of Kabul and
Herat were to be left absolutely to their own devices. In con-
sequence of what had been said of Lytton by the leaders of the
parliamentary opposition in England, it was impossible for him
to retain his office under a government formed by them, and he

accordingly resigned at the same time as the Beaconsfield
ministry. This part of his policy was thereupon revoked. Abdur
Rahman, proving himself the strongest of the claimants to the
throne left vacant by Yakub Khan's deposition, became amir
as the subsidized ally of the Indian government.

The two most considerable events of Lytton's viceroyalty,
besides the Afghan wars, were the assumption by Queen Victoria
of the title of empress of India on the ist of January 1877, and
the famine which prevailed in various parts of India in 1876-78.
He satisfied himself that periodical famines must be expected
in Indian history, and that constant preparation during years
of comparative prosperity was the only condition whereby
their destructi veness could be modified. Accordingly he obtained
the appointment of the famine commission of 1878, to inquire,
upon lines laid down by him, into available means of mitigation.
Their report, made in 1880, is the foundation of the later system
of irrigation, development of communications, and " famine
insurance." The equalization and reduction of the salt duty
were effected, and the abolition of the cotton duty commenced,
during Lytton's term of office, and the system of Indian finance
profoundly modified by decentralization and the regulation
of provincial responsibility, in all which matters Lytton
enthusiastically supported Sir John Strachey, the financial
member of his council.

Upon Lytton's resignation in 1880 an earldom was conferred
upon him in recognition of his services as viceroy. He lived at
Knebworth until 1887, in which year he was appointed to succeed
Lord Lyons as ambassador at Paris. He died at Paris on the
24th of November 1891, of a clot of blood in the heart, when
apparently recovering from a serious illness. He was succeeded
by his son (b. 1876) as 2nd earl.

Lytton is probably better known as a poet — under the pen-
name of " Owen Meredith " — than as a statesman. The list
of his published works is as follows: Clylemnestra, and other
Poems, 1855; The ' Wanderer, 1858; Lucile, 1860; Serbski
Pesme, or National Songs of Serria, 1861, Tannhauser (in
collaboration with Mr Julian Fane), 1861; Chronicles and
Characters, 1867; Orval, or The Fool of Time, 1868; Fables
in Song (2 vols.), 1874; Glenaverti, or The Metamorphoses, 1885;
After Paradise, or the Legends of Exile, and other Poems, 1887;
Marah, 1892; King Poppy, 1892. The two last-mentioned
volumes were published posthumously. A few previously
unpublished pieces are included in a volume of Selections pub-
lished, with an introduction by Lady Betty Balfour, in 1894.
His metrical style was easy and copious, but not precise. It
often gives the impression of having been produced with facility,
because the flow of his thought carried him along, and of not
having undergone prolonged or minute polish. It was frequently
suggestive of the work of other poets, especially in his earlier
productions. The friend who wrote the inscription for the
monument to be erected to him at St Paul's described him as
" a poet of many styles, each the expression of his habitual
thoughts." Lucile, a novel in verse, presents a romantic style
and considerable wit; and Glenaveril, which also contains
many passages of great beauty and much poetic thought, has
much of the same narrative character. Besides his volumes
of poetry, Lytton published in 1883 two volumes of a biography
of his father. The second of these contains the beginning of the
elder Lytton's unfinished novel, Greville, and his life is brought
down only to the year 1832, when he was twenty-six years of
age, so that the completion of the book upon the same scale
would have required at least four more volumes. The executrix
of Lytton's mother chose to consider that the publication was
injurious to that lady's memory, and issued a volume purporting
to contain Bulwer-Lyt ton's letters to his wife. This Lytton
suppressed by injunction, thereby procuring a fresh exposition
of the law that the copyright in letters remains in the writer
or his representatives, though the property in them belongs
to the recipient. Lytton's appointment to the Parisian embassy
caused the biography of his father to be finally laid aside.

The Personal and Literary Letters of Robert, ist Earl of Lytton, have
been edited by Lady Betty Balfour (1906). (H. S*.)

i88

M— MABILLON

MThe thirteenth letter of the Phoenician and Greek
alphabets, the twelfth of the Latin, and the thirteenth
of the languages of western Europe. Written origin-
ally from right to left, it took the form *\ which sur-
vivies in its earliest representations in Greek. The greater length
of the first limb of m is characteristic of the earliest forms. From
this form, written from left to right, the Latin abbreviation M'
for the praenomen Manius is supposed to have developed, the
apostrophe representing the fifth stroke of the original letter.
In the early Greek alphabets the four-stroke M with legs of
equal length represents not m but s; m when written with four
strokes is /A. The five-stroke forms, however, are confined
practically to Crete, Melos and Cumae; from the last named the
Romans received it along with the rest of their alphabet. The
Phoenician name of the symbol was mem, the Greek name /iO is
formed on the analogy of the name for n. M represents the
bilabial nasal sound, which was generally voiced. It is com-
monly a stable sound, but many languages, e.g. Greek, Ger-
manic and Celtic, change it when final into -n, its dental
correlative. It appears more frequently as an initial sound in
Greek and Latin than in the other languages of the same stock,
because in these i before m (as also before / and n) disappeared at
the beginning of words. The sounds m and b are closely related,
the only difference being that, in pronouncing m, the nasal pas-
sage is not closed, thus allowing the sound to be prolonged,
while b is an instantaneous or explosive sound. In various
languages b is inserted between m and a following consonant,
as in the Gr. nearHifipia " mid-day," or the English " number,"
Fr. nombre from Lat. numerus. The sound m can in unaccented
syllables form a syllable by itself without an audible vowel,
e.g. the Enghlish -word fathom comes from an Anglo-Saxon faf m,
where the m was so used. (For more details as to this phonetic
principle, which has important results in the history of language,
see under N.) (P. Gi.)

MAAS, JOSEPH (1847-1886), English tenor singer, was born
at Dartford, and became a chorister in Rochester Cathedral.
He went to study singing in Milan in 1869; in February 1871 he
made his first success by taking Sims Reeves's place at a concert
in London. In 1878 he became principal tenor in Carl Rosa's
company, his beautiful voice and finished style more than com-
pensating for his poor acting. He died "in London on the i6th
of January 1886.

MAASIN, a town on the S.W. coast of the island of Leyte,
Philippine Islands, at the mouth of the Maasin River. Pop.
(1903), 21,638. Maasin is an important port for hemp and
copra. The well-built town occupies a narrow coastal plain.
The river valleys in the vicinity produce cotton, pepper, tobacco,
rice, Indian corn and fruit. Native cloths and pottery are
manufactured. Maasin is the only place on the west coast of
Leyte where a court of justice is held. The language is Visayan.

MAASSLUIS, a river port of Holland, in the province of South
Holland, on the New Waterway, 10 m. by rail W. of Rotterdam.
Pop. (1903), 8011. It rose into importance as a fishing harbour
towards the end of the i6th century, and its prosperity rapidly
increased after the opening of the New Waterway (the Maas
ship canal) from Rotterdam to the sea. The fort erected here
in 1572 by Philip of Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde, was captured
by the Spanish in 1573.

MAASTRICHT, or MAESTRICHT, a frontier town and the
capital of the province of Limburg, Holland, on the left bank
of the Maas at the influx of the river Geer, 19 m. by rail N.N.E.
of Li6ge in Belgium. Pop. (1904), 36,146. A small portion of
the town, known as Wyk, lies on the right bank. A stone
bridge connecting the two replaced a wooden structure as early
as 1280, and was rebuilt in 1683. Formerly a strong fortress,
Maastricht is still a considerable garrison town, but its ramparts
were dismantled in 1871-1878. The town-hall, built by Pieter
Post and completed in 1683, contains some interesting pictures

and tapestry. The old town-hall (Oud Stadhuis), a Gothic
building of the isth century, is now used as a museum of
antiquities. The church of St Servatius is said to have been
founded by Bishop Monulphus in the 6th century, thus being
the oldest church in Holland; according to one account it
was rebuilt and enlarged as early as the time of Charlemagne.
The crypt with the tomb of the patron saint dates from the
original building. The varied character of its late Romanesque
and later Gothic architecture bears evidence of the frequency
with which the church has been restored and altered. Over
the porch is the fine emperor's hall, and the church has a
marble statue of Charlemagne. The church of Our Lady, a
late Romanesque building, has two ancient crypts and a 13th-
century choir of exceptional beauty, but the nave suffered
severely from a restoration in 1764. The present Gothic
building of St Martin (in Wyk) was erected in 1859; the
original church is said by tradition to have occupied the site
of an old heathen temple. The Protestant St Janskerk, a
Gothic building of the I3th and isth centuries, with a fine
tower, was formerly the baptistery of the cathedral. The
various hospitals, the poor-house, the orphanage and most of
the other charitable foundations are Roman Catholic institutions.
Maastricht contains the provincial archives, a library and
geological collections. Though mainly indebted for its com-
mercial prosperity to its position on the river, the town did
not begin to reap the full advantages of its situation till the
opening of the railways between 1853 and 1865. At first a
trade was carried on in wine, colonial wares, alcoholic liquors
and salt; there are now manufactures of earthenware, glass and
crystal, arms, paper, woollens, tools, lead, copper and zinc work,
as well as breweries, and tobacco and cigar factories, and a trade
in corn and butter.

A short distance south of Maastricht are the great sandstone
quarries of Pietersberg, which were worked from the time of the
Romans to near the end of the igth century; the result is one of
the most extraordinary subterranean labyrinths in the world,
estimated to cover an area 15 m. by 9 m. In the time of the
Spanish wars these underground passages served to hide the
peasants and their cattle.

Maastricht was originally the trajectus superior (upper ford)
of the Romans, and was the seat of a bishop from 382 to 721.
Having formed part of the Prankish realm, it was ruled after
1204 jointly by the dukes of Brabant and the prince-bishops
of Liege. In 1579 it was besieged by the Spaniards under the
duke of Parma, being captured and plundered after a heroic
resistance. It was taken by the French in 1673, 1748 and
1794-

MABILLON, JOHN (1632-1707), Benedictine monk of the
Congregation of St Maur (see MAURISTS), was the son of a
peasant near Reims. In 1653 he became a monk in the abbey
of St Remi at Reims. In 1664 he was placed at St Germain-des-
Pres in Paris, the great literary workshop of the Maurists, where
he lived and worked for twenty years, at first under d'Achery,
with whom he edited the nine folio volumes of Acta of the
Benedictine Saints. In Mabillon's Prefaces (reprinted separately)
these lives were for the first time made to illustrate the ecclesi-
astical and civil history of the early middle ages. Mabillon's
masterpiece was the De re diplomatica (1681; and a supplement,
1704) in which were first laid down the principles for determining
the authenticity and date of medieval charters and manuscripts.
It practically created the science of Latin palaeography, and
is still the standard work on the subject. In 1685-1686 Mabillon
visited the libraries of Italy, to purchase MSS. and books for
the King's Library. On his return to Paris he was called upon
to defend against de Ranee, the abbot of La Trappe, the legiti-
macy for monks of the kind of studies to which the Maurists de-
voted themselves: this called forth Mabillon's Traite des etudes
monastiques and his Reflexions sur la reponse de M. I'abbf de la

MABINOGION— MABUSE

189

Trappe (1691-1692), works embodying the ideas and programme
of the Maurists for ecclesiastical studies. Mabillon produced
in all some twenty folio volumes and as many of lesser size, nearly
all works of monumental erudition (the chief are named in the
article MAURISTS). A very competent judge declared that,
" he knew well the 7th, 8th, oth, icth and nth centuries, but
nothing earlier or later." Mabillon never allowed his studies
to interfere with his life as a monk ; he was noted for his regular
attendance at the choral recitation of the office and the other
duties of the monastic life, and for his deep personal religion,
as well as for a special charm of character. He died on the 26th
of December 1707, in the midst of the production of the colossal
Benedictine Annals.

The chief authority for his life is the Abre^i de la vie de D. J. M.
(also in Latin), by his disciple and friend Rumart (1709). See also,
for a full summary of his works, Tassin, Hist. liMraire de la congr.
de St Maur (1770), pp. 205-269. Of modern biographies the best are
those of de Broglie (2 vols., 1888) and Baumer (1892) — the former
to be especially recommended. A brief sketch by E. C. Butler may
be found in the Downside Review (1893). (E. C. B.)

MABINOGION (plural of Welsh mabinogi, from mabinog,
a bard's apprentice), the title given to the collection of eleven
Welsh prose tales (from the Red Book of Hergest) published
(1838) by Lady Charlotte Guest, but applied in the Red Book
to four only. (See CELT: Welsh Literature.)

MABUSE, JAN (d. 1532), the name adopted (from his birth-
place, Maubeuge) by the Flemish painter JENNI GOSART, or
JENNYN VAN HENNEGOUWE (Hainault), as he called himself
when he matriculated in the gild of St Luke, at Antwerp, in 1503.
We know nothing of his early life, but his works tell us that he
stood in his first period under the influence of artists to whom
plastic models were familiar; and this leads to the belief that he
spent his youth on the French border rather than on the banks
of the Scheldt. Without the subtlety or power of Van der
Weyden, he had this much in common with the great master of
Tournai and Brussels, that his compositions were usually framed
in architectural backgrounds. But whilst Mabuse thus early
betrays his dependence on the masters of the French frontier,
he also confesses admiration for the great painters who first
gave lustre to Antwerp; and in the large altar-pieces of Castle
Howard and Scawby he combines in a quaint and not unskilful
medley the sentiment of Memling, the bright and decided con-
trasts of pigment peculiar to coloured reliefs, the cornered and
packed drapery familiar to Van der Weyden, and the bold but
Socratic cast of face remarkable in the works of Quentin Matsys.
At Scawby he illustrates the legend of the count of Toulouse,
who parted with his wordly goods to assume the frock of a
hermit. At Castle Howard he represents the Adoration of the
Kings, and throws together some thirty figures on an architectural
background, varied in detail, massive in shape and fanciful in
ornament. He surprises us by pompous costume and flaring
contrasts of tone. His figures, like pieces on a chess-board,
are often rigid and conventional. The landscape which shows
through the colonnades is adorned with towers and steeples in
the minute fashion of Van der Weyden. After a residence of a
few years at Antwerp, Mabuse took service with Philip, bastard
of Philip the Good, at that time lord of Somerdyk and admiral
of Zeeland. One of his pictures had already become celebrated
— a Descent from the Cross (50 figures), on the high altar of the
monastery of St Michael of Tongerloo. Philip of Burgundy
ordered Mabuse to execute a replica for the church of Middel-
burg; and the value which was then set on the picture is apparent
from the fact that Diirer came expressly to Middelburg (1521) to
see it. In 1568 the altar-piece perished by fire. In 1508 Mabuse
accompanied Philip of Burgundy on his Italian mission; and by
this accident an important revolution was effected in the art of
the Netherlands. Mabuse appears to have chiefly studied in
Italy the cold and polished works of the Leonardesques. He not
only brought home a new style, but he also introduced the fashion
of travelling to Italy; and from that time till the age of Rubens
and Van Dyck it was considered proper that all Flemish painters
should visit the peninsula. The Flemings grafted Italian
mannerisms on their own stock; and the cross turned out so

unfortunately that for a century Flemish art lost all trace of
originality.

In the summer of 1509 Philip returned to the Netherlands,
and, retiring to his seat of Suytburg in Zeeland, surrendered
himself to the pleasures of planning decorations for his castle
and ordering pictures of Mabuse and Jacob of Barbari. Being
in constant communication with the court of Margaret of Austria
at Malines, he gave the artists in his employ fair chances of pro-
motion. Barbari was made court painter to the regent, whilst
Mabuse received less important commissions. Records prove
that Mabuse painted a portrait of Leonora of Portugal, and
other small pieces, for Charles V. in 1516. But his only signed
pictures of this period are the Neptune and Amphitrite of 1516
at Berlin, and the Madonna, with a portrait of Jean Carondelet
of 1517, at the Louvre, in both of which we clearly discern that
Vasari only spoke by hearsay of the progress made by Mabuse in
" the true method of producing pictures full of nude figures and
poesies." It is difficult to find anything more coarse or misshapen
than the Amphitrite, unless we except the grotesque and un-
gainly drayman who figures for Neptune. In later forms of the
same subject — the Adam and Eve at Hampton Court, or its
feebler replica at Berlin — we observe more nudity, combined
with realism of the commonest type. Happily, Mabuse was
capable of higher efforts. His St Li^ke painting the portrait of
the Virgin in Sanct Veil at Prague, a variety of the same subject
in the Belvedere at Vienna, the Madonna of the Baring collection
in London, or the numerous repetitions of Christ and the scoffers
(Ghent and Antwerp), all prove that travel had left many of
Mabuse's fundamental peculiarities unaltered. His figures still
retain the character of stone; his architecture is as rich and
varied, his tones are as strong as ever. But bright contrasts of
gaudy tints are replaced by soberer greys; and a cold haze, the
sfumato of the Milanese, pervades the surfaces. It is but seldom
that these features fail to obtrude. When they least show, the
master displays a brilliant palette combined with smooth surface
and incisive outlines. In this form the Madonnas of Munich
and Vienna (1527), the likeness of a girl weighing gold pieces
(Berlin), and the portraits of the children of the king of Denmark
at Hampton Court, are fair specimens of his skill. As early as
1523, when Christian II. of Denmark came to Belgium, he asked
Mabuse to paint the likenesses of his dwarfs. In 1 5 28 he requested
the artist to furnish to Jean de Hare the design for his queen
Isabella's tomb in the abbey of St Pierre near Ghent. It was no
doubt at this time that Mabuse completed the portraits of John,
Dorothy and Christine, children of Christian II., which came into
the collection of Henry VIII. No doubt, also, these portraits
are identical with those of three children at Hampton Court,
which were long known and often copied as likenesses of Prince
Arthur, Prince Henry and Princess Margaret of England. One
of the copies at Wilton, inscribed with the forged name of " Hans
Holbein, ye father," and the false date of 1495, has often been
cited as a proof that Mabuse came to England in the reign of
Henry VII. ; but the statement rests on no foundation whatever.
At the period when these portraits were executed Mabuse lived
at Middelburg. But he dwelt at intervals elsewhere. When
Philip of Burgundy became bishop of Utrecht, and settled at
Duerstede, near Wyck, in 1517, he was accompanied by Mabuse,
who helped to decorate the new palace of his master. At
Philip's death, in 1524, Mabuse designed and erected his tomb
in the church of Wyck. He finally retired to Middelburg, where
he took service with Philip's brother, Adolph, lord of Veeren.
Van Mander's biography accuses Mabuse of habitual drunkenness;
yet it describes the splendid appearance of the artist as, dressed
in gold brocade, he accompanied Lucas of Leyden on a pleasure
trip to Ghent, Malines and Antwerp in 1527. The works of
Mabuse are those of a hardworking and patient artist; the num-
ber of his still extant pictures practically demonstrates that he
was not a debauchee. The marriage of his daughter with the
painter Henry Van der Heyden of Louvain proves that he had
a home, and did not live habitually in taverns, as Van Mander
suggests. His death at Antwerp, on the ist of October 1532, is
recorded in the portrait engraved by Jerome Cock. (J. A. C.)

MACABEBE— MACAIRE

HACABEBE, a town of the province of Pampanga, island of
Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Pampanga Grande river,
about to m. above its mouth and about 25 m. N.W. of Manila.
Pop. (1903), after the annexation of San Miguel, 21,481. The
language is Pampango. Many of the male inhabitants serve
in the U.S. Army as scouts. Macabebe's principal industries
are the cultivation of rice and sugar cane, the distilling of nipa
alcohol, and the weaving of hemp and cotton fabrics.

MACABRE, a term applied to a certain type of artistic or
literary composition, characterized by a grim and ghastly humour,
with an insistence on the details and trappings of death. Such a
quality, deliberately adopted, is hardly to be found in ancient
Greek and Latin writers, though there are traces of it in Apuleius
and the author of the Satyricon. The outstanding instances in
English literature are John Webster and Cyril Tourneur, with
E. A. Poe and R. L. Stevenson. The word has gained its sig-
nificance from its use in French, la danse macabre, for that alle-
gorical representation, in painting, sculpture and tapestry,
of the ever-present and universal power of death, known in
English as the " Dance of Death," and in German as Totentanz.
The typical form which the allegory takes is that of a series of
pictures, sculptured or painted, in which Death appears, either
as a dancing skeleton or as a shrunken corpse wrapped in grave-
clothes to persons representing every age and condition of life,
and leads them all in a dance to the grave. Of the numerous
examples painted or sculptured on the walls of cloisters or church-
yards through medieval Europe few remain except in woodcuts
and engravings. Thus the famous series at Basel, originally
at the Klingenthal, a nunnery in Little Basel, dated from the
beginning of the i4th century. In the middle of the isth cen-
tury this was moved to the churchyard of the Predigerkloster
at Basel, and was restored, probably by Hans Kluber, in 1568;
the fall of the wall in 1805 reduced it to fragments, and only
drawings of it remain. A Dance of Death in its simplest form
still survives in the Marienkirche at Lubeck in a isth-century
painting on the walls of a chapel. Here there are twenty-four
figures in couples, between each is a dancing Death linking the
groups by outstretched hands, the whole ring being led by a
Death playing on a pipe. At Dresden there is a sculptured life-
size series in the old Neustadter Kirchhoff, removed here from
the palace of Duke George in 1701 after a fire. At Rouen in
the aitre (atrium) or cloister of St Maclou there also remains a
sculptured danse macabre. There was a celebrated fresco of
the subject in the cloister of Old St Paul's in London, and another
in the now destroyed Hungerford Chapel at Salisbury, of which
a single woodcut, " Death and the Gallant," alone remains.
Of the many engraved reproductions, the most celebrated is the
series drawn by Holbein. Here the long ring of connected
dancing couples is necessarily abandoned, and the Dance of
Death becomes rather a series of imagines mortis.

Concerning the origin of this allegory in painting and sculpture
there has been much dispute. It certainly seems to be as early
as the uth century, and has often been attributed to the over-
powering consciousness of the presence of death due to the Black
Death and the miseries of the Hundred Years' War. It has also
been attributed to a form of the Morality, a dramatic dialogue
between Death and his victims in every station of life, ending in a
dance off the stage (see Du Cange, Gloss., s.v. " Machabaeorum
chora"). The origin of the peculiar form the allegory has taken
has also been found, somewhat needlessly and remotely, in the
dancing skeletons on late Roman sarcophagi and mural paintings
at Cumae or Pompeii, and a false connexion has been traced with
the " Triumph of Death," attributed to Orcagna, in the Campo
Santo at Pisa.

The etymology of the word macabre is itself most obscure.
According to Gaston Paris (Romania, xxiv., 131; 1895) it first
occurs in life form macabre in Jean le Fevre's Respit de la mart
(1376), " Je lis de Macabre la danse," and he takes this accented
form to be the true one, and traces it in the name of the first
painter of the subject. The more usual explanation is based
on the Latin name, Machabaeorum chora. The seven tortured
brothers, with their mother and Eleazar (2 Mace, vi., vii.) were

prominent figures on this hypothesis in the supposed dramatic
dialogues. Other connexions have been suggested, as for example
with St Macarius, or Macaire, the hermit, who, according to
Vasari, is to be identified with the figure pointing to the decaying
corpses in the Pisan "Triumph of Death," or with an Arabic
word magbarah, " cemetery."

See Peignot, Recherckes sur les danses des marts (1826); Douce,
Dissertation on the Dance of Death (1833); Massmann, Lilteratur der
Tolentdnze (1840); J. Charlier de Gerson, La Danse macabre des
Sles Innocents de Paris (1874); .Seelmann, Die Totentdnze des
Mittelalters (1893).

McADAM, JOHN LOUDON (1756-1836), Scottish inventor,
who gave his name to the system of road-making known as
" macadamizing," was born at Ayr, Scotland, on the 2ist of
September 1756, being descended on his father's side from the
clan of the McGregors. While at school he constructed a model
road-section. In 1770 he went to New York, entering the
counting-house of a merchant uncle. He returned to Scotland
with a considerable fortune in 1783, and purchased an estate at
Sauhrie, Ayrshire. Among other public offices he held that of
road trustee. The highways of Great Britain were at this time
in a very bad condition, and McAdam at once began to consider
how to effect reforms. At his own expense he began at Sauhrie,
despite much opposition, a series of experiments in road-making.
In 1798 he removed to Falmouth, where he had received a
government appointment, and continued his experiments there.
His general conclusion was that roads should be constructed of
broken stone (see ROADS). In 1815, having been appointed
surveyor-general of the Bristol roads, he. was able to put his
theories into practice. In 1819 he published a Practical Essay
on the Scientific Repair and Preservation of Roads, followed, in
1820, by the Present State of Road-making. As the result of a
parliamentary inquiry in 1823 into the whole question of road-
making, his views were adopted by the public authorities, and
in 1827 he was appointed general surveyor of roads. In pur-
suing his investigations he had travelled over thirty thousand
miles of road and expended over £5000. Parliament recouped
him for his expenses and gave him a handsome gratuity, but he
declined a proffered knighthood. He died at Moffat, Dumfries-
shire, on the 26th of November 1836.

MACAIRE, a French chanson de geste. Macaire (i 2th century)
and La reine Sibille (uth century) are two versions of the story
of the false accusation brought against the queen of Charlemagne ,
called Blanchefleur in Macaire and Sibille in the later poem.
Macaire is only preserved in the Franco- Venetian geste of Charle-
magne (Bibl. St Mark MS. fr. xiii.). La Reine Sibille only exists
in fragments, but the tale is given in the chronicle of Alberic
Trium Fontium and in a prose version. Macaire is the product
of the fusion of two legends: that of the unjustly repudiated
wife and that of the dog who detects the murderer of his master.
For the former motive see GENEVIEVE OF BRABANT. The
second is found in Plutarch, Script, moral., ed. Didot ii. (1186),
where a dog, like Aubri's hound, stayed three days without
food by the body of its master, and subsequently attacked the
murderers, thus leading to their discovery. The duel between
Macaire and the dog is paralleled by an interpolation by Giraldus
CambrensisinaMS.oftheflezammwof Saint Ambrose. Aubri's
hound received the name of the " dog of Montargis," because a
representation of the story was painted on a chimney-piece in
the chateau of Montargis in the isth century. The tale was
early divorced from Carolingian tradition, and Jean de la Taille,
in his Discours notable des duels (Paris, 1607), places the incident
under Charles V.

See Macaire (Paris, 1866), ed. Guessard in the series of Anc.
poetesdelaFrance;P. Paris in Hist. lilt, de la France, vol. xxm. (1873);
L Gautier, Epopees franc.aises, vol. iii. (2nd ed., 1880) ; G. Pans, Hist,
poet, de Charlemagne (1865): M. J. G. Isola, Storie nerbonest, vol. i.
(Bologna, 1877); F. Wolf, Uber die beiden . . . Volksbucher von der
K. Sibille u. Huon de Bordeaux (Vienna, 1857) and Uber dieneueslen
Leistungen der Franzosen (Vienna, 1833). The Dog of Montargis:
or, The Forest of Bondy, imitated from the play of G. de Pixerecourt,
was played at Covent Garden (Sept. 30, 1814). .

" Robert Macaire " was the name given to the modern villain
in the Auberge des Adrets (1823), a melodrama in which Fr&ienck

McALESTER— MACAO

191

Lemaitre made his reputation. The type was sensibly modified in
Robert Macaire (1834), a sequel written by Lemaitre in collaboration
with Benjamin Antier, and well-known on the English stage as
Macaire. R. L. Stevenson and W. E. Henley used the same type in
their play Macaire.

McALESTER, a city and the county-seat of Pittsburg county,
Oklahoma, about no m. E.S.E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900),
3479; (1907) 8144 (1681 negroes and 105 Indians); (1910)
12,954. McAlester is served by the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways and is an
important railway junction; it is connected with theneighbouring
mining district by an electric line. There are undeveloped iron
deposits and rich coal-mines in the surrounding country, and
coke-making is the principal manufacturing industry of the
city. There is a fine Scottish Rite Masons' consistory and temple
in McAlester. The city owns its waterworks. The vicinity
was first settled in 1885. The city of South McAlester was
incorporated in 1899, and in 1906 it annexed the town of
McAlester and adopted its name.

MACALPINE (or MACCABEUS), JOHN (d. 1557), Protestant
theologian, was born in Scotland about the beginning of the
1 6th century, and graduated at some Scottish university. From
1532 to 1534 he was prior of the Dominican convent of Perth;
but having in the latter year been summoned with Alexander
Ales (q.v.) and others to answer for heresy before the bishop
of Ross, he fled to England, where he was granted letters of
denization on the 7th of April 1537, and married Agnes Macheson,
a fellow-exile for religion; her sister Elizabeth became the wife
of Miles Coverdale. The reaction of 1539 made England a
doubtful refuge, and on the 25th of November 1540 Macalpine
matriculated at the university of Wittenberg. He had already
graduated B.A. at Cologne, and in 1542 proceeded to his doctorate
at Wittenberg. In that year, being now known as Maccabeus,
he accepted Christian III.'s offer of the chair of theology at the
university of Copenhagen, which had been endowed out of the
spoils of the Church. Melanchthon spoke well of Macalpine, and
with Peter Plade (Palladius), who had also studied at Wittenberg,
Macalpine took a prominent part in building up the Lutheran
Church of Denmark. A joint exposure by Plade and Macalpine
of Osiander's errors was published in 1552 and reprinted at
Leipzig and Copenhagen in 1768; and Macalpine was one of the
four translators of Luther's German Bible into Danish. He
also encouraged Sir David Lindsay, who visited him in 1548, to
publish his Monarchic, and persuaded Christian III. to inter-
cede with Queen Mary Tudor on behalf of Coverdale and
invite him to Denmark. Macalpine died at Copenhagen on
the 6th of December 1557.

See Diet. Nat. Biog. and authorities there cited ; Corpus reforma-
torum, iii. (1066), iv. 771, 793; Foerstemann, Album academiae
vitebergensis (1841), p. 186, and Liber decanorum (1838), p. 32;
Rockwell, Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp (1904), pp. 114-
116; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (1537), :. 1103 (12); (1542),
pp. 46,218. (A. F. P.)

MACAO (A-Ma-ngao, "Harbour of the goddess A-Ma";
Port. Macau), a Portuguese settlement on the coast of China, in
22° N., 132° E. Pop. (1896), Chinese, 74,568; Portuguese, 3898;
other nationalities, 161 — total, 78,627. It consists of a tongue of
land 2| m. in length and less than i m. in breadth, running
S.S.W. from the island of Hiang Shang (Port. An$am) on the
western side of the estuary of the Canton River. Bold and rocky
hills about 300 ft. high occupy both extremities of the peninsula,
the picturesque city, with its flat-roofed houses painted blue,
green and red, lying in the undulating ground between. The
forts are effective additions to the general view, but do not add
much to the strength of the place. Along the east side of the
peninsula runs the Praya Grande, or Great Quay, the chief
promenade in Macao, on which stand the governor's palace,
the administrative offices, the consulates and the leading
commercial establishments. The church of St Paul (1594-1602),
the seat of the Jesuit college in the I7th century, was destroyed
by fire in 1835. The Hospital da Misericordia (1569) was rebuilt
in 1640. The Camoens grotto, where the exiled poet found
leisure to celebrate the achievements of his ungrateful country,

lies in a secluded spot to the north of the town, which has been
partly left in its native wildness strewn with huge granite
boulders and partly transformed into a fine botanical garden.
During the south-west (summer) monsoon great quantities
(67 in.) of rain fall, especially in July and August. The mean
temperature is 74-3° F.; in July, the hottest month, the
temperature is 84-2°; in February, the coldest, it is 59°. On
the whole the climate is moist. Hurricanes are frequent. Of
the Portuguese inhabitants more than three-fourths are natives
of Macao — a race very inferior in point of physique to their
European ancestors. Macao is connected with Hong-Kong by
a daily steamer. Being open to the south-west sea breezes, it
is a favourite place of resort from the oppressive heat of Hong-
Kong. It is ruled by a governor, and, along with Timor (East
Indies), constitutes a bishopric, to which belong also the
Portuguese Christians in Malacca and Singapore. Though
most of the land is under garden cultivation, the mass of the
people is dependent more or less directly on mercantile pursuits;
for, while the exclusive policy both of Chinese and Portuguese
which prevented Macao becoming a free port till 1845-1846
allowed what was once the great emporium of European
commerce in eastern Asia to be outstripped by its younger and
more liberal rivals, the local, though not the foreign, trade of
the place is still of very considerable extent. Since the middle
of the I9th century, indeed, much of it has run in the most
questionable channels; the nefarious coolie traffic gradually
increased in extent and in cruelty from about 1848 till it was
prohibited in 1874, and much of the actual trade is more or less
of the nature of smuggling. The commodities otherwise mostly
dealt in are opium, tea, rice, oil, raw cotton, fish and silk.
The total value of exports and imports was in 1876-1877 upwards
of £1,536,000. In 1880 it had increased to £2,259,250, and in
1898 to £3,771,615. Commercial intercourse is most intimate
with Hong-Kong, Canton, Batavia and Goa. The preparation
and packing of tea is the principal industry in the town. In
fishing a large number of boats and men are employed.

In 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to erect factories on
the peninsula, and in 1573 the Chinese built across the isthmus
the wall which still cuts off the barbarian from the rest of the
island. Jesuit missionaries established themselves on the spot ;
and in 1580 Gregory XIII. constituted a bishopric of Macao.
A senate was organized in 1583, and in 1628 Jeronimo de Silveira
became first royal governor of Macao. Still the Portuguese
remained largely under the control of the Chinese, who had
never surrendered their territorial rights and maintained their
authority by means of mandarins — these insisting that even
European criminals should be placed in their hands. Ferreira
do Amaral, the Portuguese governor, put an end to this state of
things in 1849, and left the Chinese officials no more authority
in the peninsula than the representatives of other foreign
nations; and, though his antagonists procured his assassination
(Aug. 22), his successors succeeded in carrying out his policy.

Although Macao is de facto a colonial possession of Portugal,
the Chinese government persistently refused to recognize the
claim of the Portuguese to territorial rights, alleging that they
were merely lessees or tenants at will, and until 1849 the Portu-
guese paid to the Chinese an annual rent of £71 per annum.
This diplomatic difficulty prevented the conclusion of a commer-
cial treaty between China and Portugal for a long time, but an
arrangement for a treaty was come to in 1887 on the following
basis: (i) China confirmed perpetual occupation and govern-
ment of Macao and its dependencies by Portugal; (2) Portugal
engaged never to alienate Macao and its dependencies without
the consent of China; (3) Portugal engaged to co-operate in
opium revenue work at Macao in the same way as Great
Britain at Hong-Kong. The formal treaty was signed in the
same year, and arrangements were made whereby the Chinese
imperial customs were able to collect duties on vessels trading
with Macao in the same way as they had already arranged for
their collection at the British colony of Hong-Kong. For a
short time in 1802, and again in 1808, Macao was occupied by
the English as a precaution against seizure by the French.

192

MACAQUE— MACARSC A

MACAQUE, a name of French origin denoting the monkeys
of the mainly Asiatic genus Macacus, of which one species, the
Barbary ape, inhabits North Africa and the rock of Gibraltar.
Displaying great variability in the length of the tail, which is
reduced to a mere tubercle in the Barbary ape, alone representing
the subgenus Inuus, macaques are heavily-built monkeys, with
longer muzzles than their compatriots the langurs (see PRIMATES),
and large naked callosities on the buttocks. They range all
over India and Ceylon, thence northward to Tibet, and east-
wards to China, Japan, Formosa, Borneo, Sumatra and Java;
while by some naturalists the black ape of Celebes (Cynopilhecus
niger) is included in the same genus. Mention of some of the
more important species, typifying distinct sub-generic groups,
made in the article PRIMATES. Like most other monkeys,
macaques go about in large troops, each headed by an old
male. They feed on seeds, fruits, insects, lizards, &c. ; and while
some of the species are largely terrestrial, the Barbary ape is
wholly so. Docile and easily tamed when young, old males of
many of the species become exceedingly morose and savage in
captivity. (R. L.*)

MACARONI (from dialectic Ital. maccare, to bruise or crush),
a preparation of a glutinous wheat originally peculiar to Italy,
where it is an article of food of national importance. The same
substance in different forms is also known as vermicelli, pasta or
Italian pastes, spaghetti, taglioni, fanti, &c. These substances
are prepared from the hard, semi-translucent varieties of wheat
which are largely cultivated in the south of Europe, Algeria and
other warm regions, and distinguished by the Italians as grano
duro or grano da semolina. These wheats are much richer in
gluten and other nitrogenous compounds than the soft or tender
wheats of more northern regions, and their preparations are
more easily preserved. The various preparations are met with
as fine thin threads (vermicelli), thin sticks and pipes (spaghetti,
macaroni), small lozenges, stars, disks, ellipses, &c. (pastes).
These various forms are prepared in a uniform manner from a
granular product of hard wheat, which, under the name of
semolina or middlings, is a commercial article. The semolina
is thoroughly mixed with boiling water and incorporated
in a kneading machine, such as is used in bakeries, into a stiff
paste or dough. It is then further kneaded by passing frequently
between rollers or under edge runners, till a homogeneous mass
has been produced which is placed in a strong steam-jacketed
cylinder, the lower end of which is closed with a thick disk
pierced with openings corresponding with the diameter or section
of the article to be made. Into this cylinder an accurately
fitting plunger or piston is introduced and subjected to very
great pressure, which causes the stiff dough to squeeze out through
the openings in the disk in continuous threads, sticks or pipes,
as the case may be. Vermicelli is cut off in short bundles and
laid on trays to dry, while macaroni is dried by hanging it in
longer lengths over wooden rods in stoves or heated apartments
through which currents of air are driven. It is only genuine
macaroni, rich in gluten, which can be dried in this manner;
spurious fabrications will not bear their own weight, and must,
therefore, be laid out flat to be dried. In making pastes the
cylinder is closed with a disk pierced with holes having the sec-
tional form of the pastes, and a set of knives revolving close against
the external surface of the disk cut off the paste in thin sections
as it exudes from each opening. True macaroni can be dis-
tinguished by observing the flattened mark of the rod over
which it has been dried within the bend of the tubes; it has a soft
yellowish colour, is rough in texture, elastic and hard, and
breaks with a smooth glassy fracture. In boiling it swells up to
double its original size without becoming pasty or adhesive. It
can be kept any length of time without alteration or deteriora-
tion; and it is on that account, in many circumstances, a most
convenient as well as a highly nutritious and healthful article of
food.

MACARONICS, a species of burlesque poetry, hi which words
from a modern vernacular, with Latin endings, are introduced
into Latin verse, so as to produce a ridiculous effect. Sometimes
Greek is used instead of Latin. Tisi degli Odassi issued a Carmen

macaronicum de Patavinis in 1490. The real founder of the
practice, however, was Teofilo Folengo (1491-1544), whose mock-
heroic Liber Macaronices appeared in 1517. Folengo (q.v.) was
a Benedictine monk, who escaped from his monastery and wan-
dered through Italy, living a dissolute life, and supporting
himself by his absurd verses, which he described as an attempt to
produce in h'terature something like macaroni, a gross, rude and
rustic mixture of flour, cheese and butter. He wrote under the
pseudonym of Merlinus Coccaius, and his poem is an elaborate
burlesque epic, in twenty-five books, or macaronea; it is an
extraordinary medley of chivalrous feats, ridiculous and squalid
adventures, and satirical allegory. Its'effect upon the mind of
Rabelais was so extraordinary that no examination of Pantagruel
can be complete without a reference to it (cf. Gargantua, i. 19).
It was immediately imitated in Italy by a number of minor
poets; and in France a writer whose real name was Antoine de la
Sable, but who called himself Antonius de Arena (d. 1544),
published at Avignon in 1573 a Meygra enlrepriza, which was
a burlesque account of Charles V.'s disastrous campaign in
Provence. Folengo in Italy and Arena in France are considered
as the macaronic classics. In the 1 7th century, Joannes Caecilius
Frey (1580-1631) published a Recitus iieritabilis, on a skirmish
between the vine-growers of Rueil and the bowmen of Paris.
Great popularity was achieved later still by an anonymous
macaronic, entitled Funestissimus trepassus Micheli Morini,
who died by falling off the branch of an elm-tree: —

De branche in brancham degringolat, et faciens pouf
Ex ormo cadit, et clunes obvertit Olympo.

Moliere employed macaronic verse in the ceremonial scene with
the doctors in Le Malade imaginaire. Works in macaronic
prose are rarer. An Anti-Clopinus by Antony Hotman may be
mentioned and the amusing Epistolae obscurorum virorum (1515).
Macaronic prose was not unknown as an artifice of serious
oratory, and abounds (e.g.) in the sermons of Michel Menot
(1440-1518), who says of the prodigal son, Emit sibi pvlcheras
caligas d'ecarlate, bien tirees.

The use of true macaronics has never been frequent in Great
Britain, where the only prominent example of it is the Polemo-
Middinia ascribed to William Drummond of Hawthornden.
This short epic was probably composed early in the i7th cen-
tury, but was not published until 1684. The Polemo-Middinia
follows the example set by Arena, and describes with burlesque
solemnity a quarrel between two villages on the Firth of Forth.
Drummond shows great ingenuity in the tacking on of Latin
terminations to his Lowland Scots vernacular: —

Lifeguardamque sibi saevas vocat improba lassas,
Maggaeam, magis doctam milkare cowaeas,
Et doctam sweepare flooras, et sternere beddas,
Quaeque novit spinnare, et longas ducere threedas.

There is a certain macaronic character about many poems of
Skelton and Dunbar, as well as the famous Barnabae ilinerarium
(1638) of Richard Brathwait (1588-1673), but these cannot be
considered legitimate specimens of the type as laid down by
Folengo.

See Ch. Nodier, Du Langage factice appete macaronique (1834) ;
Genthe, Histoire de la poesie macaronique (1831). « (E. G.)

MACARSC A (Serbo-Croatian, Makarska), the chief town of
an administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria; situated oppo-
site to the island of Brazza, about 32m. S.E. of Spalato. Pop.
(1900), of town 1805; of commune, 11,016, chiefly Serbo-Croa-
tian. Macarsca is a port of call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers,
and has a brisk trade in wine, grain and fruit. Under the name
of Mocrum, Macarsca was a thriving Roman city, and a bishopric
until 639, when it was destroyed by the Avars. In the loth
century it is mentioned 'by Constantine Porphyrogenitus as a
city of the pagan Narentines. Its bishopric was revived in
1320, but the bishops resided at Almissa. In 1481 the city was
purchased from the duke of Herzegovina by Venice; in 1499
it was conquered by the Turks; and in 1646, after a successful
revolt, it again welcomed the sovereignty of Venice. The see
of Macarsca was merged in that of Spalato in 1830.

MACARTNEY— MACAULAY

193

MACARTNEY, GEORGE MACARTNEY, EARL (1737-1806),
was descended from an old Scottish family, the Macartneys of
Aiuhinleck, who had settled in 1649 at Lissanoure, Antrim,
Ireland, where he was born on the i4th of May 1737. After
graduating at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1759, he became a
student of the Temple, London. Through Stephen Fox, elder
brother of C. J. Fox, he was taken up by Lord Holland.
Appointed envoy extraordinary to Russia in 1764, he succeeded
in negotiating an alliance between England and that country.
After occupying a seat in the English parliament, he was in
1769 returned for Antrim in the Irish parliament, in order to
discharge the duties of chief secretary for Ireland. On resigning
this office he was knighted. In 1775 he became governor of
the Caribbee Islands (being created an Irish baron in 1776),
and in 1780 governor of Madras, but he declined the governor-
generalship of India, and returned to England in 1786. After
being created Earl Macartney in the Irish peerage (1792), he
was appointed the first envoy of Britain to China. On his
return from a confidential mission to Italy (1795) he was raised
to the English peerage as a baron in 1796, and in the end of the
same year was appointed governor of the newly acquired terri-
tory of the Cape of Good Hope, where he remained till ill health
compelled him to resign in November 1798. He diedat Chiswick,
Middlesex, on the 3ist of May 1806, the title becoming extinct,
and his property, after the death of his widow (daughter of the
3rd earl of Bute), going to his niece, whose son took the name.

An account of Macartney's embassy to China, by Sir George
Staunton, was published in 1797, and has been frequently reprinted.
The Life and Writings of Lord Macartney, by Sir John Barrow,
appeared in 1807. See Mrs Helen Macartney Robbins's biography,
The First English Ambassador to China (1908), based on previously
unpublished materials in possession of the family.

MACASSAR (MAKASSAR, MANGKASAR), the capital of a district
of the same name in the island of Celebes, Dutch East Indies,
and the chief town of the Dutch government of Celebes. Pop.
17,925 (940 Europeans, 2618 Chinese, 168 Arabs). It stands on
the west coast of the southern peninsula of the island, near the
southern extremity of the Macassar Strait, which separates
Celebes from Borneo. Macassar consists of the Dutch town and
port, known as Vlaardingen, and the Malay town which lies
inland. Macassar's trade amounts to about £i,25o,oooannually,
and consists mainly of coffee, trepang, copra, gums, spices and
valuable timber.

For the Macassar people and for the Strait, see CELEBES. " Macas-
sar oil " is a trade name, not geographical : see ANTIMACASSAR.

MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON
(1800-1859), English historian, essayist and politician, was born
at Rothley Temple, Leicestershire, on the zsth of October 1800.
His father, Zachary Macaulay (1768-1838), had been governor
of Sierra Leone, and was in 1800 secretary to the chartered com-
pany which had founded that colony; an ardent philanthropist,
he did much to secure the abolition of the slave trade, and he
edited the abolitionist organ, the Christian Observer, for many
years. Happy in his home, the son at a very early age gave
proof of a determined bent towards literature. Before he was
eight years of age he had written a Compendium of Universal
History, which gave a tolerably connected view of the leading
events from the creation to 1800, and a romance in the style of
Scott, in three cantos, called The Battle of Cheviot. A little
later he composed a long poem on the history of Olaus Magnus,
and a vast pile of blank verse entitled Fingal, a Poem in Twelve
Books. After being at a private school, in October 1818 young
Macaulay went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he after-
wards became a fellow. He gained in 1824 a college prize for
an essay on the character of William III. He also won a prize
for Latin declamation and a Craven scholarship, and wrote the
prize poems of 1819 and 1821.

In 1826 Macaulay was called to the bar and joined the northern
circuit. But he soon gave up even the pretence of reading law,
and spent many more hours under the gallery of the house of
commons than in the court. His first attempt at a public
speech, made at an anti-slavery meeting in 1824, was described
by the Edinburgh Review as " a display of eloquence of rare
xvn. 7

and matured excellence." His first considerable appearance
in print was in No. i of Knight's Quarterly Magazine, a
periodical which enjoyed a short but brilliant existence, and
which was largely supported by Eton and Cambridge. In
August 1825 began Macaulay's connexion with the periodical
which was to prove the field of his literary reputation. The
Edinburgh Review was at this time at the height of its power,
not only as an organ of the growing opinion which leant towards
reform, but as a literary tribunal from which there was no
appeal. His essay on Milton (Aug. 1825), so crude that the
author afterwards said that " it contained scarcely a paragraph
such as his matured judgment approved," created for him at
once a literary reputation which suffered no diminution to the
last, a reputation which he established and confirmed, but
which it would have been hardly possible to make more
conspicuous. The publisher John Murray declared that it
would be worth the copyright of Childe Harold to have Macaulay
on the staff of the Quarterly Review; and Robert Hall, the
orator, writhing with pain, and wellnigh worn out with disease,
was discovered lying on the floor employed in learning by aid
of grammar and dictionary enough Italian to enable him to
verify the parallel between Milton and Dante.

This sudden blaze of popularity, kindled by a single essay,
is partly to be explained by the dearth of literary criticism in
England at that epoch. For, though a higher note had already
been sounded by Hazlitt and Coleridge, it had not yet taken hold
of the public mind, which was still satisfied with the feeble
appreciations of the Retrospective Review, or the dashing and
damnatory improvisation of Wilson in Blackwood or Jeffrey in
the Edinburgh. Still, allowance being made for the barbarous
partisanship of the established critical tribunals of the period,
it seems surprising that a social success so signal should have been
the consequence of a single article. The explanation is that the
writer of the article on Milton was, unlike most authors, also a
brilliant conversationalist. There has never been a period when
an amusing talker has not been in great demand at London
tables; but when Macaulay made his d6but witty conversation
was studied and cultivated as it has ceased to be in the more
busy age which has succeeded. At the university Macaulay
had been recognized as pre-eminent for inexhaustible talk and
genial companionship among a circle of such brilliant young men
as Charles Austin, Romilly, Praed and Villiers. He now dis-
played these gifts on a wider theatre. Launched on the best
that London had to give in the way of society, Macaulay accepted
and enjoyed with all the zest of youth and a vigorous nature the
opportunities opened for him. He was courted and admired by
the most distinguished personages of the day. He was admitted
at Holland House, where Lady Holland listened to him with
deference, and scolded him with a circumspection which was in
itself a compliment. Samuel Rogers spoke of him with friend-
liness and to him with affection. He was treated with almost
fatherly kindness by " Conversation " Sharp.

Thus distinguished, and justifiably conscious of his great
powers, Macaulay began to aspire to a political career. But
the shadow of pecuniary trouble early began to fall upon his
path. When he went to college his father believed himself to
be worth £100,000. But commercial disaster overtook the house
of Babington & Macaulay, and the son now saw himself com-
pelled to work for his livelihood. His Trinity fellowship of £300
a year became of great consequence to him, but it expired in
1831; he could make at most £200 a year by writing; and a
commissionership of bankruptcy, which was given him by Lord
Lyndhurst in 1828, and which brought him in about £400 a year,
was swept away, without compensation, by the ministry which
came into power in 1830. Macaulay was reduced to such straits
that he had to sell his Cambridge gold medal.

In February 1830 the doors of the House of Commons were
opened to him through what was then called a " pocket borough."
Lord Lansdowne, who had been struck by two articles on James
Mill and the Utilitarians, which appeared in the Edinburgh
Review in 1829, offered the author the seat at Calne. The offer
was accompanied by the express assurance that the patron

194-

MACAULAY

had no wish to interfere with Macaulay's freedom of voting. He
thus entered parliament at one of the most exciting moments of
English domestic history, when the compact phalanx of reac-
tionary administration which for nearly fifty years had com-
manded a crushing majority in the Commons was on the point
of being broken by the growing strength of the party of reform.
Macaulay made his maiden speech on the .5th of April 1830, on
the second reading of the Bill for the Removal of Jewish Disabili-
ties. In July the king died and parliament was dissolved; the
revolution took place in Paris. Macaulay, who was again
returned for Calne, visited Paris, eagerly enjoying a first taste
of foreign travel. On the ist of March 1831 the Reform Bill
was introduced, and on the second night of the debate Macaulay
made the first of his reform speeches. It was, like all his speeches,
a success. Sir Robert Peel said of it that " portions were as
beautiful as anything I have ever heard or read."

Encouraged by this first success, Macaulay now threw himself
with ardour into the life of the House of Commons, while at the
same time he continued to enjoy to the full the social opportuni-
ties which his literary and political celebrity had placed within
his reach. He dined out almost nightly, and spent many of his
Sundays at the suburban villas of the Whig leaders, while he
continued to supply the Edinburgh Review with articles. On the
triumph of Earl Grey's cabinet, and the passing of the Reform
Act in June 1832, Macaulay, whose eloquence had signalized
every stage of the conflict, became one of the commissioners of
the board of control, and applied himself to the study of Indian
affairs. Giving his days to India and his nights to the House of
Commons, he could only devote a few hours to literary composi-
tion by rising at five when the business of the house had allowed
of his getting to bed in time on the previous evening. Between
September 1831 and December 1833 he furnished the Review
with eight important articles, besides writing his ballad on the
Armada.

In the first Reform Parliament, January 1833, Macaulay took
his seat as one of the two members for Leeds, which up to that
date had been unrepresented in the House of Commons. He
replied to O'Connell in the debate on the address, meeting the
great agitator face to face, with high, but not intemperate,
defiance. In July he defended the Government of India Bill
in a speech of great power, and he was instrumental in getting
the bill through committee without unnecessary friction. When
the abolition of slavery came before the house as a practical
question, Macaulay had the prospect of having to surrender
office or to vote for a modified abolition, viz. twelve years'
apprenticeship, which was proposed by the ministry, but con-
demned by the abolitionists. He was prepared to make the
sacrifice of place rather than be unfaithful to the cause to which
his father had devoted his life. He placed his resignation in
Lord Althorp's hands, and spoke against the ministerial proposal.
But the sense of the house was so strongly expressed as unfavour-
able that, finding they would be beaten if they persisted, the
ministry gave way, and reduced apprenticeship to seven years,
a compromise which the abolition party accepted; and Macaulay
remained at the board of control.

While he was thus growing in reputation, and advancing his
public credit, the fortunes of the family were sinking, and it
became evident that his sisters would have no provision except
such as their brother might be enabled to make for them.
Macaulay had but two sources of income, both of them precari-
ous— office and his pen. As to office, the Whigs could not have
expected at that time to retain power for a whole 'generation;
and, even while they did so, Macaulay's resolution that he would
always give an independent vote made it possible that he might
at any moment find himself in disagreement with his colleagues,
and have to quit his place. As to literature, he wrote to Lord
Lansdowne (1833), "it has been hitherto merely my relaxation;
I have never considered it as the means of support. I have
chosen my own topics, taken my own time, and dictated my own
terms. The thought of becoming a bookseller's hack, of spurring
a jaded fancy to reluctant exertion, of filling sheets with trash
merely that sheets may be filled, of bearing from publishers

and editors what Dryden bore from Tonson and what Mackintosh
bore from Lardner, is horrible to me." Macaulay was thus
prepared to accept the offer of a seat in the supreme council of
India, created by the new India Act. The salary of the office
was fixed at £10,000, out of which he calculated to be able to
save £30,000 in five years. His sister Hannah accepted his
proposal to accompany him, and in February 1834 the brother
and sister sailed for Calcutta.

Macaulay's appointment to India occurred at the critical
moment when the government of the company was being
superseded by government by the Crown. His knowledge of
India was, when he landed, but superficial. But at this juncture
there was more need of statesmanship directed by general
liberal principles than of a practical knowledge of the details
of Indian administration. Macaulay's presence in the council
was of great value; his minutes are models of good judgment
and practical sagacity. The part he took in India has been
described as " the application of sound liberal principles to a
government which had till then been jealous, close and repres-
sive." He vindicated the liberty of the press; he maintained the
equality of Europeans and natives before the law; and as presi-
dent of the committee of public instruction he inaugurated the
system of national education.

A clause in the India Act 1833 occasioned the appointment of
a commission to inquire into the jurisprudence of the Eastern
dependency. Macaulay was appointed president of that com-
mission. The draft of a penal code which he submitted became,
after a revision of many years, and by the labour of many
experienced lawyers, the Indian criminal code. Of this code
Sir James Stephen said that " it reproduces in a concise and even
beautiful form the spirit of the law of England, in a compass
which by comparison with the original may be regarded as almost
absurdly small. The Indian penal code is to the English criminal
law what a manufactured article ready for use is to the materials
out of which it is made. It is to the French code penal, and to
the German code of 1871, what a finished picture is to a sketch.
It is simpler and better expressed than Livingston's code for
Louisiana; and its practical success has been complete."

Macaulay's enlightened views and measures drew down on
him, however, the abuse and ill-will of Anglo-Indian society.
Fortunately for himself he was enabled to maintain a tranquil
indifference to political detraction by withdrawing his thoughts
into a sphere remote from the opposition and enmity by which
he was surrounded. Even amid the excitement of his early
parliamentary successes literature had balanced politics in his
thoughts and interests. Now in his exile he began to feel more
strongly each year the attraction of European letters and Euro-
pean history. He wrote to his friend Ellis: " I have gone back
to Greek literature with a passion astonishing to myself. I have
never felt anything like it. I was enraptured with Italian
during the six months which I gave up to it; and I was little less
pleased with Spanish. But when I went back to the Greek I
felt as if I had never known before what intellectual enjoyment
was." In thirteen months he read through, some of them twice,
a large part of the Greek and Latin classics. The fascination
of these studies produced their inevitable effect upon his view
of political life. He began to wonder what strange infatuation
leads men who can do something better to squander their intel-
lect, their health and energy, on such subjects as those which most
statesmen are engaged in pursuing. He was already, he says,
" more than half determined to abandon politics and give myself
wholly to letters, to undertake some great historical work, which
may be at once the business and the amusement of my life, and
to leave the pleasures of pestiferous rooms, sleepless nights, and
diseased stomachs to Roebuck and to Praed."

In 1838 Macaulay and his sister Hannah, who had married
Charles Trevelyan in 1834, returned to England. He at once
entered parliament as member for Edinburgh. In 1839 he
became secretary at war, with a seat in the cabinet in Lord Mel-
bourne's ministry. His acceptance of office diverted him for a
time from prosecuting the plan he had already formed of a great
historical work. But in less than two years the Melbourne

MACAULAY

ministry fell. In 1842 appeared his Lays of Ancient Rome, and
in the next year he collected and published his Essays. He
returned to office in 1846, in Lord John Russell's administration,
as paymaster-general. His duties were very light, and the con-
tact with official life and the obligations of parliamentary attend-
ance were even of benefit to him while he was engaged upon
his History. In the sessionsof 1846- 1847 he spoke only five times,
and at the general election of July 1847 he lost his seat for Edin-
burgh. The balance of Macaulay's faculties had now passed
to the side of literature. At an earlier date he had relished
crowds and the excitement of ever new faces; as years went
forward, and absorption in the work of composition took off the
edge of his spirits, he recoiled from publicity. He began to
regard the prospect of business as worry, and had no longer the
nerve to brace himself to the social efforts required of one who
represents a large constituency.

Macaulay retired into private life, not only without regret,
but with a sense of relief. He gradually withdrew from general
society, feeling the bore of big dinners and country-house visits,
but he still enjoyed close and constant intercourse with a circle
of the most eminent men that London then contained. At that
time social breakfasts were in vogue. Macaulay himself pre-
ferred this to any other form of entertainment. Of these brilliant
reunions nothing has been preserved beyond the names of the
men who formed them — Rogers, Hallam, Sydney Smith, Lord
Carlisle, Lord Stanhope, Nassau Senior, Charles Greville, Milman,
Panizzi, G. C. Lewis, Van de Weyer. His biographer thus
describes Macaulay's appearance and bearing in conversation:
" Sitting bolt upright, his hands resting on the arms of his chair,
or folded over the handle of his walking-stick, knitting his eye-
brows if the subject was one which had to be thought out as he
went along, or brightening from the forehead downwards when
a burst of humour was coming, his massive features and honest
glance suited well with the manly sagacious sentiments which he
set forth in his sonorous voice and in his racy and intelligible
language. To get at his meaning people had never the need to
think twice, and they certainly had seldom the time."

But, great as was his enjoyment of literary society and books,
they only formed his recreation. In these years he was working
with unflagging industry at the composition of his History.
His composition was slow, his corrections both of matter and
style endless; he spared no pains to ascertain the facts. He
sacrificed to the prosecution of his task a political career, House
of Commons fame, the allurements of society. The first two
volumes of the History of England appeared in December 1848.
The success was in every way complete beyond expectation.
The sale of edition after edition, both in England and the United
States, was enormous.

In 1852, when his party returned to office, he refused a seat
in the cabinet, but he could not bring himself to decline the com-
pliment of a voluntary amende which the city of Edinburgh
paid him in returning him at the head of the poll at the general
election in July of that year. He had hardly accepted the
summons to return to parliamentary life before fatal weakness
betrayed itself in deranged action of the heart; from this time
forward till his death his strength continued steadily to sink.
The process carried with it dejection of spirits as its inevitable
attendant. The thought oppressed him that the great work
to which he had devoted himself would remain a fragment.
Once again, in June 1853, he spoke in parliament, and with
effect, against the exclusion of the master of the rolls from the
House of Commons, and at a later date in defence of competition
for the Indian civil service. But he was aware that it was a
grievous waste of his small stock of force, and that he made
these efforts at the cost of more valuable work.

In November 1855 vols. iii. and iv. of the History appeared
and obtained a vast circulation. Within a generation of its
first appearance upwards of 140,000 copies of the History were
printed and sold in the United Kingdom alone; and in the
United States the sales were on a correspondingly large scale.
The History was translated into German, Polish, Danish, Swedish,
Hungarian, Russian, Bohemian, Italian, French, Dutch and

Spanish. Flattering marks of respect were heaped upon the
author by foreign academies. His pecuniary profits were (for
that time) on a scale commensurate with the reputation of the
book: the cheque he received for £20,000 has become a landmark
in literary history.

In May 1856 he quitted the Albany, in which he had passed
fifteen happy years, and went to live at Holly Lodge, Campden
Hill, then, before it was enlarged, a tiny bachelor's dwelling,
but with a lawn whose unbroken slope of verdure gave it the air
of a considerable country house. In the following year (1857)
he was raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Macaulay
of Rothley. " It was," says Lady Trevelyan, " one of the few
things that everybody approved; he enjoyed it himself, as he did
everything, simply and cordially." It was a novelty in English
life to see eminence which was neither that of territorial opulence
nor of political or military services recognized and rewarded by
elevation to the peerage.

But Macaulay's health, which had begun to give way in 1852,
was every year visibly failing. In May 1858 he went to Cam-
bridge for the purpose of being sworn in as high steward of the
borough, to which office he had been elected on the death of Earl
Fitzwilliam. When his health was given at a public breakfast
in the town-hall he was obliged to excuse himself from speaking.
In the upper house he never spoke. Absorbed in the prosecu-
tion of his historical work, he had grown indifferent to the party
politics of his own day. Gradually he had to acquiesce in the
conviction that, though his intellectual powers remained unim-
paired, his physical energies would not carry him through the
reign of Anne; and, though he brought down the narrative to the
death of William III., the last half-volume wants the finish and
completeness of the earlier portions. The winter of 1859 told
on him, and he died on the 28th of December. On the gth of
January 1860 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, in Poets'
Corner, near the statue of Addison.

Lord Macaulay never married. A man of warm domestic
affections, he found their satisfaction in the attachment and close
sympathy of his sister Hannah, the wife of Sir Charles Trevelyan.
Her children were to him as his own. Macaulay was a steadfast
friend, and no act inconsistent with the strictest honour and in-
tegrity was ever imputed to him. When a poor man, and when
salary was of consequence to him, he twice resigned office rather
than make compliances for which he would not have been
severely blamed. In 1847, when his seat in parliament was at
stake, he would not be persuaded to humour, to temporize, even
to conciliate. He had a keen relish for the good things of life,
and desired fortune as the means of obtaining them; but there
was nothing mercenary or selfish in his nature. When he had
raised himself to opulence, he gave away with an open hand,
not seldom rashly. His very last act was to write a letter to a
poor curate enclosing a cheque for £25. The purity of his morals
was not associated with any tendency to cant.

The lives of men of letters are often records of sorrow or
suffering. The life of Macaulay was eminently happy. Till the
closing years (1857-1859), he enjoyed life with the full zest of
healthy faculty, happy in social intercourse, happy in the solitude
of his study, and equally divided between the two. For the
last fifteen years of his life he lived for literature. His writings
were remunerative to him far beyond the ordinary measure, yet
he never wrote for money. He lived in his historical researches;
his whole heart and interest were unreservedly given to the men
and the times of whom he read and wrote. His command of
literature was imperial. Beginning with a good classical
foundation, he made himself familiar with the imaginative, and
then with the historical, remains of Greece and Rome. He went
on to add the literature of his own country, of France, of Italy,
of Spain. He learnt Dutch enough for the purposes of his his-
tory. He read German, but for the literature of the northern
nations he had no taste, and of the erudite labours of the
Germans he had little knowledge and formed an inadequate
estimate. The range of his survey of human things had other
limitations more considerable still. All philosophical speculation
was alien to his mind; nor did he seem aware of the degree in

196

MACAW

which such speculation had influenced the progress of humanity.
A large — the largest — part of ecclesiastical history lay outside
1iis historical view. Of art he confessed himself ignorant, and
even refused a request to furnish a critique on Swift's poetry to
the Edinburgh Review. Lessing's Laocoon, or Goethe's criticism
on Hamlet, " filled " him " with wonder and despair."

Of the marvellous discoveries of science which were succeeding
each other day by day he took no note; his pages contain no
reference to them. It has been told already how he recoiled
from the mathematical studies of his university. These de-
ductions made, the circuit of his knowledge still remains very
wide— as extensive perhaps as any human brain is competent
to embrace. His literary outfit was as complete as has ever been
possessed by any English writer; and, if it wants the illumination
of philosophy, it has an equivalent resource in a practical
acquaintance with affairs, with administration, with the interior
of cabinets, and the humour of popular assemblies. Nor
was the knowledge merely stored in his memory; it was always
at his command. Whatever his subject, he pours over it his
stream of illustration, drawn from the records of all ages and
countries. His Essays are not merely instructive as history;
they are, like Milton's blank verse, freighted with the spoils of
all the ages. As an historian Macaulay has not escaped the
charge of partisanship. He was a Whig; and in writing the
history of the rise and triumph of Whig principles in the latter
half of the iyth century he identified himself with the cause.
But the charge of partiality, as urged against Macaulay, means
more than that he wrote the history of the Whig revolution from
the point of view of those who made it. When he is describing
the merits of friends and the faults of enemies his pen knows
no moderation. He has a constant tendency to glaring colours,
to strong effects, and will always be striking violent blows. He
is not merely exuberant but excessive. There is an overweening
confidence about his tone; he expresses himself in trenchant
phrases, which are like challenges to an opponent to stand
up and deny them. His propositions have no qualifications.
Uninstructed readers like this assurance, as they like a physician
who has no doubt about their case. But a sense of distrust grows
upon the more circumspect reader as he follows page after page
of Macaulay's categorical affirmations about matters which our
own experience of life teaches us to be of a contingent nature.
We inevitably think of a saying attributed to Lord Melbourne:
" I wish I were as cocksure of any one thing as Macaulay is of
everything." Macaulay's was the mind of the advocate, not of
the philosopher; it was the mind of Bossuet, which admits no
doubts or reserves itself and tolerates none in others, and as such
was disqualified from that equitable balancing of evidence which
is the primary function of the historian.

Macaulay, the historian no less than the politician, is, however,
always on the side of justice, fairness for the weak against the
strong, the oppressed against the oppressor. But though a
Liberal in practical politics, he had not the reformer's tempera-
ment. The world as it is was good enough for him. The glories
of wealth, rank, honours, literary fame, the elements of vulgar
happiness, made up his ideal of life. A successful man himself,
every personage and every cause is judged by its success. " The
brilliant Macaulay," says Emerson, " who expresses the tone of
the English governing classes of the day, explicitly teaches that
' good ' means good to eat, good to wear, material commodity."
Macaulay is in accord with the average sentiment of orthodox
and stereotyped humanity on the relative values of the objects
and motives of human endeavour. And this commonplace
materialism is one of the secrets of his popularity, and one
of the qualities which guarantee that that popularity will be
enduring. (M. P.)

Macaulay's whole works were collected in 1866 by his sister, Lady
Trevelyan, in 8 vols. The first four volumes are occupied by the
History; the next three contain the Essays, and the Lives which
he contributed to the Encyclopaedia Britannica. In vol. viii. are
collected his Speeches, the Lays of Ancient Rome, and some mis-
cellaneous pieces. The " life " by Dean Milman, printed in vol. viii.
of the edition of 1858-1862, is prefixejl to the " People's Edition "
(4 vols., 1863-1864). Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co. published a

complete edition, the " Albany," in 12 vols., in 1898. There are
numerous editions of the Critical and Historical Essays, separately
and collectively; they were edited in 1903 by F. C. Montagu.

The Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay (2 vols., 1876), by his
nephew, Sir George Otto Trevelyan, is one of the best biographies
in the English language. The life (1882) in the " English Men of
Letters " series was written by J. Cotter Morison. For further
criticism, see Hepworth Dixon.in his Life of Penn (1841) ; John Paget,
The New Examen: Inquiry into Macaulay's History (1861) and
Paradoxes and Puzzles (1874); Walter Bagehot, in the National
Review (Jan. 1856), reprinted in his Literary Studies (1879); James
Spedding, Evenings with a Reviewer (1881), discussing his essay on
Bacon; SirL.Stephen, Hours in a Library, vol. ii. (1892) ; Lord Morley,
Critical Miscellanies (1877), vol. ii. ; Lord Avebury, Essays and
Addresses (1903) ; Thum, Anmerkungen zu Macaulay's History of
England (Heilbronn, 1882). A bibliography of German criticism
of Macaulay is given in G. Korting's Grd. der engl. Literatur (4th
ed., Miinster, 1905).

MACAW, or, as formerly spelt, MACCAW, the name given to
some fifteen or more species of large, long-tailed birds of the
parrot-family, natives of the neotropical region, and forming a
very well-known and easily recognized genus Ara, and to the
four species of Brazilian Hyacinthine macaws of the genera
Anodorhynchus and Cyanopsittacus. Most of the macaws are
remarkable for their gaudy plumage, which exhibits the brightest
scarlet, yellow, blue and green in varying proportion and often
in violent contrast, while a white visage often adds a very pecu-
liar and expressive character.1 With one exception the known
species of Ara inhabit the mainland of America from Paraguay
to Mexico, being especially abundant in Bolivia, where no fewer
than seven of them (or nearly one half) have been found (Proc.
Zool. Soc., 1879, p. 634). The single extra-continental species,
A . tricolor, is one of the most brilliantly coloured, and is peculiar
to Cuba, where, according to Gundlach (Ornitologia Cubana,
p. 126), its numbers are rapidly decreasing so that there is every
chance of its becoming extinct.2

Of the best known species of the group, the blue-and-yellow
macaw, A. ararauna, has an extensive range in South America
from Guiana in the east to Colombia in the west, and southwards
to Paraguay. Of large size, it is to be seen in almost every
zoological garden, and it is very frequently kept alive in
private houses, for its temper is pretty good, and it will become
strongly attached to those who tend it. Its richly coloured
plumage, sufficiently indicated by its common English name,
supplies feathers eagerly sought by salmon-fishers for the making
of artificial flies. The red-and-blue macaw, A. macao, is even
larger and more gorgeously clothed, for, besides the colours
expressed in its ordinary appellation, yellow and green enter into
its adornment. It inhabits Central as well as South America as
far as Bolivia, and is also a common bird in captivity, though
perhaps less often seen than the foregoing. The red-and-
yellow species, A. chloroptera, ranging from Panama to Brazil,
is smaller, or at least has a shorter tail, and is not quite so usually
met with in menageries. The red-and-green, A. militaris,
smaller again than the last, is not unfrequent in confinement,
and presents the colours of the name it bears. This has the
most northerly extension of habitat, occurring in Mexico and
thence southwards to Bolivia. In A. manilata and A. nobilis
the prevailing colour is green and blue. The Hyacinthine
macaws A. hyacinthinus, A. leari, A. glaucus and Cyanopsittacus
spixi are almost entirely blue.

The macaws live well in captivity, either chained to a perch
or kept in large aviaries in which their strong flight is noticeable.
The note of these birds is harsh and screaming. The sexes are

1 This serves to separate the macaws from the long-tailed para-
keets of the New World (Conurus), to which they are very nearly
allied.

8 There is some reason to think that Jamaica may have formerly
possessed a macaw (though no example is known to exist), and if so
it was most likely a peculiar species. Sloane (Voyage, ii. 297),
after describing what he calls the " great maccaw " (A. ararauna),
which he had seen in captivity in that island, mentions the " small
maccaw " as being very common in the woods there, and P. H.
Gosse (Birds of Jamaica, p. 260) gives, on the authority of Robin-
son, a local naturalist of the last century, the description of a bird
which cannot be reconciled with any species now known, though it
must have evidently been allied to the Cuban A . tricolor.

MACBETH— MACCABEES

197

alike; the lustreless white eggs are laid in hollow trees, usually
two at a time. The birds are gregarious but apparently
monogamous. (A. N.)

MACBETH, king of Scotland (d. 1058), was the son of Find-
laech, mormaer or hereditary ruler of Moreb (Moray and Ross),
who had been murdered by his nephews in 1020. He probably
became mormaer on the death of Malcolm, one of the murderers,
in 1029, and he may have been one of the chiefs (the Maclbaethe
of the Saxon Chronicle) who submitted to Canute in 1031.
Marianus records that in 1040 Duncan, the grandson and suc-
cessor of Malcolm king of Scotland, wasslain by Macbeth. Duncan
had shortly before suffered a severe defeat at the hands of
Thorfinn, the Norwegian earl of Orkney and Caithness, and it was
perhaps this event which tempted Macbeth to seize the throne.
As far as is known he had no claim to the crown except through
his wife Gruach, who appears to have been a member of the
royal family. Macbeth was apparently a generous benefactor
to the Church, and is said to have made a pilgrimage to Rome in
1050. According to S. Berchan his reign was a time of pro-
sperity for Scotland. The records of the period, however, are
extremely meagre, and much obscurity prevails, especially as
to his relations with the powerful earl Thorfinn. More than one
attempt was made by members of the Scottish royal family
to recover the throne; in 1045 by Crinan, the lay abbot of
Dunkeld, son-in-law of Malcolm II., and in 1054 by Duncan's
son Malcolm with the assistance of Siward the powerful earl of
Northumbria, himself a connexion of the ousted dynasty. Three
years later in 1057 Malcolm and Siward again invaded Scotland
and the campaign ended with the defeat and death of Macbeth,
who was slain at Lumphanan. Macbeth is, of course, chiefly
famous as the central figure of Shakespeare's great tragedy.

See W. F. Skene, Chronicles of the Picts and Scots (1867) and
Celtic Scotland (1876) ; Sir John Rhys, Celtic Britain (1904).

MACCABEES, the name (in the plural) of a distinguished
Jewish family dominant in Jerusalem in the 2nd century B.C.
According to i Mace. ii. 4, the name Maccabaeus (Gr. MaK/ca-
/3alos-? Heb.* "3i?9) was originally the distinctive surname of
Judas, third son of the Jewish priest Mattathias, who struck
the first blow for religious liberty during the persecution
under Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes). Subsequently, however, it
obtained a wider significance, having been applied first to
the kinsmen of Judas, then to his adherents, and ultimately
to all champions of religion in the Greek period. Thus
the mother of the seven brethren, whose martyrdom is
related in 2 Mace, vi., vii., is called by early Christian writers
" the mother of the Maccabees." The name is used still more
loosely in the titles of the so-called Third, Fourth and Fifth
Books of Maccabees. It is now customary to apply it only
to the sons and descendants of Mattathias. As, however,
according to Josephus (Ant. xii. 6. i), this brave priest's great-
great-grandfather was called gasman (i.e. " rich " = magnate;
cf. Ps. Ixviii. 31 [32]), the family is more correctly designated
by the name of Hasmonaeans or Asmoneans (?.».). This name
Jewish authors naturally prefer to that of Maccabees; they
also style i and 2 Mace. "Books of the Hasmonaeans."

If Maccabee (maqqabi) is the original form of the name,
the most probable derivation is from the Aramaic maqqaba
(Heb. n^g?, Judg. iv. 21, &c.) = " hammer." The surname
"hammerer" might have been applied to Judas either as a
distinctive title pure and simple or symbolically as in the
parallel case of Edward I., "Scotorum \malleus." Even if
maqqaba does denote the ordinary workman's hammer, and not
the great smith's hammer which would more fitly symbolize the
impetuosity of Judas, this is not a fatal objection. The doubled
k of the Greek form is decisive against (i) the theory that the
name Maccabee was made up of the initials of the opening
words of Exod. xv. n; (2) the derivation from 'j^j = "extin-
guisher" (cf. Isa. xliii. 17), based by Curtiss (The Name
Machabee, Leipzig, 1876) on the Latin spelling Machabaeus =
MaKKojSaloj, which Jerome probably adopted in accordance
with the usage of the times.

The Maccabaean revolt was caused by the attempt of
Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes), king of Syria (175-164 B.C.), to force
Hellenism upon Judaea (see SELEUCID DYNASTY; HELLENISH).
Ever since the campaigns of Alexander the Great, Greek habits
and ideas had been widely adopted in Palestine. Over the
higher classes especially Hellenism had cast its spell. This called
forth the organized opposition of the Hasidim (= " the pious "),
who constituted themselves champions of the Law. Joshua,
who headed the Hellenistic faction, graecized bis name into
Jason, contrived to have the high-priesthood taken from his
brother Onias III., and conferred upon himself, and set up a
gymnasium hard by the Temple. After three years' tenure of
office Jason was supplanted by the Benjamite Menelaus, who
disowned Judaism entirely. Antiochus punished an outburst
of strife between the rivals by plundering the Temple and
slaying many of the inhabitants (170 B.C.). Two years later
Jerusalem was devastated by his general Apollonius, and a
Syrian garrison occupied the citadel (Akra). The Jews were
ordered under pain of death to substitute for their own ob-
servances the Pagan rites prescribed for the empire generally.
In December 168 sacrifice was offered to Zeus upon an idol
altar (" the abomination of desolation," Dan. x. 27) erected
over the great altar of burnt-offering. But Antiochus had
miscalculated, and by his extreme measures unwittingly saved
Judaism from its internal foes. Many hellenizers rallied round
those who were minded to die rather than abjure their religion.
The issue of an important edict ordaining the erection of heathen
altars in every township of Palestine, and the appointment
of officers to deal with recusants, brought matters to a crisis.
At Modin, Mattathias, an aged priest, not only refused to offer
the first sacrifice, but slew an apostate Jew who was about
to step into the breach. He also killed the king's commissioner
and pulled down the altar. Having thus given the signal
for rebellion, he then with his five sons took to the mountains.
In view of the ruthless slaughter of a thousand Sabbatarians
in the wilderness, Mattathias and his friends decided to resist
attack even on the sabbath. Many, including the Hasidim,
thereupon flocked to his standard, and set themselves to revive
Jewish rites and to uproot Paganism from the land. In 166
Mattathias died, after charging his sons to give their lives
for their ancestral faith, and nominating Judas Maccabaeus
as their leader in the holy campaign.

The military genius of Judas made this the most stirring
chapter in Israelitish history. In quick succession he over-
threw the Syrian generals Apollonius, Seron and Gorgias,
and after the regent Lysias had shared the same fate at his
hands he restored the Temple worship (165). These exploits
dismayed his opponents and kindled the enthusiasm of his
friends. When, however, Lysias returned in force to renew
the contest, Judas had to fall back upon the Temple mount,
and escaped defeat only because the Syrian leader was obliged
to hasten back to Antioch in order to prevent a rival from
seizing the regency. Under these circumstances Lysias un-
expectedly guaranteed to the Jews their religious freedom
(162). But though they had thus gained their end, the struggle
did not cease; it merely assumed a new phase. The Hasidim
indeed were satisfied, and declined to fight longer, but the
Maccabees determined not to desist until their nation was
politically as well as religiously free. In 161 Judas defeated
Nicanor at Adasa, but within a few weeks thereafter, in a
heroic struggle against superior numbers under Bacchides
at Elasa, he was himself cut off. Even this, however, did not
prove fatal to the cause which Judas had espoused. If in his
brother Jonathan it did not possess so brilliant a soldier, it
had in him an astute diplomatist who knew how to exploit the
internal troubles of Syria. In the contest between Demetrius I.
and Alexander Balas for the throne, Jonathan supported the
latter, who in 153 nominated him high priest, and conferred
on him the order of " King's Friend," besides other honours.
After the accession of Demetrius II. (145) Jonathan contrived
to win his favour, and helped him to crush a rebellion in Antioch
•on condition that the Syrian garrisons should be withdrawn

198

MACCABEES, BOOKS OF

from Judaea. When, however, Demetrius failed to keep his
word, Jonathan transferred his allegiance to Antiochus VI., whom
Tryphon had crowned as king. After subjugating the territory
between Jerusalem and Damascus, he routed the generals
of Demetrius on the plain of Hazor. But as the Macca-
bees had now in the name of the Syrians cleared the Syrians
out of Palestine, Tryphon's jealousy was aroused, and he
resolved to be rid of Jonathan, who, with all his cunning,
walked into a trap at Ptolemais, was made prisoner and ulti-
mately slain (143). The leadership now devolved upon Simon,
the last survivor of the sons of Mattathias. He soon got the
better of Tryphon, who vainly tried to reach Jerusalem. Allying
himself to Demetrius, Simon succeeded in negotiating a
treaty whereby the political independence of Judaea was at
length secured. The garrison in the Akra having been starved
into submission, Simon triumphantly entered that fortress
in May 142. In the following year he was by popular decree
invested with absolute powers, being appointed leader, high
priest and ethnarch. As these offices were declared hereditary
in his family, he became the founder of the Hasmonaean dynasty.
The first year of his reign (Seleucid year 170 = 143-142 B.C.)
was made the beginning of a new era, and the issue of a Jewish
coinage betokened the independence of his sovereignty. Under
Simon's administration the country enjoyed signal prosperity.
Its internal resources were assiduously developed; trade,
agriculture, civic justice and religion were fostered; while at
no epoch in its post-exilic history did Israel enjoy an equal
measure of social happiness (i Mace. xiv. 4 seq.). Simon's
beneficent activities came, however, to a sudden and tragic
end. In 135 he and two of his sons were murdered by Ptolemy
his son-in-law, who had an eye to the supreme power. But
Simon's third son, John Hyrcanus, warned in time, succeeded
in asserting his rights as hereditary head of the state. All
the sons of Mattathias had now died for the sake of " The
Law "; and the result of their work, so valorously prosecuted
for over thirty years, was a new-born enthusiasm in Israel
for the ancestral faith. The Maccabaean struggle thus gave
fresh life to the Jewish nation.

After the death of Antiochus VII. Sidetes in 128 left him a
free hand, Hyrcanus (135-105) soon carved out for himself
a large and prosperous kingdom, which, however, was rent
by internal discord owing to the antagonism developed between
the rival parties of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Hyrcanus
was succeeded by his son Aristobulus, whose reign of but one
year was followed by that of his brother, the warlike Alex-
ander Jannaeus (104-78). The new king's Sadducean pro-
clivities rendered him odious to the populace, which rose in
revolt, but only to bring upon itself a savage revenge. The
accession of his widow Salome Alexandra (78-69) witnessed
a complete reversal of the policy pursued by Jannaeus, for she
chose to rule in accordance with the ideals of the Pharisees.
Her elder son, Hyrcanus II., a pliable weakling, was appointed
high priest; her younger son, the energetic Aristobulus, who
chafed at his exclusion from office, seized some twenty strong-
holds and with an army bore down upon Jerusalem. At this
crisis Alexandra died, and Hyrcanus agreed to retire in favour
of his masterful brother. A new and disturbing element now
entered into Jewish politics in the person of the Idumaean
Antipater, who for selfish ends deliberately made mischief
between the brothers. An appeal to M. Aemilius Scaurus,
who in 65 came into Syria as the legate of Pompey, led to the
interference of the Romans, the siege of Jerusalem by Pompey,
and the vassalage of the Jews (q.v.). Hyrcanus II. was appointed
high priest and ethnarch, without the title of king (63). Re-
peated but fruitless attempts were made by the Hasmonaeans
and their patriotic supporters to throw off the Roman yoke.
In 47 Antipater, who curried favour with Rome, was made
procurator of Judaea, and his sons Phasael and Herod governors
of Jerusalem and Galilee respectively. Six years later the
Idumaean brothers were appointed tetrarchs of Judaea. At
length, in 40, the Parthians set up as king Antigonus, sole
surviving son of Aristobulus. Thereupon Phasael committed

suicide in prison, but Herod effected his escape and with the
help of the Romans seated himself on the throne of Judaea
(37 B.C.). Through the execution of Antigonus by M. Antonius
(Mark Antony) the same year the Hasmonaean dynasty became
extinct.

LITERATURE. — I and 2 Mace, and Josephus are the main sources
for the Maccabaean history. For references in classical authors
see E. Schurer, Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes (1901, p 106 seq.).
Besides the numerous modern histories of Israel (e.g. those by
Derenbourg, Ewald, Stanley, Stade, Renan, Schurer, Kent, Well-
hausen, Guthe), see also Madden, Coins of the Jews (1881), H. Weiss's
Judas Makkabaeus (1897), and the articles in the Ency. Bib., Has-
tings's Diet. Bible, the Jewish Encyclopedia. Among more popular
sketches are Moss's From Malachi to Matthew (1893) ; Streanes The
Age of the Maccabees (1898); Morrison's The Jews under Roman Rule
(" Story of the Nations ' series) ; W. Fairweather's From the Exile to
the Advent (1901); E. R. Sevan's Jerusalem under the High Priests
(1904) ; F. Henderson's The Age of the Maccabees (1907) ; also articles
JEWS; SELEUCID DYNASTY. (W. F.*)

MACCABEES, BOOKS OF, the name given to several Apocry-
phal books of the Old Testament. The Vulgate contains two
books of Maccabees which were declared canonical by the
council of Trent (1546) and found a place among the Apocrypha
of the English Bible. Three other books of this name are
extant. Book iii. is included in the Septuagint but not in the
Vulgate. Book iv. is embraced in the Alexandrian, Sinaitic,
and other MSS. of the Septuagint, as well as in some MSS. of
Josephus. A " Fifth " book is contained in the Ambrosian
Peshitta, but it seems to be merely a Syriac reproduction of
the sixth book of Josephus's history of the Jewish War. None
of the books of Maccabees are contained in the Vatican (B);
all of them are found in a Syriac recension.

1 Maccabees was originally written in Hebrew, but is pre-
served only in a Greek translation. Origen gives a trans-
literation of "its Semitic title,"1 and Jerome says distinctly:
" The First Book of Maccabees I found in Hebrew." The
frequent Hebraisms which mark the Greek translation, as well
as the fact that some obscure passages in the Greek text are
best accounted for as mistranslations from the Hebrew, afford
internal evidence of the truth of this testimony. There are
good reasons for regarding the book as a unity, although some
scholars (Destinon, followed by Wellhausen) consider the
concluding chapters (xiii.-xvi.) a later addition unknown to
Josephus, who, however, seems to have already used the Greek.
It probably dates from about the beginning of the first century

B.C.2

As it supplies a detailed and accurate record of the forty
years from the accession of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death
of Simon (175-135 B.C.), without doubt the most stirring
chapter in Jewish history, the book is one of the most precious
historical sources we possess. In its careful chronology, based
upon the Seleucid era, in the minuteness of its geographical
knowledge, in the frankness with which it records defeat as
well as victory, on the restraint with which it speaks of the
enemies of the Jews, in its command of details, it bears on
its face the stamp of genuineness. Not that it is wholly free
from error or exaggeration, but its mistakes are due merely to
defective knowledge of the outside world, and its overstate-
ments, virtually confined to the matter of numbers, proceed
from a patriotic desire to magnify Jewish victories. While
the author presumably had some written sources at his disposal,3
his narrative is probably for the most part founded upon
personal knowledge and recollection of the events recorded,
and upon such first-hand information as, living in the second

'Sap/S^ Sa/Sai-aieX (Sarbeth Sabanaiel). No satisfactory explana-
tion of this title has yet been given from the Hebrew (see the com-
mentaries). The book may, however, have been known to Origen
only in an Aramaic translation, in which case, according to the
happy conjecture of Dalman (Gramm. 6) the two words may have
represented the Aramaic 'KJIDBTI .ra tsa (" book of the Hasmonaean
house").

2 If the book is a unity, ch. xvi. 23 implies that it was written after
the death of Hyrcanus which occurred in 105 B.C. On the other hand
the friendly references to Rome in ch. viii. show that it must have
been written before the siege of Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 B.C.

3 Cf. ix. 22, xi. 37, xiv. 18, 27.

MACCABEES, BOOKS OF

generation after, he would still be in a position to obtain. His
sole aim is honestly to relate what he knew of the glorious
struggles of his nation.

Although written in the style of the historical books of the
old Testament, the work is characterized by a religious reticence
which avoids even the use of the divine name, and by the
virtual absence of the Messianic hope. The observance of the
law is strongly urged, and the cessation of prophecy deplored
(iv. 46; xiv. 41). There is no allusion either to the immortality
of the soul or to the resurrection of the dead. The rewards
to which the dying Mattathias points his sons are all for this
life. Many scholars are of opinion that the unknown author
was a Sadducee,1 but all that can be said with certainty is
that he was a Palestinian Jew devotedly attached to the national
cause.

Until the council of Trent i Maccabees had only " ecclesiastical "
rank, and although not accepted as. canonical by the Protestant
churches, it has always been held in high estimation. Luther says
" it closely resembles the rest of the books of Holy Scripture, and
would not be unworthy to be enumerated with them."

2 Maccabees, the epitome of a larger work in five books by
one Jason of Cyrene, deals with the same history as its pre-
decessor, except that it begins at a point one year earlier (176
B.C.), and stops short at the death of Nicanor (161 B.C.), thus
covering a period of only fifteen years. First of all2 the writer
describes the futile attempt of Heliodorus to rob the Temple,
and the malicious intrigues of the Benjamite Simon against
the worthy high priest Onias III. (iii. i-iv. 6). As throwing
light upon the situation prior to the Maccabaean revolt this
section of the book is of especial value. Chapters iv. 7-vii. 42
contain a more detailed narrative of the events recorded in
i Mace. i. 10-64. The remainder of the book runs parallel
to i Mace, iii.-vii.

Originally written in excellent Greek, from a pronouncedly
Pharisaic standpoint, it was possibly directed against the
Hasmonaean dynasty. It shows no sympathy with the priestly
class. Both in trustworthiness and in style it is inferior to
i Mace. Besides being highly coloured, the narrative does not
observe strict chronological sequence. Instead of the sober
annalistic style of the earlier historian we have a work marked
by hyperbole, inflated rhetoric and homiletic reflection. Bitter
invective is heaped upon the national enemies, and strong
predilection is shown for the marvellous. The fullness and
inaccuracy of detail which are a feature of the book suggest
that Jason's information was derived from the recollections
of eye-witnesses orally communicated. In spite of its obvious
defects, however, it forms a useful supplement to the first
book.

The writer's interests are religious rather than historical.
In i Mace, there is a keen sense of the part to be played
by the Jews themselves, of the necessity of employing their
own skill and valour; here they are made to rely rather upon
divine intervention. Fantastic apparitions of angelic and
supernatural beings, gorgeously arrayed and mostly upon
horseback, are frequently introduced. In general, the views
reflected in the book are those of the Pharisees. The ungodly
will be punished mercilessly, and in exact correspondence to
their sins.3 The chastisements of erring Jews are of short
duration, and intended to recall them to duty. If the faithful
suffer martyrdom, it is in order to serve as an example to others,
and they shall be compensated by being raised up " unto an
eternal renewal of life." The eschatology of 2 Mace, is singu-
larly advanced, for it combines the doctrine of a resurrection
with that of immortality. It is worthy of note that the
Roman Church finds support in this book for its teaching with

1 See especially Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel,
206 seq.

1 Prefixed to the book are two spurious letters from Palestinian
Jews (i., ii. 18), having no real connexion with it, or even with one
another, further than that they both urge Egyptian Jews to observe
the Feast of the Dedication. Between these and the main narrative
is inserted the writer's own preface, in which he explains the source
and aim of his work (ii. 10-32).

« iv. 38, 42; v. 9 seq.; ix. 5-18.

199

reference to prayers for the dead and purgatory (xii. 43 seq.).
An allusion to Jeremiah as " he who prayeth much for the
people and the holy city " (rv. 14) it likewise appeals to as
favouring its views respecting the intercession of the saints.

Neither of Jason's work, nor of the epitomizer's, can the
precise date be determined. The changed relations with Rome
(viii. 10, 36) prove, however, that the latter was written later
than i Mace.; and it is equally clear that it was composed
before the destruction of Jerusalem, A.D. 70.

The account given of the martyrs in chs. vi. and vii. led to frequent
allusions to this book in early patristic literature. Only Augustine,
however, was minded to give it the canonical rank to which it has
been raised by the Roman Church. Luther judged of it as unfavour-
ably as he judged of I Mace, favourably, and even " wished it had
never existed.'

3 Maccabees, although purporting to be an historical narra-
tive, is really an animated, if somewhat vapid, piece of fiction
written in Greek somewhere between too B.C. and A.D. yo,4 and
apparently preserved only in part.6 It has no connexion with
the Hasmonaeans, but is a story of the deliverance experienced
by the Egyptian Jews from impending martyrdom at the hands
of Ptolemy IV. Philopator, who reigned in the century previous
to the Maccabaean rising (222-205 B.C.). The title is of later
origin, and rendered possible only by the generalization of the
name Maccabee so as to embrace all who suffered for the ances-
tral faith. Josephus refers the legend on which it is based to
the time of Ptolemy VII. Physcon (146-117 B.C.). Some scholars
(Ewald, Reuss, Hausrath) think that what the story really
points to is the persecution under Caligula, but in that case
Ptolemy would naturally have been represented as claiming
divine honours. No other source informs us of a visit to Jerusa-
lem, or of a persecution of the Jews, on the part of Philopator.
Possibly, however, the story may be founded on some historical
situation regarding which we have no definite knowledge. The
purpose of the writer was evidently to cheer his Egyptian
brethren during some persecution at Alexandria. Although
the book was favourably regarded in the Syrian, it was appar-
ently unknown to the Latin Church. Among the Jews' it was
virtually ignored.

Briefly, the tale is as follows: — After the battle of Raphia • (217
B.C.), Ptolemy IV. Philopator insisted on entering the sanctuary
at Jerusalem, but was struck down by the Almighty in answer to the
prayers of the horrified Jews. On his return to Egypt he revenged
himself by curtailing the religious liberty of the Alexandrian Jews,
and by depriving of their civic rights all who refused to worship
Bacchus. Exasperated by their loyalty to their religion, the king
ordered all the Jews in Egypt to be imprisoned in the hippodrome
of Alexandria. Clerks were told off to prepare a list of the prisoners'
names, but after forty days constant toil they had exhausted their
writing materials without finishing their task. Ptolemy further
commanded that 500 elephants should be intoxicated and let loose
upon the occupants of the racecourse. Only an accident prevented
the carrying out of this design ; the king had slept until it was past
the time for his principal meal. On the following day, in virtue of
a divinely induced forgetfulness, Ptolemy recollected nothing but
the loyalty of the Jews to his throne. The same evening, neverthe-
less, he repeated his order for their destruction. Accordingly, on
the morning of the third day, when the king attended to see his

4 The date of composition can be only approximately determined.
As the writer is acquainted with the Greek additions to Daniel (vi. 6),
the first century B.C. forms the superior limit ; and as the book found
favour in the Eastern Church, the first century A.D. forms the inferior
limit.

6 Apart from its abrupt commencement, the references in i. 2 to
" the plot " as something already specified, and in ii. 25 to the king's
" before-mentioned " companions, of whom, however, nothing is
said ih the previous section of the book, point to the loss of at least
an introductory chapter.

* The statements with reference to the war between Antiochus
the Great and Ptolemy Philopator are in general agreement with
those of the classical historians, and to this extent the tale may be
said to have an historical setting. By Grimm (EM. § 3), the observ-
ance of the two yearly festivals (vi. 26; vii. 19), and the existence
of the synagogue at Ptolemais when the book was written, are viewed
as the witness of tradition to the fact of some great deliverance.
Fritzsche has well pointed out, however (art. Makkabaer " in
Schenkel's Bibel-Lexiton) that in the hands of Jewish writers of the
period nearly every event of consequence has a festival attached
to it.

200

MAcCARTHY, D. F.— MCCARTHY, J.

commands executed, things had reached a crisis. The Jews prayed
to the Lord for mercy, and two angels appeared from heaven, to the
confusion of the royal troops, who were trampled down by the ele-
phants. Ptolemy now vented his wrath upon his counsellors,
liberated the Jews, and feasted them for seven days. They deter-
mined that these should be kept as festal days henceforth in com-
memoration of their deliverance. The provincial governors were
enjoined to take the Jews under their protection, and leave was given
to the latter to slay those of their kinsmen who had deserted the
faith. They further celebrated their deliverance at Ptolemais,
where they built a synagogue, and they reached their various abodes
to find themselves not only reinstated in their possessions, but raised
in the esteem of the Egyptians.

4 Maccabees differs essentially from the other books of this
name. While it does not itself aim at being a history, it makes
striking use of Jewish history for purposes of edification. It
bears, moreover, a distinctly philosophical character, and takes
the form of a " tractate " or discourse, addressed to Jews only,1
upon " the supremacy of pious reason over the passions."2 The
material is well arranged and systematically handled. In the
prologue (i. 1-12) the writer explains the aim and scope of his
work. Then follows the first main division (i. i3~iii. 18), in
which he treats philosophically the proposition that reason is
the mistress of the passions, inquiring what is meant by " reason"
and what by " passion," as well as how many kinds of passion
there are, and whether reason rules them all. The conclusion
reached is that with the exception of forgetfulness and ignorance
all the affections are under the lordship of reason, or at all events
of pious reason. To follow the dictates of pious reason in op-
position to natural inclination is to have learned the secret of
victory over the passions. In the second part of the book
(iii. lo-xviii. 5) the writer goes on to prove his thesis from Jewish
history, dwelling in particular upon the noble stand made against
the tyranny of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes by the priest Eleazar,
the seven brothers and their mother — all of whom chose torture
and death rather than apostatize from the faith. Finally he
appeals to his readers to emulate these acts of piety (xvii. 7-
xviii. 24). In his gruesome descriptions of physical sufferings the
author offends against good taste even more than the writer of
2 Mace., while both contrast very unfavourably in this respect
with the sober reserve of the gospel narratives.

The book is written in a cultured, if somewhat rhetorical,
Greek style, and is unmistakably coloured by the Stoic philosophy.
The four cardinal virtues are represented as forms of wisdom,
which again is inseparable from the Mosaic law. That the writer
owes no slavish adherence to any philosophical system is plain
from his independent treatment of the affections. Although
influenced by Hellenism, he is a loyal Jew, earnestly desirous
that all who profess the same faith should adhere to it in spite
of either Greek allurements or barbaric persecution. It is not to
reason as such, but only to pious reason (i.e. to reason enlightened
and controlled by the divine law) , that he attributes lordship over
the passions. While in his zeal for legalism he virtually adopts
the standpoint of Pharisaism, he is at one with Jewish Hellenism
in substituting belief in the soul's immortality for the doctrine
of a bodily resurrection.

The name of the author is unknown. He was, however,
clearly a Hellenistic Jew, probably resident in Alexandria or
Asia Minor. In the early Church the work was commonly
ascribed to Josephus and incorporated with his writings. But
apart from the fact that it is found also in several MSS. of the
Septuagint, the language and style of the book are incompatible
with his authorship. So also is the circumstance that 2 Mace.,
which forms the basis of 4 Mace., was unknown to Josephus.
Moreover, several unhistorical statements (such as, e.g. that
Seleucus was succeeded by his son Antiochus Epiphanes, iv. 15)

1 Even if with Freudenthal we regard the work as a homily actually
delivered to a Jewish congregation— and there are difficulties in the
way of this theory, particularly the absence of a Biblical text — it
was clearly intended for publication. It is essentially a book in the
form of a discourse, whether it was ever orally delivered or not. So
Deissmann in Kautzsch, Die Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des A. T. ii. 151.

2 Hence the title sometimes given to it : airroicp&Topos Xo^to-juoG
(" On the supremacy of reason '). It is also styled Ma*Kaj3a(uj> 6',

militate against the view that Josephus was the author. The
date of composition cannot be definitely fixed. It is, however,
safe to say that the book must have been written later than
2 Mace., and (in view of the acceptance it met with in the
Christian Church) prior to the destruction of Jerusalem. Most
likely it is a product of the Herodian period.

5 Maccabees. Writing in 1566 Sixtus Senensis mentions
having seen at Lyons a manuscript of a so-called " Fifth Book
of Maccabees " in the library of Santas Pagninus, which was soon
afterwards destroyed by fire. It began with the words: " After
the murder of Simon, John his son became high priest in his
stead." Sixtus conjectures that it may have been a Greek
translation of the " chronicles " of John Hyrcanus, alluded to
in i Mace. xvi. 24. He acknowledges that it is a history of
Hyrcanus practically on the lines of Josephus, but concludes
from its Hebraistic style that it was not from that writer's pen.
The probability, however, is that it was " simply a reproduction
of Josephus, the style being changed perhaps for a purpose "
(Schurer).

The Arabic " Book of Maccabees " contained in the Paris and
London Polyglotts, and purporting to be a history of the Jews
from the affair of Heliodorus (186 B.C.) to the close of Herod's
reign, is historically worthless, being nothing but a compilation
from i and 2 Mace, and Josephus. In the one chapter (xii.)
where the writer ventures to detach himself from these works
he commits glaring historical blunders. The book was written
in somewhat Hebraistic Greek subsequent to A.D. 70. In
Cotton's English translation of The Five Books of Maccabees it
is this book that is reckoned the " Fifth."

The best modern editions of the Greek text of the four books of
Maccabees are those of O. F. Fritzsche (1871) and H. B. Swete
(Cambridge Septuagint, vol. iii., 1894). C. J. Ball's The Variorum
Apocrypha will be found specially useful by those who cannot con-
veniently consult the Greek. The best modern commentary is that
of C. L.W.Grimm (1853-1857). C.F. Keil's commentary on i and 2
Mace, is very largely indebted to Grimm. More recently there have
appeared commentaries by E. C. Bissell on i , 2 and 3 Mace, in Lange-
Schaff's commentary, 1880 — the whole Apocrypha being embraced
in one volume, and much of the material being transferred from
Grimm ; G. Rawlinson on i and 2 Mace, in the Speaker's Commentary
1888 (containing much useful matter, but marred by too frequent
inaccuracy) ; O. Zockler, on i, 2 and 3 Mace., 1891 (slight and unsatis-
factory) ; W. Fairweatner and J. S. Black on i Mace, in the Cam-
bridge Bible for Schools (1897); E. Kautzsch on i and 3 Mace., A.
Kamphausen on 2 Mace, and A. Deissmann on 4 Mace, in Die
Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des Alt. Test., 1898 (a most serviceable work for
the student of apocryphal literature). Brief but useful introductions
to all the four books of Maccabees are given in E. Schurer's Geschichte
des Judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (3rd ed., 1898-1901;
Eng. tr. of earlier edition, 1886-1890). (W. F.*)

MACCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE (1817-1882), Irish poet,

was born in Dublin on the 26th of May 1817, and educated there
and at Maynooth. His earlier verses appeared in The Dublin
Satirist, and in 1843 he became a regular contributor of political
verse to the recently founded Nation. He also took an active
part in the Irish political associations. In 1846 he edited The
Poets and Dramatists of Ireland and the Book of Irish Ballads.
His collected Ballads, Poems and Lyrics (1850), including trans-
lations from nearly all the modern languages, took immensely
with his countrymen on account of their patriotic ring. This
was followed by The Bellfounder (1857), Under-glimpses and other
poems (1857) and The Early Life of Shelley (1871). In 1853 he
began a number of translations from the Spanish of Calderon's
dramas, which won for him a medal from the Royal Spanish
Academy. He had already been granted a civil list pension
for his literary services. He died in Ireland on the 7th of April
1882.

M'CARTHY, JUSTIN (1830- ), Irish politician, historian
and novelist, was born in Cork on the 22nd of November 1830,
and was educated at a school in that town. He began his career
as a journalist, at the age of eighteen, in Cork. From 1853 to
1859 he was in Liverpool, on the staff of tiieNorthern Daily Times,
during which period he married (in March 1855) Miss Charlotte
Allman. In 1860 he removed to London, as parliamentary
reporter to the Morning Star, of which he became editor in 1864.

McCHEYNE— McCLELLAN

201

He gave up his post in 1868, and, after a lecturing tour in the
United States, joined the staff of the Daily News as leader-writer
in 1870. In this capacity he became one of the most useful and
respected upholders of the Liberal politics of the time. He
lectured again in America in 1870-1871, and again in 1886-1887.
He represented Co. Longford in Parliament as a Liberal and
Home Ruler from 1879 to 1885; North Longford, 1885-1886;
Londonderry, 1886-1892 ; and North Longford from 1892 to 1900.
He was chairman of the Anti-Parnellites from the fall of C. S.
Parnell in 1890 until January 1896; but his Nationalism was of
a temperate and orderly kind, and though his personal distinc-
tion singled him out for the chairmanship during the party
dissensions of this period, he was in no active sense the political
leader. His real bent was towards literature. His earliest
publications were novels, some of which, such as A Fair Saxon
(1873), Dear Lady Disdain (1875), Miss Misanthrope (1878),
Donna Quixote (1879), attained considerable popularity. His
most important work is his History of Our Own Times (vols. i.-iv.,
1879-1880; vol. v., 1 897), which treats of the period between Queen
Victoria's accession and her diamond jubilee. Easily and de-
lightfully written, and on the whole eminently sane and moderate,
these volumes form a brilliant piece of narrative from a Liberal
standpoint. He also began a History of the Four Georges (1884-
1901), of which the latter half was written by his son, Justin
Huntly M'Carthy (b. 1860), himself the author of various
clever novels, plays, poetical pieces and short histories. Justin
M'Carthy, amongst other works, wrote biographies of Sir Robert
Peel (1891), Pope Leo XIII. (1896) and W. E. Gladstone (1898);
Modern England (1898); The Reign of Queen Anne (1902) and
Reminiscences (2 vols., 1899).

McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY (1813-1843), Scottish
divine, was born at Edinburgh on the 2ist of May 1813, was
educated at the University and at the Divinity Hall of his native
city, and held pastorates at Larbert, near Falkirk, and Dundee.
A mission of inquiry among the Jews throughout Europe and in
Palestine, and a religious revival at his church in Dundee, made
him feel that he was being called to evangelistic rather than to
pastoral work, but before he could carry out bis plans he died,
on the 25th of March 1843. McCheyne, though wielding remark-
able influence in his lifetime, was still more powerful afterwards,
through his Memoirs and Remains, edited by Andrew Bonar,
which ran into far over a hundred English editions. Some of his
hymns, e.g. " When this passing world is done," are well known.

See his Life, by J. C. Smith (1910).

McCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON (1826-1885), American
• soldier, was born in Philadelphia on the 3rd of December 1826.
After passing two years (1840-1842) in the university of Penn-
sylvania, he entered the United States military academy, from
which he graduated with high honours in July 1846. Sent as
a lieutenant of engineers to the Mexican War, he took part in
the battles under General Scott, and by his gallantry won the
brevets of first-lieutenant at Contreras-Churubusco and captain
at Chapultepec ; he was afterwards detailed as assistant-instructor
at West Point, and employed in explorations in the South- West
and in Oregon. Promoted in 1855 captain of cavalry, he served
on a military commission sent to Europe to study European
armies and especially the war in the Crimea. On his return he
furnished an able and interesting report, republished (1861)
under the title of Armies of Europe. In 1856 hedesigned a saddle,
which was afterwards well known as the McClellan. Resigning
his commission in 1857, McClellan became successively chief
engineer and vice-president of the Illinois Central railroad (1857-
1860), general superintendent of the Mississippi & Ohio railroad,
and, a little later, president of the eastern branch of the same,
with his residence in Cincinnati. When the Civil War broke out
he was, in April 1861, made major-general of three months'
militia by the governor of Ohio; but General Scott's favour at
Washington promoted him rapidly (May 14) to the rank of
major-general, U.S.A., in command of the department of the
Ohio. Pursuant to orders, on the 26th of May, McClellan sent
a small force across the Ohio river to Philippi, dispersed the
Confederates there early in June, and immensely aided the Union

cause in that region by rapid and brilliant military successes,
gained in the short space of eight days. These operations,
though comparatively trivial as the Civil War developed,
brought great results, in permanently dividing old Virginia by the
creation of the state of k West Virginia, and in presenting the
first sharp, short and wholly successful campaign of the war.

Soon after the first Bull Run disaster he was summoned to
Washington, and the Union hailed him as chieftain and preserver.
Only thirty-four years old, and with military fame and promotion
premature and quite in excess of positive experience, he reached
the capital late in July and assumed command there. At first
all was deference and compliance with his wishes. In November
Scott retired that the young general might control the operations
of the whole Union army. McClellan proved himself extra-
ordinarily able as an organizer and trainer of soldiers. During
the autumn, winter and spring he created the famous Army
of the Potomac, which in victory and defeat retained to the end
the impress of McClellan's work. But he soon showed petulance
towards the civil authorities, from whom he came to differ con-
cerning the political ends in view; and he now found severe
critics, who doubted his capacity for directing an offensive war;
but the government yielded to his plans for an oblique, instead
of a direct, movement upon Richmond and the opposing army.
At the . moment of starting he was relieved as general-in-
chief. By the 5th of April a great army was safely transported
to Fortress Monroe, and other troops were sent later, though
a large force was (much against his will) retained to cover Wash-
ington. McClellan laid slow siege to Yorktown, not breaking
the thin line first opposed to him, but giving Johnston full time
to reinforce and then evacuate the position. McClellan followed
up the Confederate rearguard and approached Richmond, using
White House on the Pamunkey as a base of supplies; this entailed
a division of his forces on either bank of the Chickahominy. At
Fair Oaks (Seven Pines) was fought on the 3ist of May a bloody
battle, ending the following day in a Confederate repulse.
Johnston being severely wounded, Lee came to command on
the Southern side. After a pause in the operations McClellan
felt himself ready to attack at the moment when Lee, leaving
a bare handful of men in the Richmond lines, despatched two-
thirds of his entire force to the north of the Chickahominy to
strike McClellan's isolated right wing. McClellan himself made
little progress, and the troops beyond the Chickahominy were
defeated after a strenuous defence ; whereupon McClellan planned ,
and during the celebrated Seven Days' Battle triumphantly
executed, a change of base to the James river. But the result
was strategically a failure, and General Halleck, who was now
general-in-chief, ordered the army to reinforce General Pope in
central Virginia. The order was obeyed reluctantly.

Pope's disastrous defeats brought McClellan a new opportunity
to retrieve his fame. Again in command of the Army of the
Potomac, he was sent with all available forces to oppose
Lee, who had crossed the Potomac into Maryland early in Sep-
tember. McClellan advanced slowly and carefully, reorganizing
his army as he went. The battle of South Mountain placed him
in a position to attack Lee, and a few days later was fought the
great battle of Antietam, in which Lee was worsted. But the Con-
federates safely recrossed the Potomac, and McClellan showed
his former faults in a tardy pursuit. On the eve of an aggressive
movement, which he was at last about to make, he was super-
seded by Burnside (Nov. 7). McClellan was never again
ordered to active command, and the political elements opposed
to the general policy of Lincoln's administration chose him as
presidential candidate in 1864, on a platform which denounced
the war as a failure and proposed negotiating with the South for
peace. McClellan, while accepting his candidacy, repudiated
the platform, like a soldier and patriot. At the polls on the 8th
of November Lincoln was triumphantly re-elected president.
McClellan had previously resigned his commission in the army,
and soon afterwards went to Europe, where he remained until
1868. Upon his return he took up his residence in New York
City, where (1868-1869) he was engaged in superintending the
construction of an experimental floating battery. In 1870-1872

202

McCLERNAND— MACCLESFIELD, EARL OF

he was engineer-in-chief of the city's department of docks.
With Orange, N.J., as his next principal residence, he became
governor of New Jersey (1878-1881). During his term he effected
great reforms in the administration of the state and in the militia.
He was offered, but declined, a second nomination. During his
last years he made several tours of Europe, visited the East, and
wrote much for the magazines. He also prepared monographs
upon the Civil War, defending his own action. He died suddenly
of heart-disease on the 2gth of October 1885 at Orange.

McClellan was a clear and able writer and effective speaker,
and his Own Story, edited by a friend and published soon after
his death, discloses an honourable character, sensitive to reproach,
and conscientious, even morbidly so, in his patriotism. He
carried himself well in civil life and was of irreproachable private
conduct. During the Civil War, however, he was promoted too
early and rapidly for his own good, and the strong personal
magnetism he inspired while so young developed qualities in-
jurious to a full measure of success and usefulness, despite his
great opportunities. The reasons for his final displacement in
1862 were both civil and military, and the president had been
forbearing with him. As a soldier he possessed to an extra-
ordinary degree the enthusiastic affection of his men. With
the army that he had created the mere rumour of his presence
was often a spur to the greatest exertions. That he was slow,
and perhaps too tender-hearted, in handling armed masses for
action may be admitted, and though admirable for defensive
war and a safe strategist, he showed himself unfitted to take the
highly essential initiative, both because of temperament and his
habitual exaggeration of obstacles and opposing numbers. But
he met and checked the armies of the Confederacy when they
frere at their best and strongest, and his work laid the founda-
tions of ultimate success.

His son, GEORGE BRINTON MCCLELLAN (b. 1865), graduated in
1886 at Princeton (from which he received the degree of LL.D. in
1905), and became a newspaper reporter and editor in New York
City. He identified himself with the Tammany Hall organization,
and in 1889-1892 was treasurer of the New York and Brooklyn
Bridge under the city government. In 1892 he was admitted
to the bar, and was elected to the board of aldermen, of which
he was president in 1893 and 1894. In 1895-1903 he was a
Democratic representative in Congress; in 1903 he was elected
mayor of New York City on the Tammany ticket, defeating
mayor Seth Low, the "Fusion" candidate; and in 1905 he was
re-elected for -a four-year term, defeating William M. Ivins
(Republican) and William R. Hearst (Independence League).
He published The Oligarchy of Venice (1904).

Besides the report mentioned above, General McClellan wrote a
Bayonet Exercise (1852); Report on Pacific Railroad Surveys (1854);
Report on the Organization, &c., of the Army of the Potomac (1864), a
government publication which he himself republished with the addi-
tion of a memoir of the West Virginian campaign. He also wrote
a series of articles on the Russo-Turkish War for The North A merican
Review. See memoir prefaced to McClellan 's Own Story, and Michie,
General McClellan (" Great Commanders " series).

McCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER (1812-1900), American
soldier and lawyer, was born in Breckinridge county, Kentucky,
on the 30th of May 1812. He was admitted to the bar in
Shawneetown, Illinois, in 1832; in the same year served as a
volunteer in the Black Hawk War, and in 1835 founded the
Shawneetown Democrat, which he thereafter edited. As a
Democrat he served in 1836 and in 1840-1843 in the Illinois
House of Representatives, and in 1843-1851 and in 1859-1861 was
a representative in Congress, where in his first term he vigorously
opposed the Wilmot proviso, but in his second term was a strong
Unionist and introduced the resolution of the isth of July 1861,
pledging money and men to the national government. He
resigned from congress, raised in Illinois the " McClernand
Brigade," and was commissioned (May 17, 1861) brigadier-
general of volunteers. He was second in command at the battle
of Belmont (Missouri) in November 1861, and commanded the
right wing at Fort Donelson. On the 2ist of March he became a
major-general of volunteers. At Shiloh he commanded a division,
which was practically a reserve to Sherman's. In October 1861

Stanton, secretary of war, ordered him north to raise troops
for the expedition against Vicksburg; and early in January
1864, at Milliken's Bend, McClernand, who had been placed in
command of one of the four corps of Grant's army, superseded
Sherman as the leader of the force that was to move down the
Mississippi. On the nth of January he took Arkansas Post.
On the 1 7th, Grant, after receiving the opinion of Admiral Foote
and General Sherman that McClernand was unfit, united a part
of his own troops with those of McClernand and assumed com-
mand in person, and three days later ordered McClernand back
to Milliken's Bend. During the rest of this Vicksburg campaign
there was much friction between McClernand and his colleagues;
he undoubtedly intrigued for the removal of Grant; it was
Grant's opinion that at Champion's Hill (May 16) he was
dilatory; and because a congratulatory order to his corps was
published in the press (contrary to an order of the department
and another of Grant) he was relieved of his command on the
i8th of June, and was replaced by General E. O. C. Ord. Presi-
dent Lincoln, who saw the importance of conciliating a leader
of the Illinois War-Democrats, restored him to his command in
1864, but McClernand resigned in November of that year. He
was district judge of the Sangamon (Illinois) District in 1870-
1873, and was president of the National Democratic Convention
in 1876. He died in Springfield, Illinois, on the 2oth of Septem-
ber 1900.

His son, EDWARD JOHN MCCLERNAND (b. 1848), graduated
at the U.S. Military Academy in 1870. He served on the frontier
against the Indians, notably in the capture of Chief Joseph in
October 1877, became lieutenant-colonel and assistant adjutant-
general of volunteers in 1898, and served in Cuba in 1898-99.
He was then ordered to the Philippines, where he commanded
various districts, and from April 1900 to May 1901, when he was
mustered out of the volunteer service, was acting military
governor.

MACCLESFIELD, CHARLES GERARD, IST EARL OF (c. 1618-
1694), eldest son of Sir Charles Gerard, was a member of an old
Lancashire family, his great-grandfather having been Sir Gilbert
Gerard (d. 1593) of Ince, in that county, one of the most dis-
tinguished judges in the reign of Elizabeth. His mother was
Penelope Fitton of Gawsworth, Cheshire. Charles Gerard was
educated abroad, and in the Low Countries learnt soldiering, in
which he showed himself proficient when on the outbreak of the
Civil War in England he raised a troop of horse for the king's ser-
vice. Gerard commanded a brigade with distinction at Edgehill,
and gained further honours at the first battle of Newbury
and at Newark in 1644, for which service he was appointed to
the chief command in South Wales. Here his operations in
1644 and 1645 were completely successful in reducing the Parlia-
mentarians to subjection; but the severity with which he ravaged
the country made him personally so unpopular that when, after
the defeat at Naseby in June 1645, the king endeavoured to raise
fresh forces in Wales, he was compelled to remove Gerard from
the local command. Gerard was, however, retained in command
of the king's guard during Charles's march from Wales to Oxford,
and thence to Hereford and Chester in August 1645; and having
been severely wounded at Rowton Heath on the 23rd of Septem-
ber, he reached Newark with Charles on the 4th of October. On
the 8th of November 1645 he was created Baron Gerard of
Brandon in the county of Suffolk; but about the same time he
appears to have forfeited Charles's favour by having attached
himself to the party of Prince Rupert, with whom after the
surrender of Oxford Gerard probably went abroad. He remained
on the Continent throughout the whole period of the Common-
wealth, sometimes in personal attendance on Charles II., at
others serving in the wars under Turenne, and constantly en-
gaged in plots and intrigues. For one of these, an alleged
design on the life of Cromwell, his cousin Colonel John Gerard
was executed in the Tower in July 1654. At the Restoration
Gerard rode at the head of the king's life-guards in his triumphal
entry into London; his forfeited estates were restored, and he
received lucrative offices and pensions. In 1668 he retired from
the command of the king's guard to make room for the duke of

MACCLESFIELD

203

Monmouth, receiving, according to Pepys, the sum of £12,000
as solatium. On the 23rd of July 1679 Gerard was created earl
of Macclesfield and Viscount Brandon. A few months later he
entered into relations with Monmouth, and co-operated with
Shaftesbury in protesting against the rejection of the Exclusion
Bill. In September 1685, a proclamation having been issued
for his arrest, Macclesfield escaped abroad, and was outlawed.
He returned with William of Orange in 1688, and commanded
his body-guard in the march from Devonshire to London. By
William he was made a privy councillor, and lord lieutenant of
Wales and three western counties. Macclesfield died on the 7th
of January 1694. By his French wife he left two sons and two
daughters.

His eldest son CHARLES, 2nd earl of Macclesfield (c. 1650-
1701), was born in France and was naturalized in England by
act of parliament in 1677. Like his father he was concerned in
the intrigues of the duke of Monmouth; in 1685 he was sentenced
to death for being a party to the Rye House plot, but was
pardoned by the king. In 1689 he was elected member of parlia-
ment for Lancashire, which he represented till 1694, when he
succeeded to his father's peerage. Having become a major-
general in the same year, Macclesfield saw some service abroad;
and in 1701 he was selected first commissioner for the investiture
of the elector of Hanover (afterwards King George I.) with the
order of the Garter, on which occasion he also was charged to
present a copy of the Act of Settlement to the dowager electress
Sophia. He died on the 5th of November 1701, leaving no
legitimate children.

In March 1698 Macclesfield was divorced from his wife Anna,
daughter of Sir Richard Mason of Sutton, by act of parliament,
the first occasion on which a divorce was so granted without
a previous decree of an ecclesiastical court. The countess was
the mother of two children, who were known by the name of
Savage, and whose reputed father was Richard Savage, 4th Earl
Rivers (d. 1712). The poet Richard Savage (<?.».) claimed that
he was the younger of these children. The divorced countess
married Colonel Henry Brett about the year 1700, and died at
the age of eighty-five in 1753. Her daughter Anna Margaretta
Brett was a mistress of George I. The 2nd earl of Macclesfield
was succeeded by his brother Fitton Gerard, 3rd earl (c. 1665-
1702), on whose death without heirs the title became extinct
in December 1702.

In 1721 the title of earl of Macclesfield was revived in favour
of THOMAS PARKER (c. 1666-1732). The son of Thomas Parker,
an attorney at Leek, young Parker was a student at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and became a barrister in 1691. In 1705
he was elected member of parliament for Derby, and having
gained some reputation in his profession, he took a leading part
in the proceedings against Sacheverell in 1710. In the same
year he was appointed lord chief justice of the queen's bench,
but he refused to become lord chancellor in the following year;
however he accepted this office in 1718, two years after he had
been made Baron Parker of Macclesfield by George I., who held
him in high esteem. In 1721 he was created Viscount Parker
and earl of Macclesfield, but when serious charges of corruption
were brought against him he resigned his position as lord chan-
cellor in 1725. In the same year Macclesfield was impeached,
and although he made a very able defence he was found guilty
by the House of Lords. His sentence was a fine of £30,000 and
imprisonment until this was paid. He was confined in the
Tower of London for six weeks, and after his release he took no
further part in public affairs. The earl, who built a grammar
school at Leek, died in London on the 28th of April 1732.

Macclesfield's only son, GEORGE, (c. 1697-1764) 2nd earl of
Macclesfield of this line, was celebrated as an astronomer.
As Viscount Parker he was member of parliament for Walling-
ford from 1722 to 1727, but his interests were not in politics.
In 1722 he became a fellow of the Royal Society, and he spent
most of his time in astronomical observations at his Oxfordshire
seat, Shirburn Castle, which had been bought by his father in
1716; here he built an observatory and a chemical laboratory.
The earl was very prominent in effecting the change from the old

to the new style of dates, which came into operation in 1752.
His action in this matter, however, was somewhat unpopular,
as the opinion was fairly general that he had robbed the people
of eleven days. From 1752 until his death on the I7th of ^larch
1764 Macclesfield was president of the Royal Society, and
he made some observations on the great earthquake of 1755.
His successor was his son Thomas (1723-1795), from whom the
present earl is descended.

For the earls of the Gerard family see Lord Clarendon, History of
the Rebellion, ed. by W. D. Macray ; E. B. G. Warburton, Memoirs
of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (3 vols., 1849) ; State Papers of John
Thurloe (j vols., 1742); T. R. Phillips, Memoirs of the Civil War in
Wales and the Marches, 1642-49 (2 vols., 1874) ; and the duke of Man-
chester, Court and Society from Elizabeth to Anne (2 vols., 1864).
For Lord Chancellor Macclesfield, see Lord Campbell, Lives of the
Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal (1845-1869).

MACCLESFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in
the Macclesfield parliamentary division of Cheshire, England,
166 m. N.W. by N. of London, on the London & North- Western,
North Staffordshire and Great Central railways. Pop. (1901),
34,624. It lies on and above the small river Bollin, the valley
of which is flanked by high ground to east and west, the eastern
hills rising sharply to heights above 1000 ft. The bleak upland
country retains its ancient name of Macclesfield Forest. The
church of St Michael, standing high, was founded by Eleanor,
queen of Edward I., in 1278, and in 1740 was partly rebuilt and
greatly enlarged. The lofty steeple by which its massive tower
was formerly surmounted was battered down by the Parlia-
mentary forces during the Civil War. Connected with the
church there are two chapels, one of which, Rivers Chapel,
belonged to a college of secular priests founded in 1501 by Thomas
Savage, afterwards archbishop of York. Both the church and
chapels contain several ancient monuments. The free grammar
school, originally founded in 1502 by Sir John Percival, was
refounded in 1552 by Edward VI., and a commercial school was
erected in 1840 out of its funds. The county lunatic asylum
is situated here. The town-hall is a handsome modern building
with a Grecian frontage on two sides. Originally the trade of
Macclesfield was principally in twist and silk buttons, but this
has developed into the manufacture of all kinds of silk. Besides
this staple trade, there are various textile manufactures and
extensive breweries; while stone and slate quarries, as well as
coal-mines, are worked in the neighbourhood. Recreation
grounds include Victoria Park and Peel Park, in which are
preserved the old market cross and stocks. Water communica-
tion is provided by the Macclesfield canal. The borough is under
a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 3214 acres.
The populous suburb of SUTTON, extending S.S.E. of the town,
is partly included in the borough.

Previous to the Conquest, Macclesfield (Makesfeld, Macker-
feld, Macclesfeld, Meulefeld, Maxfield) was held by Edwin, earl
of Mercia, and at the time of the Domesday Survey it formed a
part of the lands of the earl of Chester. The entry speaks of
seven hedged enclosures, and there is evidence of fortification
in the I3th century, to which the names Jordangate, Chestergate
and Wallgate still bear witness. In the isth century Henry
Stafford, duke of Buckingham, had a fortified manor-house here,
traces of which remain. There is a tradition, supported by a
reference on a plea roll, that Randle, earl of Chester (1181-1232)
made Macclesfield a free borough, but the earliest charter extant
is that granted by Edward, prince of Wales and earl of Chester,
in 1261, constituting Macclesfield a free borough with a merchant
gild, and according certain privileges in the royal forest of Mac-
clesfield to the burgesses. This charter was confirmed by
Edward III. in 1334, by Richard II. in 1389, by Edward IV. in
1466 and by Elizabeth in 1564. In 1595 Elizabeth issued a new
charter to the town, confirmed by James I. in 1605 and Charles II.
in 1666, laying down a formal borough constitution under a
mayor, 2 aldermen, 24 capital burgesses and a high steward. In
1684 Charles II. issued a new charter, under which the borough
was governed until the Municipal Reform Act 1835. The earliest
mention of a market is in a grant by James I. to Charles, prince
of Wales and earl of Chester, in 1617. In the charter of 1666 a

204

M'CLINTOCK, SIR F. L.— M'CLURE

market is included among the privileges confirmed to the borough
as those which had been granted in 1605, or by any previous
kings and queens of England. The charter of Elizabeth in 1 595
granted an annual fair in June, and this was supplemented by
Charles II. in 1684 by a grant of fairs in April and September.
Except during the three winter months fairs are now held
monthly, the chief being " Barnaby " in June, when the town
keeps a week's holiday. Macclesfield borough sent two members
to parliament in 1832 for the first time. In 1880 it was dis-
franchised for bribery, and in 1885 the borough was merged in
the county division of Macclesfield. The manufacture of silk-
covered buttons began in the i6th century, and flourished until
the early i8th. The first silk mill was erected about 1755, and
silk manufacture on a large scale was introduced about 1790.
The manufacture of cotton began in Macclesfield about 1785.
See J. Corry, History of Macclesfield (1817).

M'CLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEOPOLD (1819-1907), British
naval officer and Arctic explorer, was born at Dundalk, Ireland,
on the 8th of July 1819, of a family of Scottish origin. In 1831
he entered the royal navy, joining the " Samarang " frigate,
Captain Charles Paget. In 1843 he passed his examination for
lieutenancy and joined the " Gorgon " steamship, Captain
Charles Hotham, which was driven ashore at Montevideo and
salved, a feat of seamanship on the part of her captain and officers
which attracted much attention. Hitherto, and until 1847,
M'Clintock's service was almost wholly on the American coasts,
but in 1848 he joined the Arctic expedition under Sir James Ross
in search of Sir John Franklin's ships, as second lieutenant of
the " Enterprise." In the second search expedition (1850) he
was first lieutenant of the " Assistance," and in the third (1854)
he commanded the " Intrepid." On all these expeditions
M'Clintock carried out brilliant sleigh journeys, and gained
recognition as one of the highest authorities on Arctic travel.
The direction which the search should follow had at last been
learnt from the Eskimo, and M'Clintock accepted the command
of the expedition on board the " Fox," fitted out by Lady
Franklin in 1857, which succeeded in its object in 1859 (see
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN). For this expedition M'Clintock had
obtained leave of absence, but the time occupied was afterwards
counted in his service. He was knighted and received many other
honours on his return. Active service now occupied him in
various tasks, including the important one of sounding in the
north Atlantic, in connexion with a scheme for a north Atlantic
cable route, until 1868. In that year he became naval aide-de-
camp to Queen Victoria. In 1865 he had been elected a fellow
of the Royal Society. He unsuccessfully contested a seat in
parliament for the borough of Drogheda, where he made the
acquaintance of Annette Elizabeth, daughter of R. F. Dunlop
of Monasterboice; he married her in 1870. He became vice-
admiral in 1877, and commander-in-chief on the West Indian
and North American station in 1879. In 1882 he was elected
an Elder Brother of Trinity House, and served actively in that
capacity. In 1891 he was created K.C.B. He was one of the
principal advisers in the preparations for the Antarctic voyage
of the " Discovery " under Captain Scott. His book, The Voyage
of the " Fox " in the Arctic Seas, was first published in 1859,
and passed through several editions. He died on the I7th of
November 1907.

See Sir C. R. Markham, Life of Admiral Sir Leopold M'Clintock
(1909).

McCLINTOCK, JOHN (1814-1870), American Methodist
Episcopal theologian and educationalist, was born in Phila-
delphia on the 27th of October 1814. He graduated at the
university of Pennsylvania in 1835, and was assistant professor
of mathematics (1836-1837), professor of mathematics (1837-
1840), and professor of Latin and Greek (1840-1848) in Dickinson
College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He opposed the Mexican War
and slavery, and in 1847 was arrested on the charge of instigating
a riot, which resulted in the rescue of several fugitive slaves;
his trial, in which he was acquitted, attracted wide attention.
In 1848-1856 he edited The Methodist Quarterly Ranew (after

1885 The Methodist Review); from 1857 to 1860 he was pastor
of St Paul's (Methodist Episcopal) Church, New York City;
and in 1860-1864 he had charge of the American chapel in Paris,
and there and in London did much to turn public opinion in
favour of the Northern States. In 1865-1866 he was chairman
of the central committee for the celebration of the centenary
of American Methodism. He retired from the regular ministry
in 1865, but preached in New Brunswick, New Jersey, until
the spring of 1867, and in that year, at the wish of its founder,
Daniel Drew, became president of the newly established Drew
theological seminary at Madison, New Jersey, where he died
on the 4th of March 1870. A great preacher, orator and teacher,
and a remarkably versatile scholar, McClintock by his editorial
and educational work probably did more than any other man
to raise the intellectual tone of American Methodism, and, par-
ticularly, of the American Methodist clergy. He introduced to
his denomination the scholarly methods of the new German
theology of the day — not alone by his translation with Charles E.
Blumenthal of Neander's Life of Christ (1847), and of Bungener's
History of the Council of Trent (1855), but by his great project,
McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological
and Ecclesiastical Literature (10 vols., 1867-1881; Supplement,
2 vols., 1885-1887), in the editing of which he was associated with
Dr James Strong (1822-1894), professor of exegetical theology
in the Drew Theological Seminary from 1868 to 1893, and the
sole editor of the last six volumes of the Cyclopaedia and of
the supplement. With George Richard Crooks (1822-1897), his
colleague at Dickinson College and in 1880-1897 professor of
historical theology at Drew Seminary, McClintock edited several
elementary textbooks in Latin and Greek (of which some were
republished in Spanish), based on the pedagogical principle of
" imitation and constant repetition." Among McClintock's
other publications are: Sketches of Eminent Methodist Ministers
(1863); an edition of Richard Watson's Theological Institutes
(1851); and The Life and Letters of Rev. Stephen Olin (1854).

See G. R. Crooks, Life and Letters of the Rev. Dr John McClintock
(New York, 1876).

McCLOSKEY, JOHN (1810-1885), American cardinal, was
born in Brooklyn, New York, on the 2oth of March 1810. He
graduated at Mt St Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Maryland, in
1827, studied theology there, was ordained a priest in 1834, and
in 1837, after two years in the college of the Propaganda at Rome,
became rector of St Joseph's, New York City, a charge to which
he returned in 1842 after one year's presidency of St John's
College (afterwards Fordham University), Fordham, New York,
then just opened. In 1844 he was .consecrated bishop of
Axieren in partibus, and was made coadjutor to Bishop Hughes
of New York with the right of succession; in 1847 he became
bishop of the newly created see of Albany; and in 1864 he
succeeded to the archdiocese of New York, then including New
York, New Jersey, and New England. In April 1875 he was
invested as a cardinal, with the title of Sancta Maria supra
Minervam, being the first American citizen to receive this
dignity. He attended the conclave of 1878, but was too late
to vote for the new pope. In May 1879 he dedicated St Patrick's
Cathedral in New York City, whose corner-stone had been laid
by Archbishop Hughes in 1858. Archbishop Corrigan became
his coadjutor in 1880 because of the failure of McCloskey's
always delicate health. The fiftieth anniversary of his ordi-
nation to the priesthood was celebrated in 1884. He died in
New York City on the roth of October 1885. He was a scholar,
a preacher, and a man of affairs, temperamentally quiet and
dignified; and his administration* differed radically from that
of Archbishop Hughes; he was conciliatory rather than polemic
and controversial, and not only built up the Roman Catholic
Church materially, but greatly changed the tone of public
opinion in his diocese toward the Church.

M'CLURE, SIR ROBERT JOHN LE MESURIER (1807-1873),
English Arctic explorer, born at Wexford, in Ireland, on the
28th of January 1807, was the posthumous son of one of Aber-
crombie's captains and spent his childhood under the care of
his godfather, General Le Mesurier, governor of Alderney, by

MAcCOLL— MAcCORMAC

205

whom he was educated for the army. He entered the navy,
however, in 1824, and twelve years later gained his first experi-
ence of Arctic exploration as mate of the " Terror " in the
expedition (1836-1837) commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir)
George Back. On his return he obtained his commission as
lieutenant, and from 1838 to 1839 served on the Canadian lakes,
being subsequently attached to the North American and West
Indian naval stations, where he remained till 1846. Two
years later he joined the Franklin search expedition (1848-1849)
under Sir J. C. Ross as first lieutenant of the " Enterprise,"
and on the return of this expedition was given the command of
the " Investigator " in the new search expedition (1850-1854)
which was sent out by way of Bering Strait to co-operate with
another from the north-west. In the course of this voyage he
achieved the distinction of completing (1850) the work connected
with the disco very of a North- West Passage (see POLAR REGIONS) .
On his return to England, M'Clure was awarded gold medals
by the English and French geographical societies, was knighted
and promoted to post-rank, his commission being dated back
four years in recognition of his special services. From 1856 to
1 86 1 he served in Eastern waters, commanding the division of
the naval brigade before Canton in 1858, for which he received
a C.B.in the following year. His latter years were spent in a
quiet country life; he attained the rank of rear-admiral in
1867, and of vice-admiral in 1873.

See Admiral Sherard Osborn, The Discovery of a North-West Passage
(1856).

MACCOLL, MALCOLM (c. 1838-1907), British clergyman and
publicist, was the son of a Scottish farmer. He was educated at
Trinity College, Glenalmond, for the Scotch Episcopal ministry,
and after further study at the university of Naples was ordained
in 1*59, and entered on a succession of curacies in the Church of
England, in London and at Addington, Bucks. He quickly
became known as a political and ecclesiastical controversialist,
wielding an active pen in support of W. E. Gladstone, who
rewarded him with the living of St George's, Botolph Lane,
in 1871, and with a canonry of Ripon in 1884. The living was
practically a sinecure, and he devoted himself to political
pamphleteering and newspaper correspondence, the result of
extensive European travel, a wide acquaintance with the
leading personages of the day, strong views on ecclesiastical sub-
jects from a high-church standpoint, and particularly on the
politics of the Eastern Question and Mahommedanism. He
took a leading part in ventilating the Bulgarian and Armenian
" atrocities," and his combative personality was constantly
to the fore in support of the campaigns of Gladstonian Liberal-
ism. He died in London on the 5th of April 1907.

McCOMBIE, WILLIAM (1805-1880), Scottish agriculturist,
was born at Tillyfour, Aberdeenshire, where he founded the
herd of black-polled cattle with which his name is associated.
He was the first tenant farmer to represent a Scottish consti-
tuency, and was returned to parliament, unopposed, as Liberal
member for the western division of Aberdeen in 1868. He died
unmarried in February 1880. His work Cattle and Cattle-
breeders' (1867) passed into a fourth edition in 1886.

McCOOK, ALEXANDER MCDOWELL (1831-1903), American
soldier, was born in Columbiana county, Ohio, on the 22nd of
April 1831. He graduated at the U. S. military academy in 1852,
served against the Apaches and Utes in New Mexico in 1853-57,
was assistant instructor of infantry tactics at the military
academy in 1858-1861, and in April 1861 became colonel of the
ist Ohio Volunteers. He served in the first battle of Bull Run;
commanded a brigade in Kentucky in the winter of 1861, a
division in Tennessee and Mississippi early in 1862, and the
ist Corps in Kentucky in October of the same year; was in
command of Nashville in November and December of that year;
and was then engaged in Tennessee until after the battle of
Chickamauga, after which he saw no active service at the front
during the Civil War. He was promoted to be brigadier-
general of volunteers in September 1861, and to be major-general
of volunteers in July 1862, earned the brevet of lieutenant-colonel
in the regular army at the capture of Nashville, Tennessee,

that of colonel at Shiloh, and that of brigadier-general at
Perryville, and in March 1865 was breveted major-general
for his services during the war. In February-May 1865 he
commanded the district of Eastern Arkansas. He resigned
from the volunteer service in October 1865, was commissioned
lieutenant-colonel of the 26th Infantry in March 1867, served
in Texas, mostly in garrison duty, until 1874, and in 1886-1890
(except for brief terms of absence) commanded Fort Leaven-
worth, Kansas, and the infantry and cavalry school there. He
became a brigadier-general in 1890, and a major-general in 1894;
retired in 1895; and in 1898-1899 served on a commission to
investigate the United States department of war as administered
during the war with Spain.

His father, DANIEL McCooK (1798-1863), killed at Buffing-
ton's Island during General John H. Morgan's raid in Ohio, and
seven of his eight brothers (three of whom were killed in battle)
all served in the Civil War; this family and that of JOHN
McCooK (1806-1865), Daniel's brother, a physician, who served
as a volunteer surgeon in the Civil War, are known as the
" fighting McCooks " — four of John's sons served in the Union
army and one in the Union navy.

JOHN JAMES McCooK (b. 1845), the youngest brother of
Alexander McDowell McCook, served in the West and after-
wards in the army of the Potomac, was wounded at Shady
Grove, Virginia, in 1864, and in 1865 was breveted lieutenant-
colonel of volunteers; he graduated at Kenyon College in 1866,
subsequently practised law in New York City, where he became
head of the firm Alexander & Green; was a prominent member
of the Presbyterian Church, and was a member of the prosecuting
committee in the Briggs heresy trial in 1892-1893.

His cousin, ANSON GEORGE McCooK (b. 1835), » son of John,
was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1861, served throughout the
Civil War in the Union Army, and was breveted brigadier-
general of volunteers; he was a Republican representative in
Congress from New York in 1877-1883; and in 1884-1893 was
secretary of the United States Senate.

Another son of John McCook, EDWARD MOODY McCooK
(1833-1909), was an efficient cavalry officer in the Union army,
was breveted brigadier-general in the regular army and major-
general of volunteers in 1865, was United States minister to
Hawaii in 1866-1869, and was governor of Colorado Territory
in 1869-1873, and in 1874-1875.

His brother, HENRY CHRISTOPHER McCooK (b. 1837), was
first lieutenant and afterwards chaplain of the 4ist Illinois,
was long pastor of the Tabernacle Presbyterian Church in Phila-
delphia, and was president of the American Presbyterian
Historical Society, but is best known for his popular and excel-
lent works on entomology, which include: The Mound-making
Ants of the Alleghanies (1877); The Natural History of the
Agricultural Ants of Texas (1879); Tenants of an Old Farm
(1884) ; American Spiders and their Spinning-work (3 vols., 1880—
1893), Nature's Craftsmen (1907) and Ant Communities (1909).

Another brother, JOHN JAMES McCooK (b. 1843), a cousin
of the lawyer of the same name, was a 2nd lieutenant of volun-
teers in the Union army in 1861; graduated at Trinity College,
Hartford, Connecticut, in 1863, and at the Berkeley divinity
school in 1866; entered the Protestant Episcopal ministry in
1867, and in 1869 became rector of St John's, East Hartford,
Connecticut; became professor of modern languages in Trinity
College, Hartford, in 1883; in 1895-1897 was president of the
board of directors of the Connecticut reformatory; and wrote
on prison reform and kindred topics.

MACCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1836-1901), Irish

surgeon, was born at Belfast on the I7th of January 1836,
being the son of Dr Henry MacCormac. He studied medicine
and surgery at Belfast, Dublin and Paris, and graduated in
arts, medicine and surgery at the Queen's University of Ireland,
in which he afterwards became an examiner in surgery. He
began practice in Belfast, where he became surgeon to the
General Hospital, but left it for London on his marriage in 1861
to Miss Katherine M. Charters. In the Franco-German War of
1870 he was surgeon-in-chief to the Anglo-American Ambulance,

206

McCORMICK— M'CRIE

and was present at Sedan; and he also went through the Turco-
Servian War of 1876. He became in this way an authority on
gun-shot wounds, and besides being highly successful as a surgeon
was very popular in society, his magnificent physique and Irish
temperament making him a notable and attractive personality.
In 1 88 1 he was appointed assistant-surgeon at St Thomas's
Hospital, London, and for twenty years continued his work
there as surgeon, lecturer and consulting surgeon. In 1881 he
acted as honorary secretary-general of the International Medical
Congress in London, and was knighted for his services. In
1883 he was elected member of the council of the College of
Surgeons, and in 1887 a member of the court of examiners; in
1893 he delivered the Bradshaw lecture, and in 1896 was elected
president, being re-elected to this office in 1897, 1898,1899, and
1900 (the centenary year of the college), an unprecedented
record. In 1897 he was created a baronet, and appointed
surgeon-in-ordinary to the prince of Wales. In 1899 he was
Hunterian Orator. In the same year he volunteered to go out
to South Africa as consulting surgeon to the forces, and from
November 1899 to April 1900 he saw much active service both
in Cape Colony and Natal, his assistance being cordially ac-
knowledged on his return. In 1901 he was appointed honorary
serjeant-surgeon to the king. But during 1898 he had suffered
from a prolonged illness, and he had perhaps put too much
strain on his strength, for on the 4th of December 1901 he died
somewhat suddenly at Bath. Besides treatises on Surgical
Operations and Antiseptic Surgery, and numerous contributions
to the medical journals, MacCormac was the author of Work
under the Red Cross and of an interesting volume commemorat-
ing the centenary of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1900.
The latter contains biographical notices of all the masters and
presidents up to that date.

McCORMICK, CYRUS HALL (1809-1884), American inventor
of grain-harvesting machinery, was born at Walnut Grove, in
what is now Roane county, W. Va., U.S.A., on the 1 5th of February
1809. His father was a farmer who had invented numerous
labour-saving devices for farmwork, but after repeated efforts
had failed in his attempts to construct a successful grain-cutting
machine. In 1831, Cyrus, then twenty-two years old, took
up the -problem, and after careful study constructed a machine
which was successfully employed in the late harvest of 1831 and
patented in 1834. The McCormick reaper after further im-
provements proved a complete success; and in 1847 the inventor
removed to Chicago, where he established large works for manu-
facturing his agricultural machines. William H. Seward has
said of McCormick's invention, that owing to it " the line of
civilization moves westward thirty miles each year." Numerous
prizes and medals were awarded for his reaper, and he was
elected a corresponding member of the French Academy of
Sciences, "as having done more for the cause of agriculture
than any other living man." He died in Chicago on the i3th
of May 1884.

See Herbert N. Casson, Cyrus Hall McCormick: his Life and Work
(Chicago, 1909).

McCOSH, JAMES (1811-1894), Scottish philosophical writer,
was born of a Covenanting family in Ayrshire, on the ist of
April 1811. He studied at Glasgow and Edinburgh, receiving
at the latter university his M.A., at the suggestion of Sir William
Hamilton, for an essay on the Stoic philosophy. He became
a minister of the Established Church of Scotland, first at Arbroath
and then at Brechin, and took part in the Free Church movement
of 1843. In 1852 he was appointed professor of logic and meta-
physics in Queen's College, Belfast; and in 1868 was chosen
president and professor of philosophy of the college of New
Jersey, at Princeton, He resigned the presidency in 1888,
but continued as lecturer on philosophy till his death on
the i6th of November 1894. He was most successful in college
administration, a good lecturer and an effective preacher. His
general philosophical attitude and method were Hamiltonian;
he insisted on severing religious and philosophical data from
merely physical, and though he added little to original thought,
he clearly restated and vigorously used the conclusions of

others. In his controversial writings he often failed to under-
stand the real significance of the views which he attacked, and
much of his criticism is superficial.

His chief works are: Method of Divine Government, Physical and
Moral (Edinburgh, 1850, $th ed., 1856, and frequently republished
in New York) ; Tht Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation
(Edinburgh, 1855; new editions, New York, 1867-1880); Intuitions
of the Mind inductively investigated (London and New York, 1860;
3rd rev. ed., 1872); An Examination of Mr J. S. Mill's Philosophy
(London and New York, 1866; enlarged 1871, several eds.); Philo-
sophical Papers containing (l) " Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's
Logic," (2) " Reply to Mr Mill's third edition," and (3) " Present
State of Moral Philosophy in Britain;" Religious Aspects of Evolution
(New York, 1888, 2nd ed., 1890). Foracomplete list of his writings
see J. H. Dulles, McCosh Bibliography (Princeton, 1895).

McCOY, SIR FREDERICK (1823-1899), British palaeontolo-
gist, the son of Dr Simon McCoy, was born in Dublin in 1823,
and was educated in that city for the medical profession. His
interests, however, became early centred in natural history,
and especially in geology, and at the age of eighteen he published
a Catalogue of Organic Remains compiled from specimens
exhibited in the Rotunda at Dublin (1841). He assisted Sir
R. J. Griffith (q.v.) by studying the fossils of the carboniferous
and silurian rocks of Ireland, and they prepared a joint Synopsis
of the Silurian Fossils of Ireland (1846). In 1846 Sedgwick
secured his services, and for at least four years he devoted
himself to the determination and arrangement of the fossils
in the Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge. Sedgwick wrote
of him as " an excellent naturalist, an incomparable and most
philosophical palaeontologist, and one of the steadiest and
quickest workmen that ever undertook the arrangement of a
museum" (Life and Letters of Sedgwick, ii. 194). Together
they prepared the important and now classic work entitled
A Synopsis of the Classification of the British Palaeozoic
Rocks, with a Systematic Description of the British Palaeozoic
Fossils in the Geological Museum of the University of Cambridge
(1855). Meanwhile McCoy in 1850 had been appointed pro-
fessor of geology in Queen's College, Belfast, and in 1854 he
accepted the newly founded professorship of natural science in
the university of Melbourne. There he lectured for upwards
of thirty years; he established the National Museum of Natural
History and Geology in Melbourne, of which he was director;
and becoming associated with the geological survey of Victoria
as palaeontologist, he issued a series of decades entitled Pro-
dromus of the Palaeontology of Victoria. He also issued the
Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria. To local societies he
contributed many papers, and he continued his active scientific
work for fifty-eight years — his last contribution, " Note on a new
Australian Pterygotus," being printedin the Geological Magazine
for May 1899. He was elected F.R.S. in 1880, and was one
of the first to receive the Hon. D.Sc. from the university of
Cambridge. In 1886 he was made C.M.G., and in 1891 K.C.M.G.
He died in Melbourne on the i6th of May 1899.

Obituary (with bibliography) in Geol. Mag. 1899, p. 283.

M'CRIE, THOMAS (1772-1835), Scottish historian and divine,
was born at Duns in Berwickshire in November 1772. He
studied in Edinburgh University, and in 1796 he was ordained
minister of the Second Associate Congregation, Edinburgh In
1806, however, with some others M'Crie seceded from the
" general associate synod," and formed the " constitutional
associate presbytery," afterwards merged in the " original
seceders." He was consequently deposed by the associate
synod, and his congregation withdrew with him and built
another place of worship in which he officiated until his death.
M'Crie devoted himself to investigations into the history,
constitution and polity of the churches of the Reformation;
and the first-fruits of his study were given to the public in
November 181 1 as The Life of John Knox, containing Illustrations
of the History of the Reformation in Scotland, which procured
:or the author the degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University,
an honour conferred then for the first time upon a Scottish
dissenting minister. This work, of great learning and value,
exercised an important influence on public opinion at the time.

MACCULLAGH— M'CULLOCH

207

At the solicitation of his friend Andrew Thomson, M'Crie
became a contributor to The Edinburgh Christian Instructor,
and in 1817 he subjected some of Sir W. Scott's works to a
criticism which took the form of a vindication of the Covenanters.
Preserving the continuity of his historical studies, he followed
up his first work with The Life of Andrew Melville (1819). In
1827 he published a History of the Progress and Suppression
of the Reformation in Italy, and in 1829 a History of the Progress
and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain.

His latest literary undertaking was a life of John Calvin.
Only three chapters were completed when the writer died on
the sth of August 1835, leaving four sons and one daughter.

See Thomas M'Crie (1797-1875), Life of T. M'Crie (1840), and
Hugh Miller, My Schools and Schoolmasters (1869).

MACCULLAGH, JAMES (1800-1847), Irish mathematician
and physicist, was born in 1809, near Strabane, Ireland. After
a brilliant career at Trinity College, Dublin, he was elected
fellow in 1832. From 1832 to 1843 he held the chair of mathe-
matics; and during his tenure of this post he improved in a
most marked manner the position of his university as a mathe-
matical centre. In 1843 he was transferred to the chair of
natural philosophy. Overwork, mainly on subjects beyond
the natural range of his powers, induced mental disease; and
he died by his own hand in October 1847.

His Works were published in 1880. Their distinguishing feature
is the geometry — which has rarely been applied either to pure space
problems or to known physical questions such as the rotation of a
rigid solid or the properties of Fresnel's wave-surface with such
singular elegance; in this respect his work takes rank with that of
Louis Poinsot. One specially remarkable geometrical discovery of
MacCullagh's is that of the " modular generation of surfaces of the
second degree "; and a noteworthy contribution to physical optics
is his " theorem of the polar plane." But his methods, which, in
less known subjects, were almost entirely tentative, were altogether
inadequate to the solution of the more profound physical problems
to which his attention was mainly devoted, such as the theory of
double refraction, &c. See G. G. Stokes's " Report on Double
Refraction " (B. A. Report, 1862).

MACCULLOCH, HORATIO (1805-1867), Scottish landscape
painter, was born in Glasgow. He studied for a year under
John Knox, a Glasgow landscapist of some repute, was then
engaged at Cumnock, painting the ornamental lids of snuff-
boxes, and afterwards employed in Edinburgh by Lizars, the
engraver, to colour the illustrations in Selby's British Birds and
similar works. Meanwhile he was working unweariedly from
nature, greatly influenced in his early practice by the water-
colours of H. W. Williams. Returning to Glasgow in some four
or five years, he was employed on several large pictures for the
decoration of a public hall in St George's Place, and he did a
little as a theatrical scene-painter. About this time he was
greatly impressed with a picture by Thomson of Duddingston.
Gradually MacCulloch asserted his individuality, and formed his
own style on a close study of nature; his works form an inter-
esting link between the old world of Scottish landscape and the
new. In 1829 MacCulloch first figured in the Royal Scottish
Academy's exhibition, and year by year, till his death on the
24th of June 1867, he was a regular exhibitor. In 1838 he was
elected a member of the Scottish Academy. The subjects of
his numerous landscapes were taken almost exclusively from
Scottish scenery.

Several works by MacCulloch were engraved by William Miller and
William Forrest, and a volume of photographs from his landscapes,
with an excellent biographical notice of the artist by Alexander
Fraser, R.S.A., was published in Edinburgh in 1872.

McCULLOCH, HUGH (1808-1895), American financier, was
born at Kennebunk, Maine, on the 7th of December 1808. He
was educated at Bowdoin College, studied law in Boston, and
in 1833 began practice at Fort Wayne, Indiana. He was cashier
and manager of the Fort Wayne branch of the old state bank
of Indiana from 1835 to 1857, and president of the new state
bank from 1857 to 1863. Notwithstanding his opposition to
the National Banking Act of 1862, he was selected by Secretary
Chase as comptroller of the currency in 1863 to put the new
system into operation. His work was so successful that he was

appointed secretary of the treasury by President Lincoln in
1865, and was continued in office by President Johnson until the
close of his administration in 1869. In his first annual report,
issued on the 4th of December 1865, he strongly urged the
retirement of the legal tenders or greenbacks as a preliminary
to the resumption of specie payments. In accordance with this
suggestion an act was passed, on the izth of March 1866, author-
izing the retirement of not more than $10,000,000 in six months
and not more than $4,000,000 per month thereafter, but it met
with strong opposition and was repealed on the 4th of February
1868, after only $48,000,000 had been retired. He was much
disappointed by the decision of the United States Supreme
Court upholding the constitutionality of the legal tenders (12
Wallace 457). Soon after the close of his term of office McCulloch
went to England, and spent six years (1870-1876) as a member
of the banking firm of Jay Cooke, McCulloch & Co. From
October 1884 until the close of President Arthur's term of office
in March 1885 he was again secretary of the treasury. He died
at his home near Washington, D.C., on the 24th of May 1895.

The chief authority for the life of McCulloch is his own book, Men
and Measures of Half a Century (New York, 1888).

M'CULLOCH, SIR JAMES (1810-1893), Australian statesman,
was born in Glasgow. He entered the house of Dennistoun
Brothers, became a partner, and went to Melbourne to open a
branch. In 1854, shortly after his arrival in Victoria, he was
appointed a nominee member of the Legislative Council, and in
the first Legislative Assembly under the new constitution was
returned for the electorate of the Wimmera. In 1857 he was
appointed minister of trade and customs in the second ministry
of Haines, which lasted till 1858, and subsequently he became
treasurer in the Nicholson administration, which held office
from October 1859 to November 1860. In June 1862 the third
O'Shanassy ministry was defeated by a combination between
a section of its supporters led by M'Culloch and the opposition
proper under Heales, and M'Culloch became premier and chief
secretary. Hitherto he had been regarded as a supporter of
the landed, squatting and importing interests, but the coalition
ministry introduced a number of measures which at the time
were regarded by the propertied classes in the colony as revolu-
tionary. In addition to passing a Land Bill, which extended
the principle of free selection and deferred payments, the ministry
announced their intention of reducing the duties on the export
of gold and the import duties upon tea and sugar, and of supply-
ing the deficiency by the imposition of duties ranging from 5 to
10% upon a number of articles which entered into competition
with the local industries, thus introducing protection. The
mercantile community took alarm at the proposal, and at the
general election of 1864 the ministerial policy was warmly
opposed. But a majority was returned in its favour, and a new
tariff was carried through the popular branch of the legislature.
There was no probability of its being assented to by the Council,
whieh, under the constitution, had the power of rejecting,
although it could not amend, any money Bill. The government
therefore decided upon tacking the tariff to the Appropriation
Bill, and compelling the Council either to agree to the new fiscal
proposals or to refuse to pay the public creditors and the civil
servants. The Council accepted the challenge, and rejected
the Appropriation Bill. But M'Culloch and his colleagues
would not give way. They continued to collect the new duties
under the authority of the Assembly, and took advantage of a
clause in the Audit Act which directed the governor to sign the
necessary warrants for the payment of any sum awarded by
verdicts in the supreme court in favour of persons who had sued
the government. M'Culloch borrowed £40,000 from the London
Chartered Bank, of which he was a director, to meet pressing
payments, and the bank at his instigation sued the government
for the amount of the advance. The attorney-general at once
accepted judgment, and the governor, who had placed himself
unreservedly in the hands of his ministers, signed the necessary
warrant, and the Treasury repaid to the bank the amount of its
advance, plus interest and costs. In the next session the tariff
was again sent up to the Council, which promptly rejected it,

208

MACCULLOCH— M'CULLOCH

whereupon the ministry dissolved the assembly and appealed
to the country. The result of the general election was to
increase M'Culloch's majority, and the tariff was again sent to
the Council, only to be again rejected. M'Culloch resigned, but
no member of the opposition was willing to form a ministry,
and he resumed office. Eventually a conference between the
two houses was held, and the Council passed the tariff, after a
few modifications in it had been agreed to by the Assembly.
Just at the moment that peace was restored, the governor,
Sir Charles Darling, was recalled by the home government, on
the ground that he had displayed partisanship by assisting
M'Culloch's government and their majority in the Assembly to
coerce the Council. In order to show their gratitude to the dis-
missed governor, the Assembly decided to grant a sum of £20,000
to Lady Darling. The home government intimated that Sir
Charles Darling must retire from the Colonial service if this gift
were accepted by his wife, but M'Culloch included the money in
the annual Appropriation Bill, with the result that it was re-
jected by the Council. The new governor, Viscount Canterbury,
was less complaisant than^iis predecessor, but after an unsuc-
cessful attempt to obtain other advisers, he agreed to recommend
the Council to pass the Appropriation Bill with the £20,000 grant
included. The Upper House declined to adopt this course, and
again rejected the Bill. A long and bitter struggle between
the two Chambers ended in another general election in 1868,
which still further increased the ministerial majority; but Lord
Canterbury, in obedience to instructions from the colonial office,
declined to do anything to facilitate the passage of the Darling
grant. M'Culloch resigned, and after protracted negotiations
Sir Charles Sladen formed from the minority in the Assembly a
ministry which only lasted two months. The deadlock seemed
likely to become more stringent than ever, when a communica-
tion was received from Sir Charles Darling, that neither he nor
his wife could receive anything like a donation from the people
of Victoria. The attempt to pass the grant was therefore aban-
doned, and in July 1868 M'Culloch resumed office with different
colleagues, but resigned in the following year, when he was
knighted. He formed a third ministry in 1870. During this
third administration he passed a measure through both Houses
which secured a life annuity of £1000 per annum to Lady Darling.
Additional taxation being necessary, Sir James M'Culloch was
urged by his protectionist supporters to increase the import
duties, but he refused, and proposed to provide for the deficit
by levying a tax upon town, suburban and country property.
This proposal was defeated in the Assembly; Sir James resigned
in June 1871, and was appointed agent-general for Victoria in
London. He held that appointment till 1873, was created
K.C.M.G. in 1874, returned to the colony the same year, and
in 1875 formed his fourth and last ministry, which kept power
till May 1877, when his party was defeated at the general elec-
tion. During his eighteen months of office he had to encounter
a persistent opposition from Berry and his followers, *who
systematically obstructed the business of the Assembly, on the
ground that the acting-governor, Sir William Stawell, had
improperly refused a dissolution. Sir James M'Culloch, to
counteract this obstruction, invented the closure, which was
afterwards introduced with some modifications into the house
of commons. After his defeat in 1877 Sir James retired from
public life and returned to England, where he died on the 3oth
of January 1893 at Ewell, Surrey. He. was twice married — first,
in 1841, to Susan, daughter of the Rev. James Renwick, of
Muirton, Scotland; secondly, in 1867, to Margaret, daughter
of William Inglis, of Walflat, Dumbartonshire. He left, the
house of Dennistoun Brothers in 1862, and founded a new firm
at Melbourne in conjunction with Leishman, Inglis & Co. of
London, under the title of M'Culloch, Sellars & Co. He held
several important commercial positions, and was president of
the Melbourne Chamber of Commerce. (G. C. L.)

MACCULLOCH, JOHN (1773-1833), Scottish geologist, de-
scended from the Maccullochs of Nether Ardwell in Galloway,
was born in Guernsey, on the 6th of 'October 1773, his mother
being a native of that island. Having displayed remarkable

powers as a boy, he was sent to study medicine in the university
of Edinburgh, where he qualified as M.D. in 1793, and then
entered the army as assistant surgeon. Attaching himself to
the artillery, he became chemist to the board of ordnance (1803).
He still continued, however, to practise for a time as a physician,
and during the years 1807-1811 he resided at Blackheath. In
1811 he communicated his first papers to the Geological Society.
They were devoted to an elucidation of the geological structure
of Guernsey, of the Channel Islands, and of Heligoland. The
evidence they afforded of his capacity, and the fact that he
already had received a scientific appointment, probably led to
his being selected in the same year to make some geological and
mineralogical investigations in Scotland. He was asked to
report upon stones adapted for use in powder-mills, upon the
suitability of the chief Scottish mountains for a repetition of
the pendulum experiments previously conducted by Maskelyne
and Playfair at Schiehallion, and on the deviations of the
plumb-line along the meridian of the Trigonometrical Survey.
In the course of the explorations necessary for the purposes of
these reports he made extensive observations on the geology
and mineralogy of Scotland. He formed also a collection of
the mineral productions and rocks of that country, which he
presented to the Geological Society in 1814. In that year he
was appointed geologist to the Trigonometrical Survey; and in
1816-1817 he was president of the Geological Society. Com-
paratively little had been done in the investigation of Scottish
geology, and finding the field so full of promise, he devoted
himself to its cultivation with great ardour. ,One of his most
important labours was the examination of the whole range of
islands along the west of Scotland, at that time not easily
visited, and presenting many obstacles to a scientific explorer.
The results of this survey appeared (1819) in the form of his
Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, including the Isle
of Man (2 vols. 8vo, with an atlas of plates in 410), which forms
one of the classical treatises on British geology. He was elected
F.R.S. in 1820. He continued to write papers, chiefly on the
rocks and minerals of Scotland, and had at last gathered so
large an amount of information that the government was pre-
vailed upon in the year 1826 to employ him in the preparation
of a geological map of Scotland. From that date up to the time
of his death he returned each summer to Scotland and traversed
every district of the kingdom, inserting the geological features
upon Arrowsmith's map, the only one then available for his
purpose. He completed the field-work in 1832, and in 1834 his
map and memoir were ready for publication, but these were not
issued until 1836, the year after he died. Among his other
works the following may be mentioned: A Geological Classifi-
cation of Rocks with Descriptive Synopses of the Species and
Varieties, comprising the Elements of Practical Geology (1821);
The Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland, in a series of letters
to Sir Walter Scott (4 vols. 1824); A System of Geology, with a
Theory of the Earth and an Examination of its Connexion with the
Sacred Records (2 vols. 1831). During a visit to Cornwall he
was killed by being dragged along in the wheel of his carriage,
on the 2ist of August 1835.

In penning an obituary notice, C. Lyell in 1836 (Proc. Geol. Soc.
"• 357) acknowledged with gratitude" that he had "received
more instruction from Macculloch's labours in geology than from
those of any living writer."

M'CULLOCH, JOHN RAMSAY (1780-1864), British economist
and statistician, was born on the ist of March 1789 at Whithorn
in Wigtownshire. His family belonged to the class of " states-
men," or small landed proprietors. He was for some time
employed at Edinburgh as a clerk in the office of a writer to
the signet. But, the Scotsman newspaper having been estab-
lished at the beginning of 1817, M'Culloch sent a contribution
to the fourth number, the merit of which was at once recognized ;
he soon became connected with the management of the paper,
and during 1818 and 1819 acted as editor. Most of his articles
related to questions of political economy, and he delivered
lectures in Edinburgh on that science. He now also began to
write on subjects of the same class in the Edinburgh Review,

McCULLOUGH— MACDONALD, G.

209

his first contribution being an article on Ricardo's Principles
of Political Economy in 1818. Within the next few years he
gave both public lectures and private instruction in London
on political economy. In 1823 he was chosen to fill the lecture-
ship established by subscription in honour of the memory of
Ricardo. A movement was set on foot in 1825 by Jeffrey and
others to induce the government to found in the university of
Edinburgh a chair of political economy, separate from that of
moral philosophy, the intention being to obtain the appointment
for M'Culloch. This project fell to the ground; but in 1828 he
was made professor of political economy in London University.
He then fixed his residence permanently in London, where he
continued his literary work, being now one of the regular writers
in the Edinburgh Review. In 1838 he was appointed comptroller
of the stationery office; the duties of this position, which he
held till his death, he discharged -with conscientious fidelity,
and introduced important reforms in the management of the
department. Sir Robert Peel, in recognition of the services he
had rendered to political science, conferred on him a literary
pension of £20x3 per annum. He was elected a foreign associate
of the Institute of France (Acadtmie des sciences morales el
poliliques). He died in London, after a short illness, on the nth
of November 1864, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. To
his personal character and social qualities very favourable
testimony was borne by those who knew him best. In general
politics he always remained a Whig pure and simple; though he
was in intimate relations with James Mill and his circle, he
never shared the Radical opinions of that group.

M'Culloch cannot be regarded as an original thinker on political
economy. He did not contribute any new ideas to that science, or
introduce any noteworthy correction of the views, either as to
method or doctrine, generally accepted by the dominant school of
his day. But the work he did must be pronounced, in relation to
the wants of his time, a very valuable one. His name will probably
be less permanently associated with anything he has written on
economic science, strictly so called, than with his great statistical
and other compilations. His Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial
Navigation (1832) and his Statistical Account of the British Empire
(1837) remain imposing monuments of his extensive and varied
knowledge and his indefatigable industry. Another useful work
of reference, also the fruit of wide erudition and much labour, is his
Literature of Political Economy (1845). Though weak on the side
of the foreign literature of the science, it is very valuable as a
critical and biographical guide to British writers.

McCULLOUGH, JOHN EDWARD (1837-1885), American
actor, was born in Coleraine, Ireland, on the and of November
1837. He went to America at the age of sixteen, and made his
first appearance on the stage at the Arch Street Theatre, Phila-
delphia, in 1857. In support of Edwin Forrest and Edwin
Booth he played second roles in Shakespearian and other
tragedies, and Forrest left him by will all his prompt books.
Virginius was his greatest success, although even in this part
and as Othello he was coldly received in England (1881). In
1884 he broke down physically and mentally, and he died in
an asylum at Philadelphia on the 8th of November 1885.

MACCUNN, HAMISH (1868- ), Scottish musical com-
poser, was born at Greenock, the son of a shipowner, and was
educated at the Royal College of Music. His first success was
with the overture Land of the Mountain and Flood in 1887 at
the Crystal Palace, and this was followed by other composi-
tions, with a characteristic Scottish colouring. From 1888 to
1894 he was a professor at the Royal College of Music, and this
latter year saw both his marriage to a daughter of John Pettie,
R.A., and the production of his opera Jeanie Deans at Edin-
burgh. He was for some years conductor to the Carl Rosa
Opera company, and subsequently to other companies. His
opera Diarmid was produced at Covent Garden in 1897, and his
other music includes cantatas, overtures, part-songs, instru-
mental pieces, and songs, all markedly Scottish in type.

MACDONALD, FLORA (1722-1790), Jacobite heroine, was
the daughter of Ranald Macdonald of Milton in the island of
South Uist in the Hebrides, and his wife Marion the daughter
of Angus Macdonald, minister of South Uist. Her father died
when she was a child, and her mother was abducted and

married by Hugh Macdonald of Armadale. She was brought
up under the care of the chief of her clan, Macdonald of
Clanranald, and was partly educated in Edinburgh. In June
1746 she was living in Benbecula in the Hebrides when
Prince Charles Edward (q.v.) took refuge there after the
battle of Culloden. The prince's companion, Captain O'Neill,
sought her help. The island was held for the government by
the local militia, but the secret sympathies of the Macdonalds
were with the Jacobite cause. After some hesitation Flora
promised to help. At a later period she told the duke of
Cumberland, son of George III. and commander-in-chief in
Scotland, that she acted from charity and would have helped
him also if he had been defeated and in distress, a statement
which need not be accepted as quite literally true. The
commander of the militia in the island, a Macdonald, who was
probably admitted into the secret, gave her a pass to the main-
land for herself, a manservant, an Irish spinning maid, Betty
Burke, and a boat's crew of six men. The prince was disguised
as Betty Burke. After a first repulse at Waternish, the party
landed at Portree. The prince was hidden in a cave while
Flora Macdonald found help for him in the neighbourhood, and
was finally able to escape. He had left Benbecula on the 27th of
June. The talk of the boatmen brought suspicion on Flora
Macdonald, and she was arrested and brought to London.
After a short imprisonment in the Tower, she was allowed to
live outside of it, under the guard of a " messenger " or gaoler.
When the Act of Indemnity was passed in 1747 she was left at
liberty. Her courage and loyalty had gained her general
sympathy, which was increased by her good manners and gentle
character. Dr Johnson, who saw her in 1773, describes her as
" a woman of soft features, gentle manners and elegant pres-
ence." In 1750 she married Allen Macdonald of Kingsburgh,
and in 1773 they emigrated to America. In the War of Inde-
pendence he served the British government and was taken
prisoner. In 1779 his wife returned home in a merchant ship
which was attacked by a privateer. She refused to leave the
deck during the action, and was wounded in the arm. She died
on the sth of March 1790. There is a statue to her memory
in Inverness. Flora Macdonald had a large family of sons,
who mostly entered the army or navy, and two daughters.

See A. C. Ewald, Life and Times of Prince Charles Edward (1886).
The so-called Autobiography of Flora Macdonald, published by her
grand-daughter F. F. Walde (1870) is of small value.

MACDONALD, GEORGE (1824-1905), Scottish novelist and
poet, was born at Huntly, Aberdeenshire. His father, a farmer,
was one of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, and a direct descendant
of one of the families that suffered in the massacre.
Macdonald's youth was passed in his native town, under the
immediate influence of the Congregational Church, and in an
atmosphere strongly impregnated with Calvinism. He took
his . degree at Aberdeen University, and migrated thence to
London, studying at Highbury College for the Congregational
ministry. In 1850 he was appointed pastor of Trinity Congre-
gational Church, Arundel, and, after resigning his cure there,
was engaged in ministerial work in Manchester. His health,
however, was unequal to the strain, and after a short sojourn
in Algiers he settled in London and adopted the profession of
literature. In 1856 he published his first book, Within and
Without, a dramatic poem; following it in 1857 with a volume
of Poems, and in 1858 by the delightful " faerie romance "
Phantasies. His first conspicuous success was achieved in 1862
with David Elginbrod, the forerunner of a number of popular
novels, which include Alec Forbes of Howglen (1865), Annals
of a Quiet Neighbourhood (1866), Robert Falconer (1868), Malcolm
(1875), The Marquis of Lassie (1877), and Donal Grant (1883).
He was for a time editor of Good Words for the Young, and lec-
tured successfully in Americain 1872-1873. He wrote admirable
stories for the young, and published some volumes of sermons.
In 1877 he was given a civil list pension. He died on the i8th
of September 1905.

Both as preacher and as lecturer on literary topics George
Macdonald's sincerity and moral enthusiasm exercised great

210 MACDONALD, SIR H. A.— MACDONALD, J. E. J. A.

influence upon thoughtful minds. His verse is homely and
direct, and marked by religious fervour and simplicity. As a
portrayer of Scottish peasant-life in fiction he was the precursor
of a large school, which has benefited by his example and sur-
passed its original leader in popularity. The religious tone of
his novels is relieved by tolerance and a broad spirit of humour,
and the simpler emotions of humble life are sympathetically
treated.

MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD (1852-1903),
British soldier, was born of humble parentage at Muir of Allan-
Grange, Ross-shire, Scotland, in 1852. As a boy he was employed
in a draper's shop at Dingwall, but in 1870 he enlisted in the
92nd (Gordon) Highlanders. He rose rapidly through the non-
commissioned ranks, and had already been a colour-sergeant
for some years when, in the Afghan War of 1879, he dis-
tinguished himself in the presence of the enemy so much as
to be promoted to commissioned rank, his advancement being
equally acceptable to his brother officers and popular with the
rank and file. As a subaltern he served in the first Boer War
of 1880-81, and at Majuba, where he was made prisoner, his
bravery was so conspicuous that General Joubert gave him
back his sword. In 1885 he served under Sir Evelyn Wood
in the reorganization of the Egyptian army, and he took part
in the Nile Expedition of that year. In 1888 he became a
regimental captain in the British service, but continued to
serve in the Egyptian army, being particularly occupied with
the training of the Sudanese battalions. In 1889 he received
the D.S.O. for his conduct at Toski and in 1891, after the
action at Tokar, he was promoted substantive major. In
1896 he commanded a brigade of the Egyptian army in the
Dongola Expedition, and during the following campaigns he
distinguished himself in every engagement, above all in the
final battle of Omdurman (1898) at the crisis of which Mac-
donald's Sudanese brigade, manoeuvring as a unit with the
coolness and precision of the parade ground, repulsed the most
determined attack of the Mahdists. After this great service
Macdonald's name became famous in England and Scotland,
the popular sobriquet of " Fighting Mac " testifying the
interest aroused in the public mind by his career and his soldierly
personality. He was promoted colonel in the army and ap-
pointed an aide-de-camp to the queen, and in 1899 he was
promoted major-general and appointed to a command in India.
In December 1899 he was called to South Africa to command the
Highland Brigade, which had just suffered very heavily and had
lost its commander, Major-General A. G. Wauchope, in the
battle of Magersfontein. He commanded the brigade through-
out Lord Roberts's Paardeberg, Bloemfontein and Pretoria
operations, and in 1901 he was made a K.C. B. In 1902 he
was appointed to command the troops in Ceylon, but early in
the following year (March 25, 1903) he committed suicide
in Paris. A memorial to this brilliant soldier, in the form of
a tower 100 ft.' high, was erected at Dingwall and completed
in 1907.

MACDONALD, JACQUES ETIENNE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE
(1765-1840), duke of Taranto and marshal of France, was born
at Sedan on the i7th of November 1765. His father came of an
old Jacobite family, which had followed James II. to France,
and was a near relative of the celebrated Flora Macdonald.
In 1785 Macdonald joined the legion raised to support the
revolutionary party in Holland against the Prussians, and
after it was disbanded he received a commission in the regiment
of Dillon. On the breaking out of the Revolution, the regiment
of Dillon remained eminently loyal, with the exception of
Macdonald, who was in love with Mile Jacob, whose father
was enthusiastic for the doctrines of the Revolution. Directly
after his marriage he was appointed aide-de-camp to General
Dumouriez. He distinguished himself at Jemmapes, and was
promoted colonel in 1793. He refused to desert to the Austrians
with Dumouriez, and as a reward was made general of brigade,
and appointed to command the leading brigade in Pichegru's
invasion of Holland. His knowledge of the country proved
most useful, and he was instrumental in the capture of the

Dutch fleet by French hussars. In 1797, having been made
general of division, he served first in the army of the Rhine and
then in that of Italy. When he reached Italy, the peace of
Campo Formio had been signed, and Bonaparte had returned
to France; but, under the direction of Berthiei, Macdonald
first occupied Rome, of which he was made governor, and then
in conjunction with Championnet he defeated General Mack,
and revolutionized the kingdom of Naples under the title of the
Parthenopaean Republic. When Suvarov invaded northern Italy,
and was winning back the conquests of Bonaparte, Macdonald
collected all the troops in the peninsula and moved northwards.
With but 30,000 men he attacked, at the Trebbia, Suvarov with
50,000, and after three days' fighting, during which he held
the Russians at bay, and gave time for Moreau to come up,
he retired in good order to Genoa. After this gallant behaviour
he was made governor of Versailles, and acquiesced, if he did
not co-operate, in the events of the i8th Brumaire. In 1800
he received the command of the army in Switzerland which
was to maintain the communications between the armies of
Germany and of Italy. He carried out his orders to the letter,
and at last, in the winter of 1800-1, he was ordered to march
over the Spliigen Pass. This achievement is fully described
by Mathieu Dumas, who was chief of his staff, and is at least
as noteworthy as Bonaparte's famous passage of the St Bernard
before Marengo, though followed by no such successful battle.
On his return to Paris Macdonald married the widow of
General Joubert, and was appointed French plenipotentiary in
Denmark. Returning in 1805 he associated himself with Moreau
and incurred the dislike of Napoleon, who did not include him
in his first creation of marshals. Till 1809 he remained without
employment, but in that year Napoleon gave him the command
of a corps and the duties of military adviser to the young prince
Eugene Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy. He led the army from
Italy till its junction with Napoleon, and at Wagram commanded
the celebrated column of attack which broke the Austrian cent re
and won the victory. Napoleon made him marshal of France
on the field of battle, and presently created him duke of Taranto.
In 1810 he served in Spain, and in 1812 he commanded the left
wing of the grand army for the invasion of Russia. In 1813,
after sharing in the battles of Liitzen and Bautzen, he was
ordered to invade Silesia, where Blucher defeated him with
great loss at the Katzbach (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). After
the terrible battle of Leipzig he was ordered with Prince Ponia-
towski to cover the evacuation of Leipzig; after the blowing
up of the bridge, he managed to swim the Elster, while Ponia-
towksi was drowned. During the defensive campaign of 1814
Macdonald again distinguished himself; he was one of the
marshals sent by Napoleon to take his abdication in favour
of his son to Paris. When all were deserting their old master,
Macdonald remained faithful to him. He was directed by
Napoleon to give in his adherence to the new regime, and was
presented by him with the sabre of Murad Bey for his fidelity.
At the Restoration he was made a peer of France and knight
grand cross of the order of St Louis; he remained faithful to
the new order of things during the Hundred Days. In 1815
he became chancellor of the Legion of Honour (a post he held
till 1831), in 1816 major-general of the royal bodyguard, and he
took a great part in the discussions in the House of Peers, voting
consistently as a moderate Liberal. In 1823 he married Mile
de Bourgony, by whom he had a son, Alexander, who succeeded
on his death in 1840 as duke of Taranto. From 1830 his
life was spent in retirement at his country place Courcelles-
le-Roi (Seine et Oise), where he died on the 7th of September
1840.

Macdonald had none of that military genius which dis-
tinguished Davout, Massena and Lannes, nor of that military
science conspicuous in Marmont and St Cyr, but nevertheless
his campaign in Switzerland gives him a rank far superior to
such mere generals of division as Oudinot and Dupont. This
capacity for independent command made Napoleon, in spite
of his defeats at the Trebbia and the Katzbach, trust him
with large commands till the end of his career. As a man, his

MACDONALD, SIR J. A

211

character cannot be spoken of too highly; no stain of cruelty
or faithlessness rests on him.

Macdonald was especially fortunate in the accounts of his military
exploits, Mathieu Dumas and S6gur having been on his staff in
Switzerland. See Dumas, tenements militaires ; and Segur's rare
tract, Lettre sur la campagne du Gin&ral Macdonald dans les Grisons
en 1800 et 1801 (1802), and £loge (18^2). His memoirs were pub-
lished in 1892 (Eng. trans., Recollections of Marshal Macdonald),
but are brief and wanting in balance.

MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER (1815-1891), first
premier of the dominion of Canada, was born in Glasgow on the
nth of January 1815, the third child of Hugh Macdonald
(d. 1841), a native of Sutherlandshire. The family emigrated
to Canada in 1820, settling first at Kingston, Ontario. At the
age of fifteen Macdonald entered a law office; he was called to
the bar in 1836, and began practice in Kingston, with immediate
success. Macdonald entered upon his active career at a critical
period in the history of Canada, and the circumstances of the time
were calculated to stimulate political thought. It was the year
before the rebellion of 1837; the condition of the whole country
was very unsettled; and it seemed well-nigh impossible to recon-
cile differences arising from racial and political antagonisms.
During the rebellion young Macdonald volunteered for active
service, but his military career never went farther than drilling
and marching. The mission of Lord Durham; the publication
of his famous report; the union of the two Canadas; the ad-
ministrations of Lord Sydenham, Sir Charles Bagot, and Sir
Charles Metcalfe, filled the years immediately succeeding 1837
with intense political interest, and in their results have pro-
foundly influenced the constitution of the British Empire.

Macdonald made his first acquaintance with public business
as an alderman of Kingston. In 1844 Sir Charles Metcalfe, in
his contest with the Reform party led by Baldwin and
Lafontaine, appealed to the electors, and Macdonald was elected
to the provincial assembly as Conservative member for Kingston.
A sentence in his first address to the electors strikes the domi-
nant note of his public career: " I therefore need scarcely
state my firm belief that the prosperity of Canada depends upon
its permanent connexion with the mother country, and that I
shall resist to the utmost any attempt (from whatever quarter
it may come) which may tend to weaken that union." He took
his seat on the 28th of November as a supporter of the Draper
government. During the first three or four years he spoke
little, but devoted himself with assiduity to mastering parlia-
mentary forms and the business of the house. His capacity
soon attracted attention, and in 1847 he was made receiver-
general with a seat in the executive council, an office soon
exchanged for the more important one of commissioner of
Crown-lands. Although the government of which he thus
became a member held office for only ten months, being placed
in a hopeless minority on making an appeal to the country,
Macdonald from this time forward took a position of constantly
increasing weight in his party.

One of the first acts of the Reform government which succeeded
that of which Macdonald was a member was to pass the Rebellion
Losses Bill, made famous in colonial history by the fact that it
brought to a crucial test the principle of responsible government.
The assent of Lord Elgin to the bill provoked in Montreal a riot
which ended in the burning of the houses of parliament, and so
great was the indignation of the hitherto ultra-loyal Conser-
vative party that many of its most prominent members signed
a document favouring annexation to the United States; Mac-
donald on the other hand took steps, in conjunction with others,
to form a British-American league, having for its object the
confederation of all the provinces, the strengthening of the
connexion with the mother country, and the adoption of a
national commercial policy. He remained in opposition from
1848 till 1854, holding together under difficult circumstances an
unpopular, party with which he was not entirely in sympathy.
The two great political issues of the time were the secularization
of the clergy reserves in Ontario, and the abolition of seigniorial
tenure in Quebec. Both of these reforms Macdonald long opposed,
but when successive elections had proved that they were sup-

ported by public opinion, he brought about a coalition of Conser-
vatives and moderate reformers for the purpose of carrying them.

Out of this coalition was gradually developed the Liberal-
conservative party, of which until his death Macdonald con-
tinued to be the most considerable figure, and which for more
than forty years largely moulded the history of Canada. From
1854 to 1857 he was attorney-general of Upper Canada, and
then, on the retirement of Colonel Tache, he became prime
minister. This first coalition had now accomplished its tempo-
rary purpose, but so closely were parties divided at this period,
that the defeat and reinstatement of governments followed
each other in rapid succession.

The experiment of applying responsible government on party
lines to the two Canadian provinces at last seemed to have come
to a deadlock. Two general elections and the defeat of four
ministries within three years had done nothing to solve the
difficulties of the situation. At this critical period a proposal
was made for a coalition of parties in order to carry out a
broad scheme of British- American confederation. The im-
mediate proposal is said to have come from George Brown;
the large political idea had long been advocated by Macdonald
and Alexander Gait in Upper Canada — by Joseph Howe and
others in the maritime provinces. The close of the American
Civil War, the Fenian raids across the American border, and
the dangers incident to the international situation, gave a de-
cisive impulse to the movement. Macdonald, at the head of
a representative delegation from Ontario and Quebec, met the
public men of the maritime provinces in conference at Charlotte-
town in 1864, and the outline of confederation then agreed
upon was filled out in detail at a conference held at Quebec soon
afterwards. The actual framing of the British North America
Act, into which the resolutions of these two conferences were
consolidated, was carried out at the Westminster Palace Hotel
in London, during December 1866 and January 1867, by dele-
gates from all the provinces working in co-operation with the
law officers of the Crown, under the presidency of Lord
Carnarvon, then secretary of state for the colonies. Macdonald
took the leading part in all these discussions, and he thus
naturally became the first premier of the Dominion. He was
made a K.C.B. in recognition of his services to the empire.

The difficulties of organizing the new Dominion, the questions
arising from diverse claims and the various conditions of the
country, called for infinite tact and resource on the part of the
premier. Federal rights were to be safeguarded against the
provincial governments, always jealous of their -privileges.
The people of Nova Scotia in particular, dissatisfied with the
way in which their province had been drawn into the Union,
maintained a fierce opposition to the Ottawa government,
until their leader, Joseph Howe, fearing an armed rising, came
to an agreement with Macdonald and accepted a seat in his
cabinet. The establishment of a supreme court also occupied
the attention of Sir John, who had a strong sense of the necessity
of maintaining the purity and dignity of the judicial office.
The act creating this court was finally passed during the
administration of Alexander Mackenzie. The pledge made at
confederation with regard to the building of the Intercolonial
railway to connect the maritime provinces with those of the
St Lawrence was fulfilled. The North-West Territories were
secured as a part of confederated Canada by the purchase of
the rights of the Hudson's Bay Company, and the establishment
of Manitoba as a province in 1870. Canada's interests were
protected during the negotiations which ended in the treaty
of Washington in 1871, and in which Sir John took a leading
part as one of the British delegates. In this year British
Columbia entered the confederation, one of the provisions of
union being that a transcontinental railroad should be built
within ten years. This was declared by the opposition to be
impossible. It was possible only to a leader of indomitable
will. Charges of bribery against the government in connexion
with the contract for the building of this line led to the resig-
nation of the cabinet in 1874, and for four years Sir John
was in opposition. But he was by no means inactive. During

212

MACDONALD, J. S.— MACDONALD, L.

the summer of 1876 he travelled through Ontario addressing the
people on the subject of a commercial system looking to the
protection of native industries. This was the celebrated
" National Policy," which had been in his thoughts as long ago
as the formation of the British-American League in 1850. The
government of Alexander Mackenzie refused to consider a
protection policy, and determined to adhere to Free Trade,
with a tariff for revenue only. On these strongly defined
issues the two parties appealed to the people in 1878. The
Liberal party was almost swept away, and Sir John, on his
return to power, put his policy into effect with a thoroughness
that commanded the admiration even of his opponents, who,
after long resistance, adopted it on their accession to office in
1896. He also undertook the immediate construction of the
Canadian Pacific railway, which had been postponed by the
former government. The line was begun late in 1880, and
finished in November 1885 — an achievement which Sir John
ranked among his greatest triumphs. " The faith of Sir John,"
says one of his biographers, " did more to build the road than
the money of Mount-Stephen."

During the remaining years of his life his efforts at adminis-
tration were directed mainly towards the organization and
development of the great North-West. From 1878 until his
death in 1891 Sir John retained his position as premier of
Canada, and his history is practically that of Canada (q.v.).
For forty-six years of a stormy political life he remained true
to the cardinal policy that he had announced to the electors
of Kingston in 1844. " A British subject I was born; a British
subject I will die," says his last political manifesto to the people
of the Dominion. At his advanced age the anxiety and excite-
ment of the contested election of 1891 proved too great. On
the 2gth of May he suffered a stroke of paralysis, which caused
his death eight days later (June 6).

The career of Sir John Macdonald must be considered in
connexion with the political history of Canada and the con-
ditions of its government during the latter half of the igth
century. Trained in a school where the principles of responsible
government were still in an embryonic state, where the adroit
management of coalitions and cabals was essential to the life
of a political party, and where plots and counterplots were
looked upon as a regular part of the political game, he acquired
a dexterity and skill in managing men that finally gave him
an almost autocratic power among his political followers. But
great personal qualities supplemented his political dexterity
and sagacity. A strong will enabled him to overcome the
passionate temper which marked his youth, and later in his
career a habit of intemperance, which he at first shared with
many public men of his time. He was a man of strong ambi-
tions, but these were curbed by a shrewd foresight, which led
him for a long time to submit to the nominal leadership of
other and smaller men. Politics he made his business, and
to this he devoted all his energies. He had the gift of living
for the work in hand without feeling the distraction of other
interests. He had a singular faculty for reading the minds and
the motives of men, and to this insight he perhaps owed the
power of adaptability (called by his opponents shiftiness) which
characterized his whole career. To this power the successful
guidance of the Dominion through its critical formative period
must be ascribed. Few political leaders have ever had such
a number of antagonistic elements to reconcile as presented
themselves in the first Canadian parliament after confederation.
The man who could manage to rule a congeries of jealous
factions, including Irish Catholics and Orangemen, French and
English anti-federationists and agitators for independence,
Conservatives and Reformers, careful economists and prodigal
expansionists, was manifestly a man of unusual power, superior
to small prejudices, and without strong bias towards any creed
or section. Such a man Macdonald proved himself to be. His
personality stands out at this period as the central power in
which each faction chiefly reposed trust, and under which it
could join hands with the others in the service of the state.
His singleness of purpose, personal independence and indomit-

able energy enabled him to achieve triumphs that to others
seemed impossible. His methods cannot always be defended,
and were explained by himself, only on grounds of necessity
and the character of the electorate with which he had to deal.
After the " Pacific scandal " of 1874 the leader of the opposite
party declared that " John A." (as he was generally called)
" has fallen, never to rise again." Yet he not only cleared his
own character from the charges laid against him, but succeeded
four years later in achieving his most signal party triumph.
His natural urbanity allowed him to rule without seeming to
rule. When baffled in minor objects he gave way with a good-
natured flexibility which brought upon him at times charges of
inconsistency. Yet Canada has seen statesmen of more con-
tracted view insist on such small points, fall, and drag down
their party with them. He lived at a time when the exigencies
of state seemed to require the peculiar 'talents which he possessed.
Entering politics at the dreariest and least profitable stage in
Canadian history, he took the foremost part in the movement
which made of Canada a nation; he guided that nation through
the nebulous stages of its existence, and left it united, strong
and vigorous, a monument to his patriotic and far-sighted
statesmanship. His statue adorns the squares of the principal
Canadian towns. In the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral a memo-
rial has rightly been placed to him as a statesman, not merely
of Canada, but of the empire. In unveiling that memorial
Lord Rosebery fitly epitomized the meaning of his life and work
when he said: " We recognize only this, that Sir John Mac-
donald had grasped the central idea that the British Empire
is the greatest secular agency for good now known to mankind;
that that was the secret of his success; and that he determined
to die under it, and strove that Canada should live under it."
Macdonald became a member of the Imperial Privy Council in
1879, and in 1884 he received the Grand Cross of the Bath.
His first wife was his cousin, Miss Isabella Clark, who died in
1858, leaving one surviving son, the Hon. Hugh John Mac-
donald, at one time premier of the province of Manitoba. By
his second marriage, to Miss Bernard in 1867, Macdonald left
an only daughter. On his death in 1891 his widow was created
Baroness Macdonald of Earnscliffe.

The authorized and fullest biography of Sir John A. Macdonald
is one written by his private secretary, Joseph Pope. Others have
been written by his nephew, Colonel J. Pennington Macpherson, and
by J. E. Collins. A bright and amusing anecdotal life has been com-
piled by E. D. Biggar. A condensed biography by G. R. Parkin
forms one of the " Makers of Canada " series (Toronto, 1907; new
ed., 1909). (G. R. P.)

MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD (1812-1872), Canadian
statesman, was born at St Raphael, Glengarry county, Ontario,
on the I2th of December 1812. He was admitted to the bar
in 1840, and settled in Cornwall. In the same year he married
Miss Waggaman, the daughter of an American senator from
Louisiana. In 1841 he was elected to^the Canadian parliament
for Glengarry, which seat he held for sixteen years. In 1842 he
joined the Reformers in the cry for constitutional government,
and from 1852 to 1854 was Speaker of the house. He was
always uncertain in his party allegiance, and often attacked
George Brown, the Liberal leader. Indeed, he well described
himself as ,"the Ishmael of parliament." In 1862 he was
called on by Lord Monck, the governor-general, to form a
ministry, which by manifold shifts held office till February
1864. In the debates on federation he opposed the measure,
but on its passage was in 1867 entrusted by the Conservatives
with the task of organizing the provincial government of Ontario.
He ruled the province with economy and efficiency, but was
defeated in December 1871 by the Liberals, resigned the premier-
ship, and died on the ist of June 1872.

MACDONALD, LAWRENCE (1799-1878), British sculptor,
was born at Findo-Gask, Perthshire, Scotland. In early life
he served as a mason's apprentice. Having shown an aptitude
for stone carving, he became an art student at the Trustees'
Academy, Edinburgh. By the help of friends he was enabled
to visit Rome, where together with other artists he helped to
found the British Academy of Arts. He returned to Edinburgh

MACDONELL— MACDONOUGH

213

in 1826. In 1829 he was elected a member of the Scottish
Academy. From 1832 until his death his home was in Rome.
Among his ideal works may be mentioned " Ulysses and his
Dog Argos," " Andromeda chained to the Rock," " Eurydice,"
" Hyacinth," a " Siren," and a " Bacchante."

MACDONELL, JAMES (1841-1879), British journalist, was
born at Dyce, Aberdeenshire. In 1858, after his father's
death, he became clerk in a merchant's office. He began
writing in the Aberdeen Free Press; in 1862 he was appointed
to the staff of the Daily Review at Edinburgh, and at twenty-
two he became editor of the Northern Daily Express. In 1865
he went to London to accept a position on the staff of the
Daily Telegraph, which he retained until 1875, being special
correspondent in France in 1870 and 1871. In 1873 he became
a leader-writer on The Times. He died in London on the 2nd
of March 1879. His posthumous France since the First Empire,
though incomplete, gave a clever and accurate account of
the French politics of his time.

MACDONNELL (or MACDONELL), ALESTAIR (i.e. Alexander)
RUADH (c. 1725-1761), chief of Glengarry, a Scottish Jacobite
who has been identified by Andrew Lang as the secret agent
" Pickle," who acted as a spy on Prince Charles Edward after
1750. The family were a branch of the clan Macdonald, but
spelt their name Macdonnell or Macdonell. His father was
John, 1 2th chief of Glengarry, a violent and brutal man, who
is said to have starved his first wife, Alestair's mother, to
death on an island in the Hebrides. Alestair ran away to
France while a mere boy in 1738, and there entered the Royal
Scots, a regiment in the French service. In 1743 he commanded
a company in it, and in 1744 was sent to Scotland as a Jaco-
bite agent. In January 1745 he was sent back with messages,
and was in France when Prince Charles Edward landed in
Scotland. Late in 1745 he was captured at sea while bringing
a picquet of the Royal Scots to help the prince. He remained
a prisoner in the Tower for twenty-two months, and when
released went abroad. In 1744 his father had made a transfer
to him of the family estates, which were ruined. Alestair,
who still affected to be a Jacobite, lived for a time in great
poverty. In 1749 he was in London, and there is good reason
to believe that he then offered his services as a spy to the British
government, with which he communicated under the name
of Pickle. His information enabled British ministers to keep
a close watch on the prince and on the Jacobite conspiracies.
Though he was denounced by a Mrs Cameron, whose husband
he betrayed to death in 1752, he never lost the confidence of
the Jacobite leaders. On the death of his father, in 1754, he
succeeded to the estates, and proved himself a greedy land-
lord. He died on the 23rd of December 1761.

See Andrew Lang, Pickle the Spy (1897) and The Companions of
Pickle (1898).

MACDONNELL, SORLEY BOY (c. 1505-1590), Scoto-Irish
chieftain, son of Alexander Macdonnell, lord of Islay and
Kintyre (Cantire), was born at Ballycastle, Co. Antrim. From
an ancestor who about a hundred years earlier had married
Margaret Bisset, heiress of the district on the Antrim coast
known as the Glynns (or Glens), he inherited a claim to the
lordship of that territory; and he was one of the most powerful
of the Scottish settlers in Ulster whom the English government
in the i6th century found difficulty in bringing into subjection.
Many attempts were made to drive them out of Ireland, in
one of which, about 1550, Sorley Boy Macdonnell was taken
prisoner and conveyed to Dublin Castle, where, however,
his confinement was brief. The chief rivals of the Macdonnells
were the Mac Quillins who dominated the northern portion
of Antrim, known as the Route, and whose stronghold was
Dunluce Castle, near the mouth of the Bush. Sorley Boy
Macdonnell took an active part in the tribal warfare between
his own clan and the Mac Quillins; and in 1558, when the
latter had been to a great extent overcome, his elder brother
James committed to him the lordship of the Route, his hold
on which he made good by decisively defeating the Mac Quillins
in Glenshesk. Sorley Boy was now too powerful and turbulent

to be neglected by Queen Elizabeth and her ministers, who
were also being troubled by his great contemporary, Shane
O'Neill; and the history of Ulster for .the next twenty years
consists for the most part of alternating conflict and alliance
between Macdonnells and O'Neills, and attempts on the part
of the English government to subdue them both. With this
object Elizabeth aimed at fomenting the rivalry between the
two clans; and she came to terms sometimes with the one and
sometimes with the other. Sorley Boy's wife was an illegiti-
mate half-sister of Shane O'Neill; but this did not deter him
from leaguing himself with the government against the O'Neills,
if by so doing he could obtain a formal recognition of his title
to the lands of which he was in actual possession. In 1562
Shane O'Neill paid his celebrated visit to London, where he
obtained recognition by Elizabeth of his claims as head of
the O'Neills; and on his return to Ireland he attacked the
Macdonnells, ostensibly in the English interest. He defeated
Sorley Boy near Coleraine in the summer of 1564; in 1565 he
invaded the Glynns, and at Ballycastle won a decisive victory,
in which James Macdonnell and Sorley Boy were taken prisoners.
James soon afterwards died, but Sorley Boy remained O'Neill's
captive till 1567, when Shane was murdered by the Macdonnells
at Cushendun (see O'NEILL). Sorley Boy then went to Scotland
to enlist support, and he spent the next few years in striving
to frustrate the schemes of Sir Thomas Smith, and later of
the earl of Essex, for colonizing Ulster with English settlers.
Sorley Boy was willing to come to terms with the govern-
ment provided his claims to his lands were allowed, but Essex
determined to reduce him to unconditional submission. John
Norris was ordered to proceed by sea from Carrickfergus to
Rathlin Island, where Sorley Boy's children and valuables,
together with the families of his principal retainers, had been
lodged for safety; and while the chieftain was himself at Bally-
castle, within sight of the island, the women and children were
massacred by the English. Sorley Boy retaliated by a success-
ful raid on Carrickfergus and by re-establishing his power
in the Glynns and the Route, which the Mac Quillins made
ineffectual attempts to recover. Macdonnell's position was
still further strengthened by an alliance with Turlough Luineach
O'Neill, and by a formidable immigration of followers from the
Scottish islands. In 1584 Sir John Perrot determined to
make a further effort to subdue the turbulent chieftain. After
another expedition to Scotland seeking help, Sorley Boy landed
at Cushendun in January 1585, and his followers regained
possession of Dunluce Castle. In these circumstances Sir
John Perrot opened negotiations with Sorley Boy, who in the
summer of 1586 repaired to Dublin and made submission to
Elizabeth's representative. He obtained a grant to himself
and his heirs of all the Route country between the rivers Bann
and Bush, with certain other lands to the east, and was made
constable of Dunluce Castle. For the rest of his life Sorley
Boy gave no trouble to the English government. He died in
1590, and was buried in Bonamairgy Abbey, at Ballycastle.
He is said to have married when over eighty years of age, as
his second wife, a daughter of Turlough Luineach O'Neill, a
kinswoman of his first wife; and two of his five daughters
married members of the O'Neill family. Sorley Boy had
several sons by his first marriage, one of whom, Randal, was
created earl of Antrim (q.v.), and was ancestor of the present
holder of that title.

See G. Hill, An Historical Account of the Macdonnells of Antrim
(London, 1873) ; Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 yols.,
London, 1885-1890); Calendar of State Papers: Carew MSS. i., ii.,
(6 vols., 1867-1873); Donald Gregory, History of the Western High-
lands and Isles of Scotland 1403-1625 (London, 1881); Sir T. T.
Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865). (R. J. M.)

MACDONOUGH, THOMAS (1786-1825), American sailor,
was born in the state of Delaware, his father being an officer
of the Continental Army, and entered the United States navy
in 1800. During his long service as a lieutenant he took part
in the bombardment of Tripoli, and on a subsequent occasion
showed great firmness in resisting the seizure of a seaman as

214

MAcDOWELL— MACE

an alleged deserter from the British navy, his ship at the time
lying under the guns of Gibraltar. When war with England
broke out, in 1812, he was ordered to cruise in the lakes between
Canada and the United States, with his headquarters on lake
Champlain. He was instrumental in saving New York and
Vermont from invasion by his brilliant victory of lake Cham-
plain gained, on the nth of September 1814, with a flotilla
of 14 vessels carrying 86 guns, over Captain George Downie's
1 6 vessels and 92 guns. For this important achievement New
York and Vermont granted him estates, whilst Congress gave
him a gold medal.

MACDOWELL, EDWARD ALEXANDER (1861-1908), Ameri-
can musical composer, was born in New York City on the
i8th of December 1861. His father, an Irishman of Belfast,
had emigrated to America shortly before the boy's birth. He
had a varied education in music, first under Spanish-American
teachers, and then in Europe, at Paris (Debussy being a fellow
pupil), Stuttgart, Wiesbaden and Weimar, where he was chiefly
influenced by Joachim, Raff and Liszt. From 1879 to 1887
he lived in Germany, teaching and studying, and also appearing
as solo pianist at important concerts. In 1884 he married
Marian Nevins, of New York. In 1888 he returned to America,
and settled in Boston till in 1896 he was made professor of
music at Columbia University, New York. He resigned this
post in 1904, and in 1905 overwork and insomnia resulted in
a complete cerebral collapse. He died on the 24th of January
1908. MacDowell's work gives him perhaps the highest place
among American composers. Deeply influenced by modern
French models and by German romanticism, full of poetry
and " atmosphere," and founded on the " programme, " idea of
composition, it is essentially creative in the spirit of a searcher
after delicate truths of artistic expression. His employment
of touches of American folk-song, suggested by Indian themes,
is characteristic. This is notably the case with his orchestral
Indian Suite (1896) and Woodland Sketches for the piano.
His first concerto, in A minor, for piano and orchestra, and
first pianoforte suite, were performed at Weimar in 1882.
His works include orchestral suites and " poems," songs,
choruses, and various pieces for pianoforte, his own instrument;
they are numbered from op. 9 to op. 62, his first eight numbered
works being destroyed by him.

See Lawrence Gilman, Edward MacDowell (1906).

MCDOWELL, IRVIN (1818-1885), American soldier, was
born in Columbus, Ohio, on the isth of October 1818. He
was educated in France, and graduated at the U. S. military
academy in 1838. From 1841 to 1845 he was instructor, and
later adjutant, at West Point. He won the brevet of captain
in the Mexican War, at the battle of Buena Vista, and served
as adjutant-general, chiefly at Washington, until 1861, being pro-
moted major in 1856. In 1858-1859 he visited Europe. Whilst
occupied in mustering volunteers at the capital, he was made
brigadier-general in May 1861, and placed in command during
the premature Virginian campaign of July, which ended in
the defeat at Bull Run. Under McClellan he became a corps
commander and major-general of volunteers (March 1862).
When the Peninsular campaign began McDowell's corps was
detained against McClellan's wishes, sent away to join in the
fruitless chase of " Stonewall " Jackson in the Shenandoah
Valley, and eventually came under the command of General
Pope, taking part in the disastrous campaign of Second Bull Run.
Involved in Pope's disgrace, McDowell was relieved of duty in
the field (Sept. 1862), and served on the Pacific coast 1864-68.
He became, on Meade's death in November 1872, major-general
of regulars (a rank which he already held by brevet), and com-
manded successively the department of the east, the division of
the south, and the division of the Pacific until his retirement in
1882. The latter years of his life were spent in California,
and he died at San Francisco on the 4th of May 1885. As a
commander he was uniformly unfortunate. Undoubtedly he
was a faithful, unselfish and energetic soldier, in patriotic
sympathy with the administration, and capable of great achieve-
ments. It was his misfortune to be associated with the first

great disaster to the Union cause, to play the part of D'Erlon
at Quatre-Bras between the armies of Banks and McClellan,
and finally to be involved in the catastrophe of Pope's campaign.
That he was perhaps too ready to accept great risks at the
instance of his superiors is the only just criticism to which
his military character was open.

MACDUFF, a police burgh and seaport of Banffshire, Scot-
land. Pop. (1901), 3431. It lies on the right bank of the
mouth of the Deveron, i m. E. of Banff and 505 m. N.W. of
Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway. The site
was originally occupied by the fishing village of Doune, but
after its purchase by the ist earl of Fife, about 1732, the name
was altered to Macduff by the 2nd earl, who also procured for
it in 1783 a royal charter constituting it a burgh. In honour
of the occasion he rebuilt the market cross, in front of the
parish church. The harbour, safer and more accessible than
that of Banff, was constructed by the duke of Fife, and
transferred to the burgh in 1898. The inhabitants are chiefly
employed in the herring fishery, but there is some boat-building,
besides rope-and-sail making, manure works, saw-mills and
oilcake mills. A stone bridge across the Deveron communi-
cates with Banff. Good bathing facilities, a bracing climate
and a mineral well attract numerous visitors to Macduff every
summer. The burgh unites with Banff, Cullen, Elgin, Inverurie,
Kintore and Peterhead (the Elgin burghs) in returning one
member to parliament.

McDUFFIE, GEORGE (1788-18^1), American political leader,
was born in Columbia county, Georgia. He was admitted to the
bar in 1814, and served in the South Carolina General Assembly
in 1818-1821, and in the national House of Representatives in
1821-1834. In 1821 he published a pamphlet in which strict
construction and states' rights were strongly denounced; yet
in 1832 there were few more uncompromising nullificationists.
The change seems to have been gradual, and to have been
determined in part by the influence of John C. Calhoun. When,
after 1824, the old Democratic-Republican party split into
factions, he followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren
in opposing the Panama Congress and the policy of making
Federal appropriations for internal improvements. He did
not hesitate, however, to differ from Jackson on the two chief
issues of his administration: the Bank and nullification. In
1832 he was a prominent member of the South Carolina Nullifi-
cation Convention, and drafted its address to the people of the
United States. He served as governor in 1834-1836, during
which time he helped to reorganize South Carolina College.
From January 1843 unti' January 1846 he was a member of
the United States Senate. The leading Democratic measures
of those years all received his hearty support. McDuffie, like
Calhoun, became an eloquent champion of state sovereignty;
but while Calhoun emphasized state action as the only means
of redressing a grievance, McDuffie paid more attention to the
grievance itself. Influenced in large measure by Thomas
Cooper, he made it his special work to convince the people
of the South that the downfall of protection was essential
to their material progress. His argument that it is the pro-
ducer who really pays the duty of imports has been called the
economic basis of nullification. He died at Cherry Hill, Sumter
district, South Carolina, on the nth of March 1851.

MACE (Fr. masse, O. Fr. mace, connected with Lat. mateola, a
mallet), originally a weapon of offence, made of iron, steel or
latten, capable of breaking through the strongest armour.1 The
earliest ceremonial maces, as they afterwards became, though at
first intended to protect the king's person, were those borne by
the serjeants-at-arms, a royal body-guard established in France
by Philip II., and in England probably by Richard I. By the
I4th century a tendency towards a more decorative Serjeant's
mace, encased with precious metals, is noticeable. The history
of the civic mace (carried by the serjeants-at-mace) begins about

1 The mace was carried in battle by medieval bishops (Odo of
Bayeux is represented on the Bayeux tapestry as wielding one)
instead of the sword, so as to conform to the canonical rule which
forbade priests to shed blood. — [ED.]

MACE

215

the middle of the i3th century, though no examples of that
period are in existence to-day. Ornamented civic maces were
considered an infringement of one of the privileges of the king's
Serjeants, who, according to the Commons' petition in 1344, were
alone deemed worthy of having maces enriched with costly
metals. This privilege was, however, granted to the Serjeants of
London, and later to those of York (in 1396), Norwich (in 1403/4)

From Jewitt and Hope's Corporation Plate and Insignia (1895), by permission of
Bemrose & Co.

FIG. I. — Group of War Maces of the 15th and i6th centuries.

and Chester (in 1506). Maces covered with silver are known to
have been used at Exeter in 1387/8; two were bought at Norwich
in 1435, and others for Launceston in 1467/8. Several other
cities and towns had silver maces in the next century, and in the
1 6th they were almost universally used. Early in the is
century the flanged end of the mace, i.e. the head of the war mace,
was borne uppermost, and the small button with the royal arms
in the base. By the beginning of the Tudor period, however,
these blade-like flanges, originally made for offence, degenerated
into mere ornaments, while the greater importance of the end
with the royal arms (afterwards enriched with a cresting) resulted
in the reversal of the position. The custom of carrying the
flanged end upward did not die out at once: a few maces were
made to carry both ways, such as the beautiful pair of Winch-
combe silver maces, dating from the end of the isth century.
The Guildford mace is one of the finest of the fifteen specimens
of the i sth century. The flanged ends of the maces of this period
were often beautifully pierced and decorated. These flanges gradu-
ally became smaller, and later (in the i6th and early i7th cen-
turies) developed into pretty projecting scroll-brackets and other
ornaments, which remained in vogue till about 1640. The next
development in the embellishment of the shaft was the reappear-
ance of these small scroll-brackets on the top, immediately under
the head of the mace. They disappear altogether from the foot
in the last half of the'i 7th century, and are found only under the
heads, or, in rarer instances, on a knob on the shaft. The silver
mace-heads were mostly plain, with a cresting of leaves or flowers

n the isth and i6th centuries. In the reign of James I. they

jegan to be engraved and decorated with heraldic devices, &c.

As the custom of having Serjeants'

maces ceased (about 1650), the large

maces, borne before the mayor or

aailiffs, came into general use. Thomas

Maundy was the chief maker of maces

during the Commonwealth. He made

the mace for the House of Commons in

1649, which is the one at present in use

there, though without the original

head with the non-regal symbols, the

latter having been replaced by one

with regal symbols at the Restoration.

There are two maces in the House of

Lords, the earliest dating from the reign

of William III. The dates of the eight

large and massive silver-gilt maces of the

serjeants-at-arms, kept in the jewel-house

at the Tower of London, are as follows:

two of Charles II., two of James II.,

three of William and Mary, and one of

Queen Anne (the cypher of George I. was

subsequently added to the latter). All

the foregoing are of the type which was

almost universally adopted, with slight

differences, at the Restoration. The

civic maces of the i8th century follow

this type, with some modifications in

shape and ornamentation. The historic

English silver maces of the i8th century

include the one -of 1753 at Norfolk,

Virginia, and that of 1756 of the state

of South Carolina, both in the United

States of America; two, made in 1753

and 1787, at Jamaica; that of 1791

belonging to the colony of Grenada, and

the Speaker's mace at Barbados, dating

from 1812; and the silver mace of the

old Irish House of Commons, 1765-1766,

now in the possession of Lord Massereene

and Ferrard.

Among other maces, more correctly
described as staves, in use at the present
time, are those carried before ecclesias-
tical dignitaries and clergy in cathedrals
and parish churches and the maces of •
the universities. At Oxford there are
three of the second half of the i6th
century and six of 1723-1724, while at
Cambridge there are three of 1626 and
one of 1628, but altered at the Common-
wealth and again at the Restoration.
The silver mace with crystal globe of
the lord high treasurer of Scotland, at
Holyrood Palace, was made about 1690 From jewitt and Hope's
by Francis Garthorne. The remarkable SSS^oSsfb? permission
mace or sceptre of the lord mayor of of Bemrose&Co.
London is of crystal and gold and Fl(J 2 _Mace of the
set with pearls; the head dates from House of Commons,
the isth century, while the mounts of
the shaft are early medieval. A mace

of an unusual form is that of the Tower ward of London, which
has a head resembling the White Tower in the Tower of
London, and which was made in the reign of Charles II.
The beautiful mace of the Cork gilds, made by Robert Goble
of Cork in 1696 for the associated gilds, of which he had been
master, is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, where there is
also a large silver mace of the middle of the i8th century, with
the arms of Pope Benedict XIV., which is said to have been
used at the coronation of Napoleon as king of Italy at Milan
in 1805.

2l6

MACEDO— MACEDONIA

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Jewitt and Hope, Corporation Plate and Insignia
of Office, &c. (2 vols., 1895); J. R. Garstin, Irish State and Civic
Maces, &c. (1898); J. Paton, Scottish History and Life (1902); J. H.
Buck, Old Plate (1903), pp. 124-140; Cripps, Old English Plate (gth
ed., 1906), pp. 394-404; E. Alfred Jones, Old Plate at the Tower of
London (1908); ed., "Some Historic Silver Maces," Burlington
Magazine (Dec. 1908). (E. A. J.)

MACEDO, JOSfi AGOSTINHO DE (1761-1831), Portuguese
poet and prose writer, was born at Beja of plebeian family, and
studied Latin and rhetoric with the Oratorians in Lisbon. He
became professed as an Augustinian in 1778, but owing to his
turbulent character he spent a great part of his time in prison,
and was constantly being transferred from one convent to an-
other, finally giving up the monastic habit to live licentiously in
the capital. In 1 792 he was unfrocked, but by the aid of powerful
friends he obtained a papal brief which secularized him and per-
mitted him to retain his ecclesiastical status. Taking to journal-
ism and preaching he now made for himself a substantial living
and a unique position. In a short time he was recognized as the
leading pulpit orator of the day, and in 1802 he became one of the
royal preachers. Macedo was the first to introduce from abroad
and to cultivate didactic and descriptive poetry, the best example
of which is his notable transcendental poem Meditation (1813).
His colossal egotism made him attempt to supersede Camoens as
Portugal's greatest poet, and in 1814 he produced Oriente, an
insipid epic notwithstanding its correct and vigorous verse,
dealing with the same subject as the Lusiads — Gama's discovery
of the sea route to India. This amended paraphrase met with a
cold reception, whereupon Macedo published his Censura dos
Lusiadas, containing a minute examination and virulent indict-
ment of Camoens. Macedo founded and wrote for a large number
of journals, and the tone and temper of these and his political
pamphlets induced his leading biographer to name him the" chief
libeller " of Portugal, though at the time his jocular and satirical
style gained him popular favour. An extreme adherent of
absolutism, he expended all his brilliant powers of invective
against the Constitutionalists, and advocated a general massacre
of the opponents of the Miguelite r6gime. Notwithstanding his
priestly office and old age, he continued his aggressive journalistic
campaign, until his own party, feeling that he was damaging the
cause by his excesses, threatened him with proceedings, which
caused him in 1829 to resign the post of censor of books for the
Ordinary, to which he had been appointed in 1824. Though
his ingratitude was proverbial, and his moral character of the
worst, when he died in 1831 he left behind him many friends, a
host of admirers, and a great but ephemeral literary reputation.
His ambition to rank as the king of letters led to his famous
conflict with Bocage (q.v.), whose poem Pena de Talido was per-
haps the hardest blow Macedo ever received. His malignity
reached its height in a satirical poem in six cantos, Os Burros
(1812-1814), in which he pilloried by name men and women of all
grades of society, living and dead, with the utmost licence of
expression. His translation of the Odes of Horace, and his dra-
matic attempts, are only of value as evidence of the extraordinary
versatility of the man, but his treatise, if his it be, A Demonstration
of the Existence of God, at least proves his possession of very high
mental powers. As a poet, his odes on Wellington and the
emperor Alexander show true inspiration, and the poems of the
same nature in his Lyra anacreontica, addressed to his mistress,
have considerable merit.

See Memorias para la vida intima de Josi Agostinho de Macedo
(ed. Th. Braga, 1899) ; Cartas e opusculos (1900) ; Censuras d diversas
obras (1901). (E. PR.)

MACEDONIA, the name generally given to that portion of
European Turkey which is bounded on the N. by the Kara-
Dagh mountain range and the frontier of Bulgaria, on the E.
by the river Mesta, on the S. by the Aegean Sea and the frontier
of Greece, and on the W. by an ill-defined line coinciding with
the mountain chains of Shar (ancient Scardus) Grammus and
Pindus. The Macedonia of antiquity was originally confined
to the inland region west of the Axius, between that river and the
Scardus range, and did not include the northern portion, known
as Paeonia, or the coast-land, which, with the eastern districts,

was inhabited by Thracian tribes; the people of the country
were not Hellenic. In modern Macedonia are included the
vilayet of Salonica (Turk. Selanik), the eastern and greater por-
tion of the vilayet of Monastir (sanjaks of Monastir, Servia
[Turk. Selfije], and part of that of Kortcha), and the south-
eastern portion of the vilayet of Kossovo (sanjak of Uskiib).
The greater part of Macedonia is inhabited by a Slavonic
population, mainly Bulgarian in its characteristics; the coast-line
and the southern districts west of the Gulf of Salonica by
Greeks, while Turkish, Vlach and Albanian settlements exist
sporadically, or in groups, in many parts of the country.

Geographical Features. — The coast-line is broken by the remarkable
peninsula of Chalcidice, with its three promontories of Athos
(ancient Acte), Longus (Sithonia) and Cassandra (Pallene). The
country is divided into two almost equal portions by the river
Vardar (Axius), the valley of which has always constituted the
principal route from Central Europe to the Aegean. Rising in the
Shar mountains near Gostivar (Bulgarian Kostovo), the Vardar,
flowing to the N.E., drains the rich elevated plain of Tetovo (Turk.
Kalkandelen) and, turning to the S.E. at the foot of Mt Liubotrn,
traverses the town and plain of Uskub, leaving to the left the high
plateau of Ovchepolye (" the sheep-plain "); then flowing through
the town of Veles, it receives on its right, near the ruins of the ancient
Stobi, the waters of its principal tributary, the Tcherna (Erigon),
which drains the basin of Monastir and the mountainous region of
Morichovo, and after passing through the picturesque gorge of
Demir-Kapu (the Iron Gate) finds its way to the Gulf of Salonica
through the alluvial tract known as the Campania, extending to the
west of that town. The other important rivers are the Struma
(Strymon) and Mesta (Nestus) to the east, running almost parallel
to the Vardar, and the Bistritza in the south, all falling into the
Aegean. (The Black Drin, issuing from Lake Ochrida and flowing
N.W. to the Adriatic, is for the greater part of its course an Albanian
river.) The Struma, which rises in Mt Vitosha in Bulgaria, runs
through a narrow defile till, within a short distance of the sea, it
expands into Lake Tachino, and falls into the Aegean near the site
of the ancient Amphipolis. The Mesta, rising in the Rhodope range,
drains the valley of Razlog and forms a delta at its entrance into the
Aegean opposite the island of Thasos. The Bistritza, which has its
source in the eastern slope of Mt Grammus, receives early in its
course the outflow from Lake Castoria on the left; it flows to the
S.E. towards the frontier of Greece, where its course is arrested by
the Cambunian mountains; then turning sharply to the N.E., and
passing through the districts of Serfije and Verria, it reaches the
Campania and enters the Gulf of Salonica at a point a few miles to
the S.W. of the mouth of the Vardar. The valleys of most of tke
rivers and their tributaries broaden here and there into fertile upland
basins, which were formerly lakes. Of these the extensive plateau
of Monastir, the ancient plain of Pelagonia, about 1500 ft. above
the sea, is the most remarkable; the basins of Tetovo, Uskub,
Kotchan6, Strumnitza, Nevrokop, Melnik, Serres and Drama furnish
other examples. The principal lakes are Ochrida (Lychnitis) on the
confines of Albania; Prespa, separated from Ochrida by theGalinitza
mountains, and supposed to be connected with it by a subterranean
channel; Castoria, to the S.E. of Prespa; Ostrovo, midway between
Prespa and the Vardar; Tachino (Cercinitis) on the lower course of
the Struma; Beshik (Bolbe), separating the Chalcidian peninsula
from the mainland, and Doiran (probably Prasias), beneath the
southern declivity of the Belasitza mountains; the smaller lakes of
Amatovo and Venije are in the alluvial plain on either side of the
lower Vardar. Lake Ochrida (q.v.) finds egress into the Black Drin
(Drilon) at Struga, where there are productive fisheries. The
lacustrine habitations of the Paeonians on Lake Prasias described
by Herodotus (v. 16) find a modern counterpart in the huts of the
fishing population on Lake Doiran. The surface of the country is
generally mountainous; the various mountain-groups present little
uniformity in their geographical contour. The great chain of
Rhodope, continued to the N.W. by the Rilska and Osogovska
Planina, forms a natural boundary on the north; the principal
summit, Musalla (9031 ft.), is just over the Bulgarian frontier. The
adjoining Dospat range culminates in Belmeken (8562 ft.), also just
over the Bulgarian frontier. Between the upper courses of the
Mesta and Struma is the Perim Dagh or Pirin Planina (Orbelos) with
Elin (8794 ft.), continued to the south by the Bozo Dagh (6081 ft.) ;
still further south, overlooking the bay of Kayala, are the Bunar Dagh
and Mt Pangaeus, famous in antiquity for its gold and silver mines.
Between the Struma and the Vardar are the Belasitza, Krusha and
other ranges. West of the Vardar is the lofty Shar chain (Scardus)
overlooking the plain of Tetovo and terminating at its eastern
extremity in the pyramidal Liubotrn (according to some authorities,
10,007 ft., and consequently the highest mountain in the Peninsula;
according to others 8989, 8856, or 8200 ft.). The Shar range, with
the Kara Dagh to the east, forms the natural boundary of Macedonia
on the N.W. ; this is prolonged on the west by the Yaina-Bistra and
Yablanitza mountains with several summits exceeding 7000 ft. in
height, the Odonishta Planina overlooking Lake Ochrida on the west,

MACEDONIA

217

the Morova Planina, the Grammus range, and Pindus with Smolika
(8546 ft.). The series of heights is broken by the valleys of the
Black Drin and Devol, which flow to the Adriatic. Between the
Vardar and the plain of Monastir the Nija range culminates in
Kaimakchalan (8255 ft.); south-west of Monastir is Mt Peristeri

a 720 ft.) overlooking Lake Prespa on the east ; on the west is the
alinitza range separating it from Lake Ochrida. Between Lake
Ostrovo and the lower Bistritza are the Bermius and Kitarion
ranges with Doxa (5240 ft.) and Turla (about 3280 ft.). South of
the Bistritza are the Cambunian mountains forming the boundary
of Thessaly and terminating to the east in the imposing mass of
Elymbos, or Olympus (9794 ft.). Lastly, Mt Atnos, at the ex-
tremity of the peninsula of that name, reaches the height of 6350 ft.
The general aspect of the country is bare and desolate, especially
in the neighbourhood of the principal routes;_the trees have been
destroyed, and large tracts of land remain uncultivated. Magnificent
forests, however, still clothe the slopes of Rhodope, Pirin ana Pindus.
The well-wooded and cultivated districts of Grevena and Castoria,
which are mainly inhabited by a Vlach population, are remarkably
beautiful, and the scenery around Lakes Ochrida and Prespa is
exceedingly picturesque. For the principal geological formations
see BALKAN PENINSULA.

The climate is severe; the spring is often rainy, and the melted
snows from the encircling mountains produce inundations in the
plains. The natural products are in general similar to those of
southern Bulgaria and Servia — the fig, olive and orange, however,
appear on the shores of the Aegean and in the sheltered valleys of
the southern region. The best tobacco in Europe is grown in the
Drama and Kavala districts; rice and cotton are cultivated in the
southern plains.

Population. — The population of Macedonia may perhaps be
estimated at 2,200,000. About 1,300,000 are Christians of various
churches and nationalities; more than 800,000 are Mahommedans,
and about 75,000 are Jews. Of the Christians, the great majority
profess the Eastern Orthodox faith, owning allegiance either to
the Greek patriarchate or the Bulgarian exarchate. Among the
Orthodox Christians are reckoned some 4000 Turks. The small
Catholic minority is composed chiefly of Uniate Bulgarians (about
3600), occupying the districts of Kukush and Doiran; there are also
some 2000 Bulgarian Protestants, principally inhabiting the valley
of Razlog. The Mahommedan population is mainly composed of
Turks (about 500,000). In addition to these there are some 130,000
Bulgars, 120,000 Albanians, 35,000 gipsies and 14,000 Greeks,
together with a smaller number of Vlachs, Jews and Circassians,
who profess the creed of Islam. The untrustworthy Turkish
statistics take religion, not nationality, as the basis of classification.
All Moslems are included in the millet, or nation, of Islam. The
Rdm, or Roman (i.e. Greek) millet comprises all those who acknow-
ledge the authority of the Oecumenical patriarch, and consequently
includes, in addition to the Greeks, the Servians, the Vlachs, and a
certain number of Bulgarians; the Bulgar millet comprises the
Bulgarians who accept the rule of the exarchate; the other millets
are the Katolik (Catholics), Ermeni (Gregorian Armenians), Musevi
(Jews) and Prodesdan (Protestants). The population of Macedonia,
at all times scanty, has undoubtedly diminished in recent years.
There has been a continual outflow of the Christian population in
the direction of Bulgaria, Servia and Greece, and a corresponding
emigration of the Turkish peasantry to Asia Minor. Many of the
smaller villages are being abandoned by their inhabitants, who
migrate for safety to the more considerable towns — usually situated
at some point where a mountain pass descends to the outskirts of
the plains. In the agricultural districts the Christian peasants, or
rayas, are either small proprietors or cultivate holdings on the
estates of Turkish landowners. The upland districts are thinly
inhabited by a nomad pastoral population.

Towns. — The principal towns are Salonica (pop. in 1910, about
130,000), Monastir (60,000), each the capital of a vilayet, and
Usktib (32,000), capital of the vilayet of Kossovo. In the Salonica
vilayet are Serres (28,000), pleasantly situated in a fertile valley near
Lake Tachino; Nevrokop (6200), Mehomia (5000), and Bansko
(6500), in the valley of the Upper Mesta; Drama (9000), at the foot
of the Bozo Dagh, with its port Kavala (9500); Djumaia (6440),
Melnik (4300) and Demir Hissar (5840) in the valley of the Struma,
with Strumnitza (10,160) and Petrich (7100) in the valley of its
tributary, the Strumnitza; Veles (Turk. Kopriilu) on the Vardar
(19,700); Doiran (6780) and Kukush (775°) ! and, to the west of
the Vardar, Verria (Slav. Ber, anc. Beroea, Turk. Karaferia, 10,500),
Yenije'- Vardar (9599) and Vodena (anc. Edessa,^q.v., 11,000). In
the portion of the Kossovo vilayet included in Macedonia are
Kalkandelen (Slav. Tetovo, 19,200), Kumanovo (14,500) and Shtip
(Turk. Istib, 21,000). In the Monastir vilayet are Prilep (24,000)
at the northern end of the Pelagonian plain, Krushevo (9350)
mainly inhabited by Vlachs, Resen (4450) north of Lake Prespa
Fiorina (Slav. Lerin, 9824); Ochrida (14,860), with a picturesque
fortress of Tsar Samuel, and Struga (4570), both on the north shore
of Lake Ochrida; Dibra (Slav. Debr) on the confines of Albania
(15,500), Castoria (Slav. Kostur), on the lake of that name (6190)
and Kozhand (6100). (Dibra, Kavala, Monastir, Ochrida, Salonica
Serres, Uskiib and Vodena are described in separate articles.)

Races. — Macedonia is the principal theatre of the struggle of
nationalities in Eastern Europe. All the races which dispute
the reversion of the Turkish possessions in Europe Tfte Turtt
are represented within its borders. The Macedonian
probably may therefore he described as the quintessence of the
Near Eastern Question. The Turks, the ruling race, form less
than a quarter of the entire population, and their numbers are
steadily declining. The first Turkish immigration from Asia
Minor took place under the Byzantine emperors before the con-
quest of the country. The first purely Turkish town, Yenije-
Vardar, was founded on the ruins of Vardar in 1362. After the
capture of Salonica (1430), a strong Turkish population was set-
tled in the city, and similar colonies were founded in Monastir,
Ochrida, Serres, Drama and other important places. In many
of these towns half or more of the population is still Turkish.
A series of military colonies were subsequently established at
various points of strategic importance along the principal lines
of communication. Before 1360 large numbers of nomad
shepherds, or Yuruks, from the district of Konia, in Asia Minor,
had settled in the country; their descendants are still known as
Konariotes. Further immigration from this region took place
from time to time up to the middle of the i8th century. After
the establishment of the feudal system in 1397 many of the
Seljuk noble families came over from Asia Minor; their descen-
dants may be recognized among the beys or Moslem landowners
in southern Macedonia. At the beginning of the i8th century
the Turkish population was very considerable, but since that time
it has continuously decreased. A low birth-rate, the exhaustion
of the male population by military service, and great mortality
from epidemics, against which Moslem fatalism takes no pre-
cautions, have brought about a decline which has latterly been
hastened by emigration. On the other hand, there has been a
considerable Moslem immigration from Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria
and Greece, but the newcomers, mohajirs, do not form a per-
manent colonizing element. The Turkish rural population is
found in three principal groups: the most easterly extends from
the Mesta to Drama, Pravishta and Orfano, reaching the sea-
coast on either side of Kavala, which is partly Turkish, partly
Greek. The second, or central, group begins on the sea-coast,
a little west of the mouth of the Strymon, where a Greek popula-
tion intervenes, and extends to the north-west along the Kara-
Dagh and Belasitza ranges in the direction of Strumnitza, Veles,
Shtip and Radovisht. The third, or southern, group is centred
around Kailar, an entirely Turkish town, and extends from Lake
Ostrovo to Selfij6 (Servia). The second and third groups are
mainly composed of Konariot shepherds. Besides these fairly
compact settlements there are numerous isolated Turkish
colonies in various parts of the country. The Turkish rural
population is quiet, sober and orderly, presenting some of the
best characteristics of the race. The urban population, on the
other hand, has become much demoralized, while the official
classes, under the rule of Abdul Hamid II. and his predecessors,
were corrupt and avaricious, and seemed to have parted with
all scruple in their dealings with the Christian peasantry. The
Turks, though still numerically and politically strong, fall behind
the other nationalities in point of intellectual culture, and the
contrast is daily becoming more marked owing to the educational
activity of the Christians.

The Greek and Vlach populations are not always easily dis-
tinguished, as a considerable proportion of the Vlachs have
been hellenized. Both show a remarkable aptitude
for commerce; the Greeks have maintained their
language and religion, and the Vlachs their religion,
with greater tenacity than any of the other races. From the date
of the Ottoman conquest until comparatively recent times, the
Greeks occupied an exceptional position in Macedonia, as else-
where in the Turkish Empire, owing to the privileges conferred
on the patriarchate of Constantinople, and the influence subse-
quently acquired by the great Phanariot families. All the Christian
population belonged to the Greek millet and called itself Greek ; the
bishops and higher clergy were exclusively Greek ; Greek was the
language of the upper classes, of commerce, literature and

2l8

MACEDONIA

religion, and Greek alone was taught in the schools. Thesupremacy
of the patriarchate was consummated by the suppression of the
autocephalous Slavonic churches of Ipek in 1766 and Ochrida
in 1767. In the latter half of the i8th century Greek ascendancy
in Macedonia was at its zenith; its decline began with the War
of Independence, the establishment of the Hellenic kingdom, and
the extinction of the Phanariot power in Constantinople. The
patriarchate, nevertheless, maintained its exclusive jurisdiction
over all the Orthodox population till 1870, when the Bulgarian
exarchate was established, and the Greek clergy continued to
labour with undiminished zeal for the spread of Hellenism.
Notwithstanding their venality and intolerance, their merits as
the only diffusers of culture and enlightenment in the past
should not be overlooked. The process of hellenization made
greater progress in the towns than in the rural districts of the
interior, where the non-Hellenic populations preserved their
languages, which alone saved the several nationalities from ex-
tinction. The typical Greek, with his superior education, his
love of politics and commerce, and his distaste for laborious
occupations, has always been a dweller in cities. In Salonica,
Serres, Kavala, Castoria, and other towns in southern Macedonia
the Hellenic element is strong; in the northern towns it is insig-
nificant, except at Melnik, which is almost exclusively Greek.
The Greek rural population extends from the Thessalian fron-
tier to Castoria and Verria (Beroea); it occupies the whole
Chalcidian peninsula and both banks of the lower Strymon from
Serres to the sea, and from Nigrita on the west to Pravishta on
the east; there are also numerous Greek villages in the Kavala
district. The Mahommedan Greeks, known as Valachides,
occupy a considerable tract in the upper Bistritza valley near
Grevena and Liapsista. The purely Greek population of Mace-
donia may possibly be estimated at a quarter of a million. The
Vlachs, or Rumans, who call themselves Aromuni or Aromdni
(i.e. Romans), are also known as Kutzovlachs and Tzintzars:
the last two appellations are, in fact, nicknames, " Kutzovlach "
meaning " lame Vlach," while " Tzintzar " denotes their in-
ability to pronounce the Rumanian cincf (five). The Vlachs are
styled by some writers " Macedo-Rumans," in contradistinction
to the " Daco-Rumans," who inhabit the country north of the
Danube. They are, in all probability, the descendants of the
Thracian branch of the aboriginal Thraco-Illyrian population
of the Balkan Peninsula, the Illyrians being represented by the
Albanians. This early native population, which was apparently
hellenized to some extent under the Macedonian empire, seems
to have been latinized in the period succeeding the Roman
conquest, and probably received a considerable infusion of
Italian blood. The Vlachs are for the most part either highland
shepherds or wandering owners of horses and mules. Their
settlements are scattered all over the mountains of Macedonia:
some of these consist of permanent dwellings, others of huts
occupied only in the summer. The compactest groups are found
in the Pindus and Agrapha mountains (extending into Albania
and Thessaly), in the neighbourhood of Monastir, Grevena and
Castoria, and in the district of Meglen. The Vlachs who settle
in the lowland districts are excellent husbandmen. The urban
population is considerable; the Vlachs of Salonica, Monastir,
Serres and other large towns are, for the most part, descended
from refugees from Moschopolis, once the principal centre of
Macedonian commerce. The towns of Metzovo, on the confines
of Albania, and Klisura, in the Bistritza valley, are almost
exclusively Vlach. The urban and most of the rural Vlachs are
bilingual, speaking Greek as well as Rumanian; a great number
of the former have been completely hellenized, partly in conse-
quence of mixed marriages, and many of the wealthiest commer-
cial families of Vlach origin are now devoted to the Greek cause.
The Vlachs of Macedonia possibly number 90,000, of whom only
some 3000 are Mahommedans. The Macedonian dialect of the
Rumanian language differs mainly from that spoken north of
the Danube in its vocabulary and certain phonetic peculiarities;
it contains a number of Greek works which are often replaced
in the northern speech by Slavonic or Latin synonyms.

The Albanians, called by the Turks and Slavs Arnauts, by

the Greeks 'Ap/3avTreu, and by themselves Shkyipetar, have
always been the scourge of western Macedonia. After the
first Turkish invasion of Albania many of the chiefs fhe
or beys adopted Mahommedanism, but the conver- Albanians,
sion of the great bulk of the people took place in the clrcas-
i6th and i7th centuries. Professing the creed of satts'&c-
the dominant power and entitled to bear arms, the Albanians
were enabled to push forward their limits at the. expense of the
defenceless population around them, and their encroachments
have continued to the present day. They have not only
advanced themselves, but have driven to the eastward numbers
of their Christian compatriots and a great portion of the once-
prosperous Vlach population of Albania. Albanian revolts and
disturbances have been frequent along the western confines of
Macedonia, especially in the neighbourhood of Dibra: the
Slavonic peasants have been the principal sufferers from these
troubles, while the Porte, in pursuance of the " Islamic policy "
adopted by the sultan Abdul Hamid II., dealt tenderly with the
recalcitrant believers. In southern Macedonia the Albanians
of the Tosk race extend over the upper Bistritza valley as far
west as Castoria, and reach the southern and western shores of
Lakes Prespa and Ochrida: they are also numerous in the neigh-
bourhood of Monastir. In northern Macedonia the Albanians
are of the Gheg stock: they have advanced in large numbers
over the districts of Dibra, Kalkandelen and Uskiib, driving the
Slavonic population before them. The total number of Alba-
nians in Macedonia may be estimated at about 1 20,000, of whom
some 10,000 are Christians (chiefly orthodox Tosks). The
Circassians, who occupy some villages in the neighbourhood of
Serres, now scarcely number 3000: their predatory instincts
may be compared with those of the Albanians. The Jews had
colonies in Macedonia in the time of St Paul, but no trace remains
of these early settlements. The Jews now found in the country
descend from refugees who fled from Spain during the persecu-
tions at the end of the isth century: they speak a dialect of
Spanish, which they write with Hebrew characters. They form
a flourishing community at Salonica, which numbers more
than half the population: their colonies at Monastir, Serres and
other towns are poor. A small proportion of the Jews, known
as Deunmi by the Turks, have embraced Mahommedanism.

With the exception of the southern and western districts
already specified, the principal towns, and certain isolated tracts,
the whole of Macedonia is inhabited by a race or The
races speaking a Slavonic dialect. If language is Slavonic
adopted as a test, the great bulk of the rural popula- p°Pula"oa-
tion must be described as Slavonic. The Slavs first crossed the
Danube at the beginning of the 3rd century, but their great
immigration took place in the 6th and 7th centuries. They
overran the entire peninsula, driving the Greeks to the shores of
the Aegean, the Albanians into the Mirdite country, and the
latinized population of Macedonia into the highland districts,
such as Pindus, Agrapha and Olympus. The Slavs, a primitive
agricultural and pastoral people, were often unsuccessful in
their attacks on the fortified towns, which remained centres of
Hellenism. In the outlying parts of the peninsula they were
absorbed, or eventually driven back, by the original populations,
but in the central region they probably assimilated a considerable
proportion of the latinized races. The western portions of the
peninsula were occupied by Serb and Slovene tribes: the Slavs
of the eastern and central portions were conquered at the end of
the 7th century by the Bulgarians, a Ugro-Finnish horde, who
established a despotic political organization, but being less
numerous than the subjected race were eventually absorbed by
it. The Mongolian physical type, which prevails in the districts
between the Balkans and the Danube, is also found in central
Macedonia, and may be recognized as far west as Ochrida and
Dibra. In general, however, the Macedonian Slavs differ some-
what both in appearance and character from their neighbours
beyond the Bulgarian and Servian frontiers: the peculiar type
which they present is probably due to a considerable admixture of
Vlach, Hellenic, Albanian and Turkish blood, and to the influence
of the surrounding races. Almost all independent authorities,

MACEDONIA

219

however, agree that the bulk of the Slavonic population of Mace-
donia is Bulgarian. The principal indication is furnished by the
language, which, though resembling Servian in some respects
(e.g. the case-endings, which are occasionally retained), presents
most of the characteristic features of Bulgarian (see BULGARIA:
Language). Among these may be mentioned the suffix-article,
the nasal vowels (retained in the neighbourhood of Salonica and
Castoria, but modified elsewhere as in Bulgarian), the retention of
/ (e.g. vulk " wolf," bel " white "; Servian vuk, beo), and the loss
of the infinitive. There are at least four Slavonic dialects in
Macedonia, but the suffix-article, though varying in form, is a
constant feature in all. The Slavs of western Macedonia are of a
lively, enterprising character, and share the commercial aptitude
of the Vlachs: those of the eastern and southern regions are a
quiet, sober, hardworking agricultural race, more obviously
homogeneous with the population of Bulgaria. In upper Mace-
donia large family communities, resembling the Servian and
Bulgarian zadruga, are commonly found: they sometimes number
over 50 members. The whole Slavonic population of Macedonia
may be estimated at about 1,150,000, of whom about 1,000,000
are Christians of the Orthodox faith. The majority of these own
allegiance to the Bulgarian exarchate, but a certain minority
still remains faithful to the Greek patriarchate. The Moslem
Bulgarians form a considerable element: they are found prin-
cipally in the valley of the upper Mesta and the Rhodope district,
where they are known as Pomaks or " helpers," i.e. auxiliaries
to the Turkish army.

The Racial Propaganda. — The embittered struggle of the rival
nationalities in Macedonia dates from the middle of the loth
century. Until that period the Greeks, owing to their superior
culture and their privileged position, exercised an exclusive in-
fluence over the whole population professing the Orthodox
faith. All Macedonia was either Moslem or Orthodox Christian,
without distinction of nationalities, the Catholic or Protestant
millets being inconsiderable. The first opposition to Greek
ecclesiastical ascendancy came from the Bulgarians. The Bul-
garian literary revival, which took place in the earlier part of the
1 9th century, was the precursor of the ecclesiastical and national
movement which resulted in the establishment of the exarchate
in 1870 (see BULGARIA). In the course of the struggle some of
the Bulgarian leaders entered into negotiations with Rome; a
Bulgarian Uniate church was recognized by the Porte, and the
pope nominated a bishop, who, however, was mysteriously
deported to Russia a few days after his consecration (1861).
The first exarch, who was elected in 1871, was excommunicated
with all his followers by the patriarch, and a considerable number
of Bulgarians in Macedonia — the so-called " Bulgarophone
Greeks " — fearing the reproach of schism, or influenced by other
considerations, refrained from acknowledging the new spiritual
power. Many of the recently converted uniates, on the other
hand, offered their allegiance to the exarch. The firman of the
28th of February 1870 specified a number of districts within the
present boundaries of Bulgaria and Servia, as well as in Macedonia,
to which Bulgarian bishops might be appointed; other districts
might be subjected to the exarchate should two-thirds of the
inhabitants so desire. In virtue of the latter provision the dis-
tricts of Veles, Ochrida and Uskiib declared for the exarchate,
but the Turkish government refrained from sanctioning the
nomination of Bulgarian bishops to these dioceses. It was not
till 1891 that the Porte, at the instance of Stamboloff, the Bul-
garian prime minister, whose demands were supported by the
Triple Alliance and Great Britain, issued the berat, or exequatur,
for Bulgarian bishops at Ochrida and Uskiib; the sees of Veles
and Nevrokop received Bulgarian prelates in 1894, and those of
Monastir, Strumnitza and Dibra in 1898. The Bulgarian posi-
tion was further strengthened in the latter year by the establish-
ment of " commercial agents " representing the principality at
Salonica, Uskiib, Monastir and Serres. During this period
(1891-1898) the Bulgarian propaganda, entirely controlled by
the spiritual power and conducted within the bounds of legality,
made rapid and surprising progress. Subsequently the inter-
ference of the Macedonian committee at Sofia, in which the

advocates of physical force predominated, and the rivalry of fac-
tions did much to injure the movement ; the hostility of the Porte
was provoked and the sympathy of the powers alienated by a
series of assassinations and other crimes. According to the official
figures, the Bulgarian schools, which in 1893 were 554, with
30,267 pupils and 853 teachers, in 1900 numbered 785 (including
5 gymnasia and 58 secondary schools), with 39,892 pupils and
1250 teachers. A great number of the schools were closed by
the Turkish authorities after the insurrection of 1003 and many
had not been reopened in 1909; the teachers were imprisoned or
had fled into exile.

The Rumanian movement comes next to the Bulgarian in
order of time. The Vlachs had shown greater susceptibility to
Greek influence than any of the other non-Hellenic populations
of Macedonia, and, though efforts to create a Rumanian propa-
ganda were made as early as 1855, it was not till after the union
of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1861 that any
indications of a national sentiment appeared amongst them. In
1 886 the principal apostle of the Rumanian cause, a priest named
Apostol Margaritis, founded a gymnasium at Monastir, and the
movement, countenanced by the Porte, supported by the French
Catholic missions, and to some extent encouraged by Austria,
has made no inconsiderable progress since that time. There
are now about forty Rumanian schools in Macedonia, including
two gymnasia, and large sums are devoted to their maintenance
by the ministry of education at Bucharest, which also provides
qualified teachers. The Rumanian and Servian movements
are at a disadvantage compared with the Bulgarian, owing to
their want of a separate ecclesiastical organization, the orthodox
Vlachs and Serbs in Turkey owning allegiance to the Greek
patriarchate. The governments of Bucharest and Belgrade
therefore endeavoured to obtain the recognition of Vlach and
Servian millets, demanding respectively the establishment of
a Rumanian bishopric at Monastir and the restoration of the
patriarchate of Ipek with the appointment of a Servian metro-
politan at Uskiib. The Vlach millet was recognized by the
Porte by irade on the 23rd of May 1905, but the aims of the
Servians, whose active interference in Macedonia is of compara-
tively recent date, have not been realized. Previously to 1878
the hopes of the Servians were centred on Bosnia, Herzegovina
and the vilayet of Kossovo; but when the Berlin Treaty assigned
Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria, the national aspirations
were directed to Macedonia, the Slavonic population of which
was declared to be Servian. The strained relations existing
between Russia and Bulgaria from 1886 to 1895 were to the
advantage of the Servian propaganda, which after 1800 made
remarkable progress. Great expenditure has been incurred by
the Servian government in the opening and maintenance of
schools. At the beginning of 1899 there were stated to be 178
Servian schools in the vilayets of Uskiib, Salonica and Monastir
(including fifteen gymnasia), with 321 teachers and 7200 pupils.

The Albanian movement is still in an inceptive stage; owing
to the persistent prohibition of Albanian schools by the Turks,
a literary propaganda, the usual precursor of a national revival,
was rendered impossible till the outbreak of the Young Turk
revolution in July 1908.' ^After that date numerous schools
were founded and an Albanian committee, meeting in November
1908, fixed the national alphabet and decided on the adoption
of the Latin character. The educational movement is most
conspicuous among the Tosks, or southern Albanians. Notwith-
standing the encroachments of their rivals, the impoverishment
of the patriarchate, and the injury inflicted on their cause by
the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the Greeks still maintain a large
number of schools; according to statistics prepared at Athens
there were in 1901, 927 Greek schools in the vilayets of Salonica
and Monastir (including five gymnasia), with 1397 teachers and
57,607 pupils. The great educational activity displayed by
the proselytizing movements in Macedonia, while tending to the
artificial creation of parties, daily widens the contrast between the
progressive Christian and the backward Moslem populations.

Antiquities. — Macedonia, like the neighbouring Balkan countries,
still awaited exploration at the beginning of the 2Oth century, and

220

MACEDONIA

little had been learned of the earlier development of civilization in
these regions. The ancient indigenous population has left many
traces of its presence in the tumuli which occur on the plains, and
more especially along the valley of the Vardar. The unquiet state
of the country went far to prevent any systematic investigation of
these remains; excavations, however, were made by Korte and
Franke at Niausta and near Salonica (see Kretschner, Einleitung in
die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache, pp. 176, 421), and fragments of
primitive pottery, with peculiar characteristics, were found by
Perdrizet at Tchepelje, on the left bank of Lake Tachino. The oldest
archaeological monuments of Macedonia are its coins, for which the
mines of Crenides (the later Philippi), at the foot of Mt Pangaeus,
of Chalcidice, of the island of Thasos, and of the mountains between
Lake Prasias and the ancient Macedonian kingdom (Herod, v. 17),
furnished abundance of metal. From the reign of Alexander I.,
in the epoch of the Persian wars (502-479 B.C.), the Macedonian
dynasty issued silver coins of a purely Greek style. The Thracian
communities around Mt Pangaeus also produced a variety of coins,
especially at the beginning of the 5th century. The great octo-
drachms of this period were perhaps struck for the purpose of paying
tribute to the Persians when the country between the Strymon and
the Nestos was in their possession; most of the specimens have
been found in Asia Minor. These large pieces present many charac-
teristics of the Ionian style; it is evident that the Thracians derived
the arts of minting and engraving from the neighbouring Thasos,
itself a colony from the Ionian Paros. The monarchs of Pella were
enthusiastic admirers of Hellenic culture, and their court was
doubtless frequented by Greek sculptors as well as men of letters,
such as Herodotus and Euripides. At Pella has been found a
funerary stele of the late 5th or early 4th century representing a
Macedonian hetaerus — a beautiful specimen of the best Greek art,
now preserved in the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople.
To the Hellenic period belong the vaulted tombs under tumuli dis-
covered at Pella, Pydna, Palatitza, and other places; the dead were
laid in marble couches ornamented with sculptures, like those of the
so-called sarcophagus of Alexander at Constantinople. These tombs
doubtless received the remains of the Macedonian nobles and hetaeri :
in one of them a fresco representing a conflict between a horseman
and a warrior on foot has been brought to light by Kinch. Similarly
constructed places of sepulture have been found at Eretria and else-
where in Greece. At Palatitza the ruins of a remarkable structure,
perhaps a palace, have been laid bare by Heuzey and Daumet.
Unlike Greece, where each independent city had its acropolis, Mace-
donia offers few remnants of ancient fortification ; most of the country
towns appear to have been nothing more than open market-centres.
The most interesting ruins in the country are those of the Roman and
Byzantine epochs, especially those at Salonica (?.».). The Byzan-
tine fortifications and aqueduct of Kavala are also remarkable.
At Verria (Beroea) may be seen some Christian remains, at Melnik
a palace of the age of the Comneni, at Serres a fortress built by the
Servian tsar Stephen Dushan (1336-1356). The remainsat Filibejik
(Philippi) are principally of the Roman and Byzantine periods;
the numerous ex voto rock-tablets of the acropolis are especially
interesting. The Roman inscriptions found in Macedonia are mainly
funerary, but include several ephebic lists. The funerary tablets
afford convincing proof of the persistence of the Thracian element,
notwithstanding hellenization and latinization ; many of them, for
instance, represent the well-known Thracian horseman hunting the
wild boar. The monastic communities on the promontory of Athos
(q.v.), with their treasures of Byzantine art and their rich collections
of manuscripts, are of the highest antiquarian interest.

History. — For the history of ancient Macedonia see MACE-
DONIAN EMPIRE.' After its subjugation by the Romans the
country was divided into four districts separated by rigid
political and social limitations. Before long it was constituted
a province, which in the time of Augustus was assigned to the
senate. Thenceforward it followed the fortunes of the Roman
empire, and, after the partition of that dominion, of its eastern
branch. Its Thraco-Illyrian inhabitants had already been
largely latinized when Constantine the Great made Byzantium
the imperial residence in A.D. 330; they called themselves Romans
and spoke Latin. Towards the close of the 4th century the
country was devastated by the Goths and Avars, whose incur-
sions possessed no lasting significance. It was otherwise with
the great Slavonic immigration, which took place at intervals
from the 3rd to the 7th century. An important ethnographic
change was brought about, and the greater part of Mace-
donia was colonized by the invaders (see BALKAN PENINSULA).

The Slavs were in their turn conquered by the Bulgarians
(see BULGARIA: History) whose chief Krum (802-815) included
central Macedonia in his dominions. The Byzantines retained
the southern regions and Salonica, which temporarily fell into
the hands of the Saracens in 904. With the exception of the
1 Also Alexander, Perdiccas, Philip, &c.

maritime districts, the whole of Macedonia formed a portion
of the empire of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon (893-927); the
Bulgarian power declined after his death, but was Byzantine
revived in western Macedonia under the Shishman *ad
dynasty at Ochrida; Tsar Samuel (976-1014), the third Bulfarl*a
ruler of that family, included in his dominions Uskiib, '
Veles, Vodena and Melnik. After his defeat by the emperor
Basil II. in 1014 Greek domination was established for a century
and a half. The Byzantine emperors endeavoured to confirm
their positions by Asiatic colonization; Turkish immigrants,
afterwards known as Vardariotes, the first of their race who
appeared in Macedonia, were settled in the neighbourhood of
Salonica in the 9th century; colonies of Uzes, Petchenegs and
Kumans were introduced at various periods from the nth to the
i3th century. While Greeks and Bulgarians disputed the mas-
tery of Macedonia the Vlachs, in the loth century, established
an independent state in the Pindus region, which, afterwards
known as Great Walachia, continued to exist till the beginning
of the i4th century. In 1185 southern Macedonia was exposed
to a raid of the Normans under William of Sicily, who captured
Salonica and massacred its inhabitants. After the taking of
Constantinople in 1204 by the Franks of the fourth crusade, the
Latin empire of Romania was formed and the feudal kingdom
of Thessalonica was bestowed on Boniface, marquis of Mont-
ferrat; this was overthrown in 1222 by Theodore, despot of
Epirus, a descendant of the imperial house of the Comneni, who
styled himself emperor of Thessalonica and for some years ruled
over all Macedonia. He was defeated and captured by the
Bulgarians in 1 230 and the remnant of his possessions, to which
his son John succeeded, was absorbed in the empire of Nicaea
in 1 234. Bulgarian rule was now once more established in Mace-
donia under the powerful monarch Ivan Asen II. (1218-1241)
whose dynasty, of Vlach origin, had been founded at Trnovo
in 1186 after a revolt of the Vlachs and Bulgars against the
Greeks. A period of decadence followed the extinction of the
Asen dynasty in 1257; the Bulgarian power was overthrown by
the Servians at Velbuzhd (1330), and Macedonia was included
in the realm of the great Servian tsar Dushan (1331-1355) who
fixed his capital at Uskiib. Dushan's empire fell to pieces after
his death, and the anarchy which followed prepared the way for
the advance of the Turks, to whom not only contending
factions at Constantinople but Servian and Bulgarian princes
alike made overtures.

Macedonia and Thrace were soon desolated by Turkish raids ;
when it was too late the Slavonic states combined against the
invaders, but their forces, under the Servian tsar
Lazar, were routed at Kossovo in 1389 by the sultan
Murad I. Salonica and Larissa were captured in
1395 by Murad's son Bayezid, whose victory over Sigismund
of Hungary at Nicopolis in 1396 sealed the fate of the
peninsula. The towns in the Struma valley were yielded to
the Turks by John VII. Palaeologus in 1424; Salonica was
taken for the last time in 1428 by Murad II. and its inhabi-
tants were massacred. Large tracts of land were distributed
among the Ottoman chiefs; a system of feudal tenure was
developed by Mahommed II. (1451-1481), each fief furnishing a
certain number of armed warriors. The Christian peasant
owners remained on the lands assigned to the Moslem feudal
lords, to whom they paid a tithe. The condition of the subject
population was deplorable from the first, and became worse
during the period of anarchy which coincided with the decadence
of the central power in the I7th and i8th centuries; in the latter
half of the 1 7th century efforts to improve it were made by the
grand viziers Mehemet and Mustafa of the eminent house of
Koprttlu. The country was policed by the janissaries (q.v.).
Numbers of the peasant proprietors were ultimately reduced to
serfdom, working as labourers on the farms or tchifliks of the
Moslem beys. Towards the end of the i8th century many of the
local governors became practically independent; western Mace-
donia fell under the sway of Ali Pasha of lannina; at Serres
Ismail Bey maintained an army of 10,000 men and exercised a
beneficent despotism. For more than two centuries Albanian

MACEDONIA

221

incursions, often resulting in permanent settlements, added to
the troubles of the Christian population. The reforms embodied
in the Hatt-i-Sherif of Gulhane (1839) and in the Hatt-i-humayun
(1856), in both of which the perfect equality of races and religions
was proclaimed, remained a dead letter; the first " Law of the
Vilayets " (1864), reforming the local administration, brought
no relief, while depriving the Christian communities of certain
rights which they had hitherto possessed.

In 1876 a conference of the powers at Constantinople proposed
the reorganization of the Bulgarian provinces of Turkey in two
vilayets under Christian governors-general aided by
popular assemblies. The " western " vilayet, of
tioa. which Sofia was to be the capital, included northern,

Treaties of central and western Macedonia, extending south as
Md iterUn." far a8 Castoria- The fry* de rlglement elaborated
by the conference was rejected by the Turkish
parliament convoked under the constitution proclaimed en the
23rd of December 1876; the constitution, which was little more
than a device for eluding European intervention, was shortly
afterwards suspended. Under the treaty of San Stefano (March
3, 1878) the whole of Macedonia, except Salonica and the
Chalcidic peninsula, was included in the newly formed princi-
pality of Bulgaria; this arrangement was reversed by the Treaty
of Berlin (July 13) which left Macedonia under Turkish adminis-
tration but provided (Art. xxiii.) for the introduction of reforms
analogous to those of the Cretan Organic Statute of 1868.
These reforms were to be drawn up by special commissions, on
which the native element should be largely represented, and the
opinion of the European commission for eastern Rumelia was to be
taken before their promulgation. The Porte, however, prepared
a project of its own, and the commission, taking this as a basis,
drew up the elaborate " Law of the Vilayets " (Aug. 23, 1880).
The law never received the sultan's sanction, and European
diplomacy proved unequal to the task of securing its adoption.

The Berlin Treaty, by its artificial division of the Bulgarian
race, created the difficult and perplexing "Macedonian Question."
The The population handed back to Turkish rule never

Jfaeedontenacquiesced in its fate; its discontent was aggravated
Question. jjy tne depiorable misgovernment which characterized
the reign of Abdul Hamid II., and its efforts to assert itself,
stimulated by the sympathy of the enfranchised portion of the
race, provoked rival movements on the part of the other Chris-
tian nationalities, each receiving encouragement and material
aid from the adjacent and kindred states. Some insignificant
risings took place in Macedonia after the signature of the Berlin
Treaty, but in the interval between 1878 and 1893 the population
remained comparatively tranquil, awaiting the fulfilment of the
promised reforms.

In 1893, however, a number of secret revolutionary societies
(druzhestvo) were set on foot in Macedonia, and in 1894 similar
Bulgarian bodies were organized as legal corporations in Bul-
Conspira- garia. The fall of Stamboloff in that year and the
«**• reconciliation of Bulgaria with Russia encouraged

the revolutionaries in the mistaken belief that Russia would
take steps to revive the provisions of the San Stefano treaty.
In 1895 the " Supreme Macedo-Adrianopolitan Committee "
(Vrkhoven Makedoni-Odrinski Komitet) was formed at Sofia
and forthwith despatched armed bands into northern Macedonia;
the town of Melnik was occupied for a short time by the revolu-
tionaries under Boris Sarafoff , but the enterprise ended in failure.
Dispirited by this result, the " Vrkhovists," as the revolutionaries
in Bulgaria were generally styled, refrained from any serious
effort for the next five years; the movement was paralysed by
dissensions among the chiefs, and rival parties were formed under
Sarafoff and General Tzoncheff. Meanwhile the " Centralist "
or local Macedonian societies were welded by two remarkable
men, Damian Grueff and Gotz6 Delcheff, into a formidable power
known as the " Internal Organization," founded in 1893, which
maintained its own police, held its own tribunals, assessed and
collected contributions, and otherwise exercised an imperium in
imperio throughout the country, which was divided into rayons
or districts, and subdivided into departments and communes,

each with its special staff of functionaries. The Internal Organ-
ization, as a rule, avoided co-operation with the revolutionaries
in Bulgaria; it aimed at the attainment of Macedonian autonomy,
and at first endeavoured, but unsuccessfully, to enlist the
sympathies of the Greeks and Servians for the programme of
" Macedonia for the Macedonians."

The principle of autonomy was suspected at Athens and
Belgrade as calculated to ensure Bulgarian predominance and
to delay or preclude the ultimate partition of the Greek
country. At Athens, especially, the progress of the Action.
Bulgarian movement was viewed with much alarm; it was
feared that Macedonia would be lost to Hellenism, and in 1896
the Ethniki Hetaerea (see GREECE and CRETE) sent numerous
bands into the southern districts of the country. The Hetaerea
aimed at bringing about a war between Greece and Turkey, and
the outbreak of trouble in Crete enabled it to accomplish its
purpose. During the Greco-Turkish War (q.v.) Macedonia
remained quiet, Bulgaria and Servia refraining from interference
under pressure from Austria, Russia and the other great powers.
The reverses of the Greeks were to the advantage of the Bul-
garian movement, which continued to gain strength, but after
the discovery of a hidden dep6t of arms at Vinitza in 1897 the
Turkish authorities changed their attitude towards the Bulgarian
element; extreme and often barbarous methods of repression
were adopted, and arms were distributed among the Moslem
population. The capture of an American missionary, Miss
Stone, by a Bulgarian band under Sandansky in the autumn of
1901 proved a windfall to the revolutionaries, who expended her
ransom of £Ti6,ooo in the purchase of arms and ammunition.

In 1902 the Servians, after a prolonged conflict with the Greeks,
succeeded with Russian aid in obtaining the nomination of Mgr.
Firmilian, a Servian, to the archbishopric of Uskiib. Troubles la
Contemporaneously with a series of Russo-Bulgarian 19O2: later-
celebrations in the Shipka pass in September of that v™*£* "'

„ , • . . . • thervwers.

year, an effort was made to provoke a rising in the
Monastir district by Colonel Yankoff, the lieutenant of General
Tzoncheff; in November a number of bands entered the Razlog
district under the general's personal direction. These movements,
which were not supported by the Internal Organization, ended
in failure, and merciless repression followed. The state of the
country now became such as to necessitate the intervention of
the powers, and the Austrian and Russian governments, which
had acted in concert since April 1897, drew up an elaborate
scheme of reforms. The Porte, as usual, endeavoured to fore-
stall foreign interference by producing a project of its own,
which was promulgated in November 1902, and Hilmi Pasha
was appointed Inspector General of the Rumelian vilayets and
charged with its application. The two powers, however, per-
severed in their intention and on the 2ist of February 1903
presented to the Porte an identic memorandum proposing a
series of reforms in the administration, police and finance,
including the employment of " foreign specialists " for the
reorganization of the gendarmerie.

At the same time the Bulgarian government, under pressure
from Russia, arrested the revolutionary leaders in the principality,
suppressed the committees, and confiscated their
funds. The Internal Organization, however, was be-
yond reach, and preparations for an insurrection went
rapidly forward. In March a serious Albanian revolt I9a3'
complicated the situation. At the end of April a number of
dynamite outrages took place at Salonica; public opinion in
Europe turned against the revolutionaries and the Turks seized
the opportunity to wreak a terrible vengeance on the Bulgarian
population. On the 2nd of August, the feast of St Elias, a general
insurrection broke out in the Monastir vilayet, followed by
sporadic revolts in other districts. The insurgents achieved
some temporary successes and occupied the towns of Krushevo,
Klisura and Neveska, but by the end of September their resist-
ance was overcome; more than 100 villages were burned by the
troops and bashi-bazouks, 8400 houses were destroyed and 60,000
peasants remained homeless in the mountains at the approach of
wister.

222

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE

The Austrian and Russian governments then drew up a
further series of reforms known as the " Miirzsteg programme "
The (Oct. 9, 1903) to which the Porte assented in prin-

"Mlinsteg ciple, though many difficulties were raised over
Pro~ n details. Two officials, an Austrian and a Russian,
me' styled " civil agents " and charged with the super-
vision of the local authorities in the application of reforms,
were placed by the side of the inspector-general while the
reorganization of the gendarmerie was entrusted to a foreign
general in the Turkish service aided by a certain number of
officers from the armies of the great powers. The latter task
was entrusted to the Italian General de Giorgis (April 1904),
the country being divided into sections under the supervision
of the officers of each power. The reforms proved a failure,
mainly owing to the tacit opposition of the Turkish authori-
ties, the insufficient powers attributed to the European
officials, the racial feuds and the deplorable financial situation.
In 1905 the powers agreed on the establishment of a financial
commission on which the representatives of Great Britain,
France, Germany and Italy would sit as colleagues of the civil
agents. The Porte offered an obstinate resistance to the
project and only yielded (Dec. 5) when the fleets of the powers
appeared near the Dardanelles. Some improvement was now
effected in the financial administration, but the general state of
the country continued to grow worse; large funds were collected
abroad by the committees at Athens, which despatched numerous
bands largely composed of Cretans into the southern districts,
the Servians displayed renewed activity in the north, while the
Bulgarians offered a dogged resistance to all their foes.

The Austro-Russian entente came to an end in the beginning
of 1908 owing to the Austrian project of connecting the Bosnian
The"Revai and Macedonian railway systems, and Great Britain
Pro- and Russia now took the foremost place in the

gramme." demand for reforms. After a meeting between King
Edward VII. and the emperor Nicholas II. at Reval in the early
summer of 1908 an Anglo-Russian scheme, known as the " Reval
programme," was announced; the project aimed at more effective
European supervision and dealt especially with the administra-
tion of justice. Its appearance was almost immediately followed
by the military revolt of the Young Turk or constitutional party,
which began in the Monastir district under two junior officers,
Enver Bey and Niazi Bey, in July. The restoration of the con-
stitution of 1876 was proclaimed (July 24, 1908), and the powers,
anticipating the spontaneous adoption of reforms on the part of
regenerated Turkey, decided to suspend the Reval programme
and to withdraw their military officers from Macedonia.

See Lejean, Ethnographie de la Turquie d'Europe (Gotha, 1861) ;
Hahn, Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik (Vienna, 1868); Yastrebon,
Obichai i pesni turetskikh Serbov (St Petersburg, 1886); " Ofeicoff "
(Shopoff), La, Macedoine au point de vue ethnographique, historique el
philologique (Philippopolis, l888);Gopchevitch, MakedonienundA.lt-
Serbien (Vienna, 1889); Verkovitch, Topografichesko-ethnographiche-
skii ocherk Makedonii (St Petersburg, 1889); Burada, Cercetari
despre scoalele Romanesci din Turcia (Bucharest, 1890); Tomaschek,
Die heutigen Bewohner Macedoniens (Sonderabdruck aus den
Verhandlungen des IX. D. Geographen-Tages in Wien, 1891)
(Berlin, 1891) ; Die alien Thrdker (Vienna, 1893) ; Berard, La Turquie
et I'Hellenisme contempprain, (Paris, 1893); La Macedoine (Paris,
1900) ; Shopoff, Iz zhivota i polozhenieto na Bulgarite v vilayetite
(Philippopolis, 1894); Weigand, Die Aromunen (Leipzig, 1895);
Die nationalen Bestrebungen der Balkanvolker (Leipzig, 1898);
Nikolaides, La Macedoine (Berlin, 1899);. "Odysseus," Turkey in
Europe (London, 1900); Kunchoff, Makedonia: etnografia i statistika
(Sofia, 1900); La Macedoine et la Vilayet d'Andrinople (Sofia, 1904),
anonymous; L. Villari, The Balkan Question (London, 1905); H. N.
Brailsford, Macedonia: its Races and their Future (London, 1906);
J. Cvijic, Grundlinien der Geographie und Geologie von Mazedonien
und Altserbien (Gotha, 1908). For the antiquities, see Texier and
Pullan, Byzantine Architecture (London, 1864); Heuzey and Daumet,
Mission archeologique en Macedoine (Paris, 1865); Duchesne and
Bayet, Memoire sur une mission en Macedoine et au Mont Athos
(Paris, 1876) ; Barclay V. Head, Catalogue of Greek Coins; Macedonia
(London, 1879) ; Kinch, L' Arc de triomphe de Salonique (Paris, 1890) ;
Beretnung om en archaeologisk Reise i Makedonien (Copenhagen,
1893); Mommsen, Suppl. to vol. iii. Corpus inscript. latinarum
(Berlin, 1893); Perdrizet, Articles on Macedonian archaeology and
epigraphy in Bulletin de correspondence hellenique, since 1894.

(J. D. B.)

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, the name generally given to the
empire founded by Alexander the Great of Macedon in the
countries now represented by Greece and European Turkey,
Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria, Persia and eastwards as far as northern
India.1 The present article contains a general account of the
empire in its various aspects. It falls naturally into two main
divisions: — I. The reign of Alexander. II. The period of his
successors, the " Diadochi " and their dynasties.

I. The Reign of Alexander. — At the beginning of the 4th
century B.C. two types of political association confronted each
other in the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean, — /. Greets
the Persian monarchy with its huge agglomeration aad
of subject peoples, and the Greek city-state. Each
had a different principle of strength. The Persian monarchy was
strong in its size, in the mere amount of men and treasure it could
dispose of under a single hand; the Greek state was strong in its
morale, in the energy and discipline of its soldiery. But the
smallness of the single city-states and their unwillingness to
combine prevented this superiority in quality from telling
destructively upon the bulk of the Persian empire. • The future
belonged to any power that could combine the advantages of
both systems, could make a state larger than the Greek polis,
and animated by a spirit equal to that of the Greek soldier. This
was achieved by the kings of Macedonia. The work, begun by
his predecessors, of consolidating the kingdom internally and
making its army a fighting-machine of high power was com-
pleted by the genius of Philip II. (350-336 B.C.), who at the same
time by war and diplomacy brought the Greek states of the
Balkan peninsula generally to recognize his single predominance.
At the synod of Corinth (338) Philip was solemnly declared the
captain-general (crTpaTrryos avroKparup) of the Hellenes against
the Great King. The attack on Persia was delayed by the
assassination of Philip in 336, and it needed some fighting before
the young Alexander had made his position secure in Macedonia
and Greece. The recognition as captain-general he had obtained
at another synod in Corinth, by an imposing military demonstra-
tion in Greece immediately upon his accession. Then came the
invasion of the Persian empire by Alexander in 334 at the head
of an army composed both of Macedonians and contingents from
the allied Greek states. Before this force the Persian monarchy
went down, and when Alexander died eleven years later (323) a
Macedonian empire which covered all the territory of the old
Persian empire, and even more, was a realized fact.

The empire outside of Macedonia itself consisted of 22 provinces.
In Europe, (i) Thra.ce', in Asia Minor, (2) Phrygiaonthe Hellespont,
(3) Lydia, (4) Caria, (5) Lycia and Pamphylia, (6) Great 2. Extent of
Phrygia, (7) Paphlagonia and Cappadocia; between the Empire.
the Taurus and Iran, (8) Cilicia, (9) Syria, (10) Mesopo-
tamia, (n) Babylonia, (12) Susiana; in Africa, (13) Egypt; in Iran,
(14) Persis, (15) Media, (16) Parthia and Hyrcania, (17) Bactria and
Sogdiana, (18) Areia and Drangiana, (19) Carmania, (20) Arachosia
and Gedrosia; lastly the Indian provinces, (21) the Paropanisidae (the
Kabul valley), and (22) the province assigned to Pithpn, the son of
Agenor, upon the Indus (J. Beloch, Griech. Gesch.lll. [iu], p. 236 seq. ;
for the Indian provinces cf. B. Niese, Gesch. der griech. und maked.
Staaten, I. p. 500 seq.). Hardly provinces proper, but rather client
principalities, were the two native kingdoms to which Alexander had
left the conquered land beyond the Indus — the kingdoms of Taxiles
and Porus.

The conquered empire presented Alexander with a system of
government ready-made, which it was natural for the new masters
to take over. For the Asiatic provinces and Egypt, the old
Persian name of satrapy (see SATRAP) was still re- 3. System
tained, but the governor seems to have been styled oioovern-
officially in Greek strategos, although the term satrap "
certainly continued current in common parlance. The gover-
nors appointed by Alexander were, in the west of the empire,
exclusively Macedonians; in the east, members of the Old Persian
nobility were still among the satraps at Alexander's death,
Atropates in Media, Phrataphernes in Parthia and Hyrcania,

1 For the events which brought this empire into being see
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. For the detailed accounts of the separate
dynasties into which it' was divided after Alexander's death, see
SELEUCID DYNASTY, ANTIGONUS, PERGAMUM, &c., and for its effect
on the spread of Hellenic culture see HELLENISM.

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE

223

and Alexander's father-in-law Oxyartes in the Paropanisidae.
Alexander had at first trusted Persian grandees more freely in
this capacity; in Babylonia, Bactria, Carmania, Susiana he had
set Persian governors, till the ingrained Oriental tradition of
misgovernment so declared itself that to the three latter provinces
certainly Macedonians had been appointed before his death.
Otherwise the only eastern satrapy whose governor was not a
Macedonian, was Areia, under Stasanor, a Cypriote Greek. In
the case of certain provinces, possibly in the empire generally,
Alexander established a double control. The financial admini-
stration was entrusted to separate officials; we hear of such in
Lydia (Arr. i. 17, 7), Babylonia (id. iii. 16, 4), and notably in
Egypt (id. iii. 5, 4). Higher financial controllers seem to have
been over groups of provinces (Philoxenus over Asia Minor, Arr.
i. 17, 7; see Beloch, Gr. Gesch. III. [i] p. 14), and Harpalus over
the whole finances of the empire, with his seat in Babylon. Again
the garrisons in the chief cities, such as Sardis, Babylon, Memphis
Pelusium and Susa, were under commands distinct from those
of the provinces. The old Greek cities of the motherland were
not formally subjects of the empire, but sovereign states, which
assembled at Corinth as members of a great alliance, in which
the Macedonian king was included as a member and held the
office of captain-general. The Greek cities of Asia Minor stood
to him in a similar relation, though not included in the Corinthian
alliance, but in federations of their own (Kaerst, Gesch. d.
hellenist. Zeitalt. i. 261 seq.). Their territory was not part of the
king's country (Inscr. in the Brit. Mus. No. 400). Of course, in
fact, the power of the king was so vastly superior that the Greek
cities were in reality subject to his dictation, even in so intimate
a matter as the readmission of their exiles, and might be obliged
to receive his garrisons. Within the empire itself, the various
communities were allowed, subject to the interference of the king
or his officials, to manage their own affairs. Alexander is said
to have granted the Lydians to be " free " and " to use the laws
of the ancient Lydians," whatever exactly these expressions
may mean (Arr. i. 17, 4). So too in Egypt, the native monarchs
were left as the local authorities (Arr. iii. 5, 4). Especially to
the gods of the conquered people Alexander showed respect. In
Egypt and in Babylon he appeared as the restorer of the native
religions to honour after the unsympathetic rule of the Persians.
The temple of Marduk in Babylon which had fallen began to rise
again at his command. It is possible that he offered sacrifice
to Yahweh in Jerusalem. In Persia, the native aristocracy
retained their power, and the Macedonian governor adopted
Persian dress and manners (Diod. xix. 48, 5; Arr. vi. 30). A
new factor introduced by Alexander was the foundation of Greek
cities at all critical points of intercourse in the conquered lands.
These, no doubt, possessed municipal autonomy with the ordinary
organization of the Greek state ; to what extent they were formally
and regularly controlled by the provincial authorities we do not
know; Pithon, the satrap of the Indian province is specially
described as sent "in colonias in Indis conditas" (Just. xiii.
4, 21). The empire included large tracts of mountain or desert,
inhabited by tribes, which the Persian government had never
subdued. The subjugation of such districts could only be by a
system of effective military occupation and would be a work of
time; but Alexander made a beginning by punitive expeditions,
as occasion offered, calculated to reduce the free tribes to tempo-
rary quiet ; we hear of such expeditions in the case of the Pisidians,
the tribes of the Lebanon, the Uxii (in Khuzistan), the Tapyri (in
the Elburz), the hill-peoples of Bajaor and Swat, the Cossaei
(in Kurdistan) ; an expedition against the Arabs was in prepara-
tion when Alexander died.

See A. Kohler, Reichsverwaltung u. Politik Alexanders des Grossen
in Klio, v. 303 seq. (1905).

Alexander, who set out as king of t he Macedonians and captain-
general of the Hellenes, assumed after the death of Darius the
4. Court, character of the Oriental great king. He adopted
the Persian garb (Plutarch, de fort. Al. i. 8) in-
cluding a head-dress, the diadema, which was suggested by
that of the Achaemenian king (Just. xii. 3, 8). We hear
also of a sceptre as part of his insignia (Diod. xviii. 27, i).

The pomps and ceremonies which were traditional in the East
were to be continued. To the Greeks and Macedonians such a
regime was abhorrent, and the opposition roused by Alexander's
attempt to introduce among them the practice of proskynesis
(prostration before the royal presence), was bitter and effectual.
The title of chiliarch, by which the Greeks had described the
great king's chief minister, in accordance with the Persian title
which described him as " commander of a thousand," i.e. of the
royal body-guard, was conferred by Alexander upon his friend
Hephaestion. The Greek Chares held the position of chief usher
(«i<ra77«Xeis). Another Greek, Eumenes of Cardia, was chief
secretary (dpxi7paju/ia«iis). The figure of the eunuch, so long
characteristic of the Oriental court, was as prominent as ever
(e.g. Bagoas, Plut. Alex. 67, &c.; cf. Arr. vii. 24).

Alexander, however, who impressed his contemporaries by
his sexual continence, kept no harem of the old s<5rt. The
number of his wives did not go beyond two, and the second, the
daughter of Darius, he did not take till a year before his death.
In closest contact with the king's person were the seven, or
latterly eight, body-guards, <rwjuaTO<£uXa(c«, Macedonians of high
rank, including Ptolemy and Lysimachus, the future kings of
Egypt, and Thrace (Arr. vi. 28, 4). The institution, which the
Macedonian court before Alexander had borrowed from Persia,
of a corps of pages composed of the young sons of the nobility
(iraidts /^aoiXaot or /SaatXiKot) continued to hold an important
place in the system of the court and in Alexander's campaigns
(see Arr. iv. 13, i; Curt. viii. 6, 6; Suid. /faoiXeioi iraTSes; cf.
the 7rai5«s of Eumenes, Diod. xix. 28, 3).

See Spiecker, Der Hofund die Hofordnung Alex. d. Grossen (1904).

The army of Alexander was an instrument which he inherited
from his father Philip. Its core was composed of the Macedonian
peasantry who served on foot in heavy armour (" the s ^{
root-companions ")r(ffraipoi). They formed the phalanx,
and were divided into 6 brigades (rdfttj), probably on the territorial
system. Their distinctive arm was the great Macedonian pike
(sarissa), some 14 ft. long, of further reach than the ordinary Greek
spear. They were normally drawn up in more open order than the
heavy Greek phalanx, and possessed thereby a mobility and elasticity
in which the latter was fatally deficient. Reckoning 1,500 to each
brigade, we got a total for the phalanx of 9,000 men. Of higher rank
than the pezetaeri were the royal foot-guards (0a<riA«o2 inra<rrl<rrai),
some 3,000 in number, more lightly armed, and distinguished (at any
rate at the time of Alexander's death) by silver shields. Of these
1,000 constituted the royal corps (r6 071)^0 r<J @a.ai\utw). The Mace-
donian cavalry was recruited from a higher grade of society than the
infantry, the petite noblesse of the nation. They bore by old custom
the name of the king's Companions (iratpoi), and were distributed
into 8 territorial squadrons (IXoi) of probably some 250 men each,
making a normal total of 2,000. In the cavalry also the most
privileged squadron bore the name of the agema. The ruder peoples
which were neighbors to the Macedonians (Paeonians, Agrianes,
Thracians) furnished contingents of light cavalry and javelineers
(Axon-ioToU). From the Thessalians the Macedonian king, as overlord,
drew some thousand excellent troopers. The rest of Alexander's
army was composed of Greeks, not formally his subjects. These
served partly as mercenaries, partly in contingents contributed
by the states in virtue of their alliance. According to Diodorus
(xvii. 17, 3) at the time of Alexander's passage into Asia, the mer-
cenaries numbered 5,000, and the troops of the alliance 7,000 foot
and 600 horse. All these numbers take no account of the troops
left behind in Macedonia, 12,000 foot and 1,500 horse, according to
Diodorus. When Alexander was lord of Asia, innovations followed
in the army. Already in 330 at Persepolis, the command went forth
that 30,000 young Asiatics were to be trained as Macedonian soldiers
(the epigoni, Arr. vii., 6, i). Contingents of the fine Bactrian
cavalry followed Alexander into India. Persian nobles were admitted
into the agema of the Macedonian cavalry. A far more radical re-
modelling of the army was undertaken at Babylon in 323, by which the
old phalanx system was to be given up for one in which the unit was
to be composed of Macedonians with pikes and Asiatics with missile
arms in combination — a change calculated to be momentous both
from a military point of view in the coming wars, and from a political,
in the close fusion of Europeans and Asiatics. The death of Alexan-
der interrupted the scheme, and his successors reverted to the
older system. In the wars of Alexander the phalanx was never
the most active arm; Alexander delivered his telling attacks with
his cavalry, whereas the slow-moving phalanx held rather the posi-
tion of a reserve, and was brought up to complete a victory when
the cavalry charges had already taken effect. Apart from the
pitched battles, the warfare of Alexander was largely hill-fighting,
in which the hypaspistae took the principal part, and the contingents
of light-armed hillmen from the Balkan region did excellent service.

224

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE

For Alexander's army and tactics, beside the regular histories
(Droysen, Niese, Beloch, Kaerst), see D. G. Hogarth, Journal of
Philol., xvii. I seq. (corrected at some points in his Philip and Alex-
ander).

The modifications in the army system were closely connectec
with Alexander's general policy, in which the fusion of Greeks
6. Fusion of and Asiatics held so prominent a place. He hac
Greeks and himself, as we have seen, assumed to some extent
Asiatics. the guige of a persjan kjng Tne Macedonian

Peucestas received special marks of his favour for adopting the
Persian dress. The most striking declaration of his ideals was
the marriage feast at Susa in 324, when a large number of the
Macedonian nobles were induced to marry Persian princesses,
and the rank and file were encouraged by special rewards to take
Eastern wives. We are told that among the schemes registered
in the state papers and disclosed after Alexander's death was
one for transplanting large bodies of Asiatics into Europe and
Europeans into Asia, for blending the peoples of the empire by
intermarriage into a single whole (Diod. xviii. 4, 4). How far
did Alexander intend that in such a fusion Hellenic culture should
retain its pre-eminence? How far could it have done so, had
the scheme been realized? It is not impossible that the question
may yet be raised again whether the Eurasian after all is the heir
of the ages.

High above all the medley of kindreds and tongues, un-
trammelled by national traditions, for he had outgrown the
r DMae comPass °f anv one nation, invested with the
Honours. 8lorv of achievements in which the old bounds of
the possible seemed to fall away, stood in 324 the
man Alexander. Was he a man? The question was explicitly
suggested by the report that the Egyptian priest in the Oasis
had hailed him in the god's name as the son of Ammon. The
Egyptians had, of course, ascribed deity by old custom to their
kings, and were ready enough to add Alexander to the list. The
Persians, on the other hand, had a different conception of the
godhead, and we have no proof that from them Alexander either
required or received divine honours. From the Greeks he cer-
tainly received such honours; the ambassadors from the Greek
states came in 323 with the character of theori, as if approaching
a deity (Arr. vii. 23, 2). It has been supposed that in offering
such worship the Greeks showed the effect of " Oriental "
influence, but indeed we have not to look outside the Greek circle
of ideas to explain it. As early as Aeschylus (Supp. 991) the
proffering of divine honours was a form of expression for intense
feelings of reverence or gratitude towards men which naturally
suggested itself — as a figure of speech in Aeschylus, but the figure
had been translated into action before Alexander not in the well-
known case of Lysander only (cf. the case of Dion, Plut. Dio, 29).
Among the educated Greeks rationalistic views of the old
mythology had become so current that they could assimilate
Alexander to Dionysus without supposing him to be super-
natural, and to this temper the divine honours were a mere form,
an elaborate sort of flattery. Did Alexander merely receive such
honours? Or did he claim them himself? It would seem that
he did. Many of the assertions as to his action in this line do
not stand the light of criticism (see Hogarth, Eng. Hist. Rev. ii.,
1887, p. 317 seq.; Niese, Historische Zeitschrift, Ixxix., 1897, p. i,
seq.); even the explicit statement in Arrian as to Alexander
and the Arabians is given as a mere report; but we have well-
authenticated utterances of Attic orators when the question of
the cult of Alexander came up for debate, which seem to prove
that an intimation of the king's pleasure had been conveyed to
Athens.

A new life entered the lands conquered by Alexander. Human
intercourse was increased and quickened to a degree not before
A Inter- known. Commercial enterprise now found open
course and roads between the Aegean and India; the new
ily' Greek cities made stations in what had been for
the earlier Greek traders unknown lands; an immense quantity
of precious metal had been put into circulation which
the Persian kings had kept locked up in their treasuries
(cf. Athen. vi. 231 e). At the same time Alexander himself made
it a principal concern to win fresh geographical knowledge, to

open new ways. The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the
Euphrates was intended to link India by a waterway with the
Mediterranean lands. So too Heraclides was sent to explore
the Caspian; the survey, and possible circumnavigation, of the
Arabian coasts was the last enterprise which occupied Alexander.
The improvement of waterways in the interior of the empire was
not neglected, the Babylonian canal system was repaired, the
obstructions in the Tigris removed. A canal was attempted
across the Mimas promontory (Plin. N.H. v. 116). The reports
of the /377juart<TT<u, Baeton and Diognetus, who accompanied
the march of Alexander's army, gave an exacter knowledge of
the geographical conformation of the empire, and were accessible
for later investigators (Susemihl, Gesch. d. griech. Lilt., I. p. 544).
Greek natural science was enriched with a mass of new mate-
rial from the observations of the philosophers who went with
Alexander through the strange lands (H. Bretzl, Botanische
Forschungen d. Alexanderzuges, 1903); whilst on the other hand
attempts were made to acclimatize the plants of the motherland
in the foreign soil (Theophr., Hist. Plant, iv. 4, i).

The accession of Alexander brought about a change in the mone-
tary system of the kingdom. Philip's bimetallic system, which had
attempted artificially to fix the value of silver in spite a r
of the great depreciation of gold consequent upon the Colnte-
working of the Pangaean mines, was abandoned. Alexander's
gold coinage, indeed (possibly not struck till after the invasion of
Asia), follows in weight that of Philip's staters; but he seems at
once to have adopted for his silver coins (of a smaller denomination
than the tetradrachm) the Euboic-Attic standard, instead of the
Phoenician, which had been Philip's. With the conquest of Asia,
Alexander conceived the plan of issuing a uniform coinage for the
empire. Gold had fallen still further from the diffusion of the Per-
sian treasure, and Alexander struck in both metals on the Attic
standard, leaving their relation to adjust itself by the state of the
market. This imperial coinage was designed to break down the
monetary predominance of Athens (Beloch, Gr. Gesch. iii. [i.], 42).
None of the coins with Alexander's own image can be shown to' have
been issued during his reign; the traditional gods of the Greeks
still admitted no living man to share their prerogative in this sphere.
Athena and Nike alone figured upon Alexander's gold ; Heracles and
Zeus upon his silver.

See L. Muller, Numismatique d'Alexandre le Grand (1850- also
NUMISMATICS: § I. " Greek Coins, Macedonian."

II. After Alexander. — The external fortunes of the Macedonian
Empire after Alexander's death must be briefly traced before its
inner developments be touched upon.1 There was, at , Htstory
first, when Alexander suddenly died in 323, no overt otthe
disruption of the empire. The dispute between "Succes-
the Macedonian infantry and the cavalry (i.e. the sor*-"
commonalty and the nobles) was as to the person who should
be chosen to be the king, although it is true that either candidate,
the half-witted son of Philip II., Philip Arrhidaeus, or the pos-
thumous son of Alexander by Roxana, opened the prospect of a
long regency exercised by one or more of the Macedonian lords.
The compromise, by which both the candidates should be kings
together, was, of course, succeeded by a struggle for power
among those who wished to rule in their name. The resettle-
ment of dignities made in Babylon in 323, while it left the eastern
commands practically undisturbed as well as that of Antipater
in Europe, placed Perdiccas (whether as regent or as chiliarch) in
possession of the kings' persons, and this was a position which
:he other Macedonian lords could not suffer. Hence the first
intestine war among the Macedonians, in which Antipater,
Antigonus, the §atrap of Phrygia, and Ptolemy, the satrap of
Egypt, were allied against Perdiccas, who was ultimately mur-
dered in 321 on the Egyptian frontier (see PERDICCAS [4],
EUMENES). A second settlement, made at Triparadisus in
Syria in 321, constituted Antipater regent and increased the
power of Antigonus in Asia. When Antipater died, in 319, a
second war broke out, the wrecks of the party of Perdiccas, led
>y Eumenes, combining with Polyperchon, the new regent, and
ater on (318) with the eastern satraps who were in arms against
iMthon, the satrap of Media. Cassander, the son of Antipater,
disappointed of the regency, had joined the party of Antigonus.
.n 316 Antigonus had defeated and killed Eumenes and made
limself supreme from the Aegean to Iran, and Cassander had
1 For details see separate articles on the chief generals.

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE

225

ousted Polyperchon from Macedonia. But now a third war
began, the old associates of Antigonus, alarmed by his over-
grown power, combining against him — Cassander, Ptolemy,
Lysimachus, the governor of Thrace, and Seleucus, who had fled
before Antigonus from his satrapy of Babylonia. From 315 to
301 the war of Antigonus against these four went on, with one
short truce in 311. Antigonus never succeeded in reaching
Macedonia, although his son Demetrius won Athens and Megara
in 307 and again (304-302) wrested almost all Greece from
Cassander; nor did Antigonus succeed in expelling Ptolemy from
Egypt, although he led an army to its frontier in 306; and after
the battle of Gaza in 3i2,*in which Ptolemy and Seleucus defeated
Demetrius, he had to see Seleucus not only recover Babylonia
but bring all the eastern provinces under his authority as far as
India. Meanwhile the struggle changed its character in an
important respect. King Philip had been murdered by Olympias
in 317; the young Alexander by Cassander in 310; Heracles, the
illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, by Polyperchon in 309.
Thus the old royal house became extinct in the male line, and in
306 Antigonus assumed the title of king. His four adversaries
answered this challenge by immediately doing the same. Even
in appearance the empire was no longer a unity. In 301 the
coalition triumphed over Antigonus in the battle of Ipsus (in
Phrygia) and he himself was slain. Of the four kings who now
divided the Macedonian Empire amongst them, two were not
destined to found durable dynasties, while the house of Antigonus,
represented by Demetrius, was after all to do so. The house of
Antipater came to an end in the male line in 294, when Demetrius
killed the son of Cassander and established himself on the throne
of Macedonia. He was however expelled by Lysimachus and
Pyrrhus in 288; and in 285 Lysimachus took possession of all the
European part of the Macedonian Empire. Except indeed for
Egypt and Palestine under Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Seleucus
now divided the empire between them, with the Taurus in Asia
Minor for their frontier. These two survivors of the forty years'
conflict soon entered upon the crowning fight, and in 281
Lysimachus fell in the battle of Corupedion (in Lydia), leaving
Seleucus virtually master of the empire. Seleucus' assassination
by Ptolemy Ceraunus in the same year brought back confusion.

Ptolemy Ceraunus (the son of the first Ptolemy, and half-
brother of the reigning king of Egypt) seized the Macedonian
throne, whilst Antiochus, the son of Seleucus, succeeded in hold-
ing together the Asiatic dominions of his father. The confusion
was aggravated by the incursion of the Gauls into the Balkan
Peninsula in 279; Ptolemy Ceraunus perished, and a period of
complete anarchy succeeded in Macedonia. In 276 Antigonus
Gonatas, the son of Demetrius, after inflicting a crushing defeat
on the Gauls near Lysimachia, at last won Macedonia definitively
for his house. Three solid kingdoms had thus emerged from all
the fighting since Alexander's death: the kingdom of the
Antigonids in the original land of the race, the kingdom of the
Ptolemies in Egypt, and that of the Seleucids, extending from
the Aegean to India. For the next 100 years these are the three
great powers of the eastern Mediterranean. But already parts
of the empire of Alexander had passed from Macedonian rule
altogether. In Asia Minor, Philetaerus a Greek of Tios (Tieium)
in Paphlagonia, had established himself in a position of practical
independence at Pergamum, and his nephew, Attalus, was the
father of the line of kings who reigned in Pergamum till 133 —
antagonistic to the Seleucid house, till in 189 they took over the
Seleucid possessions west of the 'Taurus. In Bithynia a native
dynasty assumed the style of kings in 297. In Cappadocia two
Persian houses, relics of the old aristocracy of Achaemenian days
had carved out principalities, one of which became the kingdom
of Pontus and the other the kingdom of Cappadocia (in the
narrower sense); the former regarding Mithradates (281-266)
as its founder, the latter being the creation of the second Ariar-
athes (?302-?28i). Armenia, never effectively conquered by
the Macedonians, was left in the hands of native princes, tribu-
tary only when the Seleucid court was strong enough to compel.
In India, Seleucus had in 302 ceded large districts on the west
of the Indus to Chandragupta, who had arisen to found a

xvii. 8

native empire which annexed the Macedonian provinces in the
Panjab.

Whilst the Antigonid kingdom remained practically whole till
the Roman conquest ended it in 168 B.C., and the house of
Ptolemy ruled in Egypt till the death of Cleopatra in 30 B.C., the
Seleucid Empire perished by a slow process of disruption. The
eastern provinces of Iran went in 240 or thereabouts, when the
Greek Diodotus made himself an independent king in Bactria(?.c.)
and Sogdiana, and Tiridates, brother of Arsaces, a " Scythian "
chieftain, conquered Parthia (so Arrian, but see PARTHIA).
Armenia was finally lost in 190, when Artaxias founded a new
native dynasty there. Native princes probably ruled in Persis
before 166, though the district was at least nominally subject
to Antiochus IV. Epiphanes till his death in 164 (see PERSIS).
In southern Syria, which had been won by the house of Seleucus
from the house of Ptolemy in 198, the independent Jewish
principality was set up in 143. About the same time Media was
totally relinquished to the Parthians. Babylonia was Parthian
from 129. Before 88 the Parthians had conquered Mesopotamia.
Commagene was independent underaking,MithradatesCalh'nicus,
in the earlier part of the last century B.C. Syria itself in the last
days of the Seleucid dynasty is seen to be breaking up into
petty principalities, Greek or native. From 83 to 69 is the
transient episode of Armenian conquest, and in 64 the last
shadow of Seleucid rule vanished, when Syria was made a
Roman province by Pompey. From this time Rome formally
entered upon the heritage of Alexander as far as the Euphrates,
but many of the dynasties which had arisen in the days of Mace-
donian supremacy were allowed to go on for a time as client
states. One of them, the royal house of Commagene, not
deposed by the Romans till A.D. 72, had Seleucid blood in its
veins through the marriage of a Seleucid princess with Mithra-
dates Callinicus, and regarded itself as being a continuation of
the Seleucid dynasty. Its kings bore the name of Antiochus,
and were as proud of their Macedonian, as of their Persian,
descent (see the Inscription of Nimrud Dagh, Michel, No. 735).

The Macedonians of Alexander were not mistaken in seeing
an essential transformation of their national monarchy when
Alexander adopted the guise of an Oriental great 2. constku-
king. Transplanted into this foreign soil, the tioa of the
monarchy became an absolute despotism, unchecked Macedonian
by a proud territorial nobility and a hardy peasantry Kla*dom-
on familiar terms with their king. The principle which Seleucus
is reported to have enunciated, that the king's command was the
supreme law (App. Syr. 61), was literally the principle of the new
Hellenistic monarchies in the East. But the rights belonging
to the Macedonian army as Alexander inherited it did not al-
together disappear. Like the old Roman people, the Macedonian
people under arms had acted especially in the transference of the
royal authority, conferring or confirming the right of the new
chief, and in cases of the capital trials of Macedonians. In the
latter respect the army came regularly into function under
Alexander, and in the wars which followed his death (Diod. xviii.
4. 3; 36, 7; 37,2, 39, 2; xix. 61,3), and in Macedonia; although
the power of life and death came de facto into the hands of the
Antigonid king, the old right of the army to act as judge was
not legally abrogated, and friction was sometimes caused by its
assertion (Polyb. v. 27, 5). The right of the army to confer the
royal power was still symbolized in the popular acclamation
required on the accession of a new king, and at Alexandria in
troubled times we hear of " the people " making its will effective
in filling the throne, although it is here hard to distinguish mob-
rule from the exercise of a legitimate function. Thus the people
put Euergetes II. on the throne when Philometor was captured
(Polyb. xxix. 23, 4); the people compelled Cleopatra III. to
choose Soter II. as her associate (Just, xxxiv. 3, 2). In Syria,
the usurper Tryphon bases his right upon an election by the
" people " (Just, xxxvi. I, 7) or" the army " (Jos. Anl. xiii. § 219).
Where it is a case of delegating some part of the supreme au-
thority, as when Seleucus I. made his son Antiochus king for
the eastern provinces, we find the army convoked to ratify the
appointment (App. Syr. 61). So too the people is spoken of as

226

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE

appointing the guardians of a king during his minority (Just,
xxxiv. 3, 6). Nor was the power of the army a fiction. The
Hellenistic monarchies rested, as all government in the last
resort must, upon the loyalty of those who wielded the brute
force of the state, and however unlimited the powers of the
king might be in theory, he could not alienate the goodwill of
the army with impunity. The right of primogeniture in suc-
cession was recognized as a general principle; a woman, however,
might succeed only so long as there were no male agnates.
Illegitimate children had no rights of succession. In disturbed
times, of course, right yielded to might or to practical necessities.

The practice by which the king associated a son with himself,
as secondary king, dates from the very beginning of the kingdoms
of the Successors; Antigonus on assuming the diadem in 306
caused Demetrius also to bear the title of king. Some ten years
later Seleucus appointed Antiochus as king for the eastern
provinces. Thenceforth the practice is a common one. But
the cases of it fall into two classes. Sometimes the subordinate
or joint kingship implies real functions. In the Seleucid king-
dom the territorial expanse of the realm made the creation of a
distinct subordinate government for part of it a [measure of
practical convenience. Sometimes the joint-king is merely
titular, an infant of tender years, as for instance Antiochus
Eupator, the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, or Ptolemy Eupator,
the son of Ptolemy Philometor. The object here is to secure
the succession in the event of the supreme king's dying whilst
his heir is an infant. The king's government was carried on
by officials appointed by him and responsible to him alone.
Government at the same time, as an Oriental despotism under-
stands it, often has little in view but the gathering in of the
tribute and compulsion of the subjects to personal service in the
army or in royal works, and if satisfied in these respects will leave
much independence to the local authorities. In the loosely-knit
Seleucid realm it is plain that a great deal more independence
was left to the various communities, — cities or native tribes, —
than in Egypt, where the conditions made a bureaucratic system
so easy to carry through. In their outlying possessions the
Ptolemies may have suffered as much local independence as the
Seleucids; the internal government of Jerusalem, for instance,
was left to the high priests. In so far as the older Greek cities
fell within their sphere of power, the successors of Alexander
were forced to the same ambiguous policy as Alexander had been,
between recognizing the cities' unabated claim to sovereign
independence and the necessity of attaching them securely. In
Asia Minor, the " enslavement " and liberation of cities alternated
with the circumstances of the hour, while the kings all through
professed themselves the champions of Hellenic freedom, and
were ready on occasion to display munificence toward the city
temples or in public works, such as might reconcile republicans
to a position of dependence. Antiochus III. went so far as to
write on one occasion to the subject Greek cities that if any royal
mandate clashed with the civic laws it was to be disregarded
(Plut. Imp. et due. apophth.). But it was the old cry of the
" autonomy of the Hellenes," raised by Smyrna and Lampsacus,
which ultimately brought Antiochus III. into collision with
Rome. How anxious the Pergamene kings, with their ardent
Hellenism, were to avoid offence is shown by the elaborate forms
by which, in their own capital, they sought to give their real
control the appearance of popular freedom (Cardinali, Regno di
Pergamo, p. 2d seq.). A similar problem confronted the Antigonid
dynasty in the cities of Greece itself, for to maintain a predomi-
nant influence in Greece was a ground-principle of their policy.
Demetrius had presented himself in 307 as the liberator, and
driven the Macedonian garrison from the Peiraeus; but his own
garrisons held Athens thirteen years later, when he was king of
Macedonia, and the Antigonid dynasty clung to the points of
vantage in Greece, especially Chalcis and Corinth, till their
garrisons were finally expelled by the Romans in the name of
Hellenic liberty.

The new movement of commerce initiated by the conquest
of Alexander continued under his successors, though the break-
up of the Macedonian Empire in Asia in the 3rd century and the

distractions of the Seleucid court must have withheld many
advantages from the Greek merchants which a strong central
government might have afforded them. It was along , _
the great trade-routes between India and the West
that the main stream of riches flowed then as in later centuries.
One of these routes was by sea to south-west Arabia (Yemen) , and
thence up the Red Sea to Alexandria. This was the route con-
trolled and developed by the Ptolemaic kings. Between Yemen
and India the traffic till Roman times was mainly in the hands
of Arabians or Indians; between Alexandria and Yemen it was
carried by Greeks (Strabo ii. 118). The west coast of the Red
Sea was dotted with commercial stations of royal foundation
from Arsinoe north of Suez to Arsinoe in the south near the
straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. From Berenice on the Red Sea a
land-route struck across to the Nile at Coptos; this route the
kings furnished with watering stations. That there might also
be a waterway between Alexandria and the Red Sea, they cut
a canal between the Delta and the northern Arsinoe. It was
Alexandria into which this stream of traffic poured and made
it the commercial metropolis of the world. We hear of direct
diplomatic intercourse between the courts of Alexandria and
Pataliputra, i.e. Patna (Plin. vi. § 58). An alternative route
went from the Indian ports to the Persian Gulf, and thence found
the Mediterranean by caravan across Arabia from the country
of Gerrha to Gaza; and to control it was no doubt a motive in
the long struggle of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid houses for
Palestine, as well as in the attempt of Antiochus III. to subjugate
the Gerrhaeans. Or from the Persian Gulf wares might be taken
up the Euphrates and carried across to Antioch; this route lay
altogether in the Seleucid sphere. With Iran Antioch was
connected most directly by the road which crossed the Euphrates
at the Zeugma and went through Edessa and Antioch-Nisibis
to the Tigris. The trade from India which went down the Oxus
and then to the Caspian does not seem to have been consider-
able (Tarn, Journ. of Hell. Stud. xxi. 10 seq.). From Antioch to
the Aegean the land high-road went across Asia Minor by the
Cilician Gates and the Phrygian Apamea.

Of the financial organization of the Macedonian kingdoms
we know practically nothing, except in the case of Egypt. Here
the papyri and ostraca have put a large material
at our disposal, but the circumstances in Egypt1
were too peculiar for us to generalize upon these data as to the
Seleucid and Antigonid realms. That the Seleucid kings drew
in a principal part of their revenues from tribute levied upon the
various native races, distributed in their village communities
as tillers of the soil goes without saying.2 In districts left in the
hands of native chiefs these chiefs would themselves exploit
their villages and pay the Seleucid court and tribute. To exact
tribute from Greek cities was invidious, but both Antigonid and
Seleucid kings often did so (Antigonid, Diog. Laert. II., 140;
Plut. Dem. 27; Seleucid, Michel, No. 37; Polyb. xxi. 43, 2).
Sometimes, no doubt, this tribute was demanded under a fairer
name, as the contribution of any ally (<7wra£ts, not $6pos), like
the raXaTifoi levied by Antiochus I. (Michel, No. 37; cf. Polyb.
xxii. 27, 2). The royal domains, again, and royal monopolies,
such as salt-mines, were a source of revenue.3 As to indirect
taxes, like customs and harbour dues, while their existence is
a matter of course (cf. Polyb. v. 89, 8), their scale, nature and
amount is quite unknown to us. Whatever the financial system

1 For Ptolemaic Egypt, see PTOLEMIES and EGYPT.

1 A tenth of the produce is sutgested to have been the normal tax
by what the Romans found ootaining in the Attalid kingdom.
The references given by Beloch (Griech. Gesch. iii. [L], p. 343) to prove
it for the Seleucid kingdom are questionable. Beloch refers (l) to
the letter of Demetrius II. to Lasthenes in which 01 Senarai KCU rd
rtXtj are mentioned, I Mace. II, 35 (Beloch, by an oversight, refers to
the paraphrase of the documents in Joseph. Ant. xiii. 4, § 126 seq.,
in which the mention of the SeKaral is omitted!). The authenticity
of this document is, however, very doubtful. He refers (2) to Dit-
tenb. 171 (ist ed.), line 101 ; but here the tax seems to be, not an
imperial one, but one paid to the city of Smyrna.

* The salt monopoly is mentioned in i Mace. 10, 29; II, 35, a
suspected source, but supported in this detail by the analogy of
Ptolemaic Egypt and Rome. For domains in Antigonid, Attalid
and Bithynian realms, see Cic. De leg. agr. ii. 19, 50.

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE

227

of the Antigonid and Seleucid kingdoms may have been, it is clear
that they were far from enjoying the affluence of the Ptolemaic.
During the first Seleucid reigns indeed the revenues of Asia may
have filled its treasuries (see Just. xvii. 2, 13), but Antiochus III.
already at his accession found them depleted (Polyb. v. 50, i),
aiul from his reign financial embarrassment, coupled with
extravagant expenditure, was here the usual condition of things.
Perseus, the last of the Antigonid house, amassed a substantial
treasure for the expenses of the supreme struggle with Rome
(Polyb. xviii. 35, 4; Liv. xlv, 40), but it was by means of almost
miserly economies.

Special officials were naturally attached to the service of the
finances. Over the whole department in the Seleucid realm
there presided a single chief (6 «rt T&V TtpoaoSuv, App. Syr. 45).
How far the financial administration was removed from the
competence of the provincial governors, as it seems to have been
in Alexander's system, we cannot say. Seleucus at any rate, as
satrap of Babylonia, controlled the finances of the province (Diod.
xix. 55, 3), and so, in the Ptolemaic system, did the governor of
Cyprus (Polyb. xxvii. 13). The fact that provincial officials
tiri iruv irpo<r6d<i3v (in Eriza, Bull. corr. hell. xv. 556) are found does
not prove anything, since it leaves open the question of their
being subordinate to the governor.

With the exception of Ptolemaic Egypt, the Macedonian
kingdoms followed in their coinage that of Alexander. Money
S Coimrt was ^or a 'On8 while largely struck with Alexander's
own image and superscription; the gold and silver
coined in the names of Antigonid and Seleucid kings and
by the minor principalities of Asia, kept to the Attic standard
which Alexander had established. Only in Egypt Ptolemy I.
adopted, at first the Rhodian, and afterwards the Phoenician,
standard, and on this latter standard the Ptolemaic money was
struck during the subsequent centuries. Money was also struck
in their own name by the cities in the several dynasties' spheres
of power, but in most cases only bronze or small silver for local
use. Corinth, however, was allowed to go on striking staters
under Antigonus Gonatas; Ephesus, Cos and the greater cities
of Phoenicia retained their right of coinage under Seleucid or
Ptolemaic supremacy.

In language and manners the courts of Alexander's successors
were Greek. Even the Macedonian dialect, which it was con-
sidered proper for the kings to use on occasion, was often for-
gotten (Plut. Ant. 27). The Oriental features which
Court. Alexander had introduced were not copied. There was
no proskynesis (or certainly not in the case of Greeks
and Macedonians), and the king did not wear an Oriental dress.
The symbol of royalty, it is true, the diadem, was suggested by the
head-band of the old Persian kings (Just. xii. 3, 8); but, whereas,
that had been an imposing erection, the Hellenistic diadem was a
simple riband. The king's state dress was the same in principle
as that worn by the Macedonian or Thessalian horsemen, as the
uniform of his own cavalry officers. Its features were the broad-
brimmed hat (kausia), the cloak (chlamys) and the high-laced
boots (krepldes) (Plut. Ant. 54; Frontinus, iii. 2, n). These, in
the case of the king, would be of richer material, colour and
adornment. The diadem could be worn round the kausia; the
chlamys offered scope for gorgeous embroidery; and the boots
might be crimson felt (see the description of Demetrius' chlamys
and boots, Plut. Dem. 41). There were other traces in the
Hellenistic courts of the old Macedonian tradition besides in
dress. One was the honour given to prowess in the chase (Polyb.
xxii. 3, .8; Diod. xxxiv. 34). Another was the fashion for the
king to hold wassail with his courtiers, in which he unbent to an
extent scandalous to the Greeks, dancing or indulging in routs
and practical jokes.1

The prominent part taken by the women of the royal house
was a Macedonian characteristic. The history of these kingdoms
furnishes a long list of queens and princesses who were ambitious

1 Antiochus Epiphanes was an extreme case. For the Antigonid
court see Diog. Laert. vii. 13; Plut. Aral. 17; for the Seleucid,
Athen. iy. issb; v. 2iia; for the Ptolemaic, Diog. L. vii. 177;
Athen. vi. 2460; Plut. Cleom. 33; Just. xxx. I.

and masterful politicians, of which the great Cleopatra is the
last and the most famous. The kings after Alexander, with
the exception of Demetrius Poliorcetes and Pyrrhus, are not
found to have more than one legitimate wife at a time, although
they show unstinted freedom in divorce and the number of
their mistresses. The custom of marriages between brothers
and sisters, agreeable to old Persian as to old Egyptian ethics,
was instituted in Egypt by the second Ptolemy when he married
his full sister Arsinoe Philadelphus. It was henceforth common,
though not invariable, among the Ptolemies. At the Seleucid
court there seems to be an instance of it in 195, when the heir-
apparent, Antiochus, married his sister Laodice. The style of
" sister " was given in both courts to the queen, even when she
was not the king's sister in reality (Strack, Dynastie, Nos. 38,
40, 43; Archiv. f. Papyr, i. 205). The "Friends" of the
king are often mentioned. It is usual for him to confer with a
council (<rvve5piov) of his " Friends " before important decisions,
administrative, military or judicial (e.g. Polyb. v. 16, 5; 22, 8).
They form a definite body about the king's person (4>L\uv
ainn-ay^a, Polyb. xxxi. 3, 7; cf. ol <t>l\oi in contrast with
eu Swdjueis, id. v. 50, 9), admission into which depends upon
his favour alone, and is accorded, not only to his subjects, but
to aliens, such as the Greek refugee politicians (e.g. Hegesianax,
Athen. iv. issb; Hannibal and the Aetolian Thoas take part in
the councils of Antiochus III). A similar body, with a title
corresponding to <£tXoi, is found in ancient Egypt (Erman,
Ancient Egypt, Eng. trans., p. 72) and in Persia (Spiegel. Eran.
All. iii. 626); but some such support is so obviously required
by the necessities of a despot's position that we need not
suppose it derived from any particular precedent. The Friends
(at any rate under the later Seleucid and Ptolemaic reigns) were
distinguished by a special dress and badge of gold analogous
to the stars and crosses of modern orders. The dress was of
crimson (iropQvpa); this and the badges were the king's gift,
and except by royal grant neither crimson nor gold might,
apparently, be worn at court (i Mace. 10, 20; 62; 89; u, 58;
Athen. v. 21 ib). The order of Friends was organized in a
hierarchy of ranks, which were multiplied as time went on.
In Egypt we find them classified as avyyeveis, o^bn^oi TOIS
ffvyytvfcriv, apxwwjiaro<£iiXaKes, irparroi <#Xoi, <>tXot (in the nar-
rower sense) , SidSoxoi. For the Seleucid kingdom ffvyyevtis, irpuroi
4>i\oi and </>i\oi are mentioned. These classes do not appear in
Egypt before the 2nd century; Strack conjectures that they
were created in imitation of the Seleucid court. We have no
direct evidence as to the institutions of the Seleucid court in
the 3rd century. Certain fMfunv^&MB of Antiochus I. are
mentioned, but we do not know whether the name was not
then used in its natural sense (Strack, Rhein. Mus. LV.j 1900,
p. 161 seq.; Wilamowitz, Archiv f. Pap. I., p. 225; Beloch, Gr.
Gesch. iii (i), p. 391). As to Macedonia, whatever may have
been the constitution of the court, it is implied that it offered
in its externals a sober plainness in comparison with the vain
display and ceremonious frivolities of Antioch and Alexandria
(Polyb. xvi, 22, 5; Plut. Cleom. 31; Aral, 15). The position
of a Friend did not carry with it necessarily any functions;
it was in itself purely honorary. The ministers and high
officials were, on the other hand, regularly invested with one
or other of the ranks specified. The chief of these ministers
is denoted 6 fcrl T&V TrpaynaTuv, and he corresponds to the
vizier of the later East. All departments of government are
under his supervision, and he regularly holds the highest rank
of a kinsman. When the king is a minor, he acts as guardian
or regent (ivlrpairos). Over different departments of state
we find a state secretary (brurrckoy p&fos or wro^urjjm'nrypA^os:
Seleucid, Polyb. xxxi, 3, 16; Ptolemaic, Strack, Inschriften 103)
and a minister of finance (& eai T&V irpoao&uv in the Seleucid
kingdom; App. Syr. 45; Sioiieiirtp in Egypt, Lumbroso, Econ.
Pol. p. 339). Under each of these great heads of departments
was a host of lower officials, those, for instance, who held to the
province a relation analogous to that of the head of the depart-
ment of the realm. Such a provincial authority is described as
«ri T&V icpoabduv in the inscription of Eriza (Bull. corr. hell.

228

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE

xv. 556). Beside the officials concerned with the work of
government we have those of the royal household: (i) the chief-
physician, dpxtarpos (for the Seleucid see App. Syr. 59; Polyb. v.
56, i; Michel, No. 1158; for the Pontic, Bull. corr. hell. vii.
354 seq.); (2) the chief-huntsman, apxutvvrnos (Dittenb. Orient.
Grace. 99) ; (3) the maitre-d'hotel apxtStarpos (Dittenb. Orient.
Grace. 169) (4) the lord of the queen's bedchamber, 6 eirl TOV
noirSivos TI)S /ScwriXurffj/s (Dittenb. Orient. Grace. 256). As in
the older Oriental courts, the high positions were often filled
by eunuchs (e.g. Craterus, in last mentioned inscription).

It was customary, as in Persia and in old Macedonia, for
the great men of the realm to send their children to court to
be brought up with the children of the royal house. Those who
had been so brought up with the king were styled his avvr po<t>oi
(for the Seleucid, Polyb. v. 82, 8 and xxxi. 21, 2; Bull. corr. hell.
i. 285; 2 Mace. ix. 29; for the Ptolemaic triiirpo^oi TraLSurKai,
of the queen, Polyb. xv. 33, n; for the Pontic, Bull. corr. hell.
vii. 355; for the Pergamene. Polyb. xxxii. 27, 10, &c.; for
the Herodian, Acts 13). It is perfectly gratuitous to suppose
with Deissmann that " the fundamental meaning had given
place to the general meaning of intimate friend." With this
custom we may perhaps bring into connexion the office of
rpo^tus (Polyb. xxxi. 20, 3; Michel, No. 1158). As under
Alexander, so under his successors, we find a corps of fla<n\uiol
ircuSes. They appear as a corps, 600 strong, in a triumphal
procession at Antioch (Polyb. xxxi. 3, 17; cf. v. 82, 13; Antigonid,
Livy, xlv. 6; cf. Curtius, viii. 6, 6).

All the Hellenistic courts felt it a great part of prestige to be
filled with the light of Hellenic culture. A distinguished philo-
sopher or man of letters would find them bidding

7. Hellenic , ,. ...

Culture. *or ms presence, and most of the great names are
associated with one or other of the contemporary
kings. Antigonus Gonatas, bluff soldier-spirit that he was, heard
the Stoic philosophers gladly, and, though he failed to induce
Zeno to come to Macedonia, persuaded Zeno's disciple, Persaeus
of Citium, to enter his service. Nor was it philosophers only
who made his court illustrious, but poets like Aratus. The
Ptolemaic court, with the museum attached to it, is so pro-
minent in the literary and scientific history of the age that it is
unnecessary to give a list of the philosophers, the men of letters
and science, who at one time or other ate at King Ptolemy's
table. One may notice that the first Ptolemy himself made a
contribution of some value to historical literature in his account
of Alexander's campaigns; the fourth Ptolemy not only insti-
tuted a cult of Homer but himself published tragedies; and
even Ptolemy Euergetes II. issued a book of memoirs. The
Pergamene court was in no degree behind the Ptolemaic in its
literary and artistic zeal. The notable school of sculpture
connected with it is treated elsewhere (see GREEK ART); to its
literary school we probably owe in great part the preservation
of the masterpieces of Attic prose (Susemihl I., p. 4), and two
of its kings (Eumenes I. and Attalus III.) were themselves
authors. The Seleucid court did not rival either of the last
named in brilliance of culture; and yet some names of distinction
were associated with it. Under Antiochus I. Aratus carried
out a recension of the Odyssey, and Berossus composed a Baby-
lonian history in Greek; under Antiochus III. Euphorion was
made keeper of the library at Antioch. Antiochus IV., of course,
the enthusiastic Hellenist, filled Antioch with Greek artists
and gave a royal welcome to Athenian philosophers. Even
in the degenerate days of the dynasty, Antiochus Grypus, who
had been brought up at Athens, aspired to shine as a poet. The
values recognized in the great Hellenistic courts and the Greek
world generally imposed their authority upon the dynasties
of barbarian origin. The Cappadocian court admitted the full
stream of Hellenistic culture under Ariarathes V. (Diod. xxxi.
19, 8). One of the kings called Nicomedes in Bithynia offered
immense sums to acquire the Aphrodite of Praxiteles from the
Cnidians (Plin. N. H. xxxvi. 21), and to a king Nicomedes the
geographical poem of the Pseudo-Scymnus is dedicated. Even
Iranian kings in the last century B.C. found pleasure in com-
posing, or listening to, Greek tragedies, and Herod the Great

kept Greek men of letters beside him and had spasmodic
ambitions to make his mark as an orator or author (Nicol.
Dam. frag. 4; F.H.G. III. p. 350).

The offering of divine honours to the king, which we saw
begin under Alexander, became stereotyped in the institutions
of the succeeding Hellenistic kingdoms. Alexander
himself was after his death the object of various /jo
local cults, like that which centred in the shrine near
Ery thrae (Strabo, xiv. 644) . His successors in the first years after
his death recognized him officially as a divinity, except Antipater
(Suidas, s.v. AvriwaTpos), and coins began to be issued with his
image. At Alexandria the state cult of him seems to have been
instituted by the second Ptolemy, when his body was laid in the
Sema (Otto, Priester u. Tempel, i. 139 seq.). The successors
themselves received divine honours. Such worship might be the
spontaneous homage of a particular Greek community, like that
offered to Antigonus by Scepsis in 311 (Journ. of Hell. Stud.
xix- 335 seq.), the Antigonus and Demetrius by Athens in 307,
to Ptolemy I. by the Rhodians in 304, or by Cassandrea to
Cassander, as the city's founder (Ditt. 2nd ed. 178); or it
might be organized and maintained by royal authority. The
first proved instance of a cult of the latter kind is that instituted
at Alexandria by the second Ptolemy for his father soon after
the latter's death in 283/2, in which, some time after, 279/8,
he associated his mother Berenice also, the two being worshipped
together as Oeol (wrijpes (Theoc. xvii. 121 seq.). Antiochus I.
followed the Ptolemaic precedent by instituting at Seleucia-
in-Pieria a cult for his father as Seleucus Zeus Nicator. So
far we can point to no instance of a cult of the living sovereign
(though the cities might institute such locally) being estab-
lished by the court for the realm. This step was taken in
Egypt after the death of Arsinoe Philadelphus (271) when
she and her still-living brother-husband, Ptolemy II., began
to be worshipped together as 6tol o5«X<£ot. After this the
cult of the reigning king and queen was regularly maintained
in Greek Egypt, side by side with that of the dead Ptolemies.
Under Antiochus II. (261-246) a document shows us a cult
of the reigning king in full working for the Seleucid realm,
with a high priest in each province, appointed by the king
himself; the document declares that the Queen Laodice is
now to be associated with the king. The official surname of
Antiochus II., Theos, suggests that he himself had here been
the innovator. Thenceforward, in the Hellenistic kingdoms
of the East the worship of the living sovereign became the
rule, although it appears to have been regarded as given in
anticipation of an apotheosis which did not become actual
till death. In the Pergamene kingdom at any rate, though
the living king was worshipped with sacrifice, the title Otos
was only given to those who were dead (Cardinali, Regno di
Pergamo, p. 153). The Antigonid dynasty, simpler and saner
in its manners, had no official cult of this sort. The divine
honours offered on occasion by the Greek cities were the
independent acts of the cities.

SeePlut. Aral. 45; Cleom. 16; Kornemann, " ZurGesch. d. antiken
Herrscherkulte " in Beitrdge z. alt. Gesch. i. 51 sqq.; Otto, Priester u.
Tempel, pp. 138 seq.

There does not seem any clear proof that the surnames which
the Hellenistic kings in Asia and Egypt bore were necessarily con-
nected with the cult, even if they were used to describe g.Suraames.
the various kings in religious ceremonies. Some had
doubtless a religious colour, Theos, Epiphanes, Soter; others a
dynastic, Philopator, Philometor, Philadelphus. Under what circum-
stances, and by whose selection, the surname was attached to a king,
is obscure. It is noteworthy that while modern books commonly
speak of the surnames as assumed, the explanations given by our
ancient authorities almost invariably suppose them to be given as
marks of homage or gratitude (English Historical Review, xvi. 629
(1901). The official surnames must not, of course, be confused with
the popular nicknames which were naturally not recognized by the
court, e.g. Ceraunus (" Thunder "), Hierax (" Hawk "), Physcon
(" Pot-belly "), Lathyrus (" Chick-pea ").

The armies of Alexander's successors were still in the main prin-
ciples of their organization similar to the army with which Alexander
had conquered Asia. During the years immediately ro_ Armies.
after Alexander the very Macedonians who had fought
under Alexander were ranged against each other under the banners

MACEDONIUS

229

j;

of the several chiefs. The most noted corps of veterans, Argyr-
aspidcs (i.e. the royal Hypaspistae) played a great part in the first
wars of the successors, and covered themselves with infamy by their
betrayal of Eumenes. As the soldiers of Alexander died off, fresh
levies of home-born Macedonians could be raised only by the chief
who held the motherland. The other chiefs had to supply themselves
with Macedonians from the numerous colonies planted before the
break-up of the empire in Asia or Egypt, and from such Macedonians
they continued for the next two centuries to form their phalanx.
The breed — at least if the statement which Livy puts into the mouth
of a Roman general can be relied on-^-degenerated greatly under
Asiatic and Egyptian skies (Liv. xxxviii. 17, 10); but still old names
like that of pezetaeri attached to the phalangites (Plut. Tib. 17),
and they still wielded the national sarissa. The latter weapon in
the interval between Alexander and the time of Polybius had been
increased to a length of 21 ft. (Polyb. xviii. 12), a proportion incon-
sistent with any degree of mobility; once more indeed the phalanx
of the 2nd century seems to have become a body effective by
sheer weight only and disordered by unevenness of ground. The
Antigonid kings were never able from Macedonian levies to put in
the field a phalanx of more than 20,000 at the utmost (Liv. xlii. 51) ;
Antigonus Uoson takes with him to Greece (in 222) one of 10,000 only.
The phalanx of Antiochus III. at Raphia numbered 20,000, and
Ptolemy Philopator was able at the same time to form one of 25,000
men (Polyb. v. 4). As these phalangites are distinguished both from
the Greek mercenaries and the native Egyptian levies, it looks
(although such a fact would be staggering) as if more Macedonians
could be raised for military service in Egypt than in Macedonia
itself (but see Beloch, p. 353). The royal foot-guards are still described
in Macedonia in 171 as the agema (Polyb. v. 25, i; 27, 3; Liv. xlii.
i), when they number 2000; at the Ptolemaic court in 217 the agema
.jad numbered 3000 (Polyb. v. 65, 2) ; and a similar corps of hyp-
aspistae is indicated in the Seleucid army (Polyb. vii. 16,2 ; xvi. 18, 7).
So too the old name of " Companions " was kept up in the Seleucid
kingdom for the Macedonian cavalry (see Polyb. v. 53, 4, &c.), and
divisions of rank in it are still indicated by the terms agema and
royal squadron (/Joo-iXoci) IXij, see Bevan, House of Seleucus, ii. 288).
The Antigonid and Seleucid courts had much valuable material at
hand for their armies in the barbarian races under their sway. The
Balkan hill-peoples of Illyrian or Thracian stock, the hill-peoples of
Asia Minor and Iran, the chivalry of Media and Bactria, the mounted
bowmen of the Caspian steppes, the camel-riders of the Arabian
desert, could all be turned to account. Iranian troops seem to
have been employed on a large scale by the earlier Seleucids. At
Raphia, Antiochus III. had 10,000 men drawn from the provinces,
armed and drilled as Macedonians, and another corps of Iranians num-
bering 5000 under a native commander (Polyb. v. 79). The experi-
ment of arming the native Egyptians on a large scale does not seem
to have been made before the campaign of 217, when Ptolemy IV.
formed corps of the Macedonian pattern from Egyptians and
Libyans (cf. Polyb. v. 107, 2; Ptolemy I. had employed Egyptians
in the army, though chiefly as carriers, Diod. xix. 80, 4). From
this time native rebellions in Egypt are recurrent. To the troops
drawn from their own dominions the mercenaries which the kings
procured from abroad were an important supplement. These were
mainly the bands of Greek condottieri, and even for their home-born
troops Greek officers of renown were often engaged. The other
class of mercenaries were Gauls, and from the time of the Gallic in-
vasion of Asia Minor in 279 Gauls or Galatians were a regular con-
stituent in all armies. They were a weapon apt to be dangerous
to the employer, but the terror they inspired was such that every
potentate sought to get hold of them. The elephants which Alexan-
der brought back from India were used in the armies of his successors,
and in 302 Seleucus procured a new supply. Thenceforward ele-
phants, either brought fresh from India or bred in the royal stables
at Apamea, regularly figured in the Seleucid armies. The Ptolemies
supplied themselves with this arm from the southern coasts of the
Red Sea, where they established stations for the capture and shipping
of elephants, but the African variety was held inferior to the Indian.
Scythed chariots such as had figured in the old Persian armies were
still used by the Greek masters of Asia (Seleucus I., Diod. xx. 113, 4;
Molon, Polyb. v. 53, 10; Antiochus III., Liv. xxxvii. 41), at any rate
till the battle of Magnesia. The Hellenistic armies were distinguished
by their external magnificence. They made a greater display of
brilliant metal and gorgeous colour than the Roman armies, for
instance. The description given by Justin of the army which Antio-
chus Sidetes took to the East in 130 B.C., boot-nails and bridles of
gold, gives an idea of their standard of splendour (Just, xxxviii. 10, i ;
cf. Polyb. xxxi. 3; Plut. Eum. 14; id. Aemil. 18; id. Sulla, 16).

Dunng the 3rd century B.C. Egypt was the greatest sea power ol
the eastern Mediterranean, and maintained a large fleet (the figures
in App. Prooem, 10 are not trustworthy, see Beloch III. [i.], 364).
Its control of the Aegean was, however, contested not without success
by the Antigonids, who won the two great sea-fights of Cos (c. 256)
and Andros (227), and wrested the overlordship of the Cyclades fronr
the Ptolemies. Of the numbers and constitution of the Antigonic
fleet we know nothing.1 At the Seleucid court in 222 the admira"
(mdapxoj) appears as a person of high consideration (Polyb. v. 43, i)

1 For the Antigonid va.tia.pxm or admiral, see Polyb. xvi. 6.

n his war with Rome Antiochus III. had 107 decked battleships on

the sea at one time. By the Peace of Apamea (188) the Seleucid

navy was abolished; Antiochus undertook to keep no more than

10 ships of war.

For the Hellenistic armies and fleets see A. Bauer in L. von

Vluller's Handbuch, vol. iv. ; Delbruck, Gesch. d. Kriegskunst (1900).

To their native subjects the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kings
were always foreigners. It was considered wonderful in the last
leopatra that she learnt to speak Egyptian (Plut. n Tnat.
4.nton. 27). Natives were employed, as we have meat of
seen, in the army, and Iranians are found under the Subject
'eleucids holding high commands, e.g. Aspasianus the fle°P/«-
VIede (Polyb. v. 79, 7), Aribazus, governor of Cilicia (Flinders
Petrie, Papyri, II., No. 45), Aribazus, governor of Sardis
Polyb. vii. 17, 9), and Omanes (Michel, No. 19, 1. 104). Native
cults the Hellenistic kings thought it good policy to patronize.
Antiochus I. began rebuilding the temple of Nebo at Borsippa
Keilinschr. Bibl. iii. 2, 136 seq.) Antiochus III. bestowed favours
on the Temple at Jerusalem. Even if the documents in Joseph.
Arch. xii. §§ 138 seq. are spurious, their general view of the rela-
tion of Antiochus III. and Jerusalem is probably true. Even
small local worships, like that of the village of Baetocaece,
might secure royal patronage (C.I.G. No. 4474). Of course,
inancial straits might drive the kings to lay hands on
temple-treasures, as Antiochus III. and Antiochus IV. did, but
hat was a measure of emergency.

The Macedonian kingdoms, strained by continual wars,
Increasingly divided against themselves, falling often under
:he sway of prodigals and debauchees, were far/2 slgnl.
from realizing the Hellenic idea of sound govern- fiance of
ment as against the crude barbaric despotisms of Macedonian
the older East. Yet, in spite of all corruption, ideas Rule'
of the intelligent development of the subject lands, visions
of the Hellenic king, as the Greek thinkers had come to picture
aim, haunted the Macedonian rulers, and perhaps fitfully,
in the intervals of war or carousal, prompted some degree of
action. Treatises " Concerning Kingship " were produced as
a regular thing by philosophers, and kings who claimed the
fine flower of Hellenism, could not but peruse them. Strabo
regards the loss of the eastern provinces to the Parthians as
their passage under a government of lower type, beyond the
sphere of Hellenic eTri/ieytia (Strabo xi. 509). In the organiza-
tion of the administrative machinery of these kingdoms, the
higher power of the Hellene to adapt and combine had been
operative; they were organisms of a richer, more complex
type than the East had hitherto known. It was thus that
when Rome became a world-empire, it found to some extent
the forms of government ready made, and took over from
the Hellenistic monarchies a tradition which it handed on to
the later world.

AUTHORITIES. — For the general history of the Macedonian king-
doms, see Droysen,HistoirederHellenisme (the French translation by
Bouch6-Leclercq, 1883-1885, represents the work in its final revision) ;
A. Holm, History of Greece, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, Geschichte der
griechischenundmakedonischenStooten (1893-1903) ;Kaerst,G«eA. des
hellenist. Zeiialters, vol. i. ( 1901 ). A masterly conspectus of the general
character of the Hellenistic kingdoms in their political, economic and
social character, their artistic and intellectual culture is given by
Beloch, Griech. Gesch. iii. (i.), 260-556; see also Kaerst, Studien zur
Entwickelune d. Monarchic; E. Breccia, // Diritto dinaslico nelle
monarchic dei successori d'Alessandro Afagno (1903). Popular
sketches of the history, enlightened by special knowledge and a
wide outlook, are given by I. P. Mahaffy, Alexander's Empire
('\Storiesof the Nations Series ' ) ; Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's
Empire (1905); The Silver Age of the Greek World (1906). See also
HELLENISM; PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID DYNASTY. (E. R. B.)

MACEDONIUS, (i) bishop of Constantinople in succession to
Eusebius of Nicomedia, was elected by the Arian bishops in 341,
while the orthodox party elected Paul, whom Eusebius had
superseded. The partisans of the two rivals involved the city
in a tumultuous broil, and were not quelled until the emperor
Constantius II. banished Paul. Macedonius was recognized
as patriarch in 342. Compelled by the intervention of Constans
in 348 to resign the patriarchate in favour of his former oppo-
nent, he was reinstalled in 350. He then took vengeance on
his opponents by a general persecution of the adherents of the

230

MACEIO— McGEE

Nicene Creed. In 359, on the division of the Arian party into
Acacians (or pure Arians) and semi-Arians or Homoiousians,
Macedonius adhered to the latter, and in consequence was
expelled from his see by the council of Constantinople in 360.
He now became avowed leader of the sect of Pneumatomachi,
Macedonians or Marathonians, whose distinctive tenet was
that the Holy Spirit is but a being similar to the angels, sub-
ordinate to and in the service of the Father and the Son, the
relation between whom did not admit of a third. He did not
long survive his deposition.

See the Church Histories of Socrates and Sozomen ; Art. in Diet.
Chr. Biog.; F. Loofs in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyk.; H. M. Gwatkin,
Arianism.

MACEDONIUS, (2) bishop of Mopsuestia, was present at
the councils of Nicaea and Philippopolis, and inclined to the
reactionary party who thought the Athanasians had gone
too far.

MACEDONIUS, (3) bishop of Constantinople (fl. 510), a
strict Chalcedonian who vainly opposed the fanaticism of
the monophysite Severus and was deposed in 513.

MACEIO or MACAYO, a city and port of Brazil and capital of
the state of Alagfias, about 125 m. S.S.W. of Pernambuco, in
lat. 9° 39' 35" S., long. 35° 44' 36* W. Pop. including a large
rural district and several villages (1890), 31,498; (1908, estimate),
33,000. The city stands at the foot of low bluffs, about a mile
from the shore line. The water-side village of Jaragua, the
port of Maceio, is practically a suburb of the city. South
of the port is the shallow entrance to the Lagoa do Norte,
or Lagoa Mundahu, a salt-water lake extending inland for
some miles. Maceio is attractively situated in the midst of large
plantations of coco-nut and dende palms, though the broad
sandy beach in front and the open sun-burned plain behind give
a barren character to its surroundings. The heat is moderated
by the S.E. trade winds, and the city is considered healthful.
The public buildings are mostly constructed of broken stone
and mortar, plastered outside and covered with red tiles,
but the common dwellings are generally constructed of tapia —
rough trellis-work walls filled in with mud. A light tramway
connects the city and port, and a railway — the Alagoas Central
— connects the two with various interior towns. The port is
formed by a stone reef running parallel with and a half-mile
from the shore line, within which vessels of light draft find
a safe anchorage, except from southerly gales. Ocean-going
steamers anchor outside the reef. The exports consist princi-
pally of sugar, cotton, and rum (aguardiente), Maceio dates
from 1815 when a small settlement there was created a " villa."
In 1839 it became the provincial capital and was made a city
by the provincial assembly.

McENTEE, JERVIS (1828-1891), American artist, was born
at Rondout, New York, on the i4th of July 1828, and was
a pupil of Frederick E. Church. He was made an associate
of the National Academy of Design, New York, in 1860, and
a full academician in 1861. In 1869 he visited Europe, painting
much in Italy. He was identified with the Hudson River
School, and excelled in pictures of autumn scenery. He died
at Rondout,N.Y., on the 27th of January 1891.

MACER, AEMILIUS, of Verona, Roman didactic poet, author
of two poems, one on birds (Ornithogonia) , the other on the anti-
dotes against the poison of serpents (Theriaca), imitated from
the Greek poet Nicander of Colophon. According to Jerome,
he died in 16 B.C. It is possible that he wrote also a botanical
work. The extant hexameter poem De viribus (or virtutibus)
herbarum, ascribed to Macer, is a medieval production by Odo
Magdunensis, a French physician. Aemilius Macer must be
distinguished from the Macer called Iliacus in the Ovidian cata-
logue of poets, the author of an epic poem on the events preceding
the opening of the Iliad. The fact of his being addressed by Ovid
in one of the epistles Ex Ponto shows that he was alive long after
Aemilius Macer. He had been identified with the son or grandson
of Theophanes of Mytilene, the intimate friend of Pompey.

See Ovid, Tristia, iv. 10, 43; Quintilian, Instil, x. I, 56, 87;
R. Unger, De Macro Nicandri imitatore (Friedland, 1845); C. P.

Schulze in Rheinisches Museum (1898), liii. p. 541 ; for Macer Iliacus
see Ovid, Ex Ponto, ii. 10, 13, iv. 16, 6; Amores, ii. 18.

MACERATA, a city of the Marches, Italy, the chief town of
the province of Macerata and a bishop's see, 44 m. by rail S. of
Ancona. Pop. (1901), 6, 176 (town), 22,473 (commune). Crown-
ing a hill 919 ft. above sea-level, with a picturesque mass of
buildings enclosed by walls and towers, Macerata looks out over
the Adriatic. The cathedral is modern, but some of the churches
and palaces are not without interest. Besides the university,
agricultural school and industrial institute, Macerata has a
communal library founded by Leo XII., containing a small but
choice collection of early pictures, and in the municipal buildings,
a collection of antiquities from Helvia Ricina. There is an enor-
mous amphitheatre or sferisterio for pallone, a ball game which is
very popular in the district. The industries comprise the'making
of bricks, matches, terra-cotta and chemicals.

Macerata, as well as Recanati, was founded by the inhabitants
of Ricina after the destruction of their city by Alaric in 408.
During the Lombard period it was a flourishing town; but it was
raised from comparative insignificance by Nicholas IV. to be the
seat of the governors of the March. It was enclosed in the I3th
century by a new line of walls more than 25 m. in circuit; and
in the troubles of the next two hundred years it had frequent
occasion to learn their value. For the most part it remained
faithful to the popes, and in return it was rewarded by a multi-
tude of privileges. Though in 1797 the inhabitants opened their
gates to the French, two years afterwards, when the country
people took refuge within the walls, the city was taken by storm
and delivered to pillage. The bishopric of Macerata dates from
the suppression of the see of Recanati (1320).

MACFARREN, SIR GEORGE ALEXANDER (1813-1887),
English composer, was born in London on the 2nd of March
1813, and entered the Royal Academy of Music in 1829. A
symphony by him was played at an Academy concert in 1830;
for the opening of the Queen's Theatre in Tottenham Street,
under the management of his father, in 1831, he wrote an over-
ture. His Chevy Chase overture, the orchestral work by which
he is perhaps best known, was written as early as 1836, and in a
single night. On leaving the Academy in 1836, Macfarren was
for about a year a music teacher in the Isle of Man, and wrote
two unsuccessful operas. In 1837 he was appointed a professor
at the Academy, and wrote his Romeo and Juliet overture. In
the following year he brought out The Devil's Opera, one of his
best works. In 1845 he became conductor at Covent Garden,
producing the Antigone with Mendelssohn's music; his opera on
Don Quixote was produced under Bunn at Drury Lane in 1846;
his subsequent operas include Charles II. (1849), Robin Hood
(1860), She Stoops to Conquer (1864), and Hehellyn (1864). A
gradual failure of his eyesight, which had been defective from
boyhood, resulted in total blindness in 1865, but he overcame
the difficulties by employing an amanuensis in composition, and
made hardly a break in the course of his work. He was made
principal of the Royal Academy of Music in succession to Stern-
dale Bennett in February 1875, and in March of the same year
professor of music in Cambridge University. Shortly before
this he had begun a series of oratorios: St John the Baptist
(Bristol, 1873); Resurrection (Birmingham, 1876); Joseph (Leeds,
1877); and King David (Leeds, 1883). In spite of their solid
workmanship, and the skill with which the ideas are treated, it is
difficult to hear or read them through without smiling at some
of the touches of quite unconscious humour often resulting from
the way in which the Biblical narratives have been, as it were,
dramatized. He delivered many lectures of great and lasting
value, and his theoretical works, such as the Rudiments of
Harmony, and the treatise on counterpoint, will probably be
remembered longer than many of his compositions. He was
knighted in 1883, and died suddenly in London on the 3ist of
October 1887.

An excellent memoir by H. C. Banister appeared in 1891.

McGEE, THOMAS D'ARCY (1825-1868), Irish-Canadian
politician and writer, second son of James Me Gee, a coast-guard,

McGIFFERT— MACGILLIVRAY

231

was born at Carlingford, Co. Louth, on the i3th of April 1825.
He early showed a remarkable aptitude for oratory. At the
age of thirteen he delivered a speech at Wexford, and when four
years later he emigrated to America he quickly gained a reputa-
tion as a writer and public speaker in the city of Boston. He
thus attracted the attention of O'Connell, and before he was
twenty years of age he returned to London to become parlia-
mentary correspondent of the Freeman's Journal, and shortly
afterwards London correspondent of the Nation, to which he
also contributed a number of poems. He married in 1847 Mary
Theresa Caffry, by whom he had two children. In 1846 he be-
came one of the moving spirits in the " Young Ireland " party,
and in promoting the objects of that organization he contributed
two volumes to the " Library of Ireland." On the failure of the
movement in 1848 McGee escaped in the disguise of a priest to
the United States, where between 1848 and 1853 he established
two newspapers, the New York Nation and the American Celt.
His writings at first were exceedingly bitter and anti-English ; but
as years passed he realized that a greater measure of political
freedom was possible under the British constitution than under
the American. He had now become well-known as an author,
and as a lecturer of unusual ability. In 1857 McGee, driven from
the United States by the scurrilous attacks of the extreme
Irish revolutionaries, took up his abode in Canada, and was
admitted to the bar of the province of Lower Canada in 1861. At
the general election in 1858 he was returned to parliament as the
member for Montreal, and for four years he was regarded as a
powerful factor in the house. On the formation of the Sand-
field- Macdonald-Sicotte administration in 1862 he accepted the
office of president of the council. When the cabinet was recon-
structed a year later the Irish were left without representation,
and McGee sought re-election as a member of the opposite party.
In 1864 he was appointed minister of agriculture in the adminis-
tration of Sir E. P. Tache, and he served the country in that
capacity until his death. He actively supported the policy of
federation and was elected a member of the first Dominion parlia-
ment in 1867. On the 7th of April 1868, after having delivered
a notable speech in the house, he was shot by an assassin as he
was about to enter his house at Ottawa. His utterances against
the Fenian invasion are believed to have been the cause of the
crime for which P. J. Whelan was executed. McGee's loss was
keenly felt by all classes, and within a few weeks of his death
parliament granted an annuity to his widow and children.
McGee had great faith in the future of Canada as a part of the
empire. Speaking at St John, N.B., in 1863, he said: " There
are before the public men of British America at this moment
but two courses: either to drift with the tide of democracy,
or to seize the golden moment and fix for ever the monarchical
character of our institutions. I invite every fellow colonist
who agrees with me to unite our efforts that we may give our
province the aspect of an empire, in order to exercise the influ-
ence abroad and at home of a state, and to originate a history
which the world will not willingly let die." Sir Charles Gavan
Duffy considered that as a poet McGee was not inferior to Davis,
and that as an orator he possessed powers rarer than those of
T. F Meagher.

McGee's principal works are: A Popular History of Ireland
(2 vols., New York, 1862; I vol., London, 1860); Irish Writers of the
Seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1846); Historical Sketches of O'Connell
and his Friends (Boston, 1844) ; Memoirs of the Life and Conquests of
Art McMurrogh, King of Leinster (Dublin, 1847); Memoir of C. G.
Duffy (Dublin, 1849) ; A History of the Irish Settlers in North America
(Boston, 1851); History of the Attempts to establish the Protestant
Reformation in Ireland (Boston, 1853); Life of Edward Maginn,
Coadjutor Bishop of Derry (New York, 1857); Catholic History of
North America (Boston, 1854); Canadian Ballads and Occasional
Pieces (New York, 1858); Notes on Federal Governments Past and
Present (Montreal, 1865); Speeches and Addresses, chiefly on the
Subject of the British American Union (London, 1865) ; Poems, edited
by Mrs M. A. Sadleir with introductory memoir (New York, 1869).
N» Fennings Taylor, The Hon. Thomas D'Arcy McGee (Montreal,
1867); J. K. Foran, Thomas D'Arcy McGee as an Empire Builder
(Ottawa, 1004); H. I. O'C. French, A Sketch of the Life of the
Hon. T. D. McGee (Montreal); Appleton's Cyclopaedia of American
Biography, iv. 116; N. F. Dvin's Irishman in Canada (1887); C. G.

Duffy, Four Years of Irish History (1883) ; Alfred Webb, Compendium
of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878). (A. G. D.)

HcGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN (1861- ), American
theologian, was born in Sauquoit, New York, on the 4th of March
1 86 1, the son of a Presbyterian clergyman of Scotch descent.
He graduated at Western Reserve College in 1882 and at Union
theological seminary in 1885, studied in Germany (especially
under Harnack) in 1885-1887, and in Italy and France in 1888,
and in that year received the degree of doctor of philosophy at
Marburg. He was instructor (1888-1890) and professor (1890-
1893) of church history at Lane theological seminary, and in 1893
became Washburn professor of church history in Union theologi-
cal seminary, succeeding Dr Philip Schaff. His published work,
except occasional critical studies in philosophy, dealt with
church history and the history of dogma. His best known publi-
cation is a History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age (1897).
This book, by its independent criticism and departures from
traditionalism, aroused the opposition of the General Assembly
of the Presbyterian Church; though the charges brought against
McGiffert were dismissed by the Presbytery of New York, to
which they had been referred, a trial for heresy seemed inevitable,
and McGiffert, in 1900, retired from the Presbyterian ministry
and entered the Congregational Church, although he retained
his position in Union theological seminary. Among his other
publications are: A Dialogue between a Christian and a Jew
(1888); a translation (with introduction and notes) of Eusebius's
Church History (1890); and The Apostles' Creed (1902), in which
he attempted to prove that the old Roman creed was formulated
as a protest against the dualism of Marcion and his denial of the
reality of Jesus's life on earth.

McGILLIVRAY, ALEXANDER (c. 1730-1793), American
Indian chief, was born near the site of the present Wetumpka, in
Alabama. His father was a Scotch merchant and his mother
the daughter of a French officer and an Indian "princess."
Through his father's relatives in South Carolina, McGillivray
received a good education, but at the age of seventeen, after a
short experience as a merchant in Savannah and Pensacola, he
returned to the Muscogee Indians, who elected him chief. He
retained his connexion with business life as a member of the
British firm of Panton, Forbes & Leslie of Pensacola. During
the War of Independence, as a colonel in the British army, he
incited his followers to attack the western frontiers of Georgia
and the Carolinas. Georgia confiscated some of his property,
and after the peace of 1783 McGillivray remained hostile.
Though still retaining his British commission, he accepted one
from Spain, and during the remainder of his life used his influ-
ence to prevent American settlement in the south-west. So
important was he considered that in 1790 President Washington
sent an agent who induced him to visit New York. Here he wa?
persuaded to make peace in consideration of a brigadier-general's
commission and payment for the property confiscated by Georgia;
and with the warriors who accompanied him he signed a formal
treaty of peace and friendship on the 7th of August. He then
went back to the Indian country, and remained hostile to the
Americans until his death. He was one of the ablest Indian
leaders of America and at one time wielded great power — having
5000 to 10,000 armed followers. In order to serve Indian
interests he played off British, Spanish and American interests
against one another, but before he died he saw that he was fight-
ing in a losing cause, and, changing his policy, endeavoured to
provide for the training of the Muscogees in the white man's
civilization. McGillivray was polished in manners, of cultivated
intellect, was a shrewd merchant, and a successful speculator;
but he had many savage traits, being noted for his treachery,
craftiness and love of barbaric display. (W. L. F.)

MACGILLIVRAY, WILLIAM (1796-1852), Scottish naturalist,
was born at Aberdeen on the 25th of January 1796. At King's
College, Aberdeen, he graduated in 1815, and also studied medi-
cine, but did not complete the latter course. In 1823 he became
assistant to R. Jameson, professor of natural history in Edin-
burgh University; and in 1831 he was appointed curator of the
museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, a post

232

MAcGREGOR— MACHALE

which he resigned in 1841 to become professor of natural history
and lecturer on botany in Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died
at Aberdeen on the 4th of September 1852. He possessed a wide
and comprehensive knowledge of natural science, gained no
less from personal observations in different parts of Scotland
than from a study of collections and books. His industry and
extensive knowledge are amply shown in his published works.
He assisted J. J. Audubon in his classical works on the Birds oj
America, and edited W. Withering's British Plants. His larger
works include biographies of A. von Humboldt, and of zoologists
from Aristotle to Linnaeus, a History of British Quadrupeds, a
History of the Molluscous Animals of Aberdeen, Banff and Kin-
cardine, a Manual of British Ornithology, and a History of British
Birds, in 5 vols. (1837-1852). The last work holds a high rank
from the excellent descriptions of the structure, habits and haunts
of birds, and from the use in classification of characters afforded
by their anatomical structure. His Natural History of Deesidc,
posthumously published by command of Queen Victoria, was
the result of a sojourn in the highlands of Aberdeenshire in
1850. He made large collections, alike for the instruction of his
students and to illustrate the zoology, botany and geology
of the parts of Scotland examined by him, especially around
Aberdeen, and a number of his original water-colour drawings
are preserved in the British Museum (Natural History).

His eldest son, JOHN MACGILLIVRAY (1822-1867), published an
account of the voyage round the world of H.M.S. " Rattlesnake,"
on board of which he was naturalist. Another son, PAUL, published
an Aberdeen Flora in 1853.

MACGREGOR, JOHN [" ROB ROY "] (1825-1892), Scottish

canoeist, traveller and philanthropist, son of General Sir Duncan
MacGregor, K.C.B., was born at Gravesend on the 24th of
January 1825. He combined a roving disposition with a natural
taste for mechanics and ,for literature. In 1839 he went to
Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1844 to Trinity, Cambridge,
where he was a wrangler. He was called to the bar in 1851, but
did not pursue his profession. He travelled a great deal in
Europe, Egypt, Palestine, Russia, Algeria and America, and
between 1853 and 1863 was largely occupied with researches
into the history and methods of marine propulsion. He was
the pioneer of British canoeing. In 1865 he started on a long
canoeing cruise in his " Rob Roy " canoe, and in this way
made a prolonged water tour through Europe, a record of
which he published in 1866 as A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy
Canoe. This book made MacGregor and his canoe famous.
He made similar voyages in later years in Norway, Sweden
and Denmark, the North Sea and Palestine. Another voyage,
in the English Channel and on French waters, was made in a
yawl. He published accounts of all these journeys. He did
not, however, confine his energies to travelling. He was active
in charity and philanthropic work, being one of the founders of
the Shoe-black Brigade. In 1870 and again in 1873 he was
elected on the London school board. He died at Boscombe on
the i6th of July 1892.

MACH, ERNST (1838- ), Austrian physicist and psycholo-
gist, was born on the i8th of February 1838 at Turas in Moravia,
and studied at Vienna. He was professor of mathematics at
Gratz (1864-1867), of physics at Prague (1867-1895), and of
physics at Vienna (1895-1901). In 1879 and 1880 as Rector
Magnificus he fought against the introduction of Czech instead
of German in the Prague University. In 1901 he was made a
member of the Austrian house of peers. In philosophy he began
with a strong predilection for the physical side of psychology,
and at an early age he came to the conclusion that all existence
is sensation, and, after a lapse into noiimenalism under the in-
fluence of Fechner's Psychophysics, finally adopted a universal
physical phenomenalism. The Ego he considers not an entity
sharply distinguished from the Non-ego, but merely, as it were,
a medium of continuity of sensory impressions. His whole
theory appears to be vitiated by the confusion of physics and
psychology.

WORKS. — Kompendium der Physik fur Mediziner (Vienna, 1863);
Einleitung in die Helmholtz' sche Musiktheorie (Gratz, 1866) ; Die

Gesch. u. d. Wurzel d. Satzes von d. Erhaltung d. Arbeit (Prague, 1872) ;
Grundlinien d. Lehre v. d. Bewegungsempfindungen (Leipzig, 1875);
Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1883; rev. ed., 1908;
Eng. trans., T. J. McCormack, 1902); Beitrdge zur Analyse d.
Empfindungen (Jena, 1886), 5th ed., 1906, entitled Die Analyse d.
Empfindungen; Leitfaden d. Physik fur Studierende (Prague, 1881,
in collaboration) ; Populdrwissenschaftliche Vorlesungen (3rd ed.,
Leipzig, 1903) ; Die Prinzipien d. Wdrmelehre (2nd ed., 1900) ;
Erkenntnis und Irrtum (Leipzig, 1905).

MACHAERODUS, or MACHAIRODUS, the typical genus of a
group of long-tusked extinct cats, commonly known as sabre-
tooths. Although best regarded as a sub-family (Machaerodon-
tinae) of the Felidae, they are sometimes referred to a separate
family under the name Nimravidae (see CARNIVORA). The later
forms, as well as some of the earlier ones, are more specialized
as regards dentition than the modern Felidae, although in several
other respects they exhibit more primitive features. The general
type of dentition is feline, but in some instances more premolars
are retained, as well as a small tubercular molar behind the lower
carnassial. The characteristic feature is, however, the great
development of the upper canines, which in the more specialized
types reach far below the margin of the lower jaw, despite the
development of a flange-like expansion of the extremity of the
latter for their protection. In these extreme forms it is quite
evident that the jaws could not be used in the ordinary manner;
and it seems probable that in attacking prey the lower jaw was
dropped to a vertical position, and the huge upper tusks used as
stabbing instruments. The group is believed to be derived from
a creodont allied to the Eocene Palaeonictis (see CREODONTA).

Nimravus, of the American Oh'gocene, with two premolars and
two molars in the lower jaw, and comparatively short upper
canines, seems to be the least specialized type; next to which
comes Hoplophoneus, another North American Oligocene genus,
in which the tubercular lower molar is lost, and the upper canine
is longer. It is noteworthy, however, that this genus retains
the third trochanter to the femur, which is lost in Nimravus.
Machaerodus, in the wider sense, includes the larger and more
typical forms. In the Pliocene of France and Italy it is repre-
sented by M. megantereon, a species not larger than a leopard,
and allied forms occur in the Pliocene of Greece, Hungary,
Samos, Persia, India and China, as well as in the Middle Mio-
cene of France and Germany. Far larger is the Pleistocene
M . cultridens of the caverns of Europe, with serrated upper tusks
several inches in length. From Europe and Asia the sabre-
toothed tigers may be traced into North and thence into South
America, the home of M. (Smilodon) neogaeus, the largest of the
whole tribe, whose remains occur in the Brazilian caves and the
silt of the Argentine pampas. This animal was as large as a
tiger, with tusks projecting seven inches from the jaw and very
complex carnassials; the feet were very short, with only four toes
to the hind-pair, and the humerus has lost the foramen at the
lower end. Very noteworthy is the occurrence of an imper-
fectly known specialized type — Eusmilus — in the Lower Oligo-
cene of Europe and perhaps also North America. Unlike all
other cats, it had only two pairs of lower incisors, and the large
cheek-teeth were reduced to the carnassial and one premolar in
advance of the same. (R. L.*)

MACHALE, JOHN (1791-1881), Irish divine, was born on the
1 5th of March 1791 at Tuber-na-Fian, Mayo, and was educated
at Maynooth, where after graduating in 1814 he was ordained
priest and appointed lecturer in theology, succeeding to the
professoriate in 1820. In 1825 he became coadjutor bishop of
Killala, and in July 1834 archbishop of Tuam and metropolitan.
He visited Rome in 1831, and was there again at the proclamation
of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin (Dec.
1854) and in 1860-1870 at the Vatican council. Though he did
not favour the dogma of Papal Infallibility he submitted as soon
as it was defined. Machale was an intensely patriotic Irishman,
who fought hard for Catholic Emancipation, for separate Roman
Catholic schools, and against the Queen's Colleges. He trans-
lated part of the Iliad (Dublin, 1861), and made an Irish version
of some of Moore's melodies and of the Pentateuch. He died at
Tuam on the 7th of November 1881.

MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE— MACHIAVELLI

233

MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1701-
1794), French statesman, was a son of Louis Charles Machault
d'Arnouville, lieutenant of police. In 1721 he was counsel to
the parlement of Paris, in 1728 maitre des requUes, and ten years
later was made president of the Great Council; although he had
opposed the court in the Unigenilus dispute, he was appointed
intendant of Hainaut in 1743. From this position, through
the influence at court of his old friend Rene Louis, Marquis
d'Argenson, he was called to succeed Orry de Fulvy as controller-
general of the finances in December 1745. He found, on taking
office, that in the four years of the War of the Austrian Succession
the economies of Cardinal Fleury had been exhausted, and he
was forced to develop the system of borrowings which was bring-
ing French finances to bankruptcy. He attempted in 1749 a
reform in the levying of direct taxes, which, if carried out, would
have done much to prevent the later Revolutionary movement.
He proposed to abolish the old tax of a tenth, which was evaded
by the clergy and most of the nobility, and substitute a tax of
one-twentieth which should be levied on all without exception.
The cry for exceptions, however, began at once. The clergy
stood in a body by their historical privileges, and the outcry of
the nobility was too great for the minister to make headway
against. Still he managed to retain his office until July 1754,
when he exchanged the controllership for the ministry of marine.
Foreseeing the disastrous results of the alliance with Austria, he
was drawn to oppose more decidedly the schemes of Mme de
Pompadour, whose personal ill-will he had gained. Louis XV.
acquiesced in her demand for his disgrace on the istof February
1757. Machault lived on his estate at Arnouville until the
Revolution broke out, when, after a period of hiding, he was
apprehended in 1794 at Rouen and brought to Paris as a suspect.
He was imprisoned in the Madelonnettes, where he succumbed
in a few weeks, at the age of ninety-three.

His son, Louis CHARLES MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE (1737-
1820), was bishop of Amiens from 1774 until the Revolution.
He was famous for his charity; but proved to be a most uncom-
promising Conservative at the estates general of 1789, where he
voted consistently against every reform. He emigrated in 1791,
resigned his bishopric in 1801 to facilitate the concordat, and
retired to the ancestral chateau of Arnouville, where he died in
1820.

MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE (c. 1300-1377), French poet and
musician, was born in the village of Machault near Rethel in
Champagne. Machaut tells us that he served for thirty years
the adventurous John of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia. He
followed his master to Russia and Poland, and, though of peaceful
tastes himself, saw twenty battles and a hundred tourneys.
When John was killed at Crecy in 1346 Machaut was received at
the court of Normandy, and on the accession of John the Good to
the throne of France (1350) he received an office which enabled
him to devote himself thenceforth to music and poetry. Machaut
wrote about 1348 in honour of Charles III., king of Navarre, a
long poem much admired by contemporaries, Le Jugement du rot
de Navarre. When Charles was thrown into prison by his father-
in-law, King John, Machaut addressed him a Comfort d'ami to
console him for his enforced separation from his young wife,
then aged fifteen. This was followed about 1370 by a poem of
9000 lines entitled La Prise d' Alexandrie, one of the last chro-
nicles cast in this form. Its hero was Pierre de Lusignan, king
of Cyprus. Machaut is best known for the strange book telling
of the love affair of his old age with a young and noble lady long
supposed to be Agnes of Navarre, sister of Charles the Bad;
Paulin Paris in his edition of the Voir dit (Historic vraie) identi-
fied her as Perronne d'Armentieres, a noble lady of Champagne.
In 1362, when Machaut must have been at least sixty-two years
of age, he received a rondeau from Perronne, who was then
eighteen, expressing her devotion. She no doubt wished to
play Laura to his Petrarch, and the Voir dit contains the corre-
spondence and the poems which they exchanged. The romance,
which ended with Perronne's marriage and Machaut's desire
to remain her doux ami, has gleams of poetry, especially in
Perronne's verses, but its subject and its length are both

deterrent to modern readers. But Machaut with Deschamps
marks a distinct transition. The trouveres had been impersonal.
It is difficult to gather any details of their personal history
from their work. Machaut and Deschamps wrote of their own
affairs, and the next step in development was to be the self-
analysis of Villon. Machaut was also a musician. He com-
posed a number of motets, songs and ballads, also a mass
supposed to have been sung at the coronation of Charles V.
This was translated into modern notation by Perne, who read
a notice on it before the Institute of France in 1817.

Machaut's Oewvres choisies were edited by P. Tarbd (Rheims and
Paris, 1849) ; La Prise d' Alexandrie, by L. de Mas-Latrie (Geneva,
1877); and Le Lime du voir-dit, by Paulin Paris (1875). See also
F. G. F6tis, Biog. universelle des musiciens. . .(Paris, 1862), and a
notice on the Instruments de musique au xitf siecle d'apres Cuillaume
de Machaut, by E. Travers (Paris, 1882).

MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO (1469-1527), Italian statesman
and writer, was born at Florence on the 3rd of May 1469. His
ancestry claimed blood relationship with the lords of Montes-
pertoli, a fief situated between Val di Pesa and Val d'Elsa, at
no great distance from the city. Niccolo's father, Bernardo
(b. 1428), followed the profession of a jurist. He held landed
property worth something like £250 a year of our money. His
son, though not wealthy, was never wholly dependent upon
official income.

Of Niccolo's early years and education little is known. His
works show wide reading in the Latin and Italian classics, but
it is almost certain that he had not mastered the Greek language.
To the defects of Machiavelli's education we may, in part at
least, ascribe the peculiar vigour of his style and his speculative
originality. He is free from the scholastic trifling and learned
frivolity which tainted the rhetorical culture of his century. He
made the world of men and things his study, learned to write
his mother-tongue with idiomatic conciseness, and nourished his
imagination on the masterpieces of the Romans.

The year of Charles VIII.'s invasion and of the Medici's
expulsion from Florence (1494) saw Machiavelli's first entrance
into public life. He was appointed clerk in the second chancery
of the commune under his old master, the grammarian,
Marcello Virgilio Adriani. Early in 1498 Adriani became chan-
cellor of the republic, and Machiavelli received his vacated
office with the rank of second chancellor and secretary.
This post he retained till the year 1512. The masters he
had to serve were the died di liberta e pace, who, though
subordinate to the signoria, exercised a separate control
over the departments of war and the interior. They sent
their own ambassadors to foreign powers, transacted business
with the cities of the Florentine domain, and controlled the
military establishment of the commonwealth. The next four-
teen years of Machiavelli's life were fully occupied in the volumi-
nous correspondence of his bureau, in diplomatic missions of
varying importance, and in the organization of a Florentine
militia. It would be tedious to follow him through all his em-
bassies to petty courts of Italy, the first of which took place
in 1499, when he was sent to negotiate the continuance of a loan
to Catherine Sforza, countess of Forli and Imola. In 1500
Machiavelli travelled into France, to deal with Louis XII. about
the affairs of Pisa. These embassies were the school in which
Machiavelli formed his political opinions, and gathered views
regarding the state of Europe and the relative strength of nations.
They not only introduced him to the subtleties of Italian diplo-
macy, but also extended his observation over races very different
from the Italians. He thus, in the course of his official business,
gradually acquired principles and settled ways of thinking which
he afterwards expressed in writing.

In 1502 Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini, who bore him
several children, with whom, in spite of his own infidelities, he
lived on good terms, and who survived him twenty-six years. In
the same year Piero Soderini was chosen gonfalonier for life, in
accordance with certain changes in the constitution of the state,
which were intended to bring Florence closer to the Venetian
type of government. Machiavelli became intimately connected

234

MACHIAVELLI

with Soderini, assisted him in carrying out his policy, suggested
important measures of military reform which Soderini adopted,
and finally was involved in ruin by his fall.

The year 1 502 was marked by yet another decisive incident in
Machiavelli's life. In October he was sent, much against his
will, as envoy to the camp of Cesare Borgia, duke of Valentinois.
The duke was then in Romagna, and it was Machiavelli's duty
to wait upon and watch him. He was able now to observe those
intricate intrigues which culminated in Cesare's murder of his
disaffected captains. From what remains of Machiavelli's
official letters, and from his tract upon the Modo che tenne il
duca Valentino per ammazzar Vitellozzo Vitelli, we are able to
appreciate the actual relations which existed between the two
men, and the growth in Machiavelli's mind of a political ideal
based upon his study of the duke's character. Machiavelli
conceived the strongest admiration for Cesare's combination of
audacity with diplomatic prudence, for his adroit use of cruelty
and fraud, for his self-reliance, avoidance of half-measures,
employment of native troops, and firm administration in con-
quered provinces. More than once, in letters to his friend
Vettori, no less than in the pages of the Principe, Machiavelli
afterwards expressed his belief that Cesare Borgia's behaviour
in the conquest of provinces, the cementing of a new state out of
scattered elements, and the dealing with false friends or doubtful
allies, was worthy of all commendation and of scrupulous imita-
tion. As he watched Cesare Borgia at this, the most brilliant
period of his adventurous career, the man became idealized in
his reflective but imaginative mind. Round him, as a hero, he
allowed his own conceptions of the perfect prince to cluster.
That Machiavelli separated the actual Cesare Borgia, whom he
afterwards saw, ruined and contemptible, at Rome, from this
radiant creature of his political fancy, is probable. That the
Cesare of history does not exactly match the Duca Valentino of
Machiavelli's writings is certain. Still the fact remains that
henceforth Machiavelli cherished the ideal image of the statesman
which he had modelled upon Cesare, and called this by the name
of Valentino.

On his return to Florence early in January 1503, Machiavelli
began to occupy himself with a project which his recent atten-
dance upon Cesare Borgia had strengthened in his mind. The
duties of his office obliged him to study the conditions of military
service as they then existed in Italy. He was familiar with the
disadvantages under which republics laboured when they engaged
professional captains of adventure and levied mercenary troops.
The bad faith of the condottiere Paolo Vitelli (beheaded at
Florence in 1499) had deeply impressed him. In the war with
Pisa he had observed the insubordination and untrustworthiness
of soldiers gathered from the dregs of different districts, serving
under egotistical and irresponsible commanders. His reading
in Livy taught him to admire the Roman system of employing
armies raised from the body of the citizens; and Cesare Borgia's
method of gradually substituting the troops of his own duchy
for aliens and mercenaries showed him that this plan might be
adopted with success by the Italians. He was now determined,
if possible, to furnish Florence with a national militia. The
gonfalonier Soderini entered into his views. But obstacles of no
small magnitude arose. The question of money was immediately
pressing. Early in 1503 Machiavelli drew up for Soderini a
speech, Discorso sulla provisions del danaro, in which the duty and
necessity of liberal expenditure for the protection of the state
were expounded upon principles of sound political philosophy.
Between this date and the last month of 1506 Machiavelli
laboured at his favourite scheme, working out memorials on the
subject for his office, and suggesting the outlines of a new military
organization. On the 6th of December 1506 his plan was ap-
proved by the signoria, and a special ministry, called the nove
di ordinanza e milizia, was appointed. Machiavelli immediately
became their secretary. The country districts of the Florentine
dominion were now divided into departments, and levies of foot
soldiers were made in order to secure a standing militia. A
commander-in-chief had to be chosen for the new troops.
Italian jealousy shrank from conferring this important office

on a Florentine, lest one member of the state should acquire a
power dangerous to the whole. The choice of Soderini and
Machiavelli fell, at this juncture, upon an extremely ineligible
person, none other than Don Micheletto, Cesare Borgia's cut-
throat and assassin. It is necessary to insist upon this point,
since it serves to illustrate a radical infirmity in Machiavelli's
genius. While forming and promoting his scheme, he was
actuated by principles of political wisdom and by the purest
patriotism. But he failed to perceive that such a ruffian as
Micheletto could not inspire the troops of Florence with that
devotion to their country and that healthy moral tone which
should distinguish a patriot army. Here, as elsewhere, he re-
vealed his insensibility to the ethical element in human nature.

Meanwhile Italy had been the scene of memorable events, in
most of which Machiavelli took some part. Alexander VI. had
died suddenly of fever. Julius II. had ascended the papal
chair. The duke of Valentinois had been checked in mid-career
of conquest. The collapse of the Borgias threw Central Italy
into confusion; and Machiavelli had, in 1505, to visit the
Baglioni at Perugia and the Petrucci at Siena. In the following
year he accompanied Julius upon his march through Perugia
into the province of Emilia, where the fiery pope subdued in
person the rebellious cities of the Church. Upon these embassies
Machiavelli represented the Florentine died in quality of envoy.
It was his duty to keep the ministry informed by means of
frequent despatches and reports. All this while the war for the
recovery of Pisa was slowly dragging on, with no success or
honour to the Florentines. Machiavelli had to attend the camp
and provide for levies amid his many other occupations. And
yet he found time for private literary work. In the autumn of
1504 he began his Decennali, or Annals of Italy, a poem composed
in rough terza rima. About the same time he composed a
comedy on the model of Aristophanes, which is unfortunately
lost. It seems to have been called Le Maschere. Giuliano de'
Ricci tells us it was marked by stringent satire upon great eccle-
siastics and statesmen, no less than by a tendency to "ascribe
all human things to natural causes or to fortune." That phrase
accurately describes the prevalent bias of its author's mind.

The greater part of 1506 and 1507 was spent in organizing the
new militia, corresponding on the subject, and scouring the coun-
try on enlistment service. But at the end of the latter year
European affairs of no small moment diverted Machiavelli from
these humbler duties. Maximilian was planning a journey into
Italy in order to be crowned emperor at Rome, and was levying
subsidies from the imperial burghs for his expenses. The
Florentines thought his demands excessive. Though they
already had Francesco Vettori at his court, Soderini judged it
advisable to send Machiavelli thither in December. He tra-
velled by Geneva, all through Switzerland, to Botzen, where he
found the emperor. This journey was an important moment
in his life. It enabled him to study the Swiss and the Germans
in their homes; and the report which he wrote on his return is
among his most effective political studies. What is most remark-
able in it is his concentrated effort to realize the exact political
weight of the German nation, and to penetrate the causes of its
strength and weakness. He attempts to grasp the national
character as a whole, and thence to deduce practical conclusions.
The same qualities are noticeable in his Ritratti delle cose di
Francia, which he drew up after an embassy to Louis XII. at
Blois in 1510. These notes upon the French race are more
scattered than the report on German affairs. But they reveal
no less acumen combined with imaginative penetration into the
very essence of national existence.

Michiavelli returned from Germany in June 1508. The rest
of that year and a large part of 1 509 were spent in the affairs of
the militia and the war of Pisa. Chiefly through his exertions
the war was terminated by the surrender of Pisa in June 1509.
Meanwhile the league of Cambray had disturbed the peace of
Italy, and Florence found herself in a perilous position between
Spain and France. Soderini's government grew weaker. The
Medicean party lifted up its head. To the league of Cambray
succeeded the Holy League. The battle of Ravenna was fought,

MACHIAVELLI

235

and the French retired from Italy. The Florentines had been
spectators rather than actors in these great events. But they
were now destined to feel the full effects of them. The cardinal
Giovanni de' Medici, who was present at the battle of Ravenna,
brought a Spanish army into Tuscany. Prato was sacked in
the August of 1512. Florence, in extreme terror, deposed the
gonfalonier, and opened her gates to the princes of the house of
Medici.

The government on which Machiavelli depended had fallen,
never to rise again. The national militia in which he placed
unbounded confidence had proved inefficient to protect Florence
in the hour of need. He was surrounded by political and per-
sonal enemies, who regarded him with jealousy as the ex-gon-
falonier's right-hand man. Yet at first it appears that he still
hoped to retain his office. He showed no repugnance to a change
of masters, and began to make overtures to the Medici. The
nave della mtiizia were, however, dissolved; and on the yth of
November 1512 Machiavelli was deprived of his appointments.
He was exiled from Florence and confined to the dominion for
one year, and on the ryth of November was futher prohibited
from setting foot in the Palazzo Pubblico. Ruin stared him in
the face; and, to make matters worse, he was implicated in the
conspiracy of Pier Paolo Boscoli in February 1513. Machiavelli
had taken no share in that feeble attempt against the Medici,
but his name was found upon a memorandum dropped by
Boscoli. This was enough to ensure his imprisonment. He
was racked, and only released upon Giovanni de' Medici's
election to the papacy in March 1513. When he left his dungeon
he retired to a farm near San Casciano, and faced the fact that
his political career was at an end.

Machiavelli now entered upon a period of life to which we owe
the great works that have rendered his name immortal. But it
was one of prolonged disappointment and annoyance. He had
not accustomed himself to economical living; and, when the
emoluments of his office were withdrawn, he had barely enough
to support his family. The previous years of his manhood had
been spent in continual activity. Much as he enjoyed the
study of the Latin and Italian classics, literature was not his
business; nor had he looked on writing as more thanan occasional
amusement. He was now driven in upon his books for the em-
ployment of a restless temperament; and to this irksomeness of
enforced leisure may be ascribed the production of the Principe,
the Discorsi, the Arte della guerra, the comedies, and the Historic
Florentine. The uneasiness of Machiavelli's mind in the first
years of this retirement is brought before us by his private corre-
spondence. The letters to Vettori paint a man of vigorous
intellect and feverish activity, dividing his time between studies
and vulgar dissipations, seeking at one time distraction in low
intrigues and wanton company, at another turning to the great
minds of antiquity for solace. It is not easy to understand the
spirit in which the author of the Principe sat down to exchange
obscenities with the author of the Sommario della storia d 'Italia.
At the same time this coarseness of taste did not blunt his intel-
lectual sagacity. His letters on public affairs in Italy and Europe,
especially those which he meant Vettori to communicate to the
Medici at Rome, are marked by extraordinary fineness of percep-
tion, combined, as usual in his case, with philosophical breadth.
In retirement at his villa near Percussina, a hamlet of San
Casciano, Machiavelli completed the Principe before the end of
1513. This famous book is an analysis of the methods whereby
an ambitious man may rise to sovereign power. It appears to
have grown out of another scarcely less celebrated work, upon
which Machiavelli had been engaged before he took the Principe
in hand, and which he did not finish until some time afterwards.
This second treatise is the Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito
Livio,

Cast in the form of comments on the history of Livy, the Discorsi
are really an inquiry into the genesis and maintenance of states.

he Principe is an offshoot from the main theme of the Discorsi,

ttmg forth Machiavelli's views at large and in detail upon the
nature of principalities, the method of cementing them, and the
qualities of a successful autocrat. Being more limited in subject
and more independent as a work of literary art, this essay detaches

itself from the main body of the Discorsi, and has attracted far more
attention. We feel that the Principe is inspired with greater
fervency, as though its author had more than a speculative aim in
view, and brought it forth to serve a special crisis. The moment of
its composition was indeed decisive. Machiavelli judged the case
of Italy so desperate that salvation could only be expected from the
intervention of a powerful despot. The unification of Italy in a
state protected by a national army was the cherished dream of his
life; and the peroration of the Principe shows that he meant this
treatise to have a direct bearing on the problem. We must be care-
ful, however, not to fall into the error of supposing that he wrote
it with the sole object of meeting an occasional emergency. Together
with the Discorsi, the Principe contains the speculative fruits of his
experience and observation combined with his deductions from
Roman history. The two works form one coherent body of opinion,
not systematically expressed, it is true, but based on the same
principles, involving the same conclusions, and directed to the same
philosophicat end. That end is the analysis of the conception of
the state, studied under two main types, republican and monarchical.
Up to the date of Machiavelli, modern political philosophy had
always presupposed an ideal. Medieval speculation took the Church
and the Empire for granted, as divinely appointed institutions,
under which the nations of the earth must flourish for the space of
man's probation on this planet. Thinkers differed only as Guelfs
and Gnibellines, as leaning on the one side to papal, on the other
to imperial supremacy. In the revival of learning, scholarship
supplanted scholasticism, and the old ways of medieval thinking
were forgotten. But no substantial philosophy of any kind emerged
from humanism; the political lucubrations of the scholars were,
like their ethical treatises, for the most part rhetorical. Still the
humanists effected a delivery of the intellect from what had become
the bondage of obsolete ideas, and created a new medium for the
speculative faculty. Simultaneously with the revival, Italy had
passed into that stage of her existence which has been called the
age of despots. The yoke of the Empire had been shaken off. The
Church had taken rank among Italian tyrannies. The peninsula
was, roughly speaking, divided into principalities and sovereign
cities, each of which claimed autocratic jurisdiction. These separate
despotisms owned no common social tie, were founded on no common
jus or right, but were connected in a network of conflicting interests
and changeful diplomatic combinations. A keen and positive
political intelligence emerged in the Italian race. The reports of
Venetian and Florentine ambassadors at this epoch contain the first
germs of an attempt to study politics from the point of view of
science.

At this moment Machiavelli intervenes. He was conscious of the
change which had come over Italy and Europe. He was aware that
the old strongholds of medieval thought must be abandoned, and
that the decaying ruins of medieval institutions furnished no basis
for the erection of solid political edifices. He felt the corruption
of his country, and sought to bring the world back to a lively sense
of the necessity for reformation. His originality consists in having
extended the positive intelligence of his century from the sphere of
contemporary politics and special interests to man at large regarded
as a political being. He founded the science of politics for the
modern world, by concentrating thought upon its fundamental
principles. He began to study men, not according to some precon-
ception, but as he found them — men, not in the isolation of one
century, but as a whole in history. He drew his conclusions from
the nature of mankind itself, " ascribing all things to natural causes
or to fortune." In this way he restored the right method of study,
a method which had been neglected since the days of Aristotle. He
formed a conception of the modern state, which marked the close
of the middle ages, and anticipated the next phase of European
development. His prince, abating those points which are purely
Italian or strongly tinctured with the author's personal peculiarities,
prefigured the monarchs of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, tne monarchs
whose motto was Vital c' est moil His doctrine of a national militia
foreshadowed the system which has given strength in arms to France
and Germany. His insight into the causes of Italian decadence
was complete; and the remedies which he suggested, in the perora-
tions of _ the Principe and the Arte della guerra, have since been
applied in the unification of Italy. Lastly, when we once have freed
ourselves from the antipathy engendered by his severance of ethics
from the field of politics, when we have once made proper allowance
for his peculiar use of phrases like frodi onorevoli or scelleratezze
fioriose, nothing is left but admiration for his mental attitude. That
is the attitude of a patriot, who saw with open eyes the ruin of his
country, who burned above all things to save Italy and set her in
her place among the powerful nations, who held the duty of self-
sacrifice in the most absolute sense, whose very limitations and
mistakes were due to an absorbing passion for the state he dreamed
might be reconstituted. It was Machiavelli's intense preoccupation
with this problem — what a state is and how to found one in existing
circumstances — which caused* the many riddles of his speculative
writings. Dazzled, as it were, with the brilliancy of his own dis-
covery, concentrated in attention on the one necessity for organizing
a powerful coherent nation, he forgot that men are more than
political beings. He neglected religion, or regarded it as part of

236

MACHIAVELLI

the state machinery. He was by no means indifferent to private
virtue, which indeed he judged the basis of all healthy national ex-
istence ; but in the realm of politics he postponed morals to political
expediency. He held that the people, as distinguished from the
nobles and the clergy, were the pith and fibre of nations; yet this
same people had to become wax in the hands of the politician —
their commerce and their comforts, the arts which give a dignity
to life and the pleasures which make life liveable, neglected — their
very liberty subordinated to the one tyrannical conception. To
this point the segregation of politics from every other factor which
goes to constitute humanity had brought him; and this it is which
makes us feel his world a wilderness, devoid of atmosphere and
vegetation. Yet some such isolation of the subject matter of this
science was demanded at the moment of its birth, just as political
economy, when first started, had to make a rigid severance of wealth
from other units. It is only by a gradual process that social science
in its whole complexity can be evolved. We have hardly yet dis-
covered that political economy has unavoidable points of contact
with ethics.

From the foregoing criticism it will be perceived that all the
questions whether Machiavelli meant to corrupt or to instruct the
world, to fortify the hands of tyrants or to lead them to their ruin,
are now obsolete. He was a man of science — one who by the
vigorous study of his subject matter sought from that subject-
matter itself to deduce laws. The difficulty which remains in
judging him is a difficulty of statement, valuation, allowance. How
much shall we allow for his position in Renaissance Italy, for the
corruption in the midst of which he lived, for his own personal
temperament? How shall we state his point of departure from
the middle ages, his sympathy with prevalent classical enthusiasms,
his divination of a new period? How shall we estimate the per-
manent worth of his method, the residuum of value in his maxims ?

After finishing the Principe, Machiavelli thought of dedicating
it to one of the Medicean princes, with the avowed hope that he
might thereby regain their favour and find public employment.
He wrote to Vettori on the subject, and Giuliano de' Medici,
duke of Nemours, seemed to him the proper person. The choice
was reasonable. No sooner had Leo been made pope than he
formed schemes for the aggrandizement of his family. Giuliano
was offered and refused the duchy of Urbino. Later on, Leo
designed for him a duchy in Emilia, to be cemented out of Parma,
Piacenza, Reggio and Modena. Supported by the power of the
papacy, with the goodwill of Florence to back him, Giuliano
would have found himself in a position somewhat better than that
of Cesare Borgia; and Borgia's creation of the duchy of Romagna
might have served as his model. Machiavelli therefore was justi-
fied in feeling that here was an opportunity for putting his cher-
ished schemes in practice, and that a prince with such alliances
might even advance to the grand end of the unification of Italy.
Giuliano, however, died in 1506. Then Machiavelli turned his
thoughts towards Lorenzo, duke of Urbino. The choice of this
man as a possible Italian liberator reminds us of the choice of
Don Micheletto as general of the Florentine militia. To Lorenzo
the Principe was dedicated, but without result. The Medici,
as yet at all events, could not employ Machiavelli, and had not
in themselves the stuff to found Italian kingdoms.

Machiavelli, meanwhile, was reading his Discorsi to a select
audience in the Rucellai gardens, fanning that republican enthu-
siasm which never lay long dormant among the Florentines.
Towards the year 1519 both Leo X. and his cousin, the cardinal
Giulio de' Medici, were much perplexed about the management
of the republic. It seemed necessary, if possible, in the gradual
extinction of their family to give the city at least a semblance of
self-government. They applied to several celebrated politicians,
among others to Machiavelli, for advice in the emergency. The
result was a treatise in which he deduced practical conclusions
from the past history and present temper of the city, blending
these with his favourite principles of government in general.
He earnestly admonished Leo, for his own sake and for Florence,
to found a permanent and free state system for the republic,
reminding him in terms of noble eloquence how splendid is the
glory of the man who shall confer such benefits upon a people.
The year 1520 saw the composition of the Arte della guerra and
the Vita di Castruccio.

The first of these is a methodical treatise, setting forth
Machiavelli's views on military matters, digesting his theories
respecting the superiority of national troops, the inefficiency of
fortresses, the necessity of relying upon infantry in war, and the

comparative insignificance of artillery. It is strongly coloured with
his enthusiasm for ancient Rome; and specially upon the topic of
artillery it displays a want of insight into the actualities of modern
warfare. We may regard it as a supplement or appendix to the
Principe and the Discorsi, since Machiavelli held it for a fundamental
axiom that states are powerless unless completely armed in perma-
nence. The peroration contains a noble appeal to the Italian liberator
of his dreams, and a parallel from Macedonian history, which, read
by the light of this century, sounds like a prophecy of Piedmont.

The Vita di Castruccio was composed at Lucca, whither Machia-
velli had been sent on a mission. This so-called biography of the
medieval adventurer who raised himself by personal ability and
military skill to the tyranny of several Tuscan cities must be
regarded in the light of an historical romance. Dealing freely with
the outline of Castruccio's career, as he had previously dealt with
Cesare Borgia, he sketched his own ideal of the successful prince.
Cesare Borgia had entered into the Principe as a representative figure
rather than an actual personage ; so now conversely the theories of
the Principe assumed the outward form and semblance of Castruccio.
In each case history is blent with speculation in nearly the same
proportions. But Castruccio, being farther from the writer's own
experience, bears weaker traits of personality.

In the same year, 1520, Machiavelli, at the instance of the cardinal
Giulio de' Medici, received commission from the officers of the Studio
pubblico to write a history of Florence. They agreed to pay him
an annual allowance of loo florins while engaged upon the work.
The next six years were partly employed in its composition, and
he left a portion of it finished, with a dedication to Clement VII.,
when he died in 1527. In the Historic fiorentine Machiavelli quitted
the field of political speculation for that of history. But, having
already written the Discorsi and the Principe, he carried with him to
this new task of historiography the habit of mind proper to political
philosophy. In his hands the history of Florence became a text
on which at fitting seasons to deliver lessons in the science he ini-
tiated. This gives the work its special character. It is not so much
a chronicle of Florentine affairs, from the commencement of modern
history to the death of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492, as a critique of
that chronicle from the point of view adopted by Machiavelli in his
former writings. Having condensed his doctrines in the Principe
and the Discorsi, he applies their abstract principles to the example
of the Florentine republic.. But the History of Florence is not a mere
political pamphlet. It is the first example in Italian literature of
a national biography, the first attempt in any literature to trace the
vicissitudes of a people's life in their logical sequence, deducing
each successive phase from passions or necessities inherent in pre-
ceding circumstances, reasoning upon them from general principles,
and inferring corollaries for the conduct of the future. In point of
form the Florentine History is modelled upon Livy. It contains
speeches in the antique manner, which may be taken partly as
embodying the author s commentary upon situations of importance,
partly as expressing what he thought dramatically appropriate to
prominent personages. The style of the whole book is nervous,
vivid, free from artifice and rhetoric, obeying the writer's thought
with absolute plasticity. Machiavelli had formed for himself a
prose style, equalled by no one but by Guicciardini in his minor
works, which was far removed from the emptiness of the latinizing
humanists and the trivialities of the Italian purists. Words in his
hands have the substance, the self-evidence of things. It is an
athlete's style, all bone and sinew, nude, without superfluous flesh
or ornament.

It would seem that from the date of Machiavelli's discourse
to Leo on the government of Florence the Medici had taken him
into consideration. Writing to Vettori in 1513, he had expressed
his eager wish to " roll stones " in their service; and this desire
was now gratified. In 1521 he was sent to Carpi to transact a
petty matter with the chapter of the Franciscans, the chief known
result of the embassy being a burlesque correspondence with
Francesco Guicciardini. Four "years later, in 1525, he received
a rather more important mission to Venice. But Machiavelli's
public career was virtually closed; and the interest of his bio-
graphy still centres in his literary work. We have seen that
already, in 1504, he had been engaged upon a comedy in the
manner of Aristophanes, which is now unfortunately lost. A
translation of the Andria and three original comedies from his
pen are extant, the precise dates of which are uncertain, though
the greatest of them was first printed at Rome in 1524. This is
the Mandragola, which may be justly called the ripest and most
powerful play in the Italian language.

The plot is both improbable and unpleasing. But literary
criticism is merged in admiration of the wit, the humour, the
vivacity, the satire of a piece which brings before us the old life of
Florence in a succession of brilliant scenes. If Machiavelli had any
moral object when he composed the Mandragola, it was to paint in
glaring colours the corruption of Italian society. It shows how a

MACHICOLATION— MACHINE-GUN

237

bold and plausible adventurer, aided by the profligacy of a parasite,
the avarice and hypocrisy of a confessor, and a mother's complaisant
familiarity with vice, achieves the triumph of making a gulled
husband bring his own unwilling but too yielding wife to shame.
The whole comedy is a study of stupidity and baseness acted on by
roguery. About the power with which this picture of domestic
immorality is presented there can be no question. But the perusal
of the piece obliges us to ask ourselves whether the author's radical
conception of human nature was not false. The same suspicion is
forced upon us by the Principe. Did not Machiavelli leave good
habit, as an essential ingredient of character, out of account? Men
are not such absolute fools as Nicia, nor such compliant catspaws
as Ligurio and Timoteo; women are not such weak instruments as
Sostrata and Lucrezia. Somewhere, in actual life, the stress of
craft and courage acting on the springs of human vice and weakness
fails, unless the hero of the comedy or tragedy, Callimaco or Cesare,
allows for the revolt of healthier instincts. Machiavelli does not
seem to have calculated the force of this recoil. He speculates a
world in which virt-H, unscrupulous strength of character, shall deal
successfully with frailty. This, we submit, was a deep-seated error
in his theory of life, an error to which may be ascribed the numerous
stumbling-blocks and rocks of offence in his more serious writings.

Some time after the Mandragola, he composed a second comedy,
entitled Clizia, which is even homelier and closer to the life of
Florence than its predecessor. It contains incomparable studies
of the Florentine housewife and her husband, a grave business-like
citizen, who falls into the senile folly of a base intrigue. There
remains a short piece without title, the Commedia in prosa, which,
if it be Machiavelli's, as internal evidence of style sufficiently argues,
might be accepted as a study for both the Clizia and the Mandragola.
It seems written to expose the corruption of domestic life in Florence,
and especially to satirize the friars in their familar part of go-
betweens, tame cats, confessors and adulterers.

Of Machiavelli's minor poems, sonnets, capitoli and carnival
songs there is not much to say. Powerful as a comic playwright,
he was not a poet in the proper sense of the term. The little novel
of Belfagor claims a passing word, if only because of its celebrity.
It is a good-humoured satire upon marriage, the devil being forced
to admit that hell itself is preferable to his wife's company. That
Machiavelli invented it to express the irritation of his own domestic
life is a myth without foundation. The story has a medieval origin,
and it was almost simultaneously treated in Italian by Machiavelli,
Straparola and Giovanni Brevio.

In the spring of 1526 Machiavelli was employed by
Clement VII. to inspect the fortifications of Florence. He
presented a report upon the subject, and in the summer of
the same year received orders to attend Francesco Guicciar-
dini, the pope's commissary of war in Lombardy. Guicciardini
sent him in August to Cremona, to transact business with the
Venetian proweditori. Later on in the autumn we find him
once more with Guicciardini at Bologna. Thus the two great
Italian historians of the i6th century, who had been friends
for several years, were brought into relations of close intimacy.
After another visit to Guicciardini in the spring of 1527,
Machiavelli was sent by him to Civita Vecchia. It seemed that he
was destined to be associated in the papal service with Clement's
viceroy, and that a new period of diplomatic employment was
opening for him. But soon after his return to Florence he fell
ill. His son Piero said that he took medicine on the 2oth of
June which disagreed with him; and on the 22nd he died,
having received the last offices of the Church.

There is no foundation for the legend that he expired with
profane sarcasms upon his lips. Yet we need not run into the
opposite extreme, and try to fancy that Machiavelli, who had
professed Paganism in his life, proved himself a believing
Christian on his deathbed. That he left an unfavourable
opinion among his fellow citizens is very decidedly recorded
by the historian Varchi. The Principe, it seems, had already
begun to prejudice the world against him; and we can readily
believe that Varchi sententiously observes, that " it would
have been better for him if nature had given him either a less
powerful intellect or a mind of a more genial temper." There
is in truth a something crude, unsympathetic, cynical in his
mental attitude toward human nature, for which, even after
the lapse of more than three centuries, we find it difficult to
make allowance. The force of his intellect renders this want
• of geniality repulsive. We cannot help objecting that one
who was so powerful could have been kindlier and sounder ii
he willed. We therefore do him the injustice of mistaking his
infirmity for perversity. He was colour-blind to commonplace

morality j and we are angry with him because he merged the
mes of ethics in one grey monotone of politics.

In person Machiavelli was of middle height, black-haired,
with rather a small head, very bright eyes and slightly aquiline
nose. His thin, close lips often broke into a smile of sarcasm,
rlis activity was almost feverish. When unemployed in work
or study he was not averse to the society of boon companions,
gave himself readily to transient amours, and corresponded in
a tone of cynical bad taste. At the same time he lived on
terms of intimacy with worthy men. Varchi says that " in
lis conversation he was pleasant, obliging to his intimates, the
riend of virtuous persons." Those who care to understand
the contradictions of which such a character was capable should
study his correspondence with Vettori. It would be unfair to
charge what is repulsive in their letters wholly on the habits
of the times, for wide familiarity with the published corre-
spondence of similar men at the same epoch brings one
acquainted with little that is so disagreeable. (J. A. S.)

Among the many editions of Machiavelli's works the one in
J vols., dated Italia, 1813, may be mentioned, and the more compre-
hensive ones published by A. Parent! (Florence, 1843) and by A.
Usigli (Florence 1857). P. Fanfani and L. Passerini began another,
which promised to be the most complete of all; but only 6 vols.
were published (Florence, 1873-1877) ; the work contains many new
and important documents on Machiavelli's life. The best biography
is the standard work of Pasquale Villari, La Storia di Niccolo
Machiavelli e de' suoi tempi (Florence, 1877-1882; latest ed., 1895;
Eng. trans, by Linda Villari, London, 1892); in vol. ii. there is an
exhaustive criticism of the various authors who have written on
Machiavelli. See also T. Mundt, Niccolo Machiavelli und das
System der modernen Polilik (3rd ed., Berlin, 1867); E. Feuerlein,
" Zur Machiavelli- Frage " in H. von Sybel's Histor. Zeitschrift
(Munich, 1868) ; P. S. Mancini, Prelezioni con un saggio sid Machia-
velli; F. Nitti, Machiavelli netta vita e nelle opere (Naples, 1876);
O. Tomasini, La Vita e gli scritti di Niccolo Machiavelli (Turin, 1883) ;
L. A. Burd, // Principe, by Niccolo Machiavelli (Oxford, 1891);
Lord Morley, Machiavelli (Romanes lecture, Oxford, 1897). The
Cambridge Modern History, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1903), contains an
essay on Machiavelli by L. A. Burd, with a very full biography.

MACHICOLATION (from Fr. machicoulis), an opening between
a wall and a parapet, formed by corbelling out the latter, so
that the defenders might throw down stones, melted lead, &c.,
upon assailants below.

MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr.
lj.ijxa.vft), any device or apparatus for the application or
modification of force to a specific purpose. The term " simple
machine " is applied to the six so-called mechanical powers —
the lever, wedge, wheel and axle, pulley, screw, and inclined
plane. For machine-tools see TOOLS. The word machine was
formerly applied to vehicles, such as stage-coaches, &c., and is
still applied to carriages in Scotland; a survival of this use
is in the term " bathing machine." Figuratively, the word is
used of persons whose actions seem to be regulated according
to a rigid and unchanging system. In politics, especially in
America, machine is synonymous with party organization. A
stage device of the ancient Greek drama gave rise to the pro-
verbial expression, " the god from the machine," Lat. deus ex
machina, for the disentangling and conclusion of a plot by
supernatural interference or by some accident extraneous to
the natural development of the story. When a god had to be
brought on the stage he was floated down from above by a
yepavos (crane) or other machine dj.rfx.avii). Euripides has
been reproached with an excessive use of the device, but it
has been pointed out (A.E. Haigh, Tragic Drama of the Greeks,
p. 245 seq.) that only in two plays (Orestes and Hippolylus) is
the god brought on for the solution of the plot. In the others
the god comes to deliver a kind of epilogue, describing the
future story of the characters, or to introduce some account of a
legend, institution, &c.

MACHINE-GUN, a weapon designed to deliver a large number
of bullets or small shells, either by volleys1 or in very quick

1 The French term mitrailleuse, made famous by the War of 1870,
reappears in other Latin tongues (e.g. Spanish ametraUadora). It
signifies a weapon which delivers a shower of small projectiles
mitraille — grape or case shot), and has no special reference to its
mechanical (hand or automatic) action.

MACHINE-GUN

succession, at a high rate of fire. Formerly the mechanism of
machine-guns was hand operated, but all modern weapons are
automatic in action, the gas of the explosion or the force of
recoil being utilized to lock and unlock the breech mechanism,
to load the weapon and to eject the fired cartridge cases. The
smaller types approximate to the " automatic rifle," which is
expected to replace the magazine rifle as the arm of the infantry-
man. The large types, generically called " pompoms," fire a
light artillery projectile, and are considered by many artillery
experts as " the gun of the future." The medium type, which
takes the ordinary rifle ammunition but is fired from various
forms of carriage, is the ordinary machine-gun of to-day, and
the present article deals mainly with this.

HISTORICAL SKETCH

Machine-guns of a primitive kind are found in the early history
of gunpowder artillery, in the form of a grouping or binding of
several small-calibre guns for purposes of a volley or a rapid
succession of shots. The earliest field artillery (q.v.) was indeed
chiefly designed to serve the purpose of a modern machine-gun,
i.e. for a mechanical concentration of musketry. Infantry fire
(till the development of the Spanish arquebus, about 1520) was
almost ineffective, and the disintegration of the masses of pikes,
preparatory to the decisive cavalry charge, had to be effected
by guns of one sort or another (see also INFANTRY). Hence the
" cart with gonnes," although the prototype of the field gun of
to-day was actually a primitive mitrailleuse.

Weapons of this sort were freely employed by the Hussites,
who fought in laager formation (Wagenburg), but the fitting of
two or more hand-guns or small culverins to a two-wheeled
carriage garnished with spikes and scythe blades (like the ancient
war-chariots) was somewhat older, for in 1382 the men of Ghent
put into the field 200 " chars de canon " and in 1411 the Bur-
gundian army is said to have had 2000 " ribaudequins " (mean-
ing probably the weapons, not the carts, in this case). These
were of course hardly more than carts with hand-gun men; in
fact most armies in those days moved about in a hollow square
or lozenge of wagons, and it was natural to fill the carts with
the available gunners or archers. The method of breaking the
enemy's " battles " with these carts was at first, in the ancient
manner, to drive into and disorder the hostile ranks with the

scythes. But they contained at least the germ of
quins. ' tne modern machine-gun, for the tubes (cannes,

canons) were connected by a train of powder and fired
in volleys. As however field artillery improved (latter half of 1 5th
century), and a cannon-ball could be fired from a mobile carriage,
the ribaudequin ceased to exist, its name being transferred to
heavy hand-guns used as rampart pieces. The idea of the machine-
gun reappeared however in the i6th century. The weapons were
now called " organs " (argues), from the number of pipes or tubes
that they contained. At first used (defensively) in the same way
as the ribaudequins, i.e. as an effective addition to the military
equipment of a war-cart, they were developed, in the early part of
the 1 6th century, into a really formidable weapon for breaking
the masses of the enemy, not by scythes and spikes but by fire.
Fleurange's memoirs assign the credit of this to the famous
gunner and engineer Pedro Navarro, who made two hundred
weapons of a design of his own for Louis XII. These " were
not more than two feet long, and fired fifty shots at a round,"
but nevertheless " organs " were relatively rare in the armies
of the i6th century, for the field artillery, though it grew in
size and lost in mobility, had discovered the efficacy of case
shot (then called " perdreaux ") against uncovered animate
targets, and -for work that was not sufficiently serious for the
guns heavy arquebuses were employed. Infantry fire, too,
was growing in power and importance. In 1551 a French army
contained 21 guns and 150 arquebuses a croc and one piece fa^on
d'orgue. By about 1 570 it had been found that when an " organ "
(<n_ „ ,. was needed all that was necessary was to mount some

urguns. . "

heavy arquebuses on a cart, and the organ, as a
separate weapon, disappeared from the field, although under the
name of " mantelet " (from the shield which protected the

gunners), it was still used for the defence of breaches in siege war-
fare. Diego Ufano, who wrote in the early years of the 1 7th century,
describes it as a weapon consisting of five or six barrels fired simul-
taneously by a common lock, and mentions as a celebrated example
the " Triquetraque of Rome " which had five barrels. Another
writer, Hanzelet, describes amongst other devices a mitrailleuse
of four barrels which was fired from the back of an ass or pony.
But such weapons as these were more curious than useful.
For work in the open field the musket came more and more to
the front, its bullet became at least as formidable as that of an
" organ," and when it was necessary to obtain a concentrated
fire on a narrow front arquebuses A croc were mounted for the
nonce in groups of four to six. The " organ " maintained a
precarious existence, and is described by Montecucculi a century
later, and one of twelve barrels figures in the list of military
stores at Hesdin in 1680. But its fatal defect was that it
was neither powerful enough to engage nor mobile enough to
evade the hostile artillery.

Enthusiastic inventors, of course, produced many models of
machine-gun in the strict sense of the word — i.e. a gun firing
many charges, in volleys or in rapid succession, by a mechanical
arrangement of the lock. Wilhelm Calthoff, a German employed
by Louis XIII., produced arquebuses and muskets that fired
six to eight shots per round, but his invention was a secret,
and it seems to have been more of a magazine small arm than a
machine-gun (1640). In 1701 a Lorrainer, Beaufort de Mire-
court, proposed a machine-gun which had as its purpose the
augmentation of infantry-fire power, so as to place an inferior
army on an equality with a superior. At this time inventors
were so numerous and so embarrassing that the French grand
master of artillery, St Hilaire, in 1703 wrote that he would be
glad to have done with " ces sortes de gens a secrets," some of
whom demanded a grant of compensation even when their
experiments had failed. The machine-gun of the i7th and i8th
centuries in fact possessed no advantage over contemporary
field artillery, and the battalion gun in particular, which possessed
the long ranging and battering power that its rival lacked, and
was moreover more efficacious against living targets with its
case-shot or grape. As compared with infantry fire, too, it was
less effective and slower than the muskets of a well-drilled
company. Rapid fire was easily arranged, but the rapid
loading which would have compensated for other defects was
unobtainable in the then existing state of gun-making.

Thus a satisfactory machine-gun was not forthcoming until
breech-loading had been, so to speak, rediscovered, that is until
about 1860. At that time the tactical conditions of armament
were peculiar. As regards artillery, the new (muzzle-loading) long-
range rifle sufficed, in the hand of determined infantry, to keep
guns out of case-shot range. This made the Napoleonic artillery
attack an impossibility. At the same time the infantry rifle was
a slow loader, and the augmentation of the volume of infantry
fire attracted the attention of several inventors. The French,
with their artillery traditions, regarded the machine-gun there-
fore as a method of restoring the lost superiority of the gunner,
while the Americans, equally in accordance with traditions and
local circumstances, regarded it as a musketry machine. The
representative weapons evolved by each were the canon a holies,
more commonly called mitrailleuse, and the Catling gun.

The declared purpose of the canon a holies was to replace the
old artillery case-shot attack. Shrapnel, owing to the defects
of the time-fuzes then available, had proved disappointing in
the Italian War of 1859, and the gun itself, of the existing model,
was not considered satisfactory. Napoleon III., a keen student
of artillery, maintained a private arsenal and workshop at the
chateau of Meudon1 and in 1866, in the alarm following upon

1 Meudon Chateau had long been used for military experiments.
The peasantry credited it with mysterious and terrible secrets,
asserting even that it contained a tannery of human skins, this
tradition perhaps relating to the war balloon constructed there
before the battle of Fleurus (1794). Reffye had also many non-
military tasks, such as the reproduction of a famous set of bas-reliefs,
construction of aeroplanes, and the reconstruction of triremes and
balistas.

MACHINE-GUN

239

Koniggriitz, he ordered Commandant Reffye (1821-1880), the
artillery officer he had placed in charge of it, to produce a
machine-gun. Reffye held that the work of a mitrailleuse should
only begin where that of the infantry rifle ceased. The handbook
to his gun issued to the French army in 1870 stated that it was
" to carry balls to distances that the infantry, and the
ThcCaaoa artillery firing case, could not reach." The most
"1866 -'IS'TO. su'table range was given as 1500-2000 yards against
infantry in close order, 2000-2700 against artillery.
As the French shrapnel (obus d holies) of these days was only
used to give its peculiar case-shot effect between 550 and 1350
yards, and even so sparingly and without much confidence in
its efficacy, it is clear that the canon d battes was intended to
do the field-gun's work, except at (what were then) extreme field
artillery ranges (2800 and above), in which case the ordinary
gun with common shell (time or percussion) alone was used.

Constructed to meet these conditions, the Reffye machine-gun
in its final form resembled outwardly an ordinary field gun, with
wheeled carriage, limber and four-horse team. The gun barrel
was in reality a casing for 25 rifle barrels disposed around a common
axis (the idea of obtaining sweeping effect by disposing the barrels
slightly fan-wise had been tried and abandoned). The barrels were
held together at intervals by wrought-iron plates. They were
entirely open at the breech, a removable false breech containing
the firing mechanism (the cartridge cases were of brass, solid-drawn,
like those of the American and unlike those of the British Catlings).
This false breech, held in the firing position by a strong screw —
resembling roughly those of contemporary B.L. ordnance such as
the Armstrong R. B. L. — consisted of a plate with 25 holes, which
allowed the points of the strikers to pass through and reach the
cartridges. The plate was turned by hand so that one striker
was admitted at a time, the metal of the plate holding back the
rest. To avoid any deflection of the bullet by the gases at an adjoin-
ing muzzle the barrels were fired in an irregular order. Each gun
was provided with four chambers, which were loaded with their 25
cartridges apiece by a charger, and fixed to the breech one after the
other as quickly as the manipulation of the powerful retaining screw
permitted. The rates of fire were " slow, 3 rounds or 75 shots a
minute, and " rapid," 5 rounds or 125 shots per minute. One advan-
tage as against artillery that was claimed for the new weapon was
rapidity of ranging. Any ordinary target, such as a hostile gun,
would, it was expected, be accurately ranged by the mitrailleuse before
it was ready to open fire for effect. The ordinary rifle bullet was
employed, but to enhance the case-shot effect a heavy bullet made up
in three parts, which broke asunder on discharge, was introduced in
1870 in the proportion of one round in nine. The weapon was sighted
to 3000 metres (3300 yds.). The initial velocity was 1558 f.s. ;
and the weight of the gun 350 kg. (6-45 cwt.), of the carriage 371 kg.
(6-86 cwt.); total behind the team, 1,485 kg. (27-1 cwt.).

For an artillery effect, dispersion had to be combined with
accuracy. The rifle-barrels when carefully set gave a very close
grouping of shots on the target, and dispersion was obtained by
traversing the gun during the firing of a round. When this was
skilfully performed a front of 18 metres (about 20 yds.) at 1,000
metres range was thoroughly swept by the cone of bullets.

The design and manufacture of these mitrailleuses under the
personal orders and at the expense of the emperor enabled the
French authorities to keep their new weapon most secret.
Even though, after a time, mitrailleuses were constructed by
scores, and could therefore no longer be charged to a " sundry "
or " petty cash " account in the budget, secrecy was still main-
tained. The pieces were taken about, muffled in tarpaulins, by
by-ways and footpaths. In 1869, two years after the definitive
adoption of the weapon, only a few artillery captains were in-
structed in its mechanism; the non-commissioned officers who
had to handle the gun in war were called up for practice in July
1870, when Major Reffye's energies were too much absorbed in
turning out the material so urgently demanded to allow him to
devote himself to their instruction. The natural consequence
was that the mitrailleuses were taken into battle by officers and
men of whom nine-tenths had never seen them fire one round
of live cartridges. The purpose of this fatal secrecy was the
maintenance of prestige. No details were given, but it was
confidently announced that war would be revolutionized. One
foreign officer only, Major Fosbery, R.A. (see R.U.S.I. Journal,
v. xiii.), penetrated the secret, and he felt himself bound in
honour to keep it to himself, not even communicating it to the
War Office. But public attention was only too fully aroused
by these mysterious prophecies. " The mitrailleuse paid dearly

for its fame." The Prussians, who had examined mitrailleuses
of the Galling or infantry type, were well aware that the artillery
machine-gun was at the least a most formidable opponent.
They therefore ostentatiously rejected the Galling gun, taught
their troops that the new weapons were in the nature of scientific
toys, and secretly made up their minds to lurn ihe whole weight
of their guns on to the mitrailleuse whenever and wherever it
appeared on the field, and so to overwhelm it at once. This
policy they carried inlo effecl in the War of 1870; and although
on occasions the new weapon rendered excellent service, in
general il cruelly disappointed the over-high hopes of its
admirers. And thus, although the Catling and similar types
of gun were employed to a slight extent by both sides in ihe
laler stage of the war, machine-guns, as a class of armament for
civilized warfare, praclically disappeared.

As a good deal of criticism — after the event — has been levelled
at the French for their " improper use of the machine-gun as a sub-
stitute for artillery," it is necessary to give some summary of the
ideas and rules which were inspired by the inventor or dictated by
the authorities as to its tactical employment. The first principle
laid down was that the gun should not be employed within the zone
of the infantry fight. Officers commanding batteries were explicitly
warned against infantry divisional generals who would certainly
attempt to put the batteries, by sections, amongst the infantry.
The second principle was that the mitrailleuses were to share the
work of the guns, the latter battering obstacles with common shell,
and the former being employed against troops in the open, and
especially to cover and support the infantry advance. This tendency
to classify the r61es of the artillery and to tell off the batteries each
in its special task has reappeared in the French, and to a mo -e limited
extent in the British, field artillery of to-day (the Germans alone
resolutely opposing the idea of subdivision). The mitrailleuse of
1870 was, in fact, intended to do what the perfected Shrapnel of
1910 does, to transfer the case-shot attack to longer ranges. But,
as we have seen, secrecy had prevented any general spread of know-
ledge as to the uses to which the canon A battes was to be put, and
consequently, after a few weeks of the war, we find Reffye complain-
ing that the machine-guns were being used by their battery comman-
ders " in a perfectly idiotic fashion. They are only good at a great
distance and when used in masses, and they are being employed at
close quarters like a rifle." The officers in the field, however, held
that it was foolish to pit the mitrailleuse against the gun, which had
a longer range, and exerted themselves to use it as an infantry
weapon, a concentrated company, for which, unlike the Catlings of
1870 and the machine-guns of to-day, it was never designed. As
to which was right in the controversy it is impossible to dogmatize
and needless to argue.

Very different was the Galling gun, the invention of Richard
Jordan Catling (1818-1903), which came into existence and was
to a slight extent used in the field in the latler years of Ihe
American Civil War,1 and also to a still slighler extent by the
Bavarians and the French in the latler part of Ihe war of 1870.
This was dislinclively an infanlry type weapon, a sort of revolv-
ing rifle, Ihe len barrels of which were set around an axis,
and fired in turn when brought into position by aatiiag
Ihe revolving mechanism. This weapon had a long O""-
reign, and was used side by side wilh Ihe lalesl automatic
machine gun in the Spanish-American War of 1898. The follow-
ing account of the old British service Catling (fig. i), as used in
the Egyptian and Sudanese campaigns, is condensed from that
in the article " Gun-making," Ency. Brit. 9th ed.

A block of ten barrels is secured round an axis, which is fixed in a
frame a a. On turning the handle h (fig. 2) the spindle g g causes
the worm / to act on the pinion w, making the axis and barrels
revolve. A drum T (figs. I and 4) is placed on the top at the breech
end of the barrels over a hopper, through a slot in which the cart-
ridges drop into the carrier (fig. 3). The construction of the lock is
shown in ng. 4. A A A A is a cam, sloping as in the drawing, which,
it must be understood, represents the circular construction opened
out and laid flat. As the barrels, carrier and locks revolve the slope
of the cam forces the locks forward and backward alternately.
At position I. the cartridge has just fallen into the carrier, the lock
and bolt are completely withdrawn. At positions II., III., IV.,
the cam is forcing them forward, so that the bolt pushes the cart-
ridge into the barrel. At IV. the cocking cam R begins to compress
the spiral spring, releasing it at V. Position VI. shows the cartridge
just after firing ; the extractor is clutching the base of the cartridge

1 A machine-gun of the artillery or volley type, called the " Requa
battery," which had its barrels disposed fan-wise, was also used in
the Civil War.

240

MACHINE-GUN

case, which is withdrawn as the locks retreat down the slope of the
cam, till at X it falls through an aperture to the ground. The drum
consists of a number of vertical channels radiating from the centre.
The cartridges are arranged horizontally, one above the other, in

FIG. i. — Catling Gun.

these channels, bullet ends inwards. The drum revolves on the pivot
b (fig- 3), and the cartridges fall through the aperture B. When all
the channels are emptied, a full drum is brought from the limber,
and substituted for the empty one. Each barrel fires in turn
as it comes to a certain position, so that by turning the handle
quickly an almost continuous stream of bullets can. be ejected.

Experimental Catlings were constructed which could be made to fire
nearly 1000 shots a minute, and an automatic traversing arrange-
ment was also fitted.

As has been said, this weapon had a long reign. It was used
with great effect in the Zulu War at Ulundi and in the Sudan.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

But a grave disadvantage of the English pattern was that it
had to be used with the Boxer coiled cartridge supplied for the
Martini-Henry rifle, and until this was replaced by a solid-drawn
cartridge case it was impossible to avoid frequent " jams."
The modern, fully automatic, machine gun suffers from this
to a considerable extent,, and it was an even more serious defect
with a hand-operated weapon, as the British troops found in

FIG. 4. — Lock of Catling Gun.

MACHINE-GUN

241

their campaigns against the Mahdists. But the Catling had
many advantages over its newer rivals as regards simplicity
and strength. Theodore Roosevelt, who commanded sections of
both types in the Spanish-American War, speaks with enthusiasm
of the old-fashioned weapon * while somewhat disparaging the
Colt automatic.

The Gardner was another type which had a certain vogue2
and was used by the British in savage warfare. But, next to

In this weapon the barrels are placed horizontally, and have no
movement. A box containing the locks, bolts, strikers and spiral
springs, one of each corresponding to each barrel, moves Nar.,enlfUt
straight backwards and forwards when worked by the \^.
handle of the lever on the right. When the box is
drawn back the cartridges fall from the holder on the top into the
carriers simultaneously. When the box is pushed forward the bolts
push the cartridges into the barrel, cocking-catches compress the
spiral springs, the lever releases the catches one after the other at
very minute intervals of time, and the cartridges are fired in rapid

l-io, Parts of frame ;

11, Breech plug;

12, Striker;

13, Extractor;

14, Cartridge receiver;

FIG. 5. — Nordenfeldt Machine-Gun.

15-18, 23-31, Lock and trigger parts;
19-22, Locking action ;
32-35, Loading action ;
36-39, Cartridge receiver;
40, Cover;

41-44, Parts of hand-lever ;
45-49, Traversing action ;
5<>-S5t Elevating and trailing action;
S^, 57, Hopper and slide.

the Catling, the most important of the hand-operated machine
guns was the Nordenfeldt, which was principally designed for
naval use about the time when torpedo-boats were beginning
to be regarded as dangerous antagonists.

1 The U.S. pattern Galling hardly differed except in details from
the model, above described, of twenty years earlier. The drum
had been set horizontally instead of vertically and improved in de-
tails, and a " gravity feed," a tall vertical charger, was also used.
The barrels were surrounded with a light casing. Tests made
of the improved Catling showed that the use of only one barrel
at a time prevented overheating. On one trial 63,000 rounds were
fired without a jam, and without stopping to clean the barrels.
Smokeless powder and the modern cartridge case were of course
used.

'The following particulars may be given of the 2-barrelled
Gardner and 3-barrelled Nordenfeldt (land service) converted to
take the -303 cartridge: Weight, 92 and 110 ft respectively;
parapet mounting in each case 168 lb; rate of fire of Gardner about
250 rounds per minute, of the Nordenfeldt about 350. A few of
these guns are still used in fortresses and coast defences.

succession. In this piece, careful aim can be taken from a movine
platform, and at the right moment the barrels can be fired at the
object almost simultaneously.

PRESENT DAY MACHINE-GUNS

Hitherto we have been dealing with weapons worked by hand-
power applied to a lever or winch-handle, the motion of this
lever being translated by suitable mechanism into those by which
the cartridges are loaded, fired, extracted and ejected— the cycle
continuing as long as the lever is worked and there are cartridges
in the " hoppers " which feed the gun. In the modern " auto-
matic " machine-gun, moreover, the loading, firing, extracting
and ejecting are all performed automatically by the gun itself,
either by the recoil of its barrel, or by a small portion of the
gases of explosion being allowed to escape through a minute
hole in the barrel near the muzzle. The following details of
the British Maxim, Hotchkiss and Colt types are reproduced
from the article " Machine-guns," Ency. Brit. loth ed.

242

MACHINE-GUN

The idea of using the recoil, or a portion of the gases of ex- I Attached to the rear of the barrel (6) on either side are two side
plosion, for the working of the breech mechanism is by no means I p!^5/^,' ^etwe£" whi,c,h '" guides O works the aggregation of parts
new, the latter system having been proposed and ^tw^l^^'j^h^^^^^^^^^^^^11^

(certainly in a very crude and probably unworkable form) by

FIG. 6. — Maxim Gun on Wheeled Carriage (1900).

(Sir) Henry Bessemer in 1854; but whatever might be dis-
covered by a search in old patent and other records or in
museums, there can be no doubt that (Sir) Hiram S. Maxim was
the first to produce a finished automatic gun of practical value.
His patents in connexion with this particular class of weapon
date back to 1884, and his gun on the recoil system was, after
extensive trials, adopted into the British army in 1889 and into
the navy in 1892. It is very possible that Bessemer's idea did
not bear fruit earlier because the fouling left by the old forms of
" black " or smoky powders was apt to clog the moving parts
and to choke any small port. With modern smokeless powders
this difficulty does not arise.

The Maxim gun,1 as will be seen from figs. 7 and 8, consists of two
parts, the barrel casing (a) and breech casing (d), secured firmly
together. The former (a), which is cylindrical in form,
contains the barrel (6), and the water surrounding it
to keep down the very high temperature attained by
rapid fire, and the steam tube (c), which by the action of a sliding
valve allows of the escape of steam but not of water. The barrel has
asbestos packings at its front and rear bearings in the casing, which

Maxim
Qua.

the crank axle E, crank E', and connecting rod I (see figs. 7 to 1 1^7
The connecting rod I joins the lock and crank, being attached
to the side levers J of the former by means of the
interrupted screw U ; the latter enables the lock to
be detached and removed.

The crank axle E extends through both sides
of the breech casing (d), slots (k, fig. 7), allowing
~*it a longitudinal movement of about an inch.
To its left-hand end, outside the breech casing,
is attached the fusee chain Y of the recoil spring
X (see dotted lines in fig. 7), and to its right-
hand end a bell trunk lever, B B'; the arm B,
""which terminates in a knob, being turned by the
crank handle, the arm B' working against the
buffer stop C.

In figs. 8, 9 and n the breech is shown closed,
and it will be noticed that the crank pin I' is
above the straight line joining the axis of the
barrel, the striker T, and the crank axle E. As
the crank is prevented from further movement
upwards by the crank handle B taking against
the check-lever G (fig. 7), it is clear that the
pressure on discharge of the cartridge cannot
cause the crank axle to rotate, and so open the
breech as shown in figs. 10 and 12.

The withdrawal of the lock and opening of the breech are effected
as follows: The total travel in recoil of the barrel is about one inch,
but on discharge the barrel, the side plates and lock all recoil
together for about a quarter of an inch without any disturbance
of the locking as explained above, and by the time this short travel
is completed the bullet has left the muzzle. The arm B' of the crank
handle then engages the buffer stop C and causes the crank axle E
to rotate and the crank E' to fall and so draw back the lock from,
and open, the breech. At the same time the fusee chain Y is wound
up round the left-hand end of the crank axle E and the spring X
extended. In the meantime the knob of the buffer handle B swings
over, and just as the lock reaches its rearmost position (as in figs.
10 and 12) strikes the flat. buffer spring H, and, rebounding, assists
the crank in revolving in the reverse direction; the spring X also
contracts, and, unwinding the fusee chain, draws back the lock
again and closes the breech, a fresh cartridge having been placed
in the barrel as explained below.

The gun is fired by means of the trigger F, which is actuated by
the projection (I) on the trigger bar (S), the latter being drawn back
when the button (m) on the push lever (n) is pressed forwards.
If, therefore, the button he kept permanently pressed, the projection
(/) will always lie in the path of the trigger F just as the lock reaches
its forward position and the breech is closed, and the gun will fire

FIGS. 7 and 8. — Mechanism of Maxim Gun.

allow of its sliding in recoil without the escape of water. The breech
casing (d) is a rectangular oblong box, and contains the lock and
firing mechanism. At its rear end it has handles (e) by which the
gun is directed, and the thumb-piece (m) by which the trigger is
actuated. Its top is closed by a lid, hinged at (i). At its front
is a recess holding the feed-block (/) through which the belt of
cartridges (g) is fed to the gun.

1 Modern improvements in mechanical details are only slight,
as may be found by reference to the official handbooks of the gun,
editions of 1903 and 1907.

automatically, and continue to do so as long as there are cartridges
in the belt.

The loading, extraction and ejection of the cartridges are effected
as follows: The left-hand side-plate is extended forwards a little
beyond the breech, and communicates the reciprocating motion of
the barrel to a lever on the feed-block, which causes the cartridges
in the belt to be fed forward one by one by a " step-by-step " pawl
action, the cartridge which is next to be taken from the belt being
arrested exactly above the breech, the ejector-tube Q being below
in the same vertical plane.

The extractor D (see figs. 9 to 12) which performs the operations

MACHINE-GUN

243

of inserting, extracting and ejecting the cartridges, travels vertically
in guides on the face of the lock. Projecting outwards from each
side of its top are horns N (figs. 9 and 10). These travel round the
edges of the cams M (fig. 8) situated on each side of the breech casing,
and in conjunction with the spring W (fig. 8), compel the top of the
extractor to take the path shown by the dotted lines and arrows in
figs. 9 to 12.

FIG. 9. — Maxim Gun Mechanism.

The extractor (figs. 11 and 12) is recessed to take a movable
plate (M) termed a " gib," behind which is a spring (v). In the face
of the gib is a recess (w) into which the base of a cartridge can just
enter. On either side of the gib the face of the extractor has under-
cut flanges, open at the top and bottom, between which the base of
a cartridge can fit the rim, being held in the undercuts (figs. 9 and 10).

It is clear from this arrangement that the base of the cartridge
having been introduced between the flanges at the top of the
extractor, can be pushed down, the spring (v) yielding, till arrested
at the recess (w) ; and, as the lower edges of this
recess are slightly sloped, further pressure will
make it leave the recess (w) and slide over the
face of the gib, leave it, and take up a position
in front of the hole for the point of the striker
(x), being now only prevented from slipping out
of the extractor by the extractor spring (y). If
this last be clear of the extractor stop (z) it will
yield to pressure and the cartridge will be free.
This "is the action in the gun except that the
cartridge is held firm and the extractor pushed
against it.

In fig. 10 the extractor holds a cartridge (r) and
a fired case (g) ready to be pushed into the empty
breech and ejector-tube Q respectively. In the
latter there is already a fired case (p), which will
be driven by the fired case (g) beyond the ejectoi
spring R. As soon as the lock reaches the face of
the breech, the cartridge (r) and case (g) are
deposited in the breech and ejector-tube respec-
tively, and the extractor D rises under the action of the levers L and J,
slides, as already explained, by the bases of the cartriSges (r) and
case (g), and then over the base of the cartridge (s) in the belt (g).
Assuming the push-lever (n) to be pressed, the gun fires immediately
this has occurred, and the bullet of the cartridge (r) is expelled. The
position is now that shown in fig. o. The barrel now recoils and the
lock is withdrawn, taking with it the fresh cartridge (s) from the belt
and the now fired case (r). The extractor travels horizontally for
a time and then drops (as shown by the dotted line and arrows),
assuming the position shown in fig. 12, which is exactly similar to
that in fig. 10 but with different cartridges; continuing the action,

mechanism and the safety arrangement. The lock is cocked, after
firing, by the arm of the " tumbler " K, being pressed down by the
side lever J as it swings down when following the crank E'. Safety
against firing before the breech is closed is provided by the projection
on the safety lever V, which does not clear the striker T until lifted
by the side lever J at the top of its travel, that is, when the crank E'
has passed the axial line as already explained.

The lock in its rearmost position is kept in
place by the block Z on the under side of the
coyer of the breech casing. When in this position
it is clear of the guides O on the side-plates, and
if the cover be opened it can be turned up, un-
screwed by a turn through an eighth of a circle
(the screw-thread U being interrupted in four
places) and removed. To prepare the gun for
firing, the crank handle is pushed over by hand
to the buffer-spring, thus withdrawing the ex-
tractor, and held in this position ; the tongue on
the end of a filled belt is then pushed through the
feed-block from the left and pulled as far as it
will go from the opposite side. This places a
cartridge above the breech ready to be seized by
the extractor. The crank handle is now released
and the lock flies forwards. The crank handle is
now again pushed over and let go, and the first
cartridge thus taken from the belt and placed in
the breech. The gun is ready to fire.

To remove a partially filled belt, the crank handle must be pushed
over, thus freeing the extractor from the belt, and the latter with-
drawn after pressing a spring catch under the feed block which
releases the pawls. The gun now has two live cartridges in it — both
in the extractor. Letting go the crank handle, one of them is
deposited in the ejector-tube, and again pushing over and letting
go the crank handle does the same with the second.

Fig. 13 shows the feed-block and the cartridge belts. The greatest
number usually carried in a belt is 250.,

FIG. 10. — Maxim Gun Mechanism.

the position shown in fig. 1 1 is arrived at. It will thus be seen that
each cartridge makes two complete journeys with the extractor;
the first as a live cartridge from the belt to the breech, the
second from the breech to the ejector-tube, the forward journey
being always on a lower level than that of the backward one. The
sections in figs, n and 12 clearly show the cocking and firing

FIG. ii. — Maxim Gun Mechanism.

The gun is sighted to 2,500 yds. and has a folding tangent sight as
shown. Its weight varies from 50 to 60 Ib, and it can fire about
450 rounds per minute.

[The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of
Messrs Vickers, Sons & Maxim.]

The Hotchkiss gun, figs. 14 to 16, wWh has been adopted by
the French army and navy and elsewhere, depends for its action
on the use of a small portion of the gases of the cartridge itself.
The barrel A is firmly attached to the receiver or frame B, the latter
containing the breech and firing mechanism. Under „ f htl
the barrel A, and communicating with it by a port (c) .
near the muzzle is a cylinder or tube C.
When the gun is fired, and the bullet has passed
the port (c), a portion of the gases of explosion
passes into the cylinder C and drives back the
piston F contained in it, a lug on the under part
of the piston compressing the spring M, the

latter, when the trigger N is pulled, driving back

the piston again. The reciprocating motion of
the piston performs all the processes of loading
and firing the gun, and the action is continuous
as long as the trigger is kept pressed back.
„ The piston F, enlarged and suitably shaped at

the rear, actuates the breech-block H and firing
pin or striker J ; and, by suitable cam grooves
(/) at about the centre of its length, works the
larger feed-wheel U of the feed-box S ; the smaller
wheel U on the same axis in turn imparting a
step-by-step motion to the metal feed-strips, each
containing 30 cartridges, so that fresh cartridges are placed one
by bne before the face of the breech block ready to be pushed
into the breech when the fired cartridge has been extracted and
ejected.

On the under surface of the piston F, in rear, is a recess or sear
(/) in which the nose of the trigger N engages, holding back the

244

MACHINE-GUN

piston when it has been driven back by the gases. As already
stated, a lug on the under surface just in rear of the cam (/) engages
with the front of the mainspring.

FIG. 12. — Maxim Gun Mechanism.

Taking first the position shown in fig. 15 with the breech closed
and locked and the cartridge fired, it will be seen that the breech

is locked by the upper cam (/'), on
the end of the piston, F, having
caused the movable locking-dog (h)
to fall and bear against the recoil
blocks Z (see fig. 14 also) on the walls
of the receiver or frame B. Con-
sequently the breech is not unlocked
until the piston has moved sufficiently
to the rear for the lower cam (/') to
lift the locking-dog (h) clear of the
recoil blocks Z. As the piston F
is not actuated by the gases until
the bullet has passed the port (c),
and then has to move a short dis-
tance before the locking-dog is
raised, the bullet is clear of the
muzzle before the breech is unlocked.
As the piston continues to recoil
it draws back the striker J and then
FIG. 13. — Maxim Feed-block, the breech-block H, and is then

caught and retained by the engage-
ment of the sear (/) with the trigger N, and the position assumed
is that shown in fig. 14.

I the object of the arrangement being to enable the under surface of
' the breech-block to clear the clips which hold the cartridges in the
I feed-strips. The cartridge therefore, being extracted in the line of
the axis of the block, is ejected through an opening
above its plane of entry in the feed-strip.

Returning to the position shown in fig. 16, if the
trigger be pulled, the compressed spring M reacts
and drives the piston forwards, carrying the breech-
block with it, the latter in turn driving a cartridge
in front of it out of the feed-strip. When the block
— and cartridge are home, and not till then, the piston
completes its travel, the upper cam (/') locking the
dog (h), and the firing-pin protrudes and fires the
cartridge. Anything, therefore, which prevents the
breech-block from being home against the breech,
or the locking-dog from falling in front of the recoil
blocks Z, renders firing of the cartridge impossible.
Clearly if the trigger be kept depressed the action
becomes automatic.

A special feature of this gun is the absence of a
separate spring to actuate the firing-pin ; the recoil
spring M performing this function, in addition to
that of driving the piston forwards.

The feed-strips have holes in them in which the teeth of the smaller
feed-wheel U engage. The engagement of this feed with the piston
F can be released by pulling out the feed arbor W, so that the strips
can be removed at any time.

When the last shot in a feed-strip has been fired a stop (V) holds
the piston and block ready for a fresh feed-strip to be inserted.
As the stop V acts quite independently of the trigger, this action
takes place even if the trigger be still depressed after the last cartridge
in a strip has been fired.

To cock the gun, when in the locked position, a cocking handle G
is provided. This has a long arm projecting to the front with a
catch which takes against the front of the lug on the under side of
the piston. To prepare the gun for action the gun is cocked, and a
feed-strip is pushed into the feed-block.

The pressure of the gas on the piston is regulated by the regulator
screw D, by means of which the space in the cylinder C in front of
the piston F can be reduced or increased.

A safety lock R is furnished, which is a " half round " pin
which can be turned so as to enter the semicircular slot just in
front of the sear (/), and so hold back the piston when in the cocked
position.

Radiation of the heat, generated in the barrel by rapid fire, is
facilitated by the radiator (a), which consists of rings on the barrel
close to the breech, which offer an increased surface to the air.

HOTCHKISS AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUN
Longitudinal Section Breech open

Longitudinal Section Breech closed.

FIGS. 14, 15, 16.— Hotchkiss Gun Mechanism.

From the head or nose-piece I of the breech-block projects the
claw K of a spring extractor which, as the cartridge is pushed home
by the breech-block, seizes it, extracting the fired case when the
breech-block is withdrawn. Ejection of the fired case is effected
by means of the ejector L (fig. 16) which catches against the base of
the case, on the opposite side to the extractor claw, and so throws
it sideways through the oblong-pointed opening in the receiver just
in rear of the breech (see fig. 14).

The platform on the top of the feed-box through which the teeth
of the smaller feed-wheel U project, and on which the feed-strips
rest, lies below the axial line of the breech-block H, so that the face
or nose-piece I of the latter only engages a portion of the base of the
cartridge in the feed-strip as it pushes the cartridge into the breech,
the bullet of the cartridge being guided into the breech by the incline
at the opening of the latter. This point should be specially noted,

The gun is sighted to 2000 yds., with the ordinary flap back-
sight, weighs about 53 ft, and can fire from 500 to 600 rounds per
minute.

[The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of
the Hotchkiss Ordnance Company.]

The Colt automatic gun, which has been adopted by the American
army and navy, and was used by the British in S. Africa, depends
for its action, similarly to the Hotchkiss, on the escape coltOu
of a small portion of the gases of explosion through a
port in the barrel a short distance from the muzzle. Figs. 17 and
18 give a plan, and side elevation with the left side plate removed,
respectively. Into the recess in the barrel (92) just below the
port fits the piston (35), capable of slight motion round the pivot
(36), by which it is attached to the gas lever (29). The latter
is a bell-crank lever pivoted at (34), its short arm being attached

MACHINE-GUN

245

at (46) by a pivot to a long link with a cross head, termed the
retracting connexion (45). This link extends from a point close to
the figures (44), where the arms of the cross head bear against the
ends of two long spiral retracting springs, (37) and (38), contained
in two tubes, (39) and (40), which are slotted for a few inches of
their length to allow the cross head to follow up and compress the
springs. (Only (38) and (40) are shown, (37) and (39) lying in the
same plane of projection.)

When the gun fires, and the bullet has passed the port, the gases
drive the piston (35) and gas lever (29) downwards, and the momen-
tum imparted causes them to swing back round the pivot (36), as
shown by the dotted circle. The gas lever is brought up now by the
bottom plate (91); and the retracting springs, compressed by the
cross head of the long link (45) owing to the forward motion of the

I
8

e
3
O

T3
C

a

short arm of the gas lever, react and drive the gas lever into its
forward position again.

The rotary movement of the gas lever is converted into a recipro-
cating movement of the slide (86) by means of the gas lever connexion
rod (31) pivoted at (32) to the gas lever, and at (87) to the slide.

The slide (86) is a nearly flat bar, travelling in guides in the re-
ceiver, extending from (14) to (87). It is slotted completely through
longitudinally for nearly the whole of its length, this slot affording
an opening through which work the cartridge extractor (82) and
carrier (21). At its rear end it engages by means of a pin (14) in a
cam slot (97) in the bottom rib of the bolt (13), and at (83) it bears
the pivot of the cartridge extractor (82). Its rear end is enlarged
below to form a cam lug (98), and on its right side are two projections
(95) and (96), which work the feed lever (66).

FIG. 19. — Colt Gun mounted.

The feed wheel (61), over which passes the belt containing the
cartridges, is actuated by a pawl " step-by-step " gear by means of
the feed lever (66).

The carrier (21) is a long trip lever pivoted at (22), and provided
with a spring dog (23) pivoted at (24).

The bolt (13) is a cylinder with a guide rib extending from its
under surface. It is actuated by the slide by means of the pin
(14) and cam slot (07) as already stated, and is bored through to
take the striker or firing pin (18). The rear end of the latter pro-
jects slightly beyond the rear face of the bolt, being retained in this
position by the spring (19). When this projecting end is pushed
into the bolt, the point protrudes from the front of the bolt and fires
the cartridge. The bolt, when the breech is locked, is held firm by
two recoil blocks on the receiver (not shown), as is explained later.
At the front of the bolt is an extractor (15) with a spring claw for
extracting the fired case. (This is of course quite distinct from the
cartridge extractor (82).) Ejection is effected by means of an ejector
projecting into the path of the fired case.

The firing of the gun is performed by the cylindrical hammer
(6) hollowed out in rear to contain the mainspring (7). When
pushed back and cocked as shown in fig. 18, it is held during a portion
of the operations of the mechanism by two detents working indepen-
dently of each other — the sear (10) and the nose of the trigger (8).
The former is automatically released by a trip lever (not shown) as
soon as the breech is locked, leaving the hammer held by the trigger
only. This is the position shown in fig. 1 8. The necessity for the
two detents is explained later.

The hammer, when cocked, can also be permanently locked by
the handle lock (2) actuated by a thumb-piece on the outside of the
receiver. The air compressed in rear of the hammer, as the latter
is driven back, passes through the tube (99) to the breech ; and a
puff of air is therefore blown through the barrel after every shot,
clearing out fouling and unconsumed powder, and assisting to an
appreciable extent to keep down the temperature of the barrel.

Taking the position shown in fig. 18, the hammer is only held
back by the trigger nose, the sear (10) having been released as stated
above. A belt of cartridges (not shown) has been placed on the feed-
wheel, and the cartridge next to be used after the one (not shown)
now in the breech has its rim (or base with rimless cartridges) just
above the hook on the extractor (82). If now the trigger be pulled,
the hammer flies forwards, strikes the protruding end of the firing
pin, and the cartridge fires; the gases cause the gas lever to swing
round and drive back the slide. The pin (14) working in the cam
groove (97) causes the rear of the bolt to rise and clear itself from the
recoil blocks (not shown) on the receiver, and then to move rearwards
horizontally, driving the hammer back until the latter is caught
and held by the sear and trigger. In the meantime the extractor
(82) has pulled a cartridge from the belt, and, assisted by two spring
cartridge guides (80 and 81), of which only (80) is shown, deposits
it on the carrier (21) ; the projection (95) strikes the feed-lever (66),
and moves the feed mechanism so as to prepare to revolve the feed-
wheel and place a fresh cartridge ready for the next round ; and as
the slide completes its travel backwards, the cam (98) strikes the
dog (23) and slightly depresses it (the spring (25) yielding), the

246

MACHINE-GUN

carrier and cartridge on it consequently rising a little and falling again
(this latter action is incidental only to the form of the parts, and is
not a necessity).

The retracting springs now react and pull the slide forwards;
the cam (98) strikes the dog (23), which, as the spring arrangement
is of the " non-return " class, does not yield but is depressed, and the

FIG. 20. — Hotchkiss Gun mounted.

front of the carrier and the cartridge on it are therefore raised sharply,
and the latter placed in the path of the bolt. The bolt being now
pulled forwards, the cartridge is driven off the carrier into the breech,
and the bolt locked by the pin (14), causing the bolt to drop in front
of the recoil blocks; the carrier is pushed down flat by the advance
of the cam lug (98), the trip releases the sear (10), and the projection
(96) pushes back the feed lever, completing the action of feeding a
fresh cartridge forward. The position shown in fig. 17 is now
resumed.

It is clear that were the trigger kept permanently pulled the
gun would fire immediately the bolt was locked and the sear (10)
depressed, and the action would become automatic.

The object of two detents, though now probably obvious, may here
be explained. The whole action of the gun depends upon the hammer
after it is pushed back by the bolt being held back until the bolt
has gone completely forwards and locked the breech. If only the
trigger detent existed, and that were kept pressed down, the hammer,
after being pushed back by the bolt, would immediately follow up
the latter, and might fire the cartridge prematurely, or fail to fire it
»at all; hence the use of the sear in addition to the trigger.

To cock the lock, or work the mechanism by hand, the gas lever
is pulled round by the pin (30) provided for the purpose, and by this
means the gun is prepared for firing. A brass tongue on the end of
the belt is pushed through the opening above the feed-wheel and then
pulled from the other side of the gun as far as it will go. This
places a cartridge in front of the extractor, and if the gas lever be
now pulled right back and let go, this cartridge is placed in the
breech as already described, and the gun is ready for firing. If it
be desired to remove a belt from the feed, a button (68) is pressed and
the feed-wheel is then free to revolve backwards.

The gun is sighted with the ordinary rifle-pattern sights, up to
2000 yds. or more if required. It weighs about 40 ft, and can fire
about 400 rounds per minute as usually adjusted, though this rate
can be increased. There is no means of altering the gas pressure
in the field as with the Hotchkiss.

[The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of
the Colt Arms Company.]

Comparing the principle of employing a recoiling barrel with
that of using a portion of the gas, the advantages of the former
are that the recoil is made to do useful work instead of straining

the gun and mounting in its absorption; the latter system,
however, has undoubtedly the advantage in simplicity of mechan-
ism (the Hotchkiss is extraordinarily simple in construction
for an automatic gun), and in the large margin of power for
working the mechanism with certainty in all conditions of
exposure to climate, dust, and dirt. While inferior in this
respect, it is nevertheless the fact that the Maxim has proved
itself in the field even in savage warfare in the roughest country
to be a very efficient and powerful weapon.

The great difficulty which has to be met in all single-barrel
machine guns is the heating of the barrel. The 75 pints of
water in the water-jacket of the Maxim gun are raised to boiling
point by 600 rounds of rapid fire — i.e. in about 15 minutes —
and if firing be continued, about i j pints of water are evaporated
for every 1000 rounds. Assuming that the operation is con-
tinuous, the rate of waste of energy due to heat expended on the
water alone is equivalent to about 20 horse-power (294 foot
tons per minute). The water-jacket acts well in keeping down
the temperature of the barrel; but apart from the complications

FIG. 21. — Tripod mounting (Mark IV.), for British Maxim.

entailed by its use, the provision of water for this purpose is at
times exceedingly troublesome on service. In the Hotchkiss and
Colt guns, which have no water-jacket, an attempt is made to
meet the heating, in the one by the radiator, and in the other
by a very heavy barrel.

One of the most modern types of gun is the Schwarzlose,
which is manufactured at Steyr in Austria, and was adopted by
the Austrian army in 1907. This weapon is remarkable for its
simplicity. There are only 10 main working parts, and any of
these can be replaced in a few seconds. It is operated by the
gases of the explosion, has a water-jacket that allows 3000
rounds to be fired without refilling. The " life " of the gun-
barrel is stated to be 35,000 rounds without serious loss of
accuracy. The weight of the gun is 37-9 Ib. It is a belt loader.

The Italian Perino gun, adopted in 1907, is a recoil-operated
weapon, and is loaded by a metal clip. The Skoda gun, some
of which type are used in Japan and China, is loaded by a
hopper feed, and is gas-operated. The Bergmann gun is a
belt loader, but the belt passes down a " gravity feed " an
arrangement which saves a number of working parts.

One defect common to all is that it is by no means easy to
proportion the fire to the target, as there are only two rates
of fire, viz. rapid automatic and slow single shots. To fire a
single shot requires practice, since the gun will fire some 7 shots

MACHINE-GUN

247

in one second, and to press the trigger and remove the finger or
thumb instantly, and at the same time be ready to traverse
to a fresh target, requires considerable skill.- The result of these
difficulties is that the target when struck is often riddled with
bullets when one would have sufficed. The aiming of the gun,
when rapid fire is taking place, may also be difficult even on
firmly fixed mountings, owing to vibration. The greater
delicacy of the modern machine gun has been alluded to above.1
Nevertheless the advantages of safety, steadiness and lightness
which the automatic weapon possesses, have ensured its victory
over the older type of weapon, and although the simple strong
and well-tried Galling still has its advocates, every civilized
army has adopted one or more of the automatic types.

ORGANIZATION AND TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT !

Although machine-gun tactics are still somewhat indefinite, at
least there are well-marked tendencies which have a close relation
to the general tactical scheme or doctrine adopted by each of
the various armies as suited to its own purposes and conditions.
For many years before the South African and Manchurian
wars, the machine-gun had been freely spoken of as "a
diabolical weapon before which nothing could live," but this
did not contribute much to the science of handling it. Most
military powers, indeed, distrusted it — actuated perhaps by the
remembrance of the vain hopes excited by the canon d balles.
It was not until the second half of the war of 1904-05 that the
Japanese, taught by the effective handling of the Russian
machine-guns at Liao-Yang, introduced it into their field armies,
and although Great Britain had provided every regular battalion
with a Maxim-gun section some years before the Boer War, and a
Volunteer corps, the Central London Rangers (now izth bn.
London Regiment) had maintained a (Nordenfeldt) gun section
since 1882, instruction in the tactics of the weapon was confined
practically to the simple phrase " the machine-gun is a weapon
of opportunity." More than this, at any rate, is attempted
in the drill-books of to-day.

One important point is that, whether the guns are used as an
arm, in numbers, or as auxiliaries, in sections, they should be
free to move without having to maintain their exact position
relatively to some other unit. It was in following the infantry
firing lines of their own battalion over the open that the British
Maxims suffered most heavily in South Africa. Another of
equal importance is that the machine guns must co-operate
with other troops of their side in the closest possible way; more,
in this regard, is demanded of them than of artillery, owing to
their mobility and the relative ease of obtaining cover. A
third factor, which has been the subject of numerous experi-
ments, is the precise value of a machine-gun, stated in terms of
infantry, i.e. how many rifles would be required to produce
the fire-effect of a machine-gun. A fourth — and on this the
teaching of military history is quite definite — is the need of
concealment and of evading the enemy's shrapnel. These points,
once the datum of efficiency of fire has been settled, resolve
themselves into two conclusions — the necessity for combining
independence and co-operation, and the desirability of Mercury's
winged feet and cap of darkness for the weapon itself. It is on
the former that opinions in Europe vary most. Some armies
ensure co-operation by making the machine-gun section an
integral part of the infantry regimental organization, but in
this case the officer commanding it must be taught and allowed
to shake himself free from his comrades and immediate superiors
when necessary. Others ensure co-operation of the machine-
guns as an arm by using them, absolutely free of infantry
control, on batteries; but this brings them face to- face with the
risks of showing, not one or two low-lying gun-barrels, but a
number of carriages, limbers and gun teams, within range of
the enemy's artillery.

1 At San-de-pu 1905 the Japanese machine-guns (Hotcrikiss)

sustained damage averaging, I extractor broken per gun, I jam in

every 300 rounds. It should be mentioned, however, that the

machine-gun companies were only formed shortly before the battle.

In field operations only. For siege warfare see FORTIFICATION

AND SlEGECRAFT.

French experiments are said to show that the fire-power
of a machine-gun is equal to that of 150-200 rifles at exactly
known range, and to 60-80 rifles at ranges judged by the French
" instantaneous range-finder." The German drill-book gives
it as equal approximately to that of 80 rifles on an average.
The distinction of known and unknown ranges is due to the
fact that the " cone of dispersion " of a large number of bullets
in collective infantry fire is deeper than that of machine-gun
fire. The latter therefore groups its bullets much more closely
about the target if the latter is in the centre of the
cone — viz. at known ranges — but if the distance
be misjudged not only the close central group of
50% of the shots, but even the outlying rounds may fall
well away from the target. At 1500 yards range the " 50
per cent, zone " with the Maxim gun is only 34 yards deep as
compared with the 60 yards of a half-company of rifles.* The
accuracy of the gun is more marked when the breadth of the
cone of dispersion is taken into account. The " 75 per cent."
zone is in the case of the machine-gun about as broad at 2000
yards as that of collective rifle fire at 500. At the School of
Musketry, South Africa, a trial between 42 picked marksmen and
a Maxim at an unknown range at service targets resulted in
408 rounds from the rifles inflicting a loss of 54% on the
enemy's firing line represented by the targets, and 228 rounds
from the Maxim inflicting one of 64%. Another factor is
rapidity of fire. It is doubtful if infantry can keep up a rate of
12 rounds a minute for more than two or three minutes at a
time without exhaustion and consequent wild shooting. The
machine-gun, with all its limitations in this respect, can probably,
taking a period of twenty or thirty minutes, deliver a greater
volume of fire than fifty rifles, and assuming that,
by one device or another (ranging by observing the
strike of the bullets, the use of a telemeter, or the employment
of "combined sights") the 75% cone of bullets has been
brought on to the target, that fire will be more effective. The
serious limiting condition is the need of accurate ranging. If
this is unsatisfactory the whole (and not, as with infantry, a
part) of the fire effect may be lost, and if the safe expedient of
" combined sights "4 be too freely resorted to, the consumption
of ammunition may be out of all proportion.

The vulnerability of machine-guns is quite as important as is
their accuracy. At a minimum, that is when painted a " service "
colour, manoeuvred with skill, and mounted on a low
tripod — in several armies even the shield has been
rejected as tending to make guns more conspicuous
— the vulnerability of one gun should be that of one skirmisher
lying down. At a maximum, vulnerability is that of a small
battery of guns and wagons limbered up.

Mobility comes next. The older patterns of hand-operated
guns weighed about 90 Ib at least, without carriage, the earlier
patterns of Maxims (such as that described in detail
above) about 60 Ib. But the most modern Maxims Mobtuty-
weigh no more than 35 Ib. Now, such weapons with tripods
can be easily carried to and fro by one or two men over ground
that is impracticable for wheeled carriages. Nevertheless,

1 * For practical purposes in the field, the " effective " beaten zone,
containing 75 % of the bullets, is the basis of fire direction both for
the machine-gun and the rifle. The depths of these " effective "
zones are on an average: —

At

500 yds.

1,000 yds.

1,500yds.

2, ooo yds.

S.L.E. Rifle

220 yds.

1 2O yds.

100 yds.

—

Maxim Gun

150 yds.

70 yds.

60 yds.

50 yds.

" Combined sights " implies firing with the sights set for two
different ranges, the usual difference being 50 yds. With grouped
machine guns, " progressive fire " with elevations increasing by 25
yds. is used. This artificially disperses the fire, and therefore lessens
the chance of losing the target through ranging errors. One ingeni-
ous inventor has produced a two-barrelled automatic, in which the
barrels are permanently set to give combined elevations. The
British memorandum of August 1909 seems to regard the facility of
employing combined sights as the principal advantage of the battery
over the section.

248

MACHINE-GUN

wheeled carriages are often used for the ordinary transport of
the gun and its equipment, especially with the heavier models.
The simplest machine-gun has a number of accessories — tools,
spare parts, &c. — that must be conveyed with it, and at the
least a pack-animal is indispensable.

Reducing these conditions to a phrase — the fire effect that
can be reasonably expected of machine-guns is that of fifty or
sixty rifles, the space it takes up in the line can be made to equal
that occupied by two men, and it possesses by turns the speed
of a mounted man and the freedom of movement of an infantry-
man.

The use of the machine-gun (apart from savage warfare) that
first commended itself in Europe was its use as a mobile reserve
Machine- °f fire- Now, the greatest difficulty attending the
duns as a employment of a reserve of any sort is the selection
Reserve of of the right moment for its intervention in the
struggle, and experience of manceuvres of all arms
in Germany, where " machine-gun detachments " began to be
formed in 1902, appears to have been that the machine-guns
always came into action too late. On the other hand, the
conditions of the cavalry versus cavalry combat were more
favourable. Here there was every inducement to augment fire-
power without dismounting whole regiments for the purpose.
Moreover, vulnerability was not a fatal defect as against a
battery or two of the enemy's horse artillery, whose main task
is to fire with effect into the closed squadrons of mounted men
on the verge of their charge, and above all to avoid a meaningless
duel of projectiles. The use of wheeled carriages was therefore
quite admissible (although in fact the equipment was detachable
from the carriage) and, given the rapidity and sudden changes
of cavalry fighting, both desirable and necessary. Thus, thanks
Machine- to the machine-gun, the eternal problem of increasing
duos with the fire-power of mounted troops is at last partially
Cavalry. soivecj) anc} the solution has appealed strongly both
to armies exceptionally strong in cavalry, as for example
the German, and to those exceptionally weak in that arm — Den-
mark, for instance, having two or three light machine-guns per
squadron. The object of the weaker cavalry may be to cause
the onset of the stronger to dwindle away into a dismounted
skirmish, and this is most effectually brought about by a fire
concentrated enough and heavy enough to discourage mounted
manoeuvres; on the other hand, the stronger party desires to
avoid dismounting a single squadron that can be kept mounted;
and this too may be effected by the machine-guns. What the
result of such a policy on both sides may be, it would be hard
to prophesy, but it is clear at any rate that, whether on the
offensive or on the defensive, skilfully handled machine-guns
may enable a cavalry commander to achieve the difficult and
longed-for result — to give the law to his opponent. The
principal difference between the tactics of the stronger and those
of the weaker cavalry in this matter is, that it is generally
advantageous for the former to act by batteries and for the
latter to disperse his machine guns irregularly in pairs.

It is not merely in cavalry tactics that the question of
" section or battery " arises. It deeply affects the machine-gun
tactics in the battle of all arms, and it is therefore decided in each
service by the use to which the guns are intended to be put. One
powerful current of opinion is in favour of employing them as
a mobile reserve of fire. This opinion was responsible for the
creation of the German machine-gun batteries or " detach-
ments"; and in the drill regulations issued in 1902 for their
guidance it was stated that the, proper use of machine-guns
required a comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the
general situation, and that therefore only the superior leaders
could employ them to advantage. Manoeuvre experience, as
mentioned above, has caused considerable modification in this
matter, and while the large machine-gun " detachments " are
now definitely told off to the cavalry, new and smaller units
have been formed, with the title " companies " to indicate
their attachment to the infantry arm. A recent official
pronouncement as to the role of the " companies " (Amendments
to Exerzierreglement fiir die Infanterie, 1909) is to the effect

that the companies are an integral part of the infantry, that
their mission is to augment directly the fire of the infantry,
and that their employment is in the hands of the infantry regi-
mental commander, who keeps the guns at his own disposition
or distributes them to the battalions as he sees fit. It must be
remembered that the regiment is a large unit, 30x30 strong,
and the idea of a " mobile reserve of fire " is tacitly maintained,
although it has been found necessary to depart from the extreme
measure of massing the guns and holding them at the disposal
of a general officer. The Japanese regulations state that in
principle the machine-gun battery fights as a unit ; that although
it may be advantageously employed with the ad- Machine-
vanced guard to assure the possession of support- duns in
ing points, its true function is to intervene with full
effect in the decisive attack, its use in the delaying
action being " a serious error." In France, on the other hand,
the system of independent sections is most rigidly maintained;
when in barracks, the three sections belonging to an infantry
regiment are combined for drill, but in the field they seem to be
used exclusively as sections. They are not, however, restricted
to the positions of their own battalions; taught probably by
the experiences of the British in South Africa, they co-operate
with instead of following the infantry. In Great Britain,
Field Service Regulations, part i., 1909, lay down that " machine-
guns are best used in pairs1 in support of the particular body of
troops to which they belong " (i.e. battalions). " The guns
of two or more units may, if required,2 be placed under a
specially selected officer and employed as a special reserve of
fire in the hands of a brigade commander " (corresponding to
German regimental commander), but "if an overwhelming fire
on a particular point is required, it can be obtained by con-
centrating the fire of dispersed pairs of guns." More explicitly
still, " the movements and fire action of these weapons should
be regulated so as to enable them to open fire immediately a favour-
able opportunity arises."

Contrasting the German system with the French and English,
we may observe that it is German tactics as a whole that impose
a method of using machine-guns which the Germans themselves
recognize as being in many respects disadvantageous. A
German force in action possesses little depth, i.e. reserves, except
on the flanks where the enveloping attack is intended to be made.
Consequently, a German commander needs a reserve of fire in
a mechanical, concentrated form more than a British or a
French commander, and, further, as regards the decisive attack
on the flanks, it is intended not merely to be sudden but even
more to be powerful and overwhelming. These considerations
tend to impose both the massing and the holding in reserve of
machine-guns. The French and British doctrine (see TACTICS)
is fundamentally different. Here, whether the guns be massed
or not, there is rarely any question of using the machine-guns
as a special reserve. In the decisive attack, and especially at
the culmination of the decisive attack, when concealment has
ceased and power is everything, the machine-guns can render
the greatest services when grouped and boldly handled. Above
all, they must reach the captured crest in a few minutes, so as
to crush the inevitable offensive return of the enemy's reserves.
The decisive attack, moreover, is not a prearranged affair, as in
Germany, but the culmination, " at a selected point, of gradually
increasing pressure relentlessly applied to the enemy at all
points " (F. S. Regulations). The holding attack, as this " pres-
sure " is called, is not a mere feint. It is launched and developed
as a decisive attack, though not completed as such, as it lacks
the necessary reserve strength. Here, then, the machine-

1 The use of single guns facilitates concealment, but this is out-
weighed by the objection that when a jam or other breakdown
occurs the fire ceases altogether. The use of guns in pairs not only
obviates this, but admits of each gun in turn ceasing fire to economize
ammunition, to cool down, &c. This is the old artillery principle —

one gun is no gun."

2 In the instructions issued in August 1909 one of the principal
advantages of grouped sections is stated to be the neutralization of
ranging errors at ranges over TOOO yards. At a less range, it is
laid down, grouped guns form too visible a target, unless the
ground is very favourable.

MACIAS

249

gun is best employed in enabling relatively small forces to
advance — not to assault — without undue loss, that is, in econo-
mizing rifles along the non-decisive front.1

Withal, there are certain principles, or rather details of
principle, that find general acceptance. One of these is the
employment of machine-guns with the advanced guard. In
this case the value of the weapon lies in its enabling the advanced
guard both to seize favourable ground and points of support
without undue effort and to hold the positions gained against
the enemy's counter-attack. This applies, further, to the
preliminary stages of an action.2 Another point is that as
a rule the most favourable range for the machine-gun is
" effective infantry," i.e. 600-1400 yards (which is, mutatis
mutandis, the principle of Reffye's mitrailleuse). Its employ-
ment at close infantry range depends entirely on conditions
of ground and circumstances — even supposing that the handiest
and most inconspicuous type of weapon is employed. Thirdly —
and this has a considerable bearing on the other points — the
machine-gun both concentrates many rifles on a narrow front,
and concentrates the bullets of many rifles on a narrow front.
The first clause implies that it can be used where there is no
room (physically or tactically) for the fifty or eighty riflemen it
represents (as, for instance, in some slight patch of cover whence
the gun can give effective cross-fire in support of the infantry
attack, or in front of an advanced post, or can watch an exposed
flank), and, further, that it can be swung round laterally on to
a fresh target far more easily than a line of excited and extended
infantry can be made to change front. The second means that
the exit of a defile, an exposed turn in a lane or on a bridge, can
be beaten by closely grouped fire at greater distances and
with greater accuracy than is attainable with riflemen.

Further, the waste of ammunition and the strain on the
weapon caused by unnecessarily prolonged firing at the rate
for which its mechanism is set — varying between 350 and 700
rounds a minute — have caused it to be laid down as an axiom
in all armies that machine-guns shall deliver their fire by
" bursts " and only on favourable targets.

Lastly, the reports, both of observers and combatants, are
unanimous as to the immense moral effect produced on the
combatants by the unmistakable drumming sound of the
machine-guns, an effect comparable even at certain stages of the
fight to the boom of the artillery itself.

Equipments in Use. — Practically all nations have abandoned the
simple wheeled carriage for machine-guns, or rather have adopted
the tripod or table mounting, reserving the wheeled vehicle for the
mere transport of the equipment. Since the Russo-Japanese War
the tendency has been to sacrifice the slight protection afforded by
the shield in order to reduce visibility. The Japanese, who had
unprotected field guns and protected machine-guns in the war,
found it advisable to reverse this procedure, for reasons that can
easily be guessed in the cases of both weapons.

Great Britain. — The service machine-gun is the Maxim -303 in.,
adjusted to a rate of 450 rounds per minute and sighted (except in
a few weapons) to 2900 yards. The original patterns weighed
60 lb, and were mounted on wheeled carriages. In the latest
pattern, however, the weight of the gun has been reduced to 36 lb.
The old Mark I. cavalry Maxim carriage, complete with gun, ammu-
nition, &c., weighed 13 cwt. behind the traces, and the gun was
5 ft. above the ground. It had no limber. The Mark III. cavalry
carriage is much lower (3' 6* from the ground to the gun), and the
gun carriage and limber together only weigh 13 cwt. Of infantry
carriages there were various marks, one of which is shown in fig. 6.
Now, however, all mountings for infantry are of the tripod type,
transported on wheels or on pack animals, but entirely detachable
from the travelling mounting, and in action practically never used
except on the tripod. The Mark IV. tripod mounting, of which a

1 The British instructions of August 1909 direct the grouping of
guns in the decisive attack (if circumstances and ground favour this
course) and their use by sections " if the brigade is deployed on a
wide front," i.e. on the non-decisive front; further, that it is often
advisable to disperse the sections of the leading battalions and to
group those of units in reserve. In any case, while the 2, 4 or 8
guns must be ready to act independently as a special " arm," their
normal work is to give the closest support to the neighbouring
infantry (battalion in the holding, brigade in the decisive, attack).

5 In Germany, however, the tendency is not to make holding
attacks but to keep the troops out of harm's way (i.e. too far away
for the enemy to counter-attack) until they can strike effectively.

sketch is given in fig. 21, weighs 48 lb. The total weight of the
fighting equipment is thus 84 lb only — an important consideration
now that in action the gun is man-carried. The gun can be adjusted
to fire at heights varying from 2' 6* to i' 2 J* only from the ground ;
in its lowest position, then, it is a little lower than the head of a man
firing lying. All the later infantry machine-gun equipments are
for pack transport and have no shields.

The organization of the machine-gun arm is regimental. Each
cavalry regiment and each infantry battalion has a section of 2 guns
under an officer.

France. — The guns in use are the Puteaux and the Hotchkiss.
The unit is the regimental 2-gun section. Four-horsed carriages
with limbers are used with cavalry, tripods with the infantry
sections. No shields. Weight of the Hotchkiss in use, 50 lb; of
the tripod, 70 lb. The Puteaux was lightened and improved in
1909.

Germany. — As already mentioned the German machine-gun units
are classed as cavalry " detachments " and infantry " companies."
The " detachment " or battery consists of 6 guns and 4 wagons,
the vehicles being of a light artillery pattern and drawn by four
horses. The gun (Maxim) weighs 61 lb, and its fighting carriage
1 10 lb. The " companies " have also 6 guns and 4 wagons, but the
equipment is lighter (two-horse), and is not constructed on artillery
principles, nor are the guns fired from their carriages as are those
of the " detachments." The weight of the gun is 38 lb, and that of
the fighting carriage 75 (some accounts give 53 for the latter), the
difference between these weights and those of the mounted equip-
ments, affording a good illustration of the difference in the tactical
requirements of the cavalry and of the infantry types of gun. The
fighting carriage is a sort of sledge, which is provided with four legs
for fire in the highest position, but can of course be placed on the
ground ; the height of the gun, therefore, can be variea from 3' 6* to
l' 6*. The sledges can be dragged across country or carried by
men stretcher fashion, and sometimes several sledges are coupled
and drawn by a horse.

Japan. — The Japanese Hotchkiss, as modified since the war with
Russia, is said to weigh 70 lb, and its tripod mounting 40. Each
regiment of infantry has a six-gun battery and each cavalry brigade
one of eight guns. Pack transport is used.

Russia. — Since the war eight-gun companies have been formed
in the infantry regiments, and each cavalry regiment has been
provided with two guns. The var organization is, however, un-
known. Both wheel and pack transport are employed for travelling,
but the guns are fought from tripods. Early and somewhat heavy
patterns of Maxim (with shield) are chiefly used, but a great number
of very light guns of the Madsen type have been issued.

The Austrian gun is the Schwarzlose, of which some details are
given above. Pack transport is used, one mule taking the whole
equipment with 1000 rounds. Weight of the gun 37-9 lb, of the
tripod 41 lb. The height of the tripod can be varied from 9! in.
to 2 ft. above the ground. It is proposed that each cavalry regiment
should have four jjuns, and each infantry regiment two. Switzerland
adopted the Maxim in 1902. It is used principally as a substitute
for horse artillery. Denmark and other small states have adopted
the Madsen or Rexer light-type guns in relatively large numbers,
especially for cavalry. In the Untied States the British organization
was after many trials adopted, and each infantry and cavalry
regiment has a two-gun section of Maxims, with tripod mounting
and pack transport.

See P. Azan, Les prem&res mitrailleuses (" Revue d' Histoire de
1'Armee," July 1907) ; Le Canon a balles, 1870-^1871 (" Revue d'Hist.
de 1'Armee, 1909); Lieut-Colonel E. Rogers in " Journal R. United
Service Institution " of 1905; Capt. R. V. K. Applin, Machine-gun
Tactics (London, 1910) and paper in " J. R. United Service Inst."
(1910); War Office Handbook to the Maxim gun (1007); Capt.
Cesbron Lavau, Mitrailleuses de cavalerie; Lieut. Buttm, L'emploi
des mitrailleuses d'infanterie; Major J. Goots, Les Mitrailleuses
(Brussels, 1908); and Merkatz, Unterrichtsbuch fur die Masch.-
Gewehrabteilungen (Berlin, 1906); Korzen & Kiihn, Waffenlehre, &c.

(C. F. A.)

MACfAS [0 NAMORODO] (J. 1360-1300), Galician trovador,
held some position in the household of Enrique de Villena.
He is represented by five poems in the Cancionero de Baena,
and is the reputed author of sixteen others. Macias lives by
virtue of the romantic legends which have accumulated round
his name. The most popular version of his story is related
by Hernan Nunez. According to this tradition, Macias was
enamoured of a great lady, was imprisoned at Arjonilla, and
was murdered by the jealous husband while singing the lady's
praises. There may be some basis of fact for this narrative,
which became a favourite subject with contemporary Spanish
poets and later writers. Macfas is mentioned in Rocaberti's
Gloria de amor as the Castilian equivalent of Cabestanh; he
afforded a theme to Lope de Vega in Porfiar hasta morir; in
the igth century, at the outset of the romantic movement

250

MACINTOSH— McKEESPORT

in Spain, he inspired Larra (?.».) in the play Maclas and in
the historical novel entitled El doncel de Don Enrique el doliente.

See H. A. Rennert, Marias, o namorado; a Galician trobador
(Philadelphia, 1900); Theodore J. de Puymaigre, Les vieux auteurs
castittans (1889-1890), i. 54-74; Cancioneiro Gallego-Castelhano
(New York and London, 1902), ed. H. R. Lang; Christian F. Beller-
mann, Die alien Liederbucher der Porlugiesen (Berlin, 1840).

MACINTOSH, CHARLES (1766-1843), Scottish chemist
and inventor of waterproof fabrics, was born on the zgth of
December 1766 at Glasgow, where he was first employed as
a clerk. He devoted all his spare time to science, particularly
chemistry, and before he was twenty resigned his clerkship
to take up the manufacture of chemicals. In this he was
highly successful, inventing various new processes. His ex-
periments with one of the by-products of tar, naphtha, led
to his invention of waterproof fabrics, the essence of his patent
being the cementing of two 'thicknesses of india-rubber together,
the india-rubber being made soluble by the action of the naphtha.
For his various chemical discoveries he was, in 1823, elected
F.R.S. He died on the 25th of July 1843.

See George Macintosh, Memoir of C. Macintosh (1847).

MACKAY, CHARLES (1814-1889), Scottish writer, was
born at Perth, on the 27th of March 1814, and educated at
the Caledonian Asylum, London, and in Brussels. In 1830,
being then private secretary to a Belgian ironmaster, he began
writing verses and articles for local newspapers. Returning
to London, he devoted himself to literary and journalistic
work, and was attached to the Morning Chronicle (1835-1844).
He published Memoirs of Extraordinary Public Delusions (1841),
and gradually made himself known as an industrious and
prolific journalist. In 1844 he was made editor of the Glasgow
Argus. His literary reputation was made by the publication
in 1846 of a volume of verses, Voices from the Crowd, some of
which were set to music by Henry Russell and became very
popular. In 1848 Mackay returned to London and worked
for the Illustrated London News, of which he became editor
in 1852. In it he published a number of songs, set to music
by Sir Henry Bishop and Henry Russell, and in 1855 they
were collected in a volume; they included the popular " Cheer,
Boys! Cheer! " After his severance from the Illustrated
London News, in 1859, Mackay started two unsuccessful period-
icals, and acted as special correspondent for The Times in
America during the Civil War. He edited A Thousand and
One Gems of English Poetry (1867). Mackay died in London
on the 24th of December 1889. Marie Corelli (q.v.) was his
adopted daughter. His son, Eric Mackay (1851-1899), was
known as a writer of verse, particularly by his Love Letters of
a Violinist (1886).

MACKAY, HUGH (c. 1640-1692), Scottish general, was
the son of Hugh Mackay of Scourie, Sutherlandshire, and was
born there about 1640. He entered Douglas's (Dumbarton's)
regiment of the English army (now the Royal Scots) in 1660,
accompanied it to France when it was lent by Charles II. to
Louis XIV., and though succeeding, through the death of his
two elder brothers, to his father's estates, continued to serve
abroad. In 1669 he was in the Venetian service at Candia,
and in 1672 he was back with his old regiment, Dumbarton's,
in the French army, taking part under Turenne in the invasion
of Holland. In 1673 he married Clara de Bie of Bommel
in Gelderland. Through her influence he became, as Burnet
says, " the most pious man that I ever knew in a military
way," and, convinced that he was fighting in an unjust cause,
resigned his commission to take a captaincy in a Scottish
regiment in the Dutch service. He had risen to the rank of
major-general in 1685, when the Scots brigade was called to
England to assist in the suppression of the Monmouth rebellion.
Returning to Holland, Mackay was one of those officers who
elected to stay with their men when James II., having again
demanded the services of the Scots brigade, and having been met
with a refusal, was permitted to invite the officers individually
into his service. As major-general commanding the brigade,
and also as a privy councillor of Scotland, Mackay was an

important and influential person, and James chose to attribute
the decision of most of the officers to Mackay's instigation.
Soon after this event the Prince of Orange started on his
expedition to England, Mackay's division leading the invading
corps, and in January 1688-89 Mackay was appointed major-
general commanding in chief in Scotland. In this capacity
he was called upon to deal with the formidable insurrection
headed by Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee. In
the battle of Killiecrankie Mackay was severely defeated, but
Dundee was killed, and the English commander, displaying
unexpected energy, subdued the Highlands in one summer.
In 1690 he founded Fort William at Inverlochy, in 1691 he
distinguished himself in the brilliant victory of Aughrim,
and in 1692, with the rank of lieutenant-general, he commanded
the British division of the allied army in Flanders. At the
great battle of Steinkirk Mackay's division bore the brunt of
the day unsupported and the general himself was killed.

Mackay was the inventor of the ring bayonet which
soon came into general use, the idea of this being suggested
to him by the failure of the plug-bayonet to stop the rush of
the Highlanders at Killiecrankie. Many of his despatches
and papers were published by the Bannatyne Club in 1883.

See Life by John Mackay of Rockville (1836) ; and J. W. Fortescue,
History of the British Army, vol. i.

MACKAY, JOHN WILLIAM (1831-1902), American capi-
talist, was born in Dublin, Ireland, on the 28th of November
1831. His parents brought him in 1840 to New York City,
where he worked in a ship-yard. In 1851 he went to California
and worked in placer gold-mines in Sierra county. In 1852
he went to Virginia City, Nevada, and there, after losing all
he had made in California, he formed with James G. Fair,
James C. Flood and William S. O'Brien the firm which in 1873
discovered the great Bonanza vein, more than 1200 ft. deep,
in the Comstock lode (yielding in March of that year as much
as $632 per ton, and in 1877 nearly $19,000,000 altogether);
and this firm established the Bank of Nevada in San Fran-
cisco. In 1884, with James Gordon Bennett, Mackay formed
the Commercial Cable Company — largely to fight Jay
Gould and the Western Union Telegraph Company — laid
two transatlantic cables, and forced the toll-rate for trans-
atlantic messages down to twenty-five cents a word. In
connexion with the Commercial Cable Company he formed
the Postal Telegraph Company. Mackay died on the 2oth
of July 1902 in London. He gave generously, especially to
the charities of the Roman Catholic Church, and endowed
the Roman Catholic orphan asylum in Virginia City, Nevada.
In June 1908 a school of mines was presented to the University
of Nevada, as a memorial to him, by his widow and his son,
Clarence H. Mackay.

MACKAY, a seaport of Carlisle county, Queensland, Australia,
on the Pioneer river, 625 m. direct N.N.W. Pop. (1901), 4091.
The harbour is not good. Sugar, tobacco and coffee thrive
in the district. There are several important sugar mills, one
of which, the largest in Queensland, is capable of an annual
output of 8000 tons. Rum is distilled, and there are a brewery
and a factory for tinning butter for export. Workable coal
is found in the district. This is the port of the Mt Orange
and Mt Gotthart copper mines, and the Mt Britten and Eun-
gella gold-fields. It is a calling-station for the Queensland
royal mail steamers. The town is named after Captain John
Mackay, who discovered the harbour in 1860.

McKEESPORT, a city of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., at the confluence of the Monongahela and Youghiogheny
rivers (both of which are navigable), 14 m. S.E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890), 20,741; (1900), 34,227, of whom 9349 were foreign-
born and 748 were negroes; (1910 census) 42,694. It is served
by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pittsburg & Lake Erie and the
Pennsylvania railways. The city has a Carnegie library, a
general hospital, and two business schools. Bituminous coal
and natural gas abound in the vicinity, and iron, steel, and tin
and terne plate are extensively manufactured in the city, the
tin-plate plant being one of the most important in the United

McKEES ROCKS— MACKENZIE, SIR A. C.

251

States. The total value of the city's factory products was
$36,058,447 in 1900 and $23,054,412 in 1905. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works. The first white settler was
David McKee, who established a ferry here in 1769. In 1795
his son John laid out the town, which was named in his honour,
but its growth was very slow until after the discovery of coal in
1830. McKeesport was incorporated as a borough in 1842 and
chartered as a city in 1890.

McKEES ROCKS, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 3 m. N.W. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 1687; (1900) 6352 (1264 foreign-born); (1910)
14,702. McKees Rocks is served by the Pittsburg & Lake Erie
and the Pittsburg, Chartiers & Youghiogheny railways, the
latter a short line extending (13 m.) to Beechmont. Bituminous
coal and natural gas are found in the vicinity, and the borough
ships coal and lumber, and has various important manufactures.
There is an ancient Indian mound here. The first settlement
was made in 1830, and the borough incorporated in 1892.

MACKENNAL, ALEXANDER (1835-1904), English Noncon-
formist divine, was born at Truro in Cornwall, on the I4th of
January 1835, the son of Patrick Mackennal, a Scot, who had
settled in Cornwall. In 1848 the family removed to London,
and at sixteen he went to Glasgow University. In 1854 he
entered Hackney College to prepare for the Congregational
ministry, and in 1857 he graduated B.A. at London Univer-
sity. After holding pastorates at Burton-on-Trent (1856—
1861), Surbiton (1862-1870), Leicester (1870-1876), he finally
accepted the pastorate of the Congregational Church at Bowdon,
Cheshire, in 1877, in which he remained till his death. In 1886
he was chairman of the Congregational Union, which he repre-
sented in 1889 at the triannual national council of the American
Congregational churches. The first international council of
Congregationalists held in London in 1891 was partly cause,
partly consequence, of his visit, and Mackennal acted as secre-
tary. In 1892 he became definitely associated in the public
mind with a movement for free church federation which grew
out of a series of meetings held to discuss the question of home
reunion. When the Lambeth articles put forward as a basis
of union were discussed, it was evident that all the free churches
were agreed in accepting the three articles dealing with the
Bible, the Creed and the Sacraments as a basis of discussion,
and were also agreed in rejecting the fourth article, which put
the historic episcopate on the same level as the other three.
Omitting the Anglicans, the representatives of the remaining
churches resolved to develop Christian fellowship by united
action and worship wherever possible. Out of this grew the
Free Church Federation, which secures a measure of co-operation
between the Protestant Evangelical churches throughout Eng-
land. Mackennal's public action brought him into associa-
tion with many well-known political and religious leaders. He
was a lifelong advocate of international peace, and made a
remarkable declaration as to the Christian standard of national
action when the Free Church Federation met at Leeds during
the South African War in 1900.

Besides a volume of sermons under the title Christ's Healing
Touch, Mackennal published The Biblical Scheme of Nature and
of Man, The Christian Testimony, the Letters to the Seven
Churches of Asia, The Kingdom of the Lord Jesus and The
Eternal God and the Human Sonship. These are contributions
to exegetical study or to theological and progressive religious
thought, and have elements of permanent value. He also made
some useful contributions to religious history. In 1893 he
published the Story of the English Separatists, and later the Homes
. and Haunts of the Pilgrim Fathers; he also wrote the life of
Dr J. A. Macfadyen of Manchester. In 1901 he delivered a
series of lectures at Hartford Theological Seminary, Connecticut,
U.S.A., published under the title The Evolution of Congregation-
alism. He died at Highgate on the 23rd of June 1904.

See D. Macfadyen, Life and Letters of Alexander Mackennal
(1905). (D. MN.)

MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820), Canadian
explorer, was probably a native of Inverness. Emigrating to

North America at an early age, he was for several years engaged
in the fur trade at Fort Chippewyan, at the head of Lake Atha-
basca, and it was here that his schemes of travel were formed.
His first journey, made in 1789, was from Fort Chippewyan
along the Great Slave Lake, and down the river which now bears
his name to the Arctic Ocean; and his second, made in 1792 and
1793, from Fort Chippewyan across the Rocky Mountains to
the Pacific coast near Cape Menzies. He wrote an account of
these journeys, Voyages on the River St Lawrence and through
the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans
(London, 1801), which is of considerable interest from the
information it contains about the native tribes. It is prefaced
by an historical dissertation on the Canadian fur trade. Amass-
ing considerable wealth, Mackenzie was knighted in 1802, and
later settled in Scotland. He died at Mulnain, near Dunkeld, on
the nth of March 1820.

MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892), Canadian states-
man, was born in Perthshire, Scotland, on the 28th of January,
1822. His father was a builder, and young Mackenzie emigrated
to Canada in 1842, and worked in Ontario as a stone-mason,
setting up for himself later as a builder and contractor at Sarnia
with his brother. In 1852 his interest in questions of reform led
to his becoming the editor of the Lambton Shield, a local Liberal
paper. This brought him to the front, and in 1861 he became a
member of the Canadian parliament, where he at once made his
mark and was closely connected with the liberal leader, George
Brown. He was elected for Lambton to the first Dominion
house of commons in 1867, and soon became the leader of the
liberal opposition; from 1871 to 1872 he also sat in the Ontario
provincial assembly, and held the position of provincial
treasurer. In 1873 the attack on Sir John Macdonald's ministry
with regard to the Pacific Railway charter resulted in its defeat,
and Mackenzie formed a new government, taking the portfolio
of public works and becoming the first liberal premier of Canada.
He remained in power till 1878, when industrial depression
enabled Macdonald to return to office on a protectionist pro-
gramme. In 1875 Mackenzie paid a visit to Great Britain, and
was received at Windsor by Queen Victoria; he was offered a
knighthood, but declined it. After his defeat he suffered from
failing health, gradually resulting in almost total paralysis, but
though in 1880 he resigned the leadership of the opposition, he
retained a seat in parliament till his death at Toronto on the i7th
of April 1892. While perhaps too cautious to be the ideal leader
of a young and vigorous community, his grasp of detail, inde-
fatigable industry, and unbending integrity won him the respect
even of his political opponents.

His Life and Times by William Buckingham and the Hon. George
W. Ross (Toronto, 1892) contains documents of much interest.
See also George Stewart, Canada under the Administration of the
Earl of Dufferin (Toronto, 1878).

MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847- ),
British composer, son of an eminent Edinburgh violinist and
conductor, was born on the 22nd of August 1847. On the advice
of a member of GungTs band who had taken up his residence in
Edinburgh, Mackenzie was sent for his musical education to
Sondershausen, where he entered the conservatorium under
Ulrich and Stein, remaining there from 1857 to 1861, when he
entered the ducal orchestra as a violinist. At this time he made
Liszt's acquaintance. On his return home he won the King's
Scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music, and remained the
usual three years in the institution, after which he established
himself as a teacher of the piano, &c., in Edinburgh. He
appeared in public as a violinist, taking part in Chappell's
quartette concerts, and starting a set of classical concerts. He
was appointed precentor of St George's Church in 1870, and
conductor of the Scottish vocal music association in 1873, at the
same time getting through a prodigious amount of teaching.
He kept in touch with his old friends by playing in the orchestra
of the Birmingham Festivals from 1864 to 1873. The most
important compositions of this period of Mackenzie's life were
the Quartette in E flat for piano and strings, Op. n, and an

252 MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE— MACKENZIE, HENRY

overture, Cervantes, which owed its first performance to the
encouragement and help of von Biilow. On the advice of this
great pianist, he gave up his Edinburgh appointments, which
had quite worn him out, and settled in Florence in order to
compose. The cantatas The Bride (Worcester, 1881) and Jason
(Bristol, 1882) belong to this time, as well as his first opera. This
was commissioned for the Carl Rosa Company, and was written
to a version of Merimee's Colomba prepared by Franz Hueffer.
It was produced with great success in 1883, and was the first
of a too short series of modern English operas; Mackenzie's
second opera, The Troubadour, was produced by the same
company in 1886; and his third dramatic work was His Majesty,
an excellent comic opera (Savoy Theatre, 1897). In 1884 his
Rose of Sharon was given with very great success at the Norwich
Festival; in 1885 he was appointed conductor of Novello's
oratorio concerts; The Story of Sayid came out at the Leeds
Festival of 1886; and in 1888 he succeeded Macfarren as principal
of the Royal Academy of Music. The Dream of Jubal was pro-
duced at Liverpool in 1889, and in London very soon afterwards.
A fine setting of the hymn " Veni, Creator Spiritus " was given
at Birmingham in 1891, and the oratorio Bethlehem in 1894.
From 1892 to 1899 he conducted the Philharmonic Concerts,
and was knighted in 1894. Besides the works mentioned he
has written incidental music to plays, as, for instance, to Ravens-
wood, The Little Minister, and Coriolamis; concertos and other
works for violin and orchestra, much orchestral music, and many
songs and violin pieces. The romantic side of music appeals
to Mackenzie far more strongly than any other, and the cases in
which he has conformed to the classical conventions are of the
rarest. In the orchestral ballad, La Belle Dame sans Merci, he
touches the note of weird pathos, and in the nautical overture
Britannia his sense of humour stands revealed. In the two
" Scottish Rhapsodies " for orchestra, in the music to The Little
Minister, and in a beautiful fantasia for pianoforte and orchestra
on Scottish themes, he has seized the essential, not the accidental
features of his native music.

MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691), of Rosehaugh,
Scottish lawyer, was the grandson of Kenneth, first Lord Mac-
kenzie of Kintail, and the nephew of Colin and George, first and
second earls of Seaforth; his mother was a daughter of Andrew
Bruce, principal of St Leonard's College, St Andrews. He was
born at Dundee in 1636, educated at the grammar school there
and at Aberdeen, and afterwards at St Andrews, graduating
at sixteen. He then engaged for three years in the study of
the civil law at Bourges; on his return to Scotland he was called
to the bar in 1659, and before the Restoration had risen into
considerable practice. Immediately after the Restoration he
was appointed a " justice-depute," and it is recorded that he
and his colleagues in that office were ordained by the parliament
in 1661 " to repair, once in the week at least, to Musselburgh
and Dalkeith, and to try and judge such persons as are there or
thereabouts delate of witchcraft." In the same year he acted
as counsel for the marquis of Argyll; soon afterwards he was
knighted, and he represented the county of Ross during the four
sessions of the parliament which was called in 1669. He suc-
ceeded Sir Johh Nisbet as king's advocate in August 1677, and in
the discharge of this office became implicated in all the worst acts
of the Scottish administration of Charles II., earning for himself
an unenviable distinction as " the bloody Mackenzie." His
refusal to concur in the measures for dispensing with the penal
laws against Catholics led to his removal from office in 1686, but
he was reinstated in February 1688. At the Revolution, being
a member of convention, he was one of the minority of five
in the division on the forfeiture of the crown. King William
was urged to declare him incapacitated for holding any public
office, but refused to accede to the proposal. When the
death of Dundee (July 1689) had finally destroyed the hopes
of his party in Scotland, Mackenzie betook himself to Oxford,
where, admitted a student by a grace passed in 1690, he was
allowed to spend the rest of his days in the enjoyment of the
ample fortune he had acquired, and in the prosecution of
his literary labours. One of his last acts before leaving Edin-

burgh had been to pronounce (March 15, 1689), as dean of
the faculty of advocates, the inaugural oration at the founda-
tion of the Advocates' library. He died at Westminster on the
8th of May 1691, and was buried in Greyfriars churchyard,
Edinburgh.

While still a young man Sir George Mackenzie appears to have
aspired to eminence in the domain of pure literature, his earliest
publication having been Aretina, or a Serious Romance (anon., 1661) ;
it was followed, also anonymously, by Religio Stoici, a Short Discourse
upon Several Divine and Moral Subjects (1663); A Moral Essay,
preferring Solitude to Public Employment (1665); and one or two
other disquisitions of a similar nature. His most important legal
works are entitled A Discourse upon the Laws and Customs of Scotland
in Matters Criminal (1674); Observations upon the Laws and Customs
of Nations as to Precedency, with the Science of Heraldry (1680);
Institutions of the Law of Scotland (1684) ; and Observations upon the
Acts of Parliament (1686); of these the last-named is the most
important, the Institutions being completely overshadowed by the
similar work of his great contemporary Stair. In his Jus Regium:
or the Just and Solid Foundations of Monarchy in general, and more
especially of the Monarchy of Scotland, maintained (1684), Mackenzie
appears as an uncompromising advocate of the highest doctrines of
prerogative. His Vindication of the Government of Scotland during
the reign of Charles II. (1691) is valuable as a piece of contemporary
history. The collected Works were published at Edinburgh (2 vols.
fol.) in 1716—1722; and Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland from the
Restoration of King Charles II., from previously unpublished MSS.,
in 1821.

See A. Lang, Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh (1909).

MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831), Scottish novelist and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh in August 1745.
His father, Joshua Mackenzie, was a distinguished physician,
and his mother, Margaret Rose, belonged to an old Nairnshire
family. Mackenzie was educated at the high school and the
university of Edinburgh, and was then articled to George Inglis
of Redhall, who was attorney for the crown in the management
of exchequer business. In 1765 he was sent to London to prose-
cute his legal studies, and on his return to Edinburgh became
partner with Inglis, whom he afterwards succeeded as attorney
for the crown. His first and most famous work, The Man of
Feeling, was published anonymously in 1771, and met with
instant success. The " Man of Feeling " is a weak creature,
dominated by a futile benevolence, who goes up to London and
falls into the hands of people who exploit his innocence. The
sentimental key in which the book is written shows the author's
acquaintance with Sterne and Richardson, but he had neither
the humour of Sterne nor the subtle insight into character of
Richardson. One Eccles of Bath claimed the authorship of this
book, bringing in support of his pretensions a MS. with many
ingenious erasures. Mackenzie's name was then officially an-
nounced, but Eccles appears to have induced some people to
believe in him. In 1773 Mackenzie published a second novel,
The Man of the World, the hero of which was as consistently bad
as the " Man of Feeling " had been " constantly obedient to his
moral sense," as Sir Walter Scott says. Julia de Roubigrie (1777),
a story in letters, was preferred to his other novels by " Chris-
topher North," who had a high opinion of Mackenzie (see Nodes
Ambrosianae, vol. i. p. 155, ed. 1866). The first of his dramatic
pieces, The Prince of Tunis, was produced in Edinburgh in 1773
with a certain measure of success. The others were failures. At
Edinburgh Mackenzie belonged to a literary club, at the meetings
of which papers in the manner of the Spectator were read. This
led to the establishment of a weekly periodical called the Mirror
(January 23, 1779-May 27, 1780), of which Mackenzie was
editor and chief contributor. It was followed in 1785 by a
similar paper, the Lounger, which ran for nearly two years and
had the distinction of containing one of the earliest tributes to
the genius of Robert Burns. Mackenzie was an ardent Tory,
and wrote many tracts intended to counteract the doctrines of the
French Revolution. Most of these remained anonymous, but
he acknowledged his Review of the Principal Proceedings of the
Parliament of 1784, a defence of the policy of William Pitt,
written at the desire of Henry Dundas. He was rewarded (1804)
by the office of comptroller of the taxes for Scotland. In
1776 Mackenzie married Penuel, daughter of Sir Ludovick
Grant of Grant. He was, in his later years, a notable figure in

McKENZIE, SIR J.— MACKENZIE, W. L.

253

Edinburgh society. He was nicknamed the " man of feeling,"
but he was in reality a hard-headed man of affairs with a kindly
heart. Some of his literary reminiscences were embodied in his
Account of the Life and Writings of John Home, Esq. (1822). He
also wrote a Life of Doctor Blacklock, prefixed to the 1793
edition of the poet's works. He died on the I4th of January
1831.

In 1807 The Works of Henry Mackenzie were published surrep-
titiously, and he then himself superintended the publication of his
Works (8 vols., 1808). There is an admiring but discriminating
criticism of his work in the Prefatory Memoir prefixed by Sir Walter
Scott to an edition of his novels in Ballantyne's Novelist's Library
(vol. v., 1823).

McKENZIE, SIR JOHN (1838-1901), New Zealand statesman,
was born at Ard-Ross, Scotland, in 1838, the son of a crofter.
He emigrated to Otago, New Zealand, in 1860. Beginning as a
shepherd, he rose to be farm manager at Puketapu near Palmer-
ston South, and then to be a farmer in a substantial way in
Shag Valley. In 1865 he was clerk to the local road board
and school committee; in 1871 he entered the provincial council
of Otago; and on the nth of December 1881 was elected member
of the House of Representatives, in which he sat till 1900. He
was also for some years a member of the education board and
of the land board of Otago, and always showed interest in the
national elementary school system. In the House of Represen-
tatives he soon made good his footing, becoming almost at once
a recognized spokesman for the smaller sort of rural settlers
and a person of influence in the lobbies. He acted as govern-
ment whip for the coalition ministry of Sir Robert Stout and Sir
Julius Vogel, 1884-1887, and, while still a private member, scored
his first success as a land reformer by carrying the " McKenzie
clause " in a land act limiting the area which a state tenant
might thenceforth obtain on lease. He was still, however,
comparatively unknown outside his own province when, in
January 1891, his party took office and he aided John Ballance
in forming a ministry, in which he himself held the portfolio of
lands, immigration and agriculture. From the first he made
his hand felt in every matter connected with land settlement
and the administration of the vast public estate. Generally his
aim was to break up and subdivide the great freehold and lease-
hold properties which in his time covered four-sevenths of the
occupied land of the colony. In his Land Act of 1892 he con-
solidated, abolished or amended, fifty land acts and ordinances
dealing with crown lands, and thereafter amended his own act
four times. Though owning to a preference for state tenancy
over freehold, he never stopped the selling of crown land, and
was satisfied to give would-be settlers the option of choosing
freehold or leasehold under tempting terms as their form of
tenure. As a compromise he introduced the lease in perpetuity
or holding for 999 years at a quit rent fixed at 4%; theoretical
objections have since led to its abolition, but for fifteen years
much genuine settlement took place under its conditions.
Broadly, however, McKenzie's exceptional success as lands
minister was due rather to unflinching determination to stimu-
late the occupation of the soil by working farmers than to the
solution of the problems of agrarian controversy. His best-
known experiment was in land repurchase. A voluntary law
(1892) was displaced by a compulsory act (1894), under which
between £5,000,000 and £6,000,000 had by 1910 been spent in
buying and subdividing estates for closer settlements, with
excellent results. McKenzie also founded and expanded an
efficient department of agriculture, in the functions of which
inspection, grading, teaching and example are successfully
combined. It has aided the development of dairying, fruit-
growing, poultry-farming, bee-keeping and flax-milling, and
done not a little to keep up the standard of New Zealand pro-
ducts. After 1897 McKenzie had to hold on in the face of failing
health. An operation in London in 1899 only postponed the
end. He died at his farm on the 6th of August 1901, soon after
being called to the legislative council, and receiving a knight-
hood.

MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892), British physician,

son of Stephen Mackenzie, surgeon (d. 1851), was born at Leyton-
stone, Essex, on the 7th of July 1837. After going through the
course at the London Hospital, and becoming M.R.C.S. in 1858,
he studied abroad at Paris, Vienna and Pesth; ancj at Pesth he
learnt the use of the newly-invented laryngoscope under J. N.
Czermak. Returning to London in 1862, he worked at the
London Hospital, and took his degree in medicine. In 1863
he won the Jacksonian prize at the Royal College of Surgeons
for an essay on the " Pathology of the Larynx," and he then de-
voted himself to becoming a specialist in diseases of the throat.
In 1863 the Throat Hospital in King Street, Golden Square, was
founded, largely owing to his initiative, and by his work there and
at the London Hospital (where he was one of the physicians
from 1866 to 1873) Morell Mackenzie rapidly became recognized
throughout Europe as a leading authority, and acquired an
extensive practice. So great was his reputation that in May
1887, when the crown prince of Germany (afterwards the emperor
Frederick III.) was attacked by the affectionof the throat of which
he ultimately died, Morell Mackenzie was specially summoned
to attend him. The German physicians who had attended the
prince since the beginning of March (Karl Gerhardt, and subse-
quently Tobold, E. von Bergmann, and others) had diagnosed
his ailment on the iSthof May as cancer of the throat; but Morell
Mackenzie insisted (basing his opinion on a microscopical ex-
amination by R. Virchow of a portion of the tissue) that the
disease was not demonstrably cancerous, that an operation for
the extirpation of the larynx (planned for the 2ist of May) was
unjustifiable, and that the growth might well be a benign one
and therefore curable by other treatment. The question was
one not only of personal but of political importance, since it was
doubted whether any one suffering from an incapacitating disease
like cancer could, according to the family law of the Hohenzollerns,
occupy the German throne; and there was talk of a renunciation
of the succession by the crown prince. It was freely hinted,
moreover, that some of the doctors themselves were influenced
by political considerations. At any rate, Morell Mackenzie's
opinion was followed: the crown prince went to England, under
his treatment, and was present at the Jubilee celebrations in
June. Morell Mackenzie was knighted in September 1887 for his
services, and decorated with the Grand Cross of the Hohenzollern
Order. In November, however, the German doctors were again
called into consultation, and it was ultimately admitted that the
disease really was cancer; though Mackenzie, with very question-
able judgment, more than hinted that it had become malignant
since his first examination, in consequence of the irritating effect
of the treatment by the German doctors. The crown prince
(see FREDERICK III.) became emperor on the 9th of March 1888,
and died on the 1 5th of June. During all this period a violent
quarrel raged between Sir Morell Mackenzie and the German
medical world. The German doctors published an account of
the illness, to which Mackenzie replied by a work entitled
The Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble (1888), the publication
of which caused him to be censured by the Royal College of
Surgeons. After this sensational episode in his career, the
remainder of Sir Morell Mackenzie's life was uneventful, and
he died somewhat suddenly in London, on the 3rd of February
1892. He published several books on laryngoscopy and diseases
of the throat.

MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861), Canadian politi-
cian, was born near Dundee, Scotland, on the izth of March 1795.
His father died before he was a month old, and the family were
left in poverty. After some six years' work in a shop at Alyth, in
April 1820 he emigrated with his mother to Canada. There he
became a general merchant, first at York, then at Dundas, and
lateral Queenston. The discontented condition of Upper Canada
drew him into politics, and on the i8th of May 1824 he published
at Queenston the first number of the Colonial Advocate, in which
the ruling oligarchy was attacked with great asperity. Most of
the changes which he advocated were wise and have since been
adopted; but the violence of Mackenzie's attacks roused great
anger among the social and political set at York (Toronto),
which was headed by John Beverley Robinson. In November

254

MACKENZIE— MACKEREL

1824 Mackenzie removed to Toronto, but he had little capital;
his paper appeared irregularly, and was on the point of suspending
publication when his office was attacked and his type thrown
into the bay by a number of the supporters of his opponents. In
an action against the chief rioters he was awarded £625 and costs,
was thus enabled to set up a much larger and more efficient
plant, and the Colonial Advocate ran till the 4th of November
1834.

In 1828 he was elected member of parliament for York, but
was expelled on the technical ground that he had published in his
newspaper the proceedings of the house without authorization.
Five times he was expelled and five times re-elected by his
constituents, till at last the government refused to issue a writ,
and for three years York was without one of its representatives.
In May 1832 he visited England, where he was well received by
the colonial office. Largely as the result of his representations,
many important reforms were ordered by Lord Goderich, after-
wards earl of Ripon, the colonial secretary. While in England,
he published Sketches of Canada and the United States, in which,
with some exaggeration, many of the Canadian grievances were
exposed. On his return in March 1834 he was elected mayor of
Toronto. During his year of office, the heroism with which he
worked hand in hand with his old enemy, Bishop Strachan, in
fighting an attack of choltera, did not prevent him from winning
much unpopularity by his officiousness, and in 1835 he was not
re-elected either as mayor or alderman. In October 1834 he was
elected member of parliament for York, and took his seat in
January 1835, the Reformers being now in the majority. A com-
mittee on grievances was appointed, as chairman of which Mac-
kenzie presented the admirable Seventh Report on Grievances,
largely written by himself, in which the case for the Reformers
was presented with force and moderation, and the adoption of
responsible government advocated as the remedy.

In the general election of June 1836 the Tory party won a
complete victory, Mackenzie and almost all the prominent
Reformers being defeated at the polls. This totally unexpected
defeat greatly embittered him. On the 4th of July 1836, the
anniversary of the adoption of the American Declaration of Inde-
pendence, he began the publication of the Constitution, which
openly advocated a republican form of government. Later in the
year he was appointed " agent and corresponding secretary "
of the extreme wing of the Reform party, and more and more
openly, in his speeches throughout the province, advocated armed
revolt. He was also in correspondence with Papineau and the
other leaders of the Reformers in Lower Canada, who were
already planning a rising. Early in December 1837 Mackenzie
gathered a mob of his followers, to the number of several hundred,
at Gallows Hill, some miles to the north of Toronto, with the
intention of seizing the lieutenant-governor and setting up a
provisional government. Misunderstandings among the leaders
led to the total failure of the revolt, and Mackenzie was forced
to fly to the United States with a price on his head. In the town
of Buffalo he collected a disorderly rabble, who seized and fortified
Navy Island, in the river between the two countries, and for
some weeks troubled the Canadian frontier. After the failure
of this attempt he was put to the most pitiful shifts to make a
living. In June 1839 he was tried in the United States for a
breach of the neutrality laws, and sentenced to eighteen months'
imprisonment, of which he served over eleven. While in gaol at
Rochester he published the Caroline Almanac, the tone of which
may be judged from its references to " Victoria Guelph, the
bloody queen of England," and by the title given to the British
cabinet of " Victoria Melbourne's bloody divan." He returned
to Canada in consequence of the Amnesty Act 1849. A
closer inspection had cured him of his love for republican
institutions.

In 1851 he was elected to parliament for Haldimand, defeating
George Brown. He at once allied himself with the Radicals (the
" Clear Grits") , and, on the leadership of that party being assumed
by Brown, became one of his lieutenants. He was still miserably
poor, but refused all offers to accept a government position.
In 1858 he resigned his seat in the house, owing to

incipient softening of the brain, of which he died on the zgth of
August 1861.

Turbulent, ungovernable, vain, often the dupe of schemers,
Mackenzie united with much that was laughable not a little that
was heroic. He could neither be bribed, bullied, nor cajoled.
Perhaps the best instance of this is that in 1832 he refused from
Lord Goderich an offer of a position which would have given
him great influence in Canada and an income of £1,500. He
was a born agitator, and as such tended to exaggeration and
misrepresentation. But the evils against which he struggled
were real and grave; the milder measures of the Constitutional
Reformers might have taken long to achieve the results which
were due to his hot-headed advocacy.

The Life and Times by his son-in-law, Charles Lindsey (Toronto,
2 vols., 1862), is moderate and fair, though tending to smooth over
his anti-British gasconnade while in the United States. An abridg-
ment of this work was edited by G. G. S. Lindsey for the " Makers
of Canada " series (1909). In The Story of the Upper Canadian
Rebellion by J. C. Dent (2 vols., Toronto, 1885), a bitter attack is
made on him, which drew a savage reply from another son-in-law,
John King, K.C., called The Other Side of the Story. The best short
account of his career is given by J. C. Dent in The Canadian
Portrait Gallery, vol. ii. (Toronto, 1881). (W. L. G.)

MACKENZIE, a river of the North-West Territories, Canada,
discharging the waters of the Great Slave Lake into the Arctic
Ocean. It was discovered and first navigated by Sir Alexander
Mackenzie in 1 789. It has an average width of i m., an average
fall of 6 in. to the mile; an approximate discharge, at a medium
stage, of 500,000 cub. ft. per second; and a total length, in-
cluding its great tributary the Peace, of 2,350 m. The latter
rises, under the name of the Finlay, in the mountains of British
Columbia, and flows north-east and then south-east in the
great intermontane valley that bounds the Rocky Mountains
on the west, to its confluence with the Parsnip. From the
confluence the waters of the combined rivers, now called
the Peace, flow east through the Rocky Mountains, and then
north-east to unite with the river which discharges the
waters of Lake Athabasca; thence to Great Slave Lake it is
known as Slave river. Excluding the rivers which enter
these lakes, the principal tributaries of the Peace are:
Omineca, Nation, Parsnip, Halfway, North Pine, South Pine,
Smoky, Battle, and Loon rivers; those of the Mackenzie are the
Liard (650 m. long), which rises near the sources of the Pelly,
west of the Rocky Mountains, and breaks through that range on
its way to join the parent stream, Great Bear river, which drains
Great Bear Lake, Nahanni. Dahadinni, Arctic Red, and Peel
rivers. The Mackenzie enters the Arctic Ocean near 135° W. and
68° 50' W., after flowing for 70 to 80 m. through a flat delta,
not yet fully surveyed. With its continuation, Slave river, it is
navigable from the Arctic Ocean to Fort Smith, a distance of over
i , 200 m . , and between the latter and the head of Lesser Slave Lake,
a further distance of 625 m., there is only one obstruction to
navigation, the Grand Rapids near Fort McMurray on the
Athabasca river. The Peace is navigable from its junction with
Slave river for about 220 m. to Vermilion Falls. The Mackenzie
is navigable from about the loth of June to the 2oth of October,
and Great Slave Lake from about the ist of July to the end of
October. All the waters and lakes of this great system are
abundantly stocked with fish, chiefly white fish and trout, the
latter attaining to remarkable size.

MACKEREL, pelagic fishes, belonging to a small family,
Scombridae, of which the tunny, bonito, albacore, and a few
other tropical genera are members. Although the species are
fewer in number than in most other families of fishes, they are
widely spread and extremely abundant, peopling by countless
schools the oceans of the tropical and temperate zones, and
approaching the coasts only accidentally, occasionally, or
periodically.

The mackerel proper (genus Scomber) are readily recognized
by their elegantly shaped, well-proportioned body, shining in
iridescent colours. Small, thin, deciduous scales equally cover
nearly the entire body. There are two dorsal fins, the anterior
near the head, composed of 11-14 feeble spines, the second near

McKIM— MACKINAC ISLAND

255

the tail with all the rays soft except the first, and behind the second
dorsal five or six finlets. The ventral is immediately below the
second dorsal, and is also followed by finlets. The caudal fin is
crescent-shaped, strengthened at the base by two short ridges
on each side. The mouth is wide, armed above and below with a
row of very small fixed teeth.

No other fish shows finer proportions in the shape of its body.
Every " line " of its build is designed and eminently adapted for
rapid progression through the water; the muscles massed along
the vertebral column are enormously developed, especially on the
back and the sides of the tail, and impart to the body a certain
rigidity which interferes with abruptly sideward motions of the
fish. Therefore mackerel generally swim in a straightforward
direction, deviating sidewards only when compelled, and rarely
turning about in the same spot. They are in almost continuous
motion, their power of endurance being equal to the rapidity of
their motions. Mackerel, like all fishes of this family, have a firm
flesh; that is, the muscles of the several segments are interlaced,
and receive a greater supply of blood-vessels and nerves than in
other fishes. Therefore the flesh, especially of the larger kinds,
is of a red colour; and the energy of their muscular action causes
the temperature of their blood to be several degrees higher than
in other fishes.

All fishes of the mackerel family are strictly carnivorous; they
unceasingly pursue their prey, which consists principally of other
fish and pelagic crustaceans. The fry of clupeoids, which like-
wise swim in schools, are followed by the mackerel until they
reach some shallow place, which their enemies dare not
enter.

Mackerel are found in almost all tropical and temperate seas,
with the exception of the Atlantic shores of temperate South
America. European mackerel are of two kinds, of which one, the
common mackerel, Scomber scomber, lacks, while the other pos-
sesses, an air-bladder. The best-known species of the latter kind
is 5. colias, the "Spanish" mackerel;1 a third, 5. pneumato-
phorus, is believed by some ichthyologists to be identical with
S. colias. Be this as it may, we have strong evidence that
the Mediterranean is inhabited by other species different from
S. scomber and 5. colias, and well characterized by their dentition
and coloration. Also the species from St Helena is distinct.
Of extra-Atlantic species the mackerel of the Japanese seas are
the most nearly allied to the European, those of New Zealand
and Australia, and still more those of the Indian Ocean, differ-
ing in many conspicuous points. Two of these species occur
in the British seas: S. scomber, which is the most common there
as well as in other parts of the North Atlantic, crossing the
ocean to America, where it abounds; and the Spanish mackerel,
S. colias, which is distinguished by a somewhat different pattern
of coloration, the transverse black bands of the common mackerel
being in this species narrower, more irregular or partly broken
up into spots, while the scales of the pectoral region are larger,
and the snout is longer and more pointed. The Spanish mackerel
is, as the name implies, a native of the seas of southern Europe,
but single individuals or small schools frequently reach the shores
of Great Britain and of the United States.

The home of the common mackerel (to which the following
remarks refer) is the North Atlantic, from the Canary Islands to the
Orkneys, and from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the
coasts of Norway to the United States.

Towards the spring large schools approach the coasts. Two
causes have been assigned of this migration: first, the instinct of
finding a suitable locality for propagating their species; and,
secondly, the search and pursuit of food, which in the warmer season
is more abundant in the neighbourhood of land than in the open sea.
It is probable that the latter is the chief cause.

In the month of February, or in some years as early as the end
of January, the first large schools appear at the entrance of the
English Channel, and are met by the more adventurous of the drift-
net fishers many miles west of the Scilly Islands. These early
schools, which consist chiefly of one-year and two-year-old fishes,
yield sometimes enormous catches, whilst in other years they escape
the drift-nets altogether, passing them, for some hitherto unex-
plained reason, at a greater depth than that to which the nets reach,

1 The term " Spanish mackerel " is applied in America to Cybium
maculatum.

viz. 20 ft. As the season advances, the schools penetrate farther
northwards into St George's Channel or eastwards into the English
Channel. The fishery then assumes proportions which render it
next in importance to the herring and cod fisheries. In Plymouth
alone a fleet of some two hundred boats assembles; and on the French
side of the Channel no less capital and labour are invested in it,
the vessels employed being, though less in number, larger in size
than on the English side. The chief centre, however, of the fishery
in the west of England is at Newlyn, near Penzance, where the small
local sailing boats are outnumbered by hundreds of large boats,
both sail and steam, which come chiefly from Lowestoft for the
season. Simultaneously with the drift-net the deep-sea-seine and
shore-seine are used, which towards June almost entirely supersede
the drift-net. Towards the end of May the old fish become heavy
with spawn and are in the highest condition for the table; and the
latter half of June or beginning of July may be regarded as the time
at which the greater part of mackerel spawn. Considerable numbers
of mackerel are taken off Norfolk and Suffolk in May and June, and
also in September and October. There can be no doubt that they
enter the North Sea from the English Channel, and return by the
same route, but others travel round the north of Scotland and
appear in rather small numbers off the east coast of that country.
On the Norwegian coast mackerel fishing does not begin before May,
whilst on the English coasts large catches are frequently made in
March. Large cargoes are annually imported in ice from Norway
to the English market.

After the spawning the schools break up into smaller companies
which are much scattered, and offer for two or three months employ-
ment to the hand-line fishermen. They now begin to disappear
from the coasts and return to the open sea. Single individuals or
small companies are found, however, on the coast all the year round;
they may have become detached from the main bodies, and be
seeking for the larger schools which have long left on their return
migration.

Although, on the whole, the course and time of the annual migra-
tion of mackerel are marked with great regularity, their appearance
and abundance at certain localities are subject to great variations.
They may pass a spot at such a depth as to evade the nets, and
reappear at the surface some days after farther eastwards; they may
deviate from their direct line of migration, and even temporarily
return westwards. In some years between 1852 and 1867 the old
mackerel disappeared off Guernsey from the surface, and were
accidentally discovered feeding at the bottom. Many were taken at
10 fathoms and deeper with the line, and all were of exceptionally
large size, several measuring 18 in. and weighing nearly 3 Ib; these
are the largest mackerel on record.

The mackerel most esteemed as food is the common species, and
individuals from 10 to 12 in. in length are considered the best
flavoured. In more southern latitudes, however, this species seems
to deteriorate, specimens from the coast of Portugal, and from the
Mediterranean and Black Sea, being stated to be dry and resembling
in flavour the Spanish mackerel (S. colias), which is not esteemed
for the table. (A. C. G. ; J. T. C.)

MCKIM, CHARLES POLLEN (1847-1909), American archi-
tect, was born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th
of August 1847. His father, James Miller McKim (1810-1874),
originally a Presbyterian minister, was a prominent abolitionist
and one of the founders (1865) of the New York Nation.
The son studied at Harvard (1866-1867) and at Paris in the
Ecole des Beaux-Arts (1867-1870), and in 1872 became an
architect in New York City, entering the office of H. H. Richard-
son; in 1877 he formed a partnership with William Rutherford
Mead (b. 1846), the firm becoming in 1879 McKim, Mead &
White, when Stanford White (1853-1906) became a partner.
McKim was one of the founders of the American Academy in
Rome; received a gold medal at the Paris exposition of 1900;
in 1903, for his services in the promotion of architecture, received
the King's Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects;
and in 1907 became a National Academician. He died at
St James, Long Island, N.Y., on the I4th of September 1909.
McKim's name is especially associated with the University Club
in New York, with the Columbia University buildings, with the
additions to the White House (1906), and, more particularly,
with the Boston Public Library, for which the library of
Ste Genevieve in Paris furnished the suggestion.

MACKINAC ISLAND, a small island in the N.W. extremity
of Lake Huron and a part of Mackinac county, Michigan,
and a city and summer resort of the same name on the island.
The city is on the S.E. shore, at the entrance of the Straits
of Mackinac, about 7 m. N.E. of Mackinaw City and 6 m. E.S.E.
of St Ignace. Pop. (io°o), 665; (1904), 736; (1910), 714.
During the summer season, when thousands of people come

256

McKINLEY

here to enjoy the cool and pure air and the island's beautiful
scenery, the city is served by the principal steamboat lines on
the Great Lakes and by ferry to Mackinaw city (pop. in 1904,
696), which is served by the Michigan Central, the Grand
Rapids & Indiana, and the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic
railways. The island is about 3 m. long by 2 m. wide. From
the remarkably clear water of Lake Huron its shores rise for
the most part in tall white limestone cliffs; inland there are
strangely shaped rocks and forests of cedar, pine, fir, spruce,
juniper, maple, oak, birch, and beech. Throughout the island
there are numerous glens, ravines, and caverns, some of which
are rich in associations with Indian legends. The city is an
antiquated fishing and trading village with modern hotels,
club-houses, and summer villas. Fort Mackinac and its grounds
are included in a state reservation which embraces about
one-half of the island.

The original name of the island was Michilimackinac (" place
of the big lame person " or " place of the big wounded person ") ;
the name was apparently derived from an Algonquian tribe,
the Mishinimaki or Mishinimakinagog, now extinct. The
island was long occupied by Chippewas, the Hurbns had a
village here for a short time after their expulsion from the
East by the Iroquois, and subsequently there was an Ottawa
village here. The first white settlement or station was established
by the French in 1670 (abandoned in 1701) at Point Saint Ignace
on the north side of the strait. In 1761 a fort on the south
side (built in 1712) was surrendered to the British. By the
treaty of Paris (1783) the right of the United States to this
district was acknowledged; but the fort was held by the
British until 1796. In July 1812 a British force surprised
the garrison, which had not yet learned that war had been
declared. In August 1814 an American force under Colonel
George Croghan (1791-1849) attempted to recapture the island
but was repulsed with considerable loss. By the treaty of Ghent,
however, the island was restored, in July 1815, to the United
States; Fort Mackinac was maintained by the Federal govern-
ment until 1895, when it was ceded to the state. From 1820
to 1840 the village was one of the principal stations of the
American Fur Company. A Congregational mission was
established among the Chippewas on the island in 1827, but
was discontinued before 1845. The city of Mackinac Island
was chartered in 1899.

See W. C. Richards, "The Fairy Isle of Mackinac," in the
Magazine of American History (July 1891); and R. G. Thwaites,
" The Story of Mackinac," in vol. 14 of the Collections of the State
Historical Society of Wisconsin (Madison, 1898).

MCKINLEY, WILLIAM (1843-1001), twenty-fifth president
of the United States, was born in Niles, Trumbull county, Ohio,
on the 29th of January 1843. His ancestors on the paternal
side were Scotch-Irish who lived at Dervock, Co. Antrim, and
spelled the family name " McKinlay." His great-great-
grandfather settled in York county, Pennsylvania, about 1743,
and from Chester county, Pennsylvania, his great-grandfather,
David McKinley, who served as a private during the War
of Independence, moved to Ohio in 1814. David's son James
had gone in 1809 to Columbiana county, Ohio. His son William
McKinley (b. 1807), like his father an iron manufacturer, was
married in 1829 to Nancy Campbell Allison, and to them were
born nine children, of whom William, the president, was the
seventh. In 1852 the family removed to Poland, Mahoning
county, where the younger William was placed at school.
At seventeen he entered the junior class of Allegheny College,
at Meadville, Pennsylvania; but he studied beyond his strength,
and returned to Poland, where for a time he taught in a neigh-
bouring country school. When the Civil War broke out in
1861 he promptly enlisted as a private in the 23rd Ohio
Volunteer Infantry. He saw service in West Virginia, at
South Mountain, where this regiment lost heavily, and at
Antietam, where he brought up hot coffee and provisions to the
fighting line; for this he was promoted second lieutenant on
the 24th of September 1862. McKinley was promoted first
lieutenant in February 1864, and for his services at Winchester

was promoted captain on the 25th of July 1864. He was on
the staff of General George Crook at the battles of Opequan,
Fisher's Hill, and Cedar Creek in the Shenandoah valley, and
on the I4th of March 1865 was brevetted major of volunteers
for gallant and meritorious services. He also served on the
staff of General Rutherford B. Hayes, who spoke highly of his
soldierly qualities. He was mustered out with his regiment
on the 26th of July 1865. Four years of army life had changed
him from a pale and sickly lad into a man of superb figure
and health.

After the war McKinley returned to Poland, and bent all
his energy upon the study of law. He completed his prepara-
tory reading at the Albany (N.Y.) law school, and was admitted
to the bar at Warren, Ohio, in March 1867. On the advice
of an elder sister, who had been for several years a teacher
in Canton, Stark county, Ohio, he began his law practice in
that place, which was to be his permanent home. He identified
himself immediately with the Republican party, campaigned
in the Democratic county of Stark in favour of negro suffrage
in 1867, and took part in the campaign work on behalf of
Grant's presidential candidature in 1868. In the following
year he was elected prosecuting attorney on the Republican
ticket; in 1871 he failed of re-election by 45 votes, and again
devoted himself to his profession, while not relaxing his interest
in politics.

In 1875 he first became known as an able campaign speaker
by his speeches favouring the resumption of specie payments,
and in behalf of Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate
for governor of Ohio. In 1876 he was elected by a majority
of 3304 to the national House of Representatives. Conditions
both in Ohio and in Congress had placed him, and were to
keep him for twenty years, in an attitude of aggressive and
uncompromising partisanship. His Congressional district was
naturally Democratic, and its boundaries were changed two
or three times by Democratic legislatures for the purpose of
so grouping Democratic strongholds as to cause his defeat.
But he overcame what had threatened to be adverse majorities
on all occasions from 1876 to 1890, with the single exception
of 1882, when, although he received a certificate of election
showing that he had been re-elected by a majority of 8, and
although he served nearly through the long session of 1883-1884,
his seat was contested and taken (May 28, 1884) by his Demo-
cratic opponent, Jonathan H. Wallace. McKinley reflected
the strong sentiment of his manufacturing constituency in
behalf of a high protective tariff, and he soon became known
in Congress (where he particularly attracted the attention of
James G. Elaine) as one of the most diligent students of indus-
trial policy and question affecting national taxation. In
1878 he took part in the debates over the Wood Tariff Bill,
proposing lower import duties; and in the same year he voted
for the Bland- Allison Silver Bill. In December 1880 he was
appointed a member of the Ways and Means committee,
succeeding General James A. Garfield, who had been elected
president in the preceding month, and to whose friendship,
as to that of Rutherford B. Hayes, McKinley owed much in
his earlier years in Congress. He was prominent in the debate
which resulted in the defeat of the Democratic Morrison Tariff
Bill in 1884, and, as minority leader of the Ways and Means
committee, in the defeat of the Mills Bill for the revision of the
tariff in 1887-1888. In 1889 he became chairman of the Ways
and Means committee and Republican leader in the House
of Representatives, after having been defeated by Thomas
B. Reed on the third ballot in the Republican caucus for speaker
of the House. On the i6th of April 1890 he introduced from
the Ways and Means committee the tariff measure known
commonly as the McKinley Bill, which passed the House on
the 2ist of May, passed the Senate (in an amended form, with
a reciprocity clause, which McKinley had not been able to
get through the House) on the loth of September, was passed
as amended, by the House, and was approved by the president
on the ist of October 1890. The McKinley Bill reduced revenues
by its high and in many cases almost prohibitive duties; it

McKINLEY

257

put sugar on the free list with a discriminating duty of
of one cent a pound on sugar imported from countries giving
a bounty for sugar exported, and it gave bounties to American
sugar growers; it attempted to protect many " infant " industries
such as the manufacture of tin-plate; under its provision for
reciprocal trade agreements (a favourite project of James
(,. lilaine, who opposed many of the "protective" features
of the Bill) reciprocity treaties were made with Germany,
France, Italy, and Belgium, which secured a market in those
countries for American pork. Abroad, where the Bill made
McKinley's name known everywhere, there was bitter opposi-
tion to it and reprisals were threatened by several European
states. In the United States the McKinley Tariff Bill was
one of the main causes of the Democratic victory in the Con-
gressional elections of 1890, in which McKinley himself was
defeated by an extraordinary Democratic gerrymander of
his Congressional district. In November 1891 he was elected
governor of Ohio with a plurality of more than 21,000 votes
in a total of 795,000 votes cast. He was governor of Ohio in
1892-1895, being re-elected in 1893. His administration was
marked by no important events, except that he had on several
occasions in his second term to call out the militia of the state
to preserve order; but it may be considered important because
of the training it gave him in executive as distinguished from
legislative work.

McKinley had been prominent in national politics even
before the passage of the tariff measure bearing his name.
In 1888 in the National Republican Convention in Chicago
he was chairman of the committee on resolutions (i.e. the
platform committee) and was leader of the delegation from
Ohio, which had been instructed for John Sherman; after
James G. Blaine withdrew his name there was a movement,
begun by Republican congressmen, to nominate McKinley,
who received 16 votes on the seventh ballot, but passionately
refused to be a candidate, considering that his acquiescence
would be a breach of faith toward Sherman. In 1892 McKinley
was the permanent president of the National Republican
Convention which met in Minneapolis and which renominated
Benjamin Harrison on the first ballot, on which James G.
Blaine received 182 £ votes, and McKinley, in spite of his
efforts to the contrary, received 182 votes. In 1894 he made
an extended campaign tour before the Congressional elections,
and spoke even in the South. In 1896 he seemed for many
reasons the most " available " candidate of his party for the
presidency: he had no personal enemies in the party; he had
carried the crucial state of Ohio by a large majority in 1893;
his attitude on the coinage question had never been so pro-
nounced as to make him unpopular either with the radical
silver wing or with the conservative " gold-standard " members
of the party. The campaign for his nomination was conducted
with the greatest adroitness by his friend, Marcus A. Hanna,
and in the National Republican Convention held in St Louis
in June he was nominated for the presidency on the first ballot
by 66 1 J out of a total of 906 votes. The convention adopted
a tariff plank drafted by McKinley, and, of far greater im-
mediate importance, a plank, which declared that the
Republican party was " opposed to the free coinage of silver,
except by international agreement with the leading commercial
nations of the world, which we pledge ourselves to promote,
and until such agreement can be obtained the existing gold
standard must be preserved." This " gold standard " plank
drove out of the Republican party the Silver Republicans of
the West, headed by Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado.
The Republican convention nominated for the vice-presidency
Garrett A. Hobart of New Jersey. The National Democratic
Convention declared for the immediate opening of the mints
to the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio with
gold of 16 to i; and it nominated for the presidency William
Jennings Bryan of Nebraska, who also received the nomination
of the People's party and of the National Silver party. There
was a secession from the Democratic party of conservatives
who called themselves the National Democratic party, who
xvu. Q

were commonly called Gold Democrats, and who nominated
John M. Palmer (1817-1900) of Illinois for president. In
this re-alignment of parties McKinley, who had expected to
make the campaign on the issue of a high protective tariff,
was diverted to the defence of the gold standard as the main
issue. While his opponent travelled throughout the country
making speeches, McKinley remained in Canton, where he
was visited by and addressed many Republican delegations.
The campaign was enthusiastic: the Republican candidate
was called the " advance agent of prosperity "; " Bill McKinley
and the McKinley Bill " became a campaign cry; the panic of
1893 was charged to the repeal of the McKinley tariff measure;
and " business men " throughout the states were enlisted
in the cause of " sound money " to support McKinley, who
was elected in November by a popular vote of 7,106,779 to
6,502,925 for Bryan, and by an electoral vote of 271 to 176.

McKinley was inaugurated president of the United States
on the 4th of March 1897. The members of his cabinet were:
secretary of state, John Sherman (whose appointment created
a vacancy in the Senate to which Marcus A. Hanna was elected),
who was succeeded in April 1898 by William R. Day, who in
turn was followed in September 1898 by John Hay; secretary
of the treasury, Lyman J. Gage, a Gold Democrat; secretary
of war, Russell A. Alger, who was succeeded in 1899 by Elihu
Root; secretary of the navy, John D. Long; attorney-general,
Joseph McKenna, succeeded in January 1898 by John William
Griggs; postmaster-general, James A. Gary, succeeded in
April 1898 by Charles Emory Smith; secretary of the interior,
Cornelius N. Bliss, succeeded in February 1899 by Ethan Allen
Hitchcock; and secretary of agriculture, James Wilson, (For
the political history of McKinley's administration see UNITED
STATES: History). Immediately after his inauguration the
president summoned Congress to assemble in an extra session
on the isth of March. The Democratic tariff in 1893 had
been enacted as part of the general revenue measure, which
included an income-tax. The income-tax having been declared
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, the measure had failed
to produce a sufficient revenue, and it had been necessary to
increase the public debt. McKinley's message to the new
Congress dwelt upon the necessity of an immediate revision
of the tariff and revenue system of the country, and the
so-called Dingley TariS Bill was accordingly passed through
both houses, and was approved by the president on the 24th
of July.

The regular session of Congress which opened in December
was occupied chiefly with the situation in Cuba. President
McKinley showed himself singularly patient and self-controlled
in the midst of the popular excitement against Spain and the
clamour for intervention by the United States in behalf of
the Cubans; but finally, on the 23rd of March, he presented
an ultimatum to the Spanish government, and on the 25th
of April, on his recommendation, Congress declared war upon
Spain. During the war itself he devoted himself with great
energy to the mastery of military details; but there was bitter
criticism of the war department resulting in the resignation
of the secretary of war, Russell A. Alger (q.v.). The signing
of a peace protocol on the I2th of August was followed by
the signature at Paris on the loth of December of articles
of peace between the United States and Spain. After a long
discussion the peace treaty was ratified by the United States
Senate on the 6th of February 1899; and in accordance with
its terms Porto Rico, the Philippine Archipelago, and Guam
were transferred by Spain to the United States, and Cuba
came under American jurisdiction pending the establishment
there of an independent government. Two days before the
ratification of the peace treaty, a conflict took place between
armed Filipinos under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo
and the American forces that were in possession of Manila.
The six months that had elapsed between the signing of the peace
protocol and the ratification of the treaty had constituted
a virtual interregnum, Spain's authority having been practi-
cally destroyed in the Philippines and that of the United States

258

McKINLEY

not having begun. In this period a formidable native Filipino
army had been organized and a provisional government created.
The warfare waged by these Filipinos against the United States,
while having for the most part a desultory and guerilla character,
was of a very protracted and troublesome nature. Sovereignty
over the Filipinos having been accepted by virtue of the ratifi-
cation of the Paris treaty, President McKinley was not at
liberty to do otherwise than assert the authority of the United
States and use every endeavour to suppress the insurrection.
But there was bitter protest against this " imperialism," both
within the party by such men as Senators George F. Hoar and
Eugene Hale, and Thomas B. Reed and Carl Schurz. and,
often for purely political reasons, from the leaders of the Demo-
cratic party. In the foreign relations of the United States,
as directed by President McKinley, the most significant change
was the cordial understanding established with the British
government, to which much was contributed by his secretary
of state, John Hay, appointed to that portfolio when he was
ambassador to the court of St James, and which was due to
some extent to the friendliness of the British press and even
more markedly of the British navy in the Pacific during the
Spanish War. Other important foreign events during
McKinley 's administration were: the annexation of the Hawai-
ian Islands (see HAWAII) in August 1898, and the formation of
the Territory of Hawaii in April 1900; the cessation in 1899
of the tripartite (German, British, and French) government
of the Samoan Islands, and the annexation by the United
States of those of the islands east of 171°, including the harbour
of Pago-Pago; the participation of American troops in the
march of the allies on Pekin in August 1900, and the part played
by McKinley's secretary of state, John Hay, in securing a
guarantee of the integrity of the Chinese empire. In 1900
McKinley was unanimously renominated by the National
Republican Convention which met in Philadelphia on the
igth of June, and which nominated Theodore Roosevelt,
governor of New York, for the vice-presidency. The Republi-
can convention demanded the maintenance of the gold standard,
and pointed to the fulfilment of some of the most important
of the pledges given by the Republican party four years earlier.
The intervening period had been one of very exceptional pros-
perity in the United States, foreign commerce having reached
an unprecedented volume, and agriculture and manufactures
having made greater advancement than in any previous period
of the country's history. The tendency towards the concen-
tration of capital in great industrial corporations had been
active to an extent previously undreamt of, with incidental
consequences that had aroused much apprehension; and the
Democrats accused President McKinley and the Republican
party of having fostered the " trusts." But the campaign
against McKinley and the Republican party was not only
" anti-trust " but " anti-imperialistic." William Jennings
Bryan, renominated by the Democratic party in July (and in
May by the Fusion People's party) on a free silver platform,
declared that imperialism was the " paramount issue " and
made a second vigorous campaign; and the opposition to
McKinley's re-election, whether based on opposition to his
economic or to his foreign policy, was not entirely outside
of his own party. As the result of the polling in November,
292 Republican presidential electors were chosen, and 155
Democratic electors, elected in Colorado, Idaho, Montana,
Nevada, and the Southern states, represented the final strength
of the Bryan and Stevenson ticket. The Republican popular
vote was 7,207,923, and the Democratic 6,358,133. Since
1872 no president had been re-elected for a second consecutive
term.

In the term of Congress immediately following the presidential
election it was found possible to reduce materially the war taxes
which had been levied on the outbreak of the Spanish-American
War. Arrangements were perfected for the termination of the
American military occupation of Cuba and the inauguration
of a Cuban Republic as a virtual protectorate of the United
States, the American government having arranged with the

Cuban constitutional convention for the retention of certain
naval stations on the Cuban coast. In the Philippines advanced
steps had been taken in the substitution of civil government for
military occupation, and a governor-general, Judge William H.
Taft, had been appointed and sent to Manila. Prosperity at
home was great, and foreign relations were free from compli-
cations. The problems which had devolved upon McKinley's
administration had been far advanced towards final settlement.
He retained without change the cabinet of his first administra-
tion. After an arduous and anxious term, the president had
reached a period that promised to give him comparative repose
and freedom from care. He had secured, through the co-
operation of Congress, the permanent reorganization of the army
and a very considerable development of the navy. In these
circumstances, President McKinley, accompanied by the greater
part of his cabinet, set forth in the early summer on a tour to
visit the Pacific coast, where he was to witness the launching
of the battleship " Ohio " at San Francisco. The route chosen
was through the Southern states, where many stops were made,
and where the president delivered brief addresses.' The
heartiness of the welcome accorded him seemed to mark the
disappearance of the last vestige of sectional feeling that had
survived the Civil War, in which McKinley had participated as
a young man. After his return he spent a month in a visit at
his old home in Canton, Ohio, and at the end of this visit, by
previous arrangement, he visited the city of Buffalo, New York,
in order to attend the Pan-American exposition and deliver a
public address. This address (Sept. 5, 1901) was a public
utterance designed by McKinley to affect American opinion and
public policy, and apparently to show that he had modified his
views upon the tariff. > It declared that henceforth the progress
of the nations must be through harmony and co-operation, in
view of the fast-changing conditions of communication and
trade, and it maintained that the time had come for wide-
reaching modifications in the tariff policy of the United States,
the method preferred by McKinley being that of commercial
reciprocity arrangements with various nations. On the
following day, the 6th of September 1901, a great reception
was held for President McKinley in one of the public buildings
of the exposition, all sorts and conditions of men being welcome.
Advantage of this opportunity was taken by a young man of
Polish parentage, by name Leon Czolgosz, to shoot at the presi-
dent with a revolver at close range. One of the two bullets
fired penetrated the abdomen. After the world had been
assured that the patient was doing well and would recover, •
he collapsed and died on the I4th. The assassin, who, it was
for a time supposed, had been inflamed by the editorials and
cartoons of the demagogic opposition press, but who professed
to hold the views of that branch of anarchists who believe in
the assassination of rulers and persons exercising political
authority, was promptly seized, and was convicted and executed
in October 1901. McKinley's conduct and utterances in his
last days revealed a loftiness of personal character that every-
where elicited admiration and praise. Immediately after his-
death Vice-President Roosevelt took the oath of office, announc-
ing that it would be his purpose to continue McKinley's policy,
while also retaining the cabinet and the principal officers of the
government. McKinley's funeral took place at Canton, Ohio,
on the 1 9th of September, the occasion being remarkable for
the public manifestations of mourning, not only in the United
States, but in Great Britain and other countries; in Canton a
memorial tomb has been erected.

Though he had not the personal magnetism of James G.
Elaine, whom he succeeded as a leader of the Republican party
and whose views of reciprocity he formally adopted in his last
public address, McKinley had great personal suavity and
dignity, and was thoroughly well liked by his party colleagues.
As a politician he was always more the people's representative
than their leader, and that he " kept his ear to the ground"
was the source of much of his power and at the same time was
his greatest weakness: his address at Buffalo the day before
his assassination seems to voice his appreciation of the change

McKINNEY— MACKLIN

259

in popular sentiment regarding the tariff laws of the United
States and is the more remarkable as coming from the foremost
champion for years of a form of tariff legislation devised
to stifle international competition. His apparently incon-
sistent record on the coinage question becomes consistent if
considered in the same way, as the expression of the gradually
changing views of his constituency. And it may not be fanciful
to suggest that the obvious growth of McKinley in breadth and
power during his term as president was due to his being the
representative of a larger constituency, less local and less narrow-
minded. He was an able but far from brilliant campaign
speaker. His greatest administrative gift was a fine intuition
in choosing men to serve him. McKinley's private life was
irreproachable; and very fine was his devotion to his wife,
Ida Saxton (d. 1907), whom he had married in Canton in 1871,
who was throughout his political career a confirmed invalid.
He was from his early manhood a prominent member of the
Methodist Episcopal Church.

His Speeches and Addresses were printed in two volumes (New
York, 1893 and 1901).

McKINNEY, a city and the county-seat of Collin county,
Texas, U.S.A., about 30 m. N. by E. of Dallas. Pop. (1890),
2489; (1900), 4342 (917 negroes); (1910) 4714. It is served
by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the Houston & Texas
Central railways, and by the Dallas & Sherman inter-urban
(electric) line, the central power plant of which is immediately
north of the city. McKinney is in a fine farming region; there
are also manufactures. The municipal water supply is obtained
from artesian wells. The first settlement in Collin county was
made about 10 m. north of what is now McKinney in 1841.
McKinney was named, as was the county, in honour of Collin
McKinney, a pioneer in the region and a signer of the Declara-
tion of the Independence of Texas. It was settled in 1844,
was laid out and became the county-seat in 1846, and was first
chartered as a city in 1874.

MACKINTOSH, SIR JAMES (1765-1832), Scottish publicist,
was born at Aldourie, 7 m. from Inverness, on the 24th of October
1765. He came of old Highland families on both sides. He
went in 1780 to college at Aberdeen, where he made a friend
of Robert Hall, afterwards the famous preacher. In 1784 he
proceeded for the study of medicine to Edinburgh, where he
participated to the full in the intellectual ferment, but did
not quite neglect his medical studies, and took his degree in
1787.

In 1788 Mackintosh removed to London, then agitated by
the trial of Warren Hastings and the king's first lapse into
insanity. He was much more interested in these and other
political events than in his professional prospects; and his
attention was specially directed to the events and tendencies
which caused or preceded the Revolution in France. In 1789
he married his first wife, Catherine Stuart, whose brother
Daniel afterwards became editor of the Morning Post. His
wife's prudence was a corrective to his own unpractical tem-
perament, and his efforts in journalism became fairly profitable.
Mackintosh was soon absorbed in the question of the time;
and in April 1791, after long meditation, he published his
Vindiciae Gallicae, a reply to Burke's Reflections on the French
Revolution. It was the only worthy answer to Burke that
appeared. It placed the author in the front rank of European
publicists, and won him the friendship of some of the most
distinguished men of the time, including Burke himself. The
success of the Vindiciae finally decided him to give up the
medical for the legal profession. He was called to the bar in
1795. and gained a considerable reputation there as well as a
tolerable practice. In 1797 his wife died, and next year he
married Catherine Allen, sister-in-law of Josiah and John
Wedgwood, through whom he introduced Coleridge to the
torning Post. As a lawyer his greatest public efforts were his
lectures (1799) at Lincoln's Inn on the law of nature and nations,
of which the introductory discourse was published, and his
eloquent defence (1803) of Jean Gabriel Peltier, a French
refugee, tried at the instance of the French government for a

libel against the first consul. In 1803 he was knighted, and
received the post of recorder at Bombay. The spoilt child
of London society was not at home in India, and he was glad
to return to England, where he arrived in 1812.

He courteously declined the offer of Perceval to resume
political life under the auspices of the dominant Tory party,
though tempting prospects of office in connexion with India
were opened up. He entered parliament in the Whig interest
as member for Nairn. He sat for that county, and afterwards
for Knaresborough, till his death. In London society, and in
Paris during his occasional visits, he was a recognized favourite
for his genial wisdom and his great conversational power.
On Mme de Stael's visit to London he was the only Englishman
capable . of representing his country in talk with her. His
parliamentary career was marked by the same wide and candid
liberalism as his private life. He opposed the reactionary
measures of the Tory government, supported and afterwards
succeeded Romilly in his efforts for reforming the criminal
code, and took a leading part both in Catholic emancipation
and in the Reform Bill. But he was too little of a partisan,
too widely sympathetic and candid, as well as too elaborate,
to be a telling speaker in parliament, and was consequently
surpassed by more practical men whose powers were incom-
parably inferior. From 1818 to 1824 he was professor of law
and general politics in the East India Company's College at
Haileybury.

In the midst of the attractions of London society and of his
parliamentary avocations Mackintosh felt that the real work
of his life was being neglected. His great ambition was to
write a history of England. His studies both in English and
foreign speculation led him to cherish the design also of making
some worthy contribution to philosophy. It was not till 1828
that he set about the first task of his literary ambition. This
was the Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy, pre-
fixed to the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The dissertation, written mostly in ill-health and in snatches
of time taken from his parliamentary engagements, was pub-
lished in 1831. It was severely attacked in 1835 by James
Mill in his Fragment on Mackintosh. About the same time he
wrote for the Cabinet Cyclopaedia a " History of England from
the Earliest Times to the Final Establishment of the Refor-
mation." His more elaborate History of the Revolution, for
which he had made great researches and collections, was not
published till after his death. Already a privy councillor,
Mackintosh was appointed commissioner for the affairs of India
under the Whig administration of 1830. He died on the 3Oth
of May 1832.

Mackintosh was undoubtedly one of the most cultured and
catholic-minded men of his time. His studies and sympathies
embraced almost every human interest, except pure science.
But the width of his intellectual sympathies, joined to a con-
stitutional indecision and vis inertiae, prevented him from doing
more enduring work. Vindiciae Gallicae was the verdict of a
philosophic Liberal on the development of the French Revolu-
tion up to the spring of 1791, and though the excesses of the
revolutionists compelled him a few years after to express his
entire agreement with the opinions of Burke, its defence of the
" rights of man " is a valuable statement of the cultured Whig's
point of view at the time. The History of the Revolution in
England, breaking off at the point where William of Orange is
preparing to intervene in the affairs of England, is chiefly
interesting because of Macaulay's admiring essay on it and its
author.

A Life, by his son R. J. Mackintosh, was published in 1836.

MACKLIN, CHARLES (c. 1690-1797), Irish actor and play-
wright, whose real name was McLaughlin, was born in Ireland,
and had an adventurous youth before coming to Bristol, where
hie made his first appearance on the stage as Richmond in
Richard III. He was at Lincoln's Inn Fields about 1725, and
'733 was at Drury Lane, where the quarrel between the
manager and the principal actors resulted in his getting better
Darts. When the trouble was over and these were taken from

260

MACK VON LEIBERICH— MACLAREN, C.

him, he went to the Haymarket, but he returned in 1734 to
Drury Lane and acted there almost continuously until 1748.
Then for two seasons he and his wife (d. c. 1758), an excellent
actress, were in Dublin under Sheridan, then back in London
at Covent Garden. He played a great number of characters,
principally in comedy, although Shylock was his greatest part,
and lago and the Ghost in Hamlet were in his repertory. At
the end of 1753 Macklin bade farewell to the stage to open a
tavern, near the theatre, where he personally supervised the
serving of dinner. He also delivered an evening lecture, followed
by a debate, which was soon a hopeless subject of ridicule. The
tavern failed, and Macklin returned to the stage, and played for
a number of years in London and Dublin. His quick temper got
him into constant trouble. In a foolish quarrel over a wig in
1735 he killed a fellow actor in the green-room at Drury Lane,
and he was constantly at law over his various contracts and
quarrels. The bitterest of these arose on account of his appear-
ing as Macbeth at Covent Garden in 1772. The part was usually
played there by William Smith, and the public would not brook
a change. A few nights later the audience refused to hear
Macklin as Shylock, and shouted their wish, in response to the
manager's question, to have him discharged. This was done
in order to quell the riot. His lawsuit, well conducted by him-
self, against the leaders of the disturbance resulted in an award
of £600 and costs, but Macklin magnanimously elected instead
that the defendants should take £100 in tickets at three benefits —
for himself, his daughter and the management. He returned
to Covent Garden, but his appearances thereafter were less
frequent, ending in 1789, when as Shylock, at his benefit, he was
only able to begin the play, apologize for his wandering memory,
and retire. He lived until the nth of July 1797, and his last
years were provided for by a subscription edition of two of his
best plays, The Man of (he World and Love in a Maze.
Macklin 's daughter, Mary Macklin (c. 1734-1781), was a
well-known actress in her day.

See Edward A. Parry, Charles Macklin (1891).

MACK VON LEIBERICH, KARL, FREIHERR (175271828),
Austrian soldier, was born at Nenslingen, in Bavaria, on the
25th of August 1752. In 1770 he joined an Austrian cavalry
regiment, in which his uncle, Leiberich, was a squadron com-
mander, becoming an officer seven years later. During the
brief war of the Bavarian Succession he was selected for service
on the staff of Count Kinsky, under whom, and subsequently
under the commander-in-chief Field Marshal Count Lacy, he
did excellent work. He was promoted first lieutenant in 1778,
and captain on the quartermaster-general's staff in 1783.
Count Lacy, then the foremost soldier of the Austrian army,
had the highest opinion of his young assistant. In 1785 Mack
married Katherine Gabrieul, and was ennobled under the
name of Mack von Leiberich. In the Turkish war he was
employed on the headquarter staff, becoming in 1788 major and
personal aide-de-camp to the emperor, and in 1789 lieutenant-
colonel. He distinguished himself greatly in the storming of
Belgrade. Shortly after this, disagreements between Mack and
Loudon, now commander-in-chief, led to the former's demanding
a court-martial and leaving the front. He was, however, given
a colonelcy (1789) and the order of Maria Theresa, and in 1790
Loudon and Mack, having become reconciled, were again on the
field together. During these campaigns Mack received a severe
injury to his head, from which he never fully recovered. In
1 793 he was made quartermaster-general (chief of staff) to Prince
Josias of Saxe-Coburg, commanding in the Netherlands; and
he enhanced his reputation by the ensuing campaign. The
young Archduke Charles, who won his own first laurels in the
action of the ist of March 1793, wrote after the battle, " Above
all we have to thank Colonel Mack for these successes." Mack
distinguished himself again on the field of Neerwinden; and
had a leading part in the negotiations between Coburg and
Dumouriez. He continued to serve as quartermaster-general,
and was now made titular chief (Inhaber)oi a cuirassier regiment.
He received a wound at Famars, but in 1794 was once more
engaged, having at last been made a major-general. But the

failure of the allies, due though it was to political and military
factors and ideas, over which Mack had no control, was ascribed
to him, as their successes of March-April 1 793 had been, and he
fell into disfavour in consequence. In 1797 he was promoted
lieutenant field marshal, and in the following year he accepted,
at the personal request of the emperor, the command of the
Neapolitan army. But with the unpromising material of his
new command he could do nothing against the French revo-
lutionary troops, and before long, being in actual danger of
being murdered by his men, he took refuge in the French camp.
He was promised a free pass to his own country, but Napoleon
ordered that he should be sent to France as a prisoner of war.
Two years later he escaped from Paris in disguise. The allega-
tion that he broke his parole is false. He was not employed for
some years, but in 1804, when the war party in the Austrian
court needed a general to oppose the peace policy of the Arch-
duke Charles, Mack was made quartermaster-general of the army,
with instructions to prepare for a war with France. He did all
that was possible within the available time to reform the army,
and on the opening of the war of 1805 he was made quarter-
master-general to the titular commander-in-chief in Germany,
the Archduke Ferdinand. He was the real responsible com-
mander of the army which opposed Napoleon in Bavaria, but
his position was ill-defined and his authority treated with slight
respect by the other general officers. For the events of the Ulm
campaign and an estimate of Mack's responsibility for the
disaster, see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS. After Austerlitz, Mack
was tried by a court-martial, sitting from February 1806 to
June 1807, and sentenced to be deprived of his rank, his regiment,
and the order of Maria Theresa, and to be imprisoned for two
years. He was released in 1808, and in 1819, when the ultimate
victory of the allies had obliterated the memory of earlier
disasters, he was, at the request of Prince Schwarzenberg, re-
instated in the army as lieutenant field marshal and a member
of the order of Maria Theresa. He died on the 22nd of October
1828 at S. Pplten.

See Schweigerd, Oesterreichs Helden (Vienna, 1854); Wurzbach,
Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserthums Oesterr. (Vienna, 1867); Ritter von
Rittersberg, Biogr. d. ausgezeichneten Feldherren d. oest. Armee
(Prague, 1828); Raumer's Hist. Taschenbuch (1873) contains Mack's
vindication. A short critical memoir will be found in Streffleur for
January 1907.

McLANE, LOUIS (1786-1857), American political leader,
was born in Smyrna, Delaware, on the 28th of May 1786, son
of Allan McLane (1746-1829), a well-known Revolutionary
soldier. He was admitted to the bar in 1807. He entered
politics as a Democrat, and served in the Federal House of
Representatives in 1817-1827 and in the Senate in 1827-1829.
He was minister to England in 1820-1831, and secretary of the
treasury in Jackson's cabinet from 1831 (when in his annual
report he argued for the United States Bank) until May 1833,
when he was transferred to the state department. He retired
from the cabinet in June 1834. He was president of the Balti-
more & Ohio railway in 1837-1847, minister to England in
1845-1846, and delegate to the Maryland constitutional conven-
tion of 1850-1851. He died in Baltimore, Maryland, on the
7th of October 1857.

His son, ROBERT MILLIGAN McLANE (1815-1898), graduated
at West Point in 1837, resigned from the army in 1843, and
practised law in Baltimore. He was a Democratic represent-
ative in Congress in 1847-1851 and again in 1879-1883,
governor of Maryland in 1884-1885, U.S. commissioner to China
in 1853-1854, and minister to Mexico in 1850-1860 and to
France in 1885-1889.

See R. M. McLane's Reminiscences, 1827-1897 (privately printed,
1897).

MACLAREN, CHARLES (1782-1866), Scottish editor, was
born at Ormiston, Haddingtonshire, on the 7th of October 1782,
the son of a farmer and cattle-dealer. He was almost entirely
self-educated, and when a young man became a clerk in Edin-
burgh. In 1817, with others, he established the Scotsman news-
paper in Edinburgh and at first acted as its editor. Offered a
post as clerk in the custom house, he resigned his editorial

MACLAREN, IAN— M'LENNAN

261

position, resuming it in 1820, and resigning it again in 1845.
In 1820 Maclaren was made editor of the sixth edition of the
Km- \clopaedia Britannica. From 1864-1866 he was president
of the Geological Society of Edinburgh, in which city he died
on the loth of September 1866.

MACLAREN, IAN, the pseudonym of JOHN WATSON (1850-
1907), Scottish author and divine. The son of John Watson,
a civil servant, he was born at Manningtree, Essex, on the 3rd
of November 1850, and was educated at Stirling and at Edin-
burgh University, afterwards studying theology at New College,
Kdinburgh, and at Tubingen. In 1874 he entered the ministry
of the Free Church of Scotland and became assistant minister
of Barclay Church, Edinburgh. Subsequently he was minister
at Logiealmond in Perthshire and at Glasgow, and in 1880 he
became minister of Sefton Park Presbyterian church, Liverpool,
from which he retired in 1905. In 1896 he was Lyman Beecher
lecturer at Yale University, and in 1900 he was moderator of the
synod of the English Presbyterian church. While travelling
in America he died at Mount Pleasant, Iowa, on the 6th of
May 1907. Ian Maclaren's first sketches of rural Scottish life,
Beside the Bonnie Briar Bush (1894), achieved extraordinary
popularity and were followed by other successful books, The
Days of Auld Lang Syne (1895), Kate Carnegie and those Ministers
(1896) and Afterwards and other Stories (1898). Under his own
name Watson published several volumes of sermons, among them
being The Upper Room (1895); The Mind of the Master (1896)
and The Potter's Wheel (1897).

See Sir W. Robertson Nicoll, Ian Maclaren (1908).

MACLAURIN, COLIN (1698-1746), Scottish mathematician,
was the son of a clergyman, and born at Kilmodan, Argyllshire.
In 1 709 he entered the university of Glasgow, where he exhibited
a decided genius for mathematics, more especially for geometry;
it is said that before the end of his sixteenth year he had dis-
covered many of the theorems afterwards published in his
Geometria organica. In 1717 he was elected professor of mathe-
matics in Marischal College, Aberdeen, as the result of a com-
petitive examination. Two years later he was admitted F.R.S.
and made the acquaintance of Sir Isaac Newton. In 1719 he
published his Geometria organica, sive descriptio linearum
curvarum uniwrsalis. In it Maclaurin developed several theo-
rems due to Newton, and introduced the method of generating
conies which bears his name, and showed that many curves
of the third and fourth degrees can be described by the inter-
section of two movable angles. In 1721 he wrote a supplement
to the Geometria organica, which he afterwards published, with
extensions, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1735. This
paper is principally based on the following general theorem,
which is a remarkable extension of Pascal's hexagram: "If a
polygon move so that each of its sides passes through a fixed
point, and if all its summits except one describe curves of the
degrees m, n, p, &c., respectively, then the free summit moves
on a curve of the degree imnp .... which reduces to mnp ....
when the fixed points all lie on a right line." In 1722 Maclaurin
travelled as tutor and companion to the eldest son of Lord
Polwarth, and after a short stay in Paris resided for some time
in Lorraine, where he wrote an essay on the percussion of bodies,
which obtained the prize of the French Academy of Sciences
for the year 1724. The following year he was elected professor
of mathematics in the university of Edinburgh on the urgent
recommendation of Newton. After the death of Newton, in
1728, his nephew, John Conduitt, applied to Maclaurin for his
assistance in publishing an. account of Newton's life and dis-
coveries. This Maclaurin gladly undertook, but the death of
Conduitt put a stop to the project.

In 1740 Maclaurin divided with Leonhard Euler and Daniel
Bernoulli the prize offered by the French Academy of Sciences
for an essay on tides. His Treatise on Fluxions was published
at Edinburgh in 1742, in two volumes. In the preface he states
that the work was undertaken in consequence of the attack on
the method of fluxions made by George Berkeley in 1734.
Madaurin's object was to found the doctrine of fluxions on
geometrical demonstration, and thus to answer all objections

to its method as being founded on false reasoning and full
of mystery. The most valuable part of the work is that devoted
to physical applications, in which he embodied his essay
on the tides. In this he showed that a homogeneous fluid
mass revolving uniformly round an axis under the action of
gravity ought to assume the form of an ellipsoid of revo-
lution. The importance of this investigation in connexion
with the theory of the tides, the figure of the earth, and other
kindred questions, has always caused it to be regarded as
one of the great problems of mathematical physics. Maclaurin
was the first to introduce into mechanics, in this discussion, the
important conception of surfaces of level; namely, surfaces at
each of whose points the total force acts in the normal direction.
He also gave in his Fluxions, for the first time, the correct theory
for distinguishing between maxima and minima in general, and
pointed out the importance of the distinction in the theory of the
multiple points of curves. In 1743, when the rebels were march-
ing on Edinburgh, Maclaurin took a most prominent part in
preparing trenches and barricades for its defence. The anxiety,
fatigue and cold to which he was thus exposed, affecting a con-
stitution naturally weak, laid the foundation of the disease to
which he afterwards succumbed. As soon as the rebel army
got possession of Edinburgh Maclaurin fled to England, to avoid
making submission to the Pretender. He accepted the invita-
tion of T. Herring, then archbishop of York, with whom he re-
mained until it was safe to return to Edinburgh. He died of
dropsy on the i4th of June 1746, at Edinburgh. Maclaurin was
married in 1 233 to Anne, daughter of Welter Stewart, solicitor-
general for Scotland. His eldest son John, born in 1734, was
distinguished as an advocate, and appointed one of the judges
of the Scottish court of session, with the title of Lord Dreghorn.
He inherited an attachment to scientific discovery, and was
one of the founders of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in
1782.

After Maclaurin's death his account of Newton's philosophical
discoveries was published by Patrick Murdoch, and also his algebra
in 1748. As an appendix to the latter appeared his De linearum
geometricarum proprielatibus generalibus tractatus, a treatise of re-
markable elegance. Of the more immediate successors of Newton
in Great Britain Maclaurin is probably the only one who can be placed
in competition with the great mathematicians of the continent of
Europe at the time. (B. W.)

M'LENNAN, JOHN FERGUSON (1827-1881), Scottish ethnolo-
gist, was born at Inverness.on the I4th of October 1827. He
studied at King's college, Aberdeen, where he graduated with
distinction in 1849, thence proceeding to Cambridge, where he
remained till 1855 without taking a degree. He was called to
the Scottish bar in 1857, and in 1871 was appointed parlia-
mentary draughtsman for Scotland. In 1865 he published
Primitive Marriage, in which, arguing from the prevalence of
the symbolical form of capture in the marriage ceremonies of
primitive races, he developed an intelligible picture of the
growth of the marriage relation and of systems of kinship (see
FAMILY) according to natural laws. In 1866 he wrote in the
Fortnightly Review (April and May) an essay on " Kinship in
Ancient Greece," in which he proposed to test by early Greek
facts the theory of the history of kinship set forth in Primitive
Marriage; and three years later appeared a series of essays on
" Totemism " in the same periodical for 1869-1870 (the germ of
which had been contained in the paper just named), which mark
the second great step in his systematic study of early society.
A reprint of Primitive Marriage, with " Kinship in Ancient
Greece " and some other essays not previously published, ap-
peared in 1876, under the title of Studies in Ancient History.
The new essays in this volume were mostly critical, but one of
them, in which perhaps his guessing talent is seen at its best,
" The Divisions of the Irish Family," is an elaborate discussion
of a problem which has long puzzled both Celtic scholars and
jurists; and in another, " On the Classificatory System of
Relationship," he propounded a new explanation of a series of
facts which, he thought, might throw light upon the early
history of society, at the same time putting to the test of those
facts the theories he had set forth in Primitive Marriage. Papers

262

MACLEOD, H. D.— MACLISE

on " The Levirate and Polyandry," following up the line of his
previous investigations (Fortnightly Review, 1877), were the last
work he was able to publish. He died of consumption on the
I4th of June 1881 at Hayes Common, Kent.

Besides the works already cited, M'Lennan wrote a Life of Thomas
Drummond (1867). The vast materials which he had accumulated
on kinship were edited by his widow and A. Platt, under the title
Studies in Ancient History: Second Series (1896).

MACLEOD, HENRY DUNNING (1821-1902), Scottish econo-
mist, was born in Edinburgh, and educated at Eton, Edinburgh
University, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated
in 1843. He travelled in Europe, and in 1849 was called to
the English bar. He was employed in Scotland on the work of
poor-law reform, and devoted himself to the study of economics.
In 1856 he published his Theory and Practice of Banking, in
1858 Elements of Political Economy, and in 1859 A Dictionary
of Political Economy. In 1873 appeared his Principles of
Economist Philosophy, and other books on economics and
banking were published later. Between 1868 and 1870 he was
employed by the government in digesting and codifying the
law of bills of exchange. He died on the i6th of July 1902.
Macleod's principal contribution to the study of economics
consists in his work on the theory of credit, to which he was
the first to give due prominence.

For a judicious discussion of the value of Macleod's writings,
see an article on " The Revolt against Orthodox Economics " in the
Quarterly Review for October 1901 (No. 388).

MACLEOD, NORMAN (1812-1872), Scottish divine, son of
Rev. Norman Macleod (1783-1862), and grandson of Rev.
Norman Macleod, minister of Morven, Argyllshire, was born at
Campbeltown on the 3rd of June 1812. In 1827 he became a
student at Glasgow University, and in 1831 went to Edinburgh
to study divinity under Dr Thomas Chalmers. On the i8th of
March 1838 he became parish minister at Loudoun, Ayrshire.
At this time the troubles in the Scottish Church were already
gathering to a head (see FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND). Macleod,
although he had no love for lay patronage, and wished the
Church to be free to do its proper work, clung firmly to the idea
of a national Established Church, and therefore remained in
the Establishment when the disruption took place. He was
one of those who took a middle course in the non-intrusion
controversy, holding that the fitness of those who were presented
to parishes should be judged by the presbyteries — the principle
of Lord Aberdeen's Bill. On the secession of 1843 he was
offered many different parishes, and having finally settled at
Dalkeith, devoted himself to parish work and to questions affect-
ing the Church as a whole. He was largely instrumental in the
work of strengthening the Church. In 1847 he became one of
the founders of the Evangelical Alliance, and from 1849 edited
the Christian Instructor (Edinburgh). In 1851 he was called to
the Barony church, Glasgow, in which city the rest of his days
were passed. There the more liberal theology rapidly made way
among a people who judged it more by its fruits than its argu-
ments, and Macleod won many adherents by his practical
schemes for the social improvement of the people. He instituted
temperance refreshment rooms, a congregational penny sav-
ings bank, and held services specially for the poor. In 1860
Macleod was appointed editor of the new monthly magazine
Good Words. Under his control the magazine, which was
mainly of a religious character, became widely popular. His
own literary work, nearly all of which originally appeared in
its pages — sermons, stories, travels, poems — was only a by-
product of a busy life. By far his best work was the spontaneous
and delightful Reminiscences of a Highland Parish (1867). While
Good Words made his name known, and helped the cause he had
so deeply at heart, his relations with the queen and the royal
family strengthened yet further his position in the country.
Never since Principal Carstairs had any Scottish clergyman
been on such terms with his sovereign. In 1865 he risked an
encounter with Scottish Sabbatarian ideas. The presbytery of
Glasgow issued a pastoral letter on the subject of Sunday trains
and other infringements of the Sabbath. Macleod protested

against the grounds on which its strictures were based. For
a time, owing partly to a misleading report of his statement, he
became " the man in all Scotland most profoundly distrusted."
But four years later the Church accorded him the highest honour
in her power by choosing him as moderator of her general
assembly. In 1867, along with Dr Archibald Watson, he was
sent to India, to inquire into the state of the missions. He
undertook the journey in spite of failing health, and seems never
to have recovered from its effects. He returned resolved to
devote the rest of his days to rousing the Church to her duty in
the sphere of foreign missions, but his health was now broken,
and his old energy flagged. He died on the i6th of June 1872,
and was buried at Campsie. He was one of the greatest of
Scottish religious leaders, a man of wide sympathy and high
ideals. His Glasgow church was named after him the " Macleod
Parish Church," and the " Macleod Missionary Institute " was
erected by the Barony church in Glasgow. Queen Victoria gave
two memorial windows to Crathie church as a testimony of her
admiration for his work.

See Memoir of Norman Macleod, by his brother, Donald Macleod
(1876).

MACLISE, DANIEL (1806-1870), Irish painter, was born at
Cork, the son of a Highland soldier. His education was of the
plainest kind, but he was eager for culture, fond of reading, and
anxious to become an artist. His father, however, placed him,
in 1820, in Newenham's Bank, where he remained for two years,
and then left to study in the Cork school of art. In 1825 it
happened that Sir Walter Scott was travelling in Ireland, and
young Maclise, having seen him in a bookseller's shop, made a
surreptitious sketch of the great man, which he afterwards
lithographed. It was exceedingly popular, and the artist became
celebrated enough to receive many commissions for portraits,
which he executed, in pencil, with very careful treatment of
detail and accessory. Various influential friends perceived the
genius and promise of the lad, and were anxious to furnish
him with the means of studying in the metropolis; but with rare
independence he refused all aid, and by careful economy saved
a sufficient sum to enable him to leave for London. There he
made a lucky hit by a sketch of the younger Kean, which, like
his portrait of Scott, was lithographed and published. He
entered the Academy schools in 1828, and carried off the highest
prizes open to the students. In 1829 he exhibited for the first
time in the Royal Academy. Gradually he began to confine
himself more exclusively to subject and historical pictures,
varied occasionally by portraits of Campbell, Miss Landon,
Dickens, and other of his literary friends. In 1833 he exhibited
two pictures which greatly increased his reputation, and in 1835
the " Chivalric Vow of the Ladies and the Peacock " procured his
election as associate of the Academy, of which he became full
member in 1840. The years that followed were occupied
with a long series of figure pictures, deriving their subjects
from history and tradition and from the works of Shakespeare,
Goldsmith and Le Sage. He also designed illustrations for
several of Dickens's Christmas books and other works. Between
the years 1830 and 1836 he contributed to Eraser's Magazine,
under the pseudonym of Alfred Croquis, a remarkable series
of portraits of the literary and other celebrities of the time —
character studies, etched or lithographed in outline, and touched
more or less with the emphasis of the caricaturist, which were
afterwards published as the Maclise Portrait Gallery (1871).
In 1858 Maclise commenced one of the two great monumental
works of his life, the " Meeting of Wellington and Blucher,"
on the walls of Westminster Palace. It was begun in fresco, a
process which proved unmanageable. The artist wished to
resign the task; but, encouraged by Prince Albert, he studied
in Berlin the new method of " water-glass " painting, and
carried out the subject and its companion, the " Death of Nelson,"
in that medium, completing the latter painting in 1864. The
intense application which he gave to these great historic works,
and various circumstances connected with the commission, had
a serious effect on the artist's health. He began to shun the
company in which he formerly delighted; his old buoyancy of

MACLURE— MAcMAHON

263

spirits was gone; and when, in 1865, the presidentship of the
Academy was offered to him he declined the honour. He died
of acute pneumonia on the 2sth of April 1870. His works are
distinguished by powerful intellectual and imaginative qualities,
but most of them are marred by harsh and dull colouring, by
metallic hardness of surface and texture, and by frequent
touches of the theatrical in the action and attitudes of the
figures. His fame rests most securely on his two greatest works
at Westminster.

A memoir of Maclise, by his friend W. J. O'DriscolI, was published
in 1871.

MACLURE, WILLIAM (1763-1840), American geologist, was
born at Ayr in Scotland in 1763. After a brief visit to New
York in 1782 he began active life as a partner in a London firm
of American merchants. In 1796 business affairs took him
to Virginia, U.S.A., which he thereafter made his home. In
1803 he visited France as one of the commissioners appointed
to settle the claims of American citizens on the French govern-
ment; and during the few years then spent in Europe he applied
himself with enthusiasm to the study of geology. On his return
home in 1807 he commenced the self-imposed task of making a
geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the
Union was traversed and mapped by him, the Alleghany Moun-
tains being crossed and recrossed some fifty times. The results
of his unaided labours were submitted to the American Philo-
sophical Society in a memoir entitled Observations on the Geology
of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map, and pub-
lished in the Society's Transactions (vol. iv. 1809, p. 91) together
with the first geological map of that country. This antedates
William Smith's geological map of England by six years. In
1817 Maclure brought before the same society a revised edition
of his map, and his great geological memoir was issued sepa-
rately, with some additional matter, under the title Observations
on the Geology of the United States of America. Subsequent
survey has corroborated the general accuracy of Maclure's obser-
vations. In 1819 he visited Spain, and attempted, unsuccess-
fully, to establish an agricultural college near the city of Alicante.
Returning to America in 1824, he settled for some years at New
Harmony, Indiana, and sought to develop his scheme of the
agricultural college. Failing health ultimately constrained him
to relinquish the attempt, and to seek (in 1827) a more con-
genial climate in Mexico. There, at San Angel, he died on the
23rd of March 1840.

See S. G. Morton, " Memoir of William Maclure," Amer. Journ.
Sci., vol. xlvii. (1844), P- I-

MACMAHON, MARIE EDME PATRICE MAURICE DE, duke

of Magenta (1808-1893), French marshal and president of the
French republic, was born on the i3th of July 1808 at the chateau
of Sully, near Autun. He was descended from an Irish family
which went into exile with James II. Educated at the military
school of St Cyr, in 1827 he entered the army, and soon saw
active service in the first French campaign in Algeria, where
his ability and bravery became conspicuous. Being recalled
to France, he gained renewed distinction in the expedition to
Antwerp in 1832. He became captain in 1833, and in that
year returned to Algeria. He led daring cavalry raids across
plains infested with Bedouin, and especially distinguished
himself at the siege of Constantine in 1837. From then until
1855 he was almost constantly in Algeria, and rose to the rank
of general of division. During the Crimean War MacMahon was
given the command of a division, and in September 1855 he
successfully conducted the assault upon the Malakoff works,
which led to the fall of Sebastopol. After his return to France
honours were showered upon him, and he was made a senator.
Desiring a more active life, however, and declining the highest
command in France, he was once more sent out, at his own
request, to Algeria, where he completely defeated the Kabyles.
After his return to France he voted as a senator against the
unconstitutional law for general safety, which was brought
forward in consequence of Orsini's abortive attempt on the
emperor's life. MacMahon greatly distinguished himself in the

Italian campaign of 1859. Partly by good luck and partly by
his boldness and sagacity in pushing forward without orders at
a critical moment at the battle of Magenta, he enabled the
French to secure the victory. For his brilliant services Mac-
Mahon received his marshal's baton and was created duke of
Magenta. In 1861 he represented France at the coronation of
William I. of Prussia, and in 1864 he was nominated governor-
general of Algeria. MacMahon's action in this capacity formed
the least successful episode of his career. Although he did
institute some reforms in the colonies, complaints were so
numerous that twice in the early part of 1870 he sent in his
resignation to the emperor. When the ill-fated Ollivier cabinet
was formed the emperor abandoned his Algerian schemes and
MacMahon was recalled.

War being declared between France and Prussia in July 1870,
MacMahon was appointed to the command of the Alsace army
detachment (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). On the 6th of August
MacMahon fought the battle of Worth (q.v.). His courage
was always conspicuous on the field, but the two-to-one
numerical superiority of the Germans triumphed. MacMahon
was compelled to fall back upon Saverne, and thence to Toul.
Though he suffered further losses in the course of his retreat,
his movements were so ably conducted that the emperor confided
to him the supreme command of the new levies which he was
mustering at Chalons, and he was directed to effect a junction
with Bazaine. This operation he undertook against his will.
He had an army of 120,000 men, with 324 guns; but large
numbers of the troops were disorganized and demoralized.
Early on the ist of September the decisive battle of Sedan began.
MacMahon was dangerously wounded in the thigh, whereupon
General Ducrot, and soon afterwards General de Wimpffen, took
command. MacMahon shared the captivity of his comrades,
and resided at Wiesbaden until the conclusion of peace.

In March 187 1 MacMahon was appointed by Thiers Commander-
in-chief of the army of Versailles; and in that capacity he sup-
pressed the Communist insurrection, and successfully conducted
the second siege of Paris. In the following December he was
invited to become a candidate for Paris in the elections to the
National Assembly, but declined nomination. On the resigna-
tion of Thiers as president of the Republic, on the 24th of May
1873, MacMahon was elected to the vacant office by an almost
unanimous vote, being supported by 300 members out of 392.
The due de Broglie was empowered to form a Conservative
administration, but the president also took an early opportunity
of showing that he intended to uphold the sovereignty of the
National Assembly. On the sth of November 1873 General
Changarnier presented a motion in the Assembly to confirm
MacMahon's powers for a period of ten years, and to provide
for a commission of thirty to draw up a form of constitutional
law. The president consented, but in a message to the Assembly
he declared in favour of a confirmation of his own powers for
seven years, and expressed his determination to use all his
influence in the maintenance of Conservative principles. After
prolonged debates the Septennate was adopted on the igth of
November by 378 votes to 310. There was no coup d'etat in
favour of " Henri V.," as had been expected, and the president
resolved to abide by " existing institutions." One of his
earliest acts was to receive the finding of the court-martial upon
his old comrade in arms, Marshal Bazaine, whose death sentence
he commuted to one of twenty years' imprisonment in a fortress.
Though MacMahon's life as president of the Republic was of
the simplest possible character, his term of office was marked
by many brilliant displays, while his wife was a leader in all
works of charity and benevolence.

The president was very popular in the rural districts of
France, through which he made a successful tour shortly after
the declaration of the Septennate. But in Paris and other large
cities his policy soon caused great dissatisfaction, the Repub-
lican party especially being alienated by press prosecutions and
the attempted suppression of Republican ideas. Matters were
at a comparative deadlock in the National Assembly, until the
accession of some Orleanists to the Moderate Republican party

264

McMASTER— MACNAGHTEN

in 1875 made it possible to pass various constitutional laws.
In May 1877, however, the constitutional crisis became once
more acute. A peremptory letter of censure from MacMahon
to Jules Simon caused the latter to resign with his colleagues.
The due de Broglie formed a ministry, but Gambetta carried
a resolution in the Chamber of Deputies in favour of parlia-
mentary government. The president declined to yield, and
being supported by the Senate, he dissolved the Chamber, by
decree, on the 25th of June. The prosecution of Gambetta
followed for a speech at Lille, in which he had said " the marshal
must, if the elections be against him, se soumettre ou se demettre."
In a manifesto respecting the elections, the president referred
to his successful government and observed, " I cannot obey
the injunctions of the demagogy; I can neither become the
instrument of Radicalism nor abandon the post in which the
constitution has placed me." His confidence in the result of
the elections was misplaced. Notwithstanding the great pressure
put upon the constituencies by the government, the elections
in October resulted in the return of 335 Republicans and only
198 anti-Republicans, the latter including 30 MacMahonists,
89 Bonapartists, 41 Legitimists, and 38 Orleanists. The presi-
dent endeavoured to ignore the significance of the elections,
and continued his reactionary policy. As a last resort he called
to power an extra-parliamentary cabinet under General Roche-
bouet, but the Republican majority refused to vote supplies,
and after a brief interval the president was compelled to yield,
and to accept a new Republican ministry under Dufaure. The
prolonged crisis terminated on the I4th of December 1877, and
no further constitutional difficulties arose in 1878. But as the
senatorial elections, held early in 1879, gave the Republicans
an effective working majority in the Upper Chamber, they now
called for the removal of the most conspicuous anti-Republicans
among the generals and officials. The president refused to
supersede them, and declined to sanction the law brought in
with this object. Perceiving further resistance to be useless,
however, MacMahon resigned the presidency on the 3oth of
January 1879, and Jules Grevy was elected as his successor.

MacMahon now retired into private life. Relieved from the
cares of state, his simple and unostentatious mode of existence
enabled him to pass many years of dignified repose. He died
at Paris on the I7th of October 1893, in his eighty-sixth
year. A fine, tall, soldierly man, of a thoroughly Irish type, in
private life MacMahon was universally esteemed as generous
and honourable; as a soldier he was brave and able, with-
out decided military genius; as a politician he was patriotic
and well-intentioned, but devoid of any real capacity for
statecraft. (G.B.S.)

McMASTER, JOHN BACH (1852- ), American historian,
was born in Brooklyn, New York, on the agth of June 1852. He
graduated from the college of the City of New York in 1872,
worked as a civil engineer in 1873-1877, was instructor in civil
engineering at Princeton University in 1877-1883, and in 1883
became professor of American history in the university of
Pennsylvania. He is best known for his History of the People of
the United States from the Revolution to the CM War (1883 sqq.),
a valuable supplement to the more purely political writings of
Schouler, Von Hoist and Henry Adams.

MACMILLAN, the name of a family of English publishers.
The founders of the firm were two Scotsmen, Daniel Macmillan
(1813-1857) and his younger brother Alexander (1818-1896).
Daniel was a native of the Isle of Arran, and Alexander was born
in Irvine on the 3rd of October 1818. Daniel was for some time
assistant to the bookseller Johnson at Cambridge, but entered
the employ of Messrs Seeley in London in 1837; in 1843 he began
business in Aldersgate Street, and in the same year the two
brothers purchased the business of Newby in Cambridge. They
did not confine themselves to bookselling, but published educa-
tional works as early as 1844. In 1845 they became the pro-
prietors of the more important business of Stevenson, in Cam-
bridge, the firm being styled Macmillan, Barclay & Macmillan.
In 1850 Barclay retired and the firm resumed the name of Mac-
millan & Co. Daniel Macmillan died at Cambridge on the 27th

of June 1857. In that year an impetus was given to the business
by the publication of Kingsley's Two Years Ago. A branch office
was opened in 1858 in Henrietta Street, London, which led to a
great extension of trade. These premises were surrendered for
larger ones in Bedford Street, and in 1897 the buildings in
St Martin's Street were opened. Alexander Macmillan died in
January 1896. By his great energy and literary associations,
and with the aid of his partners, there had been built up in little
over half a century one of the most important publishing houses
in the world. Besides the issue of many important series of
educational and scientific works, they published the works of
Kingsley, Huxley, Maurice, Tennyson, Lightfoot, Westcott, J. R.
Green, Lord Roberts, Lewis Carroll, and of many other well-known
authors. In 1898 they took over the old-established publishing
house of R. Bentley & Son, and with it the works of Mrs Henry
Wood, Miss Rhoda Broughton, The Ingoldsby Legends, and also
Temple Bar and the Argosy. In 1893 the firm was converted
into a limited liability company, its chairman being Frederick
Macmillan (b. 1851), who was knighted in 1909. The American
firm of the Macmillan Company, of which he was also a director,
is a separate business.

See Thomas Hughes, Memoir of Daniel Macmillan(l882) ; A Biblio-
graphical Catalogue of Macmillan & Go's Publications from 1843 to
1889 (1891), with portraits of the brothers Daniel and Alexander
after Lowes Dickinson and Hubert Herkomer; also articles in Le
Livre (September 1886), Publishers' Circular (January 14, 1893), the
Bookman (May 1901), &c.

MACMONNIES, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1863- ), Ameri-
can sculptor and painter, was born at Brooklyn, New York, on
the 2oth of September 1863. His mother was a niece of Benjamin
West. At the age of sixteen- MacMonnies was received as an
apprentice in the studio of Augustus St Gaudens, the sculptor,
where he remained for five years. In 1884 he went to Paris and
thence to Munich, where he painted for some months. Returning
to Paris next year he became the most prominent pupil of Fal-
guiere. His " Diana " brought him a mention at the Salon of
1 889. Three life-sized figures of angels for the church of St Paul,
New York, were followed by his " Nathan Hale," in the City Hall
Park, New York, and a portrait of James S. T, Stranahan, for
Brooklyn. This last brought him a " second medal " in the Salon
of 1 89 1 , the first time an American sculptor had been so honoured.
In 1893 he was chosen to design and carry out the Columbian
Fountain for the Chicago World's Fair, which placed him instantly
in the front rank. His largest work is a decoration for the
Memorial Arch to Soldiers and Sailors, in Prospect Park, Brook-
lyn, consisting of three enormous groups in bronze. In Prospect
Park, Brooklyn, MacMonnies has also a large " Horse Tamer,"
a work of much distinction. A " Winged Victory " at the U.S.
military academy at West Point, New York, is of importance;
and his " Bacchante," an extraordinary combination of real-
ism and imagination, rejected by the Boston Public Library,
is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. He
also became well known as a painter, mainly of portraits.
In 1888 he married Mary Fairchild, a figure painter of
distinction, but in 1909 they were divorced and she married
Will H. Low.

MACNAGHTEN, SIR WILLIAM HAY, BART. (1793-1841),
Anglo-Indian diplomatist, was the second son of Sir Francis
Macnaghten, Bart., judge of the supreme courts of Madras and
Calcutta. He was born in August 1 793, and educated at Charter-
house. He went out to Madras as a cadet in 1809, but was
appointed in 1816 to the Bengal Civil Service. He early dis-
played a great talent for languages, and also published several
treatises on Hindu and Mahommedan law. His political career
began in 1830 as secretary to Lord William Bentinck; and in 1837
he became one of the most trusted advisers of the governor-
general, Lord Auckland, with whose policy of supporting Shah
Shuja against Dost Mahommed, the reigning amir of Kabul,
Macnaghten was closely identified. As political agent at Kabul
he came into conflict with the military authorities and subse-
quently with his subordinate Sir Alexander Burnes. Macnaghten
attempted to placate the Afghan chiefs with heavy subsidies,
but when the drain on the Indian exchequer became too great,

MAcNALLY— McNEILE

265

and the allowances were reduced, this policy led to an outbreak.
Burnes was murdered on the 2nd of November 1841 ; and owing
to the incapacity of the aged General Elphmstone the British
army in Kabul degenerated into a leaderless mob. Macnaghten
tried to save the situation by negotiating with the Afghan chiefs
and, independently of them, with Dost Mahommed's son, Akbar
Khan, by whom he was assassinated on the 23rd of December
1841; the disastrous retreat from Kabul and the massacre of the
British army in the Kurd Kabul pass followed. These events
threw doubt on Macnaghten's capacity for dealing with the
problems of Indian diplomacy, though his fearlessness and
integrity were unquestioned. He had been created a baronet in
1840, and four months before his death was nominated to the
governorship of Bombay.

MACNALLY, LEONARD (1752-1820), Irish informer, was born
in Dublin, the son of a merchant. In 1776 he was called to the
Irish, and in 1783 to the English bar. He supported himself for
some time in London by writing plays and editing the Public
Ledger. Returning to Dublin, he entered upon a systematic
course of informing against the members of the revolutionary
party, for whom his house had become the resort. He also
betrayed to the government prosecutors political clients whom
he defended eloquently in the courts. He made a fine defence
for Robert Emmet and cheered him in his last hours, although
before appearing in court he had sold, for £200, the contents
of his brief to the lawyers for the Crown. After living a professed
Protestant all his life, he received absolution on his deathbed
from a Roman Catholic priest. He died on the I3th of February
1820.

MACNEE, SIR DANIEL (1806-^882), Scottish portrait painter,
was born at Fintry in Stirlingshire. At the age of thirteen he was
apprenticed, along with Horatio Macculloch and Leitch the
water-colour painter, to John Knox, a landscapist of some re-
pute. He afterwards worked for a year as a lithographer, was
employed by the Smiths of Cumnock to paint the ornamental
lids of their planewood snuff-boxes, and, having studied in
Edinburgh at the " Trustees' Academy," supporting himself
meanwhile by designing and colouring book illustrations for
Lizars the engraver, he established himself as an artist in
Glasgow, where he became a fashionable portrait painter. He
was in 1829 admitted a member of the Royal Scottish Academy;
and on the death of Sir George Harvey in 1876 he was elected
president, and received the honour of knighthood. From this
period till his death, on the i8th of January 1882, he resided
in Edinburgh, where his genial social qualities and his
inimitable powers as a teller of humorous Scottish anecdote
rendered him popular.

MACNEIL, HERMON ATKINS ( 1 866- ) , American sculptor,
was born at Chelsea, Massachusetts. He was an instructor in
industrial art at Cornell University in 1886-1889, and was then
a pupil of Henri M. Chapu and Falguiere in Paris. Returning to
America, he aided Philip Martiny in the preparation of sketch
models for the Columbian exposition, and in 1896 he won the
Rinehart scholarship, passing four years (1896-1900) in Rome.
In 1906 he became a National Academician. His first important,
work was " The Moqui Runner," which was followed by " A*
Primitive Chant," and " The Sun Vow," all figures of the North-
American Indian. A " Fountain of Liberty," for the St Louis
exposition, and other Indian themes came later; his " Agnese "
and his " Beatrice," two fine busts of women, also deserve
mention. His principal work is the sculpture for a large
memorial arch, at Columbus, Ohio, in honour of President
McKinley. In 1909 he won in competition a commission for
a large soldiers' and sailors' monument in Albany, New York.
His wife, Carol Brooks MacNeil, also a sculptor of distinction,
was a pupil of F. W. MacMonnies.

McNEILE, HUGH (1795-1879), Anglican divine, younger son
of Alexander McNeile (or McNeill), was born at Ballycastle, Co.
Antrim, on the isth of July 1795. He graduated at Trinity
College, Dublin, in 1810. His handsome presence, and his
promise of exceptional gifts of oratory, led a wealthy uncle,
Major-General Daniel McNeill, to adopt him as his heir; and he

was destined for a parliamentary career. During a stay at
Florence, Hugh McNeile became temporarily intimate with Lord
Byron and Madame de Stae'l. On returning home, he determined
to abandon the prospect of political distinction for the clerical
profession, and was disinherited. In 1820 he was ordained, and
after holding the curacy of Stranorlar, Co. Donegal, for two
years, was appointed to the living of Albury, Surrey, by Henry
Drummond.

Edward Irving endeavoured, not without success at first,
to draw McNeile into agreement with his doctrine and aims.
Irving's increasing extravagance, however, soon alienated
McNeile. His preaching now attracted much attention; in
London he frequently was heard by large congregations. In 1834
he accepted the incumbency of St Jude's, Liverpool, where for the
next thirty years he wielded great political as well as ecclesiastical
influence. He repudiated the notion that a clergyman should be
debarred from politics, maintaining at a public meeting that
" God when He made the minister did not unmake the citizen."
In 1835 McNeile entered upon a long contest, in which he was
eventually successful, with the Liverpool corporation, which had
been captured by the Whigs, after the passing of the Municipal
Reform Act. A proposal was carried that the elementary schools
under the control of the corporation should be secularized by the
introduction of what was known as the Irish National System.
The threatened withdrawal of the Bible as the basis of denomi-
national religious teaching was met by a fierce agitation led by
McNeile, who so successfully enlisted public support that before
the new system could be introduced every child was provided for
in new Church of England schools established by public sub-
scriptions. At the same time he conducted a campaign which
gradually reduced the Whig element in the council, till in 1841 it
almost entirely disappeared. To his influence was also attributed
the defeat of the Liberal parliamentary candidates in the general
election of 1837, followed by a long period of Conservative pre-
dominance in Liverpool politics. McNeile had the Irish Protest-
ant's horror of Romanism, which he constantly denounced in the
pulpit and on the platform; and Macaulay, speaking in the House
of Commons on the Maynooth endowment in April 1845, singled
him out for attack as the most powerful representative of un-
compromising Protestant opinion in the country. As the Tract-
arian movement in the Church of England developed, he became
one of its most zealous opponents and the most conspicuous
leader of the evangelical party. In 1840 he published a volume of
Lectures on the Church of England, and in 1846 (the year after
Newman's secession to Rome) The Church and the Churches, in
which he maintained with much dialectical skill the evangelical
doctrine of the " invisible Church " in opposition to the teaching
of Newman and Pusey. Hugh McNeile was in close sympathy
with the philanthropic work as well as the religious views of the
7th earl of Shaftesbury, who more than once tried to persuade
Lord Palmerston to raise him to the episcopal bench. But
although Palmerston usually followed the advice of Shaftesbury
in the appointment of bishops, he would not consent to the eleva-
tion to the House of Lords of so powerful a political opponent as
McNeile, whom Lord John Russell had accused of frustrating
for thirty years the education policy of the Liberal party. In
1860 he was appointed a canon of Chester; and in 1868 Disraeli
appointed him dean of Ripon. This preferment he resigned in
1875, and he lived in retirement at Bournemouth till his death
on the 28th of January 1879. McNeile married, in 1822, Anne,
daughter of William Magee, archbishop of Dublin, and aunt of
William Connor Magee, archbishop of York, by whom he had a
large family.

Although a vehement controversialist, Hugh McNeile was a man
of simple and sincere piety of character. Sir Edward Russell, an
opponent alike of his religious and his political opinions, bears
witness to the deep spirituality of his teaching, and describes him
as an absolutely unique personality. " He made himself leader
of the Liverpool people, and always led with calm and majesty
in the most excited times. His eloquence was grave, flowing,
emphatic — had a dignity in delivery, a perfection of elocu-
tion, that only John Bright equalled in the latter half of the

266

MACNEILL— MACON

igth century. Its fire was solemn force. McNeile's voice was
probably the finest organ ever heard in public oratory. His
action was as graceful as it was expressive. He ruled an
audience."

See J. A. Picton, Memorials of Liverpool, vol. i. (1873) ; Sir Edward
Russell, " The Religious Life of Liverpool," in the Sunday Maga-
zine (June 1905); Charles Bullock, Hugh McNeile and Reformation
Truth. (R. J. M.)

MACNEILL, HECTOR (1746-1818), Scottish poet, was born
near Roslin, Midlothian, on the 22nd of October 1746, the son
of an impoverished army captain. He went to Bristol as a
clerk at the age of fourteen, and soon afterwards was despatched
to the West Indies. From 1780 to 1786 he acted as assistant
secretary on board the flagships of Admiral Geary and Sir
Richard Bickerton (1727-1792). Most of his later life was spent
in Scotland, and it was in the house of a friend at Stirling that
he wrote most of his songs and his Scotland's Skaith, or the History
of Will and Jean (1795), a narrative poem intended to show the
deteriorating influences of whisky and pothouse politics. A
sequel, The Waes of War, appeared next year. In 1800 he pub-
lished The Memoirs of Charles Macpherson, Esq., a novel under-
stood to be a narrative of his own hardships and adventures. A
complete edition of the poems he wished to own appeared in 181 2.
His songs " Mary of Castlecary," " Come under my plaidy,"
" My boy Tammy," " O tell me how for to woo," " I lo'ed
ne'er a lassie but ane," " The plaid amang the hether," and
" Jeanie's black e'e," are notable for their sweetness and sim-
plicity. He died at Edinburgh on the isth of March 1818.

MACOMB, a city and the county-seat of McDonough county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of the state, about 60 m. S.W.
of Peoria. Pop. (1890), 4052; (1900), 5375 (232 foreign-born);
(1910), 5774. Macomb is served by the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, and the Macomb & Western Illinois railways. The city
is the seat of the Western Illinois state normal school (opened
in 1902), and has a Carnegie library and a city park. Clay is
found in the vicinity, and there are manufactures of pottery,
bricks, &c. The city was founded in 1830 as the county-seat
of McDonough county, and was called Washington by the
settlers, but the charter of incorporation, also granted in 1830,
gave it the present name in honour of General Alexander Macomb.
Macomb was first chartered as a city in 1856.

MACOMER, a village of Sardinia in the province of Cagliari,
from which it is 95 m. N.N.W. by rail, and the same distance
S.W. of Golfo degli Aranci. Pop. (1901), 3488. It is situated
1890 ft. above sea-level on the southern ascent to the central
plateau (the Campeda) of this part of Sardinia; and it is the junc-
tion of narrow-gauge lines branching from the main line east-
wards to Nuoro and westwards to Bosa. The old parish church
of S. Pantaleone has three Roman mile-stones in front of
it, belonging to the Roman high-road from Carales to Turris
Libisonis. The modern high-road follows the ancient. The
district, especially the Campeda, is well fitted for grazing and
horse and cattle breeding, which is carried on to a consider-
able extent. It is perhaps richer in nuraghi than any other
part of Sardinia.

MACON, NATHANIEL (1758-1837), American political leader,
was born at Macon Manor, Warren county, North Carolina, on
the i7th of December 1758. He studied at the college of New
Jersey (now Princeton University) from 1774 to 1776, when the
institution was closed on account of the outbreak of the War of
Independence; served for a short time in a New Jersey militia
company; studied law at Bute Court-house, North Carolina, in
1777-1780, at the same time managing his tobacco plantation;
was a member of a Warren county militia company in 1780-
1782, and served in the North Carolina Senate in 1781-1785.
In 1786 he was elected to the Continental Congress, but declined
to serve. In 1791-1815 he was a member of the national House
of Representatives, and in 1815-1828 of the United States
Senate. Macon's point of view was always local rather than
national. He was essentially a North Carolinian first, and an
American afterwards; and throughout his career he was an
aggressive advocate of state sovereignty and an adherent of the
doctrines of the " Old Republicans." He at first opposed the

adoption of the Federal constitution of 1787, as a member of
the faction led by Willie Jones (1731-1801) of Halifax, North
Carolina, but later withdrew his opposition. In Congress he
denounced Hamilton's financial policy, opposed the Jay Treaty
(1795) and the Alien and Sedition Acts, and advocated a con-
tinuance of the French alliance of 1778. His party came into
power in 1801, and he was Speaker of the house from December
1801 to October 1807. At first he was in accord with Jefferson's
administration; he approved the Louisiana Purchase, and as
early as 1803 advocated the purchase of Florida. For a number
of years, however, he was politically allied with John Randolph.1
As speaker, in spite of strong opposition, he kept Randolph at the
head of the important committee on Ways and Means from 1801
to 1806; and in 1805-1808, with Randolph and Joseph H.
Nicholson (1770-1817) of Maryland, he was a leader of the group
of about ten independents, called the " Quids," who strongly
criticized Jefferson and opposed the presidential candidature of
Madison. By 1809, however, Macon was again in accord
with his party, and during the next two years he was one
of the most influential of its leaders. In December 1809 he
introduced resolutions which combined the ideas of Peter Early
(1773-1817) of Georgia, David R. Williams (1776-1830) of South
Carolina, and Samuel W. Dana (1757-1830) of Connecticut with
his own. The resolutions recommended the complete exclusion
of foreign war vessels from United States ports and the suppres-
sion of illegal trade carried on by foreign merchants under the
American flag. The substance of these resolutions was embodied
in the " Macon Bill, No. i," which passed the House but was
defeated in the Senate. On the 7th of April 1810 Macon reported
from committee the " Macon Bill, No. 2," which had been drawn
by John Taylor (1770-1832) of South Carolina, and was not
actively supported by him. This measure (amended) became
law on the ist of May, and provided for the repeal of the Non-
Intercourse Act of 1809, authorized the president, " in case
either Great Britain or France shall before the 3rd day of March
next so revoke or modify her edicts as that they shall cease to
violate the neutral commerce of the United States," to revive
non-intercourse against the other, and prohibited British and
French vessels of war from entering American waters. In 1812
Macon voted for the declaration of war against Great Britain,
and later was chairman of the Congressional committee which
made a report (July 1813) condemning Great Britain's conduct
of the war. He opposed the Bank Act of 1816, the " internal
improvements " policy of Calhoun (in the early part of his
career) and Clay, and the Missouri Compromise, his speech against
the last being especially able. In 1824 Macon received the elec-
toral vote of Virginia for the vice-presidency, and in 1826-1828
was president pro tempore of the Senate. He was president of
the North Carolina constitutional convention in 1835, and was an
elector on the Van Buren ticket in 1836. He died at his home,
Buck Springs, Warren county, North Carolina, on the 29th of
June 1837.

See William E. Dodd, The Life of Nathaniel Macon (Raleigh, N.C.,
19°3) I E. M. Wilson, The Congressional Career of Nathaniel Macon
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1900).

MACON, a town of east-central France, capital of the depart-
ment of Sa6ne-et-Loire, 45 m. N. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon
railway. Pop. (1906), 16,151. Macon is situated on the right
bank of the Saone facing the plain of the Bresse; a bridge of
twelve arches connects it with the suburb of St Laurent on the
opposite bank. The most prominent building is the modern
Romanesque church of St Pierre, a large three-naved basilica,
with two fine spires. Of the old cathedral of St Vincent (i2th
and I3th centuries), destroyed at the Revolution, nothing re-
mains but the Romanesque narthex, now used as a chapel, the
[acade and its two flanking towers. The hotel de ville contains
a library, a theatre and picture-gallery. Opposite to it stands
a statue of the poet Alphonse Lamartine, a native of the town.
Macon is the seat of a prefecture, and has tribunals of first in-
stance and of commerce, and a chamber of commerce. There are

1 Their names are associated in Randolph-Macon College, named
in their honour in 1830.

MACON--MACPHERSON, J.

267

lycees and training colleges. Copper-founding is an important
industry; manufactures include casks, mats, rope and utensils
for the wine-trade. The town has a large trade in wine of the
district, known as Macon. It is a railway centre of considerable
importance, being the point at which the line from Paris to
Marseilles is joined by that from Mont Cenis and Geneva, as
well as by a branch from Moulins.

Macon (M atisco)wa.s an important town of the Aedui, but under
the Romans it was supplanted by Autun and Lyons. It suffered
a succession of disasters at the hands of the Germans, Burgun-
dians, Vandals, Huns, Hungarians and even of the Carolingian
kings. In the feudal period it was an important countship
which in 1228 was sold to the king of France, but more than once
afterwards passed into the possession of the dukes of Burgundy,
until the ownership of the French crown was established in the
time of Louis XI. In the i6th century Macon became a strong-
hold of the Huguenots, but afterwards fell into the hands of the
League, and did not yield to Henry IV. until 1594. The
bishopric, created by King Childebert, was suppressed in
1790.

MACON, a city and the county-seat of Bibb county, Georgia,
U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on both sides of the
Ocmulgee river (at the head of navigation), about 90 m. S.S.E.
of Atlanta. Pop. (1900), 23,272, of whom 11,550 were negroes;
(1910 census) 40,665. Macon is, next to Atlanta, the most im-
portant railway centre in the state, being served by the Southern,
the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Georgia Southern &
Florida, the Macon Dublin & Savannah, and the Macon & Bir-
mingham railways. It was formerly an important river port,
especially for the shipment of cotton, but lost this commercial
advantage when railway bridges made the river impassable. It is,
however, partially regaining the river trade in consequence of the
compulsory substitution of drawbridges for the stationary rail-
way bridges. The city is the seat of the Wesleyan female college
(1836), which claims to be the first college in the world chartered
to grant academic degrees to women ; Mercer University (Baptist) ,
which was established in 1833 as Mercer Institute at Penfield,
became a university in 1837, was removed to Macon in 1871, and
controls Hearn Academy (1839) at Cave Spring and Gibson
Mercer Academy (1903) at Bowman; the state academy for the
blind (1852), St Stanislaus' College (Jesuit), and Mt de Sales
Academy (Roman Catholic) for women. There are four orphan
asylums for whites and two for negroes, supported chiefly by
the Protestant Episcopal and Methodist Churches, and a public
hospital. Immediately east of Macon are two large Indian
mounds, and there is a third mound 9 m. south of the city.
Situated in the heart of the " Cotton Belt," Macon has a large
and lucrative trade; it is one of the most important inland cotton
markets of the United States, its annual receipts averaging about
250,000 bales. The city's factory products in 1905 were valued
at $7,297,347 (33-8% more than in 1900). In the vicinity are
large beds of kaolin, 30 m. wide, reaching nearly across the state,
and frequently 35 to 70 ft. in depth. Macon is near the fruit-
growing region of Georgia, and large quantities of peaches and
of garden products are annually shipped from the city.

Macon (named in honour of Nathaniel Macon) was surveyed
in 1823 by order of the Georgia legislature for the county-seat
of Bibb county, and received its first charter in 1824. It soon
became the centre of trade for Middle Georgia; in 1833 a steam-
boat line to Darien was opened, and in the following year 69,000
bales of cotton were shipped by this route. During the Civil
War the city was a centre for Confederate commissary supplies
and the seat of a Treasury depository. In July 1864 General
George Stoneman (1822-1894) with 500 men was captured near
the city by the Confederate general, Howell Cobb. Macon was
finally occupied by Federal troops under General James H.
Wilson (b. 1837) on the 2oth of April 1865. In 1900-1910 the
area of the city was increased by the annexation of several
suburbs.

MACPHERSON. SIR DAVID LEWIS (1818-1896), Canadian
financier and politician, was born at Castle Leathers, near Inver-
ness, Scotland, on the i2th of September 1818. In 1835 he

emigrated to Canada, settling in Montreal, where he built up a
large fortune by " forwarding " merchandise. In 1853 he re-
moved to Toronto, and in the same year obtained the contract
for building a line of railway from Toronto to Sarnia, a project
from which sprang the Grand Trunk railway, in the construc-
tion of which line he greatly increased his wealth. In 1864 he
was elected to the Canadian parliament as member of the Legis~
lative Council for Saugeen, and on the formation of the Dominion,
in 1867, was nominated to the Senate. In the following years
he published a number of pamphlets on economic subjects, of
which the best-known is Banking and Currency (1869). In 1880
he was appointed Speaker of the Senate, and from October 1883
till 1885 was minister of the interior in the Conservative cabinet.
In 1884 he was knighted by Queen Victoria. He died on the i6th
of August 1896.

MACPHERSON, JAMES (1736-1796), Scottish "translator"
of the Ossianic poems, was born at Ruthven in the parish of
Kingussie, Inverness, on the 27th of October 1736. He was
sent in 1753 to King's College, Aberdeen, removing two years
later to Marischal College. He also studied at Edinburgh, but
took no degree. He is said to have written over 4000 lines of
verse while a student, but though some of this was published,
notably The Highlander (1758), he afterwards tried to suppress
it. On leaving college he taught in the school of his native
place. At Moffat he met John Home, the author of Douglas,
for whom he recited some Gaelic verses from memory. He also
showed him MSS. of Gaelic poetry, supposed to have been picked
up in the Highlands, and, encouraged by Home and others, he
produced a number of pieces translated from the Gaelic, which
he was induced to publish at Edinburgh in 1760 as Fragments of
Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland. Dr Hugh
Blair, who was a firm believer in the authenticity of the poems,
got up a subscription to allow Macpherson to pursue his Gaelic
researches. In the autumn he set out to visit western Inverness,
the islands of Skye, North and South Uist and Benbecula.
He obtained MSS. which he translated with the assistance
of Captain Morrison and the Rev. A. Gallic. Later in the
year he made an expedition to Mull, when he obtained other
MSS. In 1761 he announced the discovery of an epic on the
subject of Fingal, and in December he published Fingal, an
Ancient Epic Poem in Six Books, together with Several Other Poems
composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, translated from the Gaelic
Language, written in the musical measured prose of which he had
made use in his earlier volume. Temora followed in 1763, and
a collected edition, The Works of Ossian, in 1765.

The genuineness of these so-called translations from the works
of a 3rd-century bard was immediately challenged in England,
and Dr Johnson, after some local investigation, asserted (Journey
to the Western Islands of Scotland, 1775) that Macpherson had
only found fragments of ancient poems and stories, which he had
woven into a romance of his own composition. Macpherson is
said to have sent Johnson a challenge, to which Johnson replied
that he was not to be deterred from detecting what he thought a
cheat by the menaces of a ruffian. Macpherson never produced
his originals, which he refused to publish on the ground of the ex-
pense. In 1764 he was made secretary to General Johnstone at
Pensacola, West Florida, and when he returned, two years later,
to England, after a quarrel with Johnstone, he was allowed to
retain his salary as a pension. He occupied himself with writing
several historical works, the most important of which was
Original Papers, containing the Secret History of Great Britain
from the Restoration to the Accession of the House of Hanover; to
which are prefixed Extracts from the Life of James II., as written
by himself (1775). He enjoyed a salary for defending the policy
of Lord North's government, and held the lucrative post of
London agent to Mahommed Ali, nabob of Arcot. He entered
parliament in 1780, and continued to sit until hie death. In his
later years he bought an estate, to which he gave the name of
Belville, in his native county of Inverness, where he died on the
1 7th of February 1796.

After Macpherson's death, Malcolm Laing, in an appendix to
his History of Scotland (1800), propounded the extreme view that

268

McPHERSON— MACREADY

the so-called Ossianic poems were altogether modern in origin
and that Macpherson's authorities were practically non-existent
For a discussion of this question see CELT: Scottish Gaelic Litera-
ture. Much of Macpherson's matter is clearly his own, and he
confounds the stories belonging to different cycles. But apart
from the doubtful morality of his transactions he must still be
regarded as one of the great Scottish writers. The varied sources
of his work and its worthlessness as a transcript of actual Celtic
poems do not alter the fact that he produced a work of art which
by its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy
tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than
any single work to bring about the romantic movement in
European, and especially in German, literature. It was speedily
translated into many European languages, and Herder and
Goethe (in his earlier period) were among its profound admirers.
Cesarotti's Italian translation was one of Napoleon's favourite
books.

AUTHORITIES.— For Macpherson's life, see The Life and Letters
of James Macpherson . . . (1894, new ed., 1906), by T. Bailey
Saunders, who has laboured to redeem his character from the sus-
picions generally current with English readers. The antiquity
of the Ossianic poems was defended in the introduction by Archibald
Clerk to his edition of the Poems of Ossian (1870). Materials for
arriving at a decision by comparison with undoubtedly genuine
fragments of the Ossianic legend are available in The Book of the Dean
of Lismore, Gaelic verses, collected by J. McGregor, dean of Lismore,
in the early i6th century (ed. T. McLauchlan, 1862) ; the Leabhar na
Feinne (1871) of F. J. Campbell, who also discusses the subject in
Popular Tales of the Western Highlands, iv. (1893). See also L. C.
Stern, "Die ossianische Heldenlieder "in Zeitschnft fur vergleichende
Litteratur-geschichte (1895; Eng. trans, by J. L. Robertson in Trans.
Gael. Soc. of Inverness, xxii., 1897-1898); Sir J. Sinclair, A Disser-
tation on the Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian (1806) ; Transactions
of the Ossianic Society (Dublin, 1854-1861); Cours de litterature
celtique, by Arbois de Jubainville, editor of the Revue celtique
(1883, &c.); A. Nutt, Ossian and the Ossianic Literature (1899),
with a valuable bibliographical appendix; J. S. Smart, James
Macpherson: an Episode in Literature (1905).

McPHERSON, JAMES BIRDSEYE (1828-1864), American
soldier, was born at Sandusky, Ohio, on the I4th of November
1828. He entered West Point at the age of twenty-one, and
graduated (1853) at the head of his class, which included Sheridan,
Schofield and Hood. He was employed at the military academy
as instructor of practical military engineering (1.853). A year
later he was sent to engineer duty at New York, and in 1857,
after constructing Fort Delaware, he was sent as superintending
engineer to San Francisco, becoming ist lieutenant in 1858. He
was promoted captain during the first year of the Civil War, and
towards the close of 1861 became lieutenant-colonel and aide-de-
camp to General Halleck, who in the spring of 1862 sent him to
General Grant as chief engineer. He remained with Grant during
the Shiloh campaign, and acted as engineer adviser to Halleck
during the siege operations against Corinth in the summer of
1862. In October he distinguished himself in command of an
infantry brigade at the battle of Corinth, and on the 8th of this
month was made major-general of volunteers and commander of
a division. In the second advance onVicksburg(i863)McPherson
commanded the XVII. corps, fought at Port Gibson, Raymond
and Jackson, and after the fall of Vicksburg was strongly recom-
mended by Grant for the rank of brigadier-general in the regular
army, to which he was promoted on the ist of August 1863. He
commanded at Vicksburg until the following spring. He was about
to go on leave of absence in order to be married in Baltimore
when he received his nomination to the command of the Army
of the Tennessee, Grant's and Sherman's old army, which was to
take part under Sherman's supreme command in the campaign
against Atlanta (1864). This nomination was made by Sherman
and entirely approved by Grant, who had the highest opinion of
McPherson's military and personal qualities. He was in com-
mand of his army at the actions of Resaca, Dallas, Kenesaw Moun-
tain and the battles about Atlanta. On the 22nd of July, when
the Confederates under his old classmate Hood made a sudden
and violent attack on the lines held by the Army of the Tennessee,
McPherson rode up, in the woods, to the enemy's firing line
and was killed. He was one of the most heroic figures of the
American Civil War, and Grant is reported to have said when

he heard of McPherson's death, " The country has lost one of
its best soldiers, and I have lost my best friend."

MACQUARIE, a British island in the South Pacific Ocean,
in 54° 49' S. and 159° 49' E. It is about 20 m. long, and covered
with a grassy vegetation, with some trees or shrubs in the shel-
tered places which afford food to a parrot of the genus Cyano-
rhamphus, allied to those of the Auckland Islands. Although it
has no settled population, Macquarie is constantly visited by
sailors in quest of the seals which abound in its waters.

MACRAUCHENIA, a long-necked and long-limbed, three-toed
South American ungulate mammal, typifying the suborder
Litopterna (q.v.).

MACREADY, WILLIAM CHARLES (1793-1873), English
actor, was born in London on the 3rd of March 1793, and edu-
cated at Rugby. It was his intention to go up to Oxford, but in
1809 the embarrassed affairs of his father, the lessee of several
provincial theatres, called him to share the responsibilities of
theatrical management. On the 7th of June 1810 he made a
successful first appearance as Romeo at Birmingham. Other
Shakespearian parts followed, but a serious rupture between
father and son resulted in the young man's departure for Bath
in 1814. Here he remained for two years, with occasional
professional visits to other provincial towns. On the i6th
of September 1816, Macready made his first London appear-
ance at Covent Garden as Orestes in The Distressed Mother,
a translation of Racine's Andromaque by Ambrose Philips.
Macready's choice of characters was at first confined chiefly
to the romantic drama. In 1818 he won a permanent
success in Isaac Pocock's (1782-1835) adaptation of Scott's
Rob Roy. He showed his capacity for the highest tragedy
when he played Richard III. at Covent Garden on the 25th
of October 1819. Transferring his services to Drury Lane,
he gradually rose in public favour, his most conspicuous suc-
cess being in the title-role of Sheridan Knowles's William Tell
(May u, 1825). Ini826hecompletedasuccessful engagementin
America, and in 1828 his performances met with a very flattering
reception in Paris. On the isth of December 1830 he appeared
at Drury Lane as Werner, one of his most powerful impersona-
tions. In 1833 he played in Antony and Cleopatra, in Byron's
Sardanapalus, and in King Lear. Already Macready had done
something to encourage the creation of a modern English drama,
and after entering on the management of Covent Garden in 1837
he introduced Robert Browning's Strafford, and in the following
year Bulwer's Lady of Lyons and Richelieu, the principal charac-
ters in which were among his most effective parts. On the loth
of June 1838 he gave a memorable performance of Henry V.,
for which Stanfield prepared sketches, and the mounting was
superintended by Bulwer, Dickens, Forster, Maclise, W. J. Fox
and other friends. The first production of Bulwer's Money took
place under the artistic direction of Count d'Orsay on the 8th of
December 1840, Macready winning unmistakable success in the
character of Alfred Evelyn. Both in his management of Covent
Garden, which he resigned in 1839, and of Drury Lane, which he
beld from 1841 to 1843, he found his designs for the elevation
of the stage frustrated by the absence of adequate public sup-
port. In 1843-1844 he made a prosperous tour in the United
States, but his last visit to that country, in 1849, was marred by
a riot at the Astor Opera House, New York, arising from the
jealousy of the actor Edwin Forrest, and resulting in the death of
seventeen persons, who were shot by the military called out to
quell the disturbance. Macready took leave of the stage in a
'arewell performance of Macbeth at Drury Lane on the 26th
of February 1851. The remainder of his life was spent in happy
retirement, and he died at Cheltenham on the 27th of April
1873. He had married, in 1823, Catherine Frances Atkins
(d. 1852). Of a numerous family of children only one son and one
daughter survived. In 1860 he married Cecile Louise Frederica
Spencer (1827-1908), by whom he had a son.

Macready's performances always displayed fine artistic per-
ceptions developed to a high degree of perfection by very
comprehensive culture, and even his least successful persona-
tions had the interest resulting from thorough intellectual

MACROBIUS— MADACH

269

study. He belonged to the school of Kean rather than of
Kemble; but, if his tastes were better disciplined and in some
respects more refined than those of Kean, his natural tempera-
ment did not permit him to give proper effect to the great tragic
parts of Shakespeare, King Lear perhaps excepted, which
afforded scope for his pathos and tenderness, the qualities in
which he specially excelled. With the exception of a voice of
good compass and capable of very varied expression, Macready
had no especial physical gifts for acting, but the defects of his
face and figure cannot be said to have materially affected his
success.

See Macready's Reminiscences, edited by Sir Frederick Pollock,
2 vols. (1875) ; William Charles Macready, by William Archer (1890).

MACROBIUS, AMBROSIUS THEODOSIUS, Roman gram-
marian and philosopher, flourished during the reigns of Honorius
and Arcadius (395-423). He himself states that he was not a
Roman, but there is no certain evidence whether he was of Greek
or perhaps African descent. He is generally supposed to have
been praetorian praefect in Spain (399), proconsul of Africa
(410), and lord chamberlain (422). But the tenure of high
office at that date was limited to Christians, and there is no evi-
dence in the writings of Macrobius that he was a Christian.
Hence the identification is more than doubtful, unless it be
assumed that his conversion to Christianity was subsequent to
the composition of his books. It is possible, but by no means
certain, that he was the Theodosius to whom Avianus dedicates
his fables.

The most important of his works is the Saturnalia, containing
an account of the discussions held at the house of Vettius
Praetextatus (c. 325-385) during the holiday of the Saturnalia.
It was written by the author for the benefit of his son Eustathius
(or Eustachius), and contains a great variety of curious historical,
mythological, critical and grammatical disquisitions. There is
but little attempt to give any dramatic character to the dia-
logue ; in each book some one of the personages takes the leading
part, and the remarks of the others serve only as occasions for
calling forth fresh displays of erudition. The first book is devoted
to an inquiry as to the origin of the Saturnalia and the festivals
•of Janus, which leads to a history and discussion of the Roman
calendar, and to an attempt to derive all forms of worship from
that of the sun. The second book begins with a collection of
bans mots, to which all present make their contributions, many of
them being ascribed to Cicero and Augustus; a discussion of
various pleasures, especially of the senses, then seems to have
taken place, but almost the whole of this is lost. The third,
fourth, fifth and sixth books are devoted to Virgil, dwelling
respectively on his learning in religious matters, his rhetorical
skill, his debt to Homer (with a comparison of the art of the two)
and to other Greek writers, and the nature and extent of his
borrowings from the earlier Latin poets. The latter part of the
third book is taken up with a dissertation upon luxury and the
sumptuary laws intended to check it, which is probably a dis-
located portion of the second book. The seventh book consists
largely of the discussion of various physiological questions.
The value of the work consists solely in the facts and opinions
quoted from earlier writers, for it is purely a compilation, and
has little in its literary form to recommend it. The form of the
Saturnalia is copied from Plato's Symposium and Gellius's
Nodes allicae; the chief authorities (whose names, however,
are not quoted) are Gellius, Seneca the philosopher, Plutarch
(Quacstiones conviviales) , Athenaeus and the commentaries of
Servius (excluded by some) and others on Virgil. We have also
two books of a commentary on the Somnium Scipionis narrated
by Cicero in his De republica. The nature of the dream, in
which the elder Scipio appears to his (adopted) grandson, and
describes the life of the good after death and the constitution of
the universe from the Stoic point of view, gives occasion for
Macrobius to discourse upon many points of physics in a series
of essays interesting as showing the astronomical notions then
current. The moral elevation of the fragment of Cicero thus
preserved to us gave the work a popularity in the middle ages
to which its own merits have little claim. Of a third work,

De differ entiis el societatibus graeci lalinique verbi, we only
possess an abstract by a certain Johannes, identified -with
Johannes Scotus Erigena (gth century).

See editions by L. von Jan (1848-1852, with bibliog. of previous
editions, and commentary) and F. Eyssenhardt (1893, Teubner
text); on the sources of the Saturnalia see H. Linke (1880) and
G. Wissowa (1880). The grammatical treatise will be found in Jan's
edition and H. Keil's Grammatici latini, v. ; see also G. F. Schomann,
Commentatio macrobiana (1871).

MACROOM, a market town in the western part of county Cork,
Ireland, on the river Sullane, an affluent of the Lee, 24! m. W.
of Cork by the Cork & Macroom railway, of which it is the ter-
minus. Pop. (1901), 3016. Besides a fine Roman Catholic church,
a court house and barracks, Macroom possesses a modernized
castle, which is said to have been founded by King John, though
it is more probably attributable to Norman invaders. It was
besieged more than once in the I7th century, and is said to have
been the birthplace of Admiral Sir William Penn, whose more
famous son founded Pennsylvania. Here some rebels of 1 798
were executed and their heads exhibited on the spikes of the
castle gate. Macroom has trade in corn-milling, leather-work
and dairy produce, and is a good centre for salmon and trout
fishing. It is governed by an urban district council.

MACUGNAGA, a village of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
Novara, 20 m. W.S.W. of Piedimulera, which is 7 m. S. of Domo-
dossola by rail. Pop. (1901), 798. It is situated 4047 ft. above
sea-level, and is 10 m. N.E. of the highest summit of Monte
Rosa. It is frequented as a summer resort.

MACVEAGH, WAYNE (1833- ), American lawyer and
diplomatist, was born near Phoenixville, Chester county, Pa.,
on the igth of April 1833. He graduated at Yale in 1853, was
admitted to the bar in 1856, and was district attorney of Chester
county in 1859-1864. He held commands in militia forces raised
to meet threatened Confederate invasions of Pennsylvania
(1862-63). He became a leader in the Republican party, and
was a prominent opponent of his father-in-law, Simon Cameron,
in the fight within the party in 1871. MacVeagh was minister to
Turkey in 1870-1871; was a member of the state constitutional
convention of 1872-1873; was chairman of the " MacVeagh Com-
mission," sent in 1877 by President Hayes to Louisiana, which
secured the settlement of the contest between the two existing
state governments and thus made possible the withdrawal of
Federal troops from the state; and was attorney-general of the
United States in 1881 under President Garfield, but resigned
immediately after Garfield's death. In 1892 he supported
Grover Cleveland, the Democratic nominee for the presidency,
and from 1893 to 1897 was ambassador to Italy. He returned
to the Republican party in 1896. In 1903 he was chief counsel
of the United States before the Hague tribunal in the case regard-
ing the claims of Germany, Great Britain and Italy against the
republic of Venezuela.

MADACH, IMRE (1829-1864), Hungarian dramatist, was
born at Als6-Sztregova. He took part in the great revolution
of 1848-49 and was imprisoned; on his return to his small
estate in the county of Nograd, he found that his family life had
meanwhile been completely wrecked. This only increased his
natural tendency to melancholy, and he withdrew from public
life till 1861, devoting his time mainly to the composition of
his chief work, Az ember tragoedidja (" The Tragedy of Man ").
John Arany, then at the height of his fame as a poet, at once
recognized the great merits of that peculiar drama, and Madach
enjoyed a short spell of fame before his untimely death of heart-
disease in 1864. In The Tragedy of Man Madach takes us
from the hour when Adam and Eve were innocently walking
in the Garden of Eden to the times of the Pharaohs; then to
the Athens of Miltiades; to declining Rome; to the period
of the crusades; into the study of the astronomer Kepler;
thence into the horrors of the French Revolution; into greed-
eaten and commerce-ridden modern London; nay, into the
ultra-Socialist state of the future, when all the former ideals
of man will by scientific formulae be shown up in their hollow-
m?ss; still further, the poet shows the future of ice-clad earth,
when man will be reduced to a degraded brute dragging on the

2JO

MADAGASCAR

misery of his existence in rf cave. In all these scenes, or
rather anticipatory dreams, Adam, Eve and the arch-fiend
Lucifer are the chief and constantly recurring personae dramatis.
In the end, Adam, despairing of his race, wants to commit
suicide, when at the critical moment Eve tells him that she is
going to be a mother. Adam then prostrates himself before
God, who encourages him to hope and trust. The diction of
the drama is elevated and pure, and although not meant for the
stage, it. has proved very effective at several public performances.
Concerning Madich there is an ample literature, consisting mostly
of elaborate articles by Charles Szasz (1862), Augustus Greguss
(1872), B. Alexander (1871), M. Palagyi (1890), and others.

MADAGASCAR, an island in the Indian Ocean, and after
New Guinea and Borneo the largest island in the world, about
260 m. distant, at the nearest point, from the S.E. coast of
Africa, from which it is separated by the Mozambique Channel.
Since 1896 Madagascar has been a French colony. It is 995 m.
in length from N. to S., and about 250 m. in average breadth,
although near the centre it is nearly 360 m. across; its area is
about 228,000 sq. m., or not quite four times the extent of
England and Wales. It lies mainly between 44° and 50° E.
Its northernmost point, Cape Ambro, in 12° S., inclines 16° to
the E. from the longitude of Cape St Mary, the southernmost
point, in 25° 35' S., so that the main axis of the island runs
from N.N.E. to S.S.W. In its broad structure Madagascar
consists of an elevated mountainous region, from 3000 to
5000 ft. in altitude, occupying from two-fifths to a half of the
centre and the eastern side of the island, around which are
extensive plains at a much less elevation above the sea, and
most developed on the western and north-west sides. But
this lower region is broken up by masses of hills, with several
elevated plateaus, especially in the south-west and south.

Physical Features. — Madagascar has a very regular and compact
form, with few indentations considering its great extent of shore-line.
In general outline it has a strong resemblance to the impression of a
human foot — the left side. Along two-thirds of its eastern side the
coast is almost a straight line, without any inlet, Tamatave, the chief
port on this side of the island, being onfy protected by coral reefs.
North of this line, however, is Antongil Bay, a deep and wide inlet
running northwards for about 50 m. ; farther north is Port Louquez,
and at almost the extreme point of the island is Diego-Suarez Bay,
one of the finest harbours in the world. But the north-western
side of Madagascar is broken up by a number of inlets, some of them
land-locked and of considerable size. South of Cape St Andrew,
the north-west angle of the island, the coast-line is unbroken until
the estuary of the river Onil&hy, or St Augustine's Bay, is reached.
Rounding the southern end of the island, there is no other inlet
save the small bay north of Fort Dauphin, at the southern end of the
straight line of coast already mentioned.

The islands around Madagascar are few and unimportant. The
largest are Ste Marie, near the eastern coast, a narrow island about
35 m. long, and Nossi-be' (q.v.), larger and more compact in form,
opposite Ampasindava Bay on the N.W. coast. Except the Minnow
group, north of Nossi-b<5, the rest are merely rocky islets, chiefly of
coral.

The shores of the greater portion of the southern half of the island
are low and flat, but in the northern half the coast is often bold and
precipitous, the high land occasionally approaching the sea. On
the eastern side the plains vary from 10 to 50 m. in breadth, but on
the western side they exceed in some localities 100 m. From these
coast-plains the ground rises by successive ranges of hills to the high
interior land. This elevated region is broken in all directions by
mountains, from which the crystalline rocks show most frequently
as huge bosses, and in certain regions present very varied and pictur-
esque outlines, resembling Titanic castles,cathedrals,domes, pyramids
and spires. The highest mountain mass is centrally situated as
regards the length of the island, but more to the eastern side. This
is the ancient extinct volcano Ankaratra, three of the highest points
varying in elevation from 7284 to 8635 ft. above the sea, and from
4000 to 5000 ft. above the general level of the surrounding country.
The loftiest of these is named Tsi-afa-javona, i.e. " That which the
mists cannot climb." It had been supposed that Ankaratra was the
highest point in the island, but in 1903 it was found that Amboro,
in the northern province of Antankarana, is about 9490 ft. in altitude.
Besides these highest points there are a considerable number of
mountains in the central provinces of Imerina and B6tsileo and the
intervening and surrounding districts; and in the Bara country
the IsMo range has been compared to the "Church Buttes" and
other striking features of the scenery of Utah. One of the finest
of the Madagascar mountains is an isolated mass near the northern
point of the island called Amb6hitra. This is 4460 ft. high, and

rising from land little above the sea-level, is well seen far out
to sea.

In the elevated region of Madagascar are many fertile plains and
valleys, the former being the dried-up beds of ancient lakes. Among
these are Betsimitatatra in Imerina, and Tsienimparihy in Betsil6o,
supplying a large proportion of the rice required for the capitals of
these two provinces. Still more spacious valleys are the Antsi-
hanaka country'and the Ankay district, between the two eastern
lines of forest. The extensive coast plains on the western side of
the island are chiefly in Iboina (N.W.) and in Menab(5 (S. of the Tsiri-
bihina River); those on the east are widest in the Taifasy country
(S.E.). The water-parting for six-sevenths of the whole length of
the island is much nearer the eastern than the western side, averag-
ing from 80 to 90 m. from the sea. There are no arid districts,
except in the extreme south-west and towards the southern point of
the island. The general surface of the interior highland consists
of bare rolling moor-like country, with a great amount of red clay-
like soil, while the valleys have a rich humus of bluish-black
alluvium.

The chief rivers flow to the west and north-west sides of the island.
The eastern streams are all less in size, except the Mangoro, which
flows parallel with the coast. Few of them therefore are of much
service for navigation, except for the light-draught native canoes;
and all of them are more or less closed at their outlets by sand-bars.
Beginning at the south-eastern point and going northwards, the
principal rivers are the Mananara, Manampatrana, MatitAnana,
Mananjary, Mangoro, with its great affluent Oniv<5, Vohitra, Manin-
gory, and the Antanambalana at the head of Antongil Bay. On the
N.W. coast, going southwards, are the Sofia and Mahajamba, falling
into Mahajamba Bay, the Be'tsiboka with the Ikopa — the great
drains of the northern central provinces, forming unitedly the second
largest river of the island and falling into Bembatoka Bay — the
Mahavary, Manambolo, Tsiribihina or Onimainty, the third largest
river, with its tributaries the Kitsamby, Mahajilo and Mania, the
M6rondava, Mangoky, probably the largest river in the country,
with its important tributaries the Matsiatra, Manantanana and
Ranomaitso, the Fiherenana and Onilahy. On the south coast are
four considerable streams, the largest of which is the Menarandra.
Of the western rivers the Betsiboka can be ascended by small
steamers for about 100 m., and the Tsiribihina is also navigable for
a considerable distance. The former is about 300 m. long ; the latter
somewhat less, but by its affluents spreads over a greater extent of
country, as also does the Mangoky. The rivers are all crossed fre-
quently by rocky bars, which often form grand waterfalls. The
eastern rivers cut their way through the ramparts of the high land
by magnificent gorges amidst dense forest, and descend by a succes-
sion of rapids and cataracts. The MatitAnana, whose falls were first
seen by the writer in 1876, descends at one plunge some 400 ft.;
and on the Vohitra River, whose valley is followed by the railway,
there are also many fine waterfalls.

On the eastern side of Madagascar the contest between the fresh
water of the rivers and the sea has caused the formation of a chain
of lagoons for nearly 300 m. In many places these look like a river
following the coast-line, but frequently they spread out into exten-
sive sheets of water. By cutting about 30 m. of canal to connect
them, a continuous waterway could be formed for 270 m. along the
coast. This has already been done for about 55 m. between Ivon-
drona and Andovoranto, a service of small steamers forming part
of the communication between the coast and the capital. Besides
these lagoons, there are few lakes of any size in Madagascar, although
there were some very extensive lakes in a recent geological epoch.
Of the largest of these, the Alaotra Lake in the Antsihanaka plain
is the relic; it is about 25 m. long. Next comes Kinkony, near
Maroambitsy Bay (N.W. coast), about 16 m. long, and then Itasy,
in western Imerina, about half as large. There is also a salt lake,
Tsimanampetsotsa (S.W. coast), about as large as Alaotra.

There is now no active volcano in Madagascar, but a large number
of extinct cones are found, some apparently of very recent formation.
Soirm miles south of Die'go-Suarez is a huge volcanic mountain,
Ambohitra, with scores of subsidiary cones on its slopes and around
its base. About 40 m. south-west of Antananarivo there is a still
larger extinct volcano, Ankaratra, with an extensive lava field
surrounding it; while near Lake Itasy are some 200 volcanic cones.
Another group of extinct volcanoes is in the Vakinankaratra dis-
trict, S.W. of Ankaratra. Many others exist in other parts of the
island (see § Geology). Slight shoqks of earthquake are felt every
year, and hot springs occur at many places. Several of these are
sulphurous and medicinal, and have been found efficacious in skin
diseases and in internal complaints.

Geology. — Madagascar may be divided into two very distinct
geological regions, viz. (I.) the Archean Region, which extends over
the central and eastern portions of the island and occupies about
two-thirds of its whole area, and is composed of crystalline schists;
and (II.) the Western Region, of sedimentary rocks, including the re-
maining third of the island, in the centre of which, however, is an
isolated patch of Archean rocks, near Cape St Andrew. There are
also found in both regions numerous masses of igneous rocks, both
plutonic and volcanic, in some places of considerable extent, which
pierce through and overflow the earlier formations.

MADAGASCAR

271

I. The Archean Region.1 — This region, nearly coincident with the
mountainous upper portion of the island, is chiefly composed of the
following crystalline rocks: gneiss, which is the most common of
them all, quartzite and quartz-schist, with occasional beds of crystal-
line limestone and mica-schist, although this latter rock is very rare.
The gneiss is mostly grey, but occasionally pinkish, its essential
constituents (felspar and quartz) being almost always associated
with dark mica (biotite) and hornblende in variable quantity. The
rock is therefore a hornblende-granitite-gneiss. Granite — more

MADAGASCAR

*>»'«4> Hauotte (Mautt) . i'vi. ..*•

"

frequently granitite — occurs in several places, as well as pyroxene-
granulite, serpentine, argillate, &c. ; and gold is found widely dis-
seminated, as well as other metals, but these latter, as far as at pre-
sent known, except iron, are not abundant. The general strike of
the rocks is the same as that of the trend of the island itself (N.N.E.

In the apparent absence of any Cambrian formation above them,
there is little doubt that these rocks are Archean, although this
cannot be absolutely proved.

to S.S.W.), but in its western portion the strike is frequently from
N.N.W. to S.S.E. In both cases the strike of the rocks is coincident
with the direction of several large valleys, which mark huge faults
in the crystalline rocks. Almost the whole of this region is covered
by a red soil, often of great thickness, which resembles and is often
described as " clay," but is really decomposed rock, chiefly gneiss,
reddened with oxidized magnetite.

II. The Sedimentary Region. — The sedimentary rocks extend con-
tinuously along the western side of Madagascar, following the coast-
line; in the north these series of strata are only
from 20 to 30 m. across, but farther south they
reach a breadth of nearly 100 m., while opposite
the B<5tsileb province they extend nearly half across
the island. A narrow band, of Cretaceous age,
occurs also on the east coast, for about 120 m.,
between Vitomandry and Mananjary. The follow-
ing formations are represented : —

1. Primary. It is thought that certain beds of
slaty rocks, which have been recognized at different
places, may belong to some of the Primary strata.
Some siliceous schists of the Permian age were dis-
covered in 1908 in the valley of the Sakameira,
south of the Onilahy, or Augustine river. (S.W.
coast). These contain reptilian remains, and also
clear imprints of leaves of the Glossopteris indica, '
as well as other indications of an ancient vegeta-
tion. In the same region conglomerates have been
found containing enormous blocks, apparently
brought by glacial action, and said to be identical
in character with those described as existing in the
Transvaal. True coal has also been obtained in
the same district, the deposits varying from a
third to half a metre in thickness.

2. Secondary. The lowest members of these rest
directly upon the central mass of crystalline rocks,
and consist of sandstones, conglomerates and
shales, which have been supposed by some to
belong to the Trias, without, however, the dis-
covery of any fossil necessary to confirm this
supposition, except some silicified trunks of trees.
These beds are most probably lower members of
the Jurassic series. Westward of and above these
strata, the Middle and Upper Jurassic formations
are found (Lias, Lower Oolite, Oxfordian, &c.),
with well-marked and numerous fossils (Ammo-
nites, Nerinaea, Natica, Astarte, Rhynchonella,
Echinodermata, &c.) ; then the Cretaceous rocks,
both these and the Jurassic series being largely
developed, the Cretaceous fossils including Nau-
tilus, Belemnites, Ostrea, Gryphaea, &c., and some
very large Ammonites (P achy discus). The Second-
ary strata show generally a very slight dip west-
wards and are consequently almost horizontal.
They do not seem to have been greatly disturbed,
although faults occur here and there.

3. Tertiary. A small strip of coast of Eocene
age is known near Tullear (S.W. coast), and rocks
of the same period occur in Ndssi-be', at Mahajamba
Bay, and at Diego-Suarez, with Nummulites and
other foraminifera. Near the latter locality, beds
of Oligocene age have been noticed, consisting of
coarse limestones.

4. Quaternary and Recent. A narrow band of
these deposits extends along the west coast, from
north of Cape St Andrew nearly to the extreme
southern point of the island. But the most notice-
able of these are those in the ancient bed of the
Alaotra Lake, which formerly extended far south-
wards along the valley of the Mangoro; also those
in the marshes of AntsirabS and of Ifanja, in the
Ikopa valley (the great rice plain west of the
capital), and also in the plain of Tsie'nimparihy in
Betsileo, and especially the recent deposits of
Ampasambazimba, north-west of Lake Itasy, dis-
covered in 1902. These beds, rich in sub-fossil
remains, have yielded important additions to our
knowledge of the extinct fauna of the island.
(See § Palaeontology.)

Igneous Rocks. ( I ) Plutonic rocks. — The ancient
or plutonic igneous rocks (including granite, syen-
ite, diorite, gabbro, porphyry, porphyrite, norite
and retinite) appear at various points of the two
previously described regions. In the Archean region the gneiss is
very often found passing into granite, but certain granitic masses
have a sufficiently distinct character. In the midst of the sedimen-
tary region are two well-recognized masses of plutonic rocks, belonging
to the syenites, sometimes quartziferous in structure. (2) Volcanic
rocks. — Recent volcanic eruptive rocks (including rhyolite, trachyte,
phonolite, andesite and basalt) have been examined at a number
of points throughout both the geological regions of the island. In

F m.- ' V W4lk«t

272

MADAGASCAR

the Archean region these are very noticeable near Lake Itasy, in
the massif of Ankaratra (an ancient volcano) and in Vakinankaratra
(at Betafo, Antsirabe, &c.); while there are numerous outflows of
doleritic rocks, probably from faults, along the eastern side of the
island and almost parallel with the coast line. In the sedimentary
region volcanic rocks are very numerous; the most extensive of
these is a tract of country, more than 80 m. long, on the west coast,
where the basalt has overflowed the Cretaceous strata. It must be
remembered that the geology of Madagascar is still only known in
its broad features.1

Minerals and Metals. — The country has considerable mineral
wealth. Gold is found almost all over the region of crystalline rocks,
except in and around the Antsihanaka province, the richest aurifer-
ous districts being a band of country parallel with the east coast and
spreading at its southern end into the interior; and another tract,
whose centre is about 100 m. N. of the capital (see § Industries, &c.).
Silver has been detected in certain galenas, and also platinum;
copper has been found in various localities, as well as zinc, lead,
nickel, antimony and manganese, but none of these metals has yet
been discovered in sufficient quantities for profitable working. Iron,
on the contrary, especially magnetite, is found abundantly and has
for long been worked by the Malagasy with the simple appliances
brought by their ancestors from their original home in the Far East.
The principal seats of the native industry are on the edge of the
upper forest, where charcoal is easily procured. The following
precious stones are reported: corundum (rubies and sapphires),
beryl, topaz, zircon, garnet, amazon-stone, tourmaline, often in
large crystals, and variously coloured quartz, also often found in
crystals of great size. Bitumen and petroleum have been found ;
graphite is plentiful, and sulphur, salt, saltpetre and lime are also
procured. On the north-west coast thin beds of lignite occur, and
coal has been found in the valley of the Sakameira.

Palaeontology. — Researches in various parts of the island have
revealed the existence, in a subfossil state, of the bones of numerous
birds of the family Struthidae. These have been arranged in twelve
species, belonging to two genera, Aepyornis and Mullerornis, which
varied in size from that of a bustard to birds much exceeding an
ostrich, and rivalling the recently extinct moa of New Zealand, the
largest species being about 10 ft. in height. One species of these
great wingless birds laid an egg which is the largest known, being
12 1 in. by 95 in. Associated with these remains there have been
found those of many other birds, including a hawk, a duck, a darter,
a spoonbill, a heron, a rail and a wild-goose, some of these being
much larger than any now inhabiting Madagascar. In the same
beds the remains of two, if not three, species of hippopotamus have
been found, about two-thirds the size of the living South African
species; also the bones and carapace, &c., of gigantic tortoises, and
the bones of a crocodile, now extinct on the coast and rivers, but
still living in the two chief lakes; also the remains of a river-hog,
of a species of swine, and of a slender-legged form of zebu-ox. Near
the south-west coast the skull of a large lemuroid animal was dis-
covered in 1893, much longer than that of any living lemur, the
animal being probably three times the size of any previously known
Madagascar lemuroid. Later still, in 1899 and subsequently, the
bones of two other creatures of the same suborder have been dis-
covered, one of them indicating an animal much larger than a
man. Many of these birds and animals were probably contem-
poraneous with the earliest human inhabitants of Madagascar. The
remains of two species of Edentata have been found, as well
as those of several species of small Rodents, also of a Carnivore
(Cryptoprocta), a larger variety of the species still living in the
island.

In the deposits of a much more remote era than those already
spoken of — the Jurassic — the bones of some enormous terrestrial
lizards have been brought to light, belonging to Sauropodous
Dinosaurs of the genera Bothriospondylus and Titanosaurus, and to
a Theropod of the genus Megalosaurus. In the beds of the Lower
Oolite portions of the skull of a reptile resembling the gavial of the
Ganges had been previously discovered, from which a new genus
called Steneosaurus has been founded. Since the French occupation
(1895) considerable additions have been made to our knowledge of
the fossil fauna of Madagascar from researches made both on the west
and south-west coast (at Belo and Ambolisatrana) and in the interior
(at Antsirabe), especially in the rich deposits near Tsarazaza (Ampas-
ambazimba), to the north-west of Lake It«tsy. From these various
localities the subfossil remains of thirteen or fourteen extinct species
of lemuroid animals (including the gigantic species already men-
tioned) have been obtained, and have been classified under five new
genera: viz. Megaladapis (3 sp.), Palaeopropithecus (3 sp.), Archaeo-
lemur (2 sp.), Bradylemur (i sp.) and Hadropithecus (i sp.), together
with three new species of lemur. Of these, the Archaeolemurs seem
to have combined the characteristics of lemuroid animals with those
of the monkeys, while Hadropithecus is pronounced to be the nearest
known link with them. A list of all the fossils of the island known
in 1895, but omitting the vertebrates above mentioned, included

1 For most of the information here given on the geology the
writer is indebted to Captain Mouneyres, chef de services des
mines, and the Rev. R. Baron, F.G.S., F.L.S.

140 species,2 belonging to the Mollusca, Foraminifera, Echinodermata,
Actinozoa and Plantae ; but the researches of French geologists made
the total number of Madagascar fossils known in 1907 to be not
fewer than 280 species.

Climate. — In the high interior the climate resembles that of the
temperate zones, although six-sevenths of the island are within the
tropics; there is no intense heat, and it is quite cold, occasionally
touching freezing point, during the nights of the cool season. These
parts of the country are tolerably healthy for Europeans. But the
coasts are much hotter, especially on the western side, as is also the
interior west of the highland region; and from the large amount of
marsh and lagoon on the coasts, malarial fever is common and
frequently fatal, both to Europeans and to natives from the interior.
Epidemics of influenza and fever have been very prevalent of late
years in the central provinces. The seasons are two — the hot and
rainy season from November to April, and the cool and dry season
during the rest of the year; this remark applies chiefly to the interior,
for rain falls throughout the year on the eastern coast, which is
exposed to the vapour-laden south-east trade winds. The rainfall
diminishes as one goes westward and especially south-westward,
there being very little rain in the south-west corner of the island.
No snow is known, even on the loftiest mountains, but thin ice is
occasionally seen; and hail-showers, often very destructive, are
frequent in the rainy season. Terrific thunderstorms are also
common at that period ; waterspouts are sometimes seen ; and as the
Indian Ocean cyclone region touches the eastern coast, hurricanes
occur every few years, at rare intervals ascending into the interior
highland. The yearly rainfall of the Imerina province (Antanan-
arivo) averages about 54^ in.; accurate statistics as to that of other
parts of the island are not available ; but on the east coast it appears
to be about double that of the interior ; in the south-east consider-
ably more than that amount; while at Morondava (west coast) it is
given as about 21 in. annually, and at Tullear (south-west coast) as
only 10 in. At Tamatave (east coast) the mean annual temperature
is given as 76-5°, while at the capital it is about 66°; the tempera-
ture of Antananarivo resembles that of Naples or Palermo.3 The
following table gives the mean of two different sets of government
returns of mean rainfall: Antananarivo, 1369 mm.; Tamatave,
E. coast, 1863 mm.; Farafangana, S.E. coast, 2803 mm.; Diego-
Suarez, N. end of island, 1 196 mm. ; Morondava, W. coast, 543 mm. ;
Tullear, S.W. coast, 273 mm.; Marovoay, W. interior, 1413 mm.

Fauna. — The fauna of Madagascar, while deficient in most of the
characteristic tropical forms of life, is one of great interest to the
naturalist from its remote affinities, much of its animal life having
Asiatic rather than African relationships. The central portions of
the island, from their generally bare and treeless character, are poor
in living creatures; but the lower country, and especially the forests
and coast plains, are fairly well stocked. But it is noticeable that
many species have a very limited range. Although a continental
island, it possesses no large quadrupeds — none of the larger carni-
vorous, ungulate, proboscoid or quadrumanous animals; but it is
the headquarters of the Lemuroidea, no fewer than thirty-nine species
of which are found in its forests and wooded plains. Some of these
creatures are highly specialized, while the curious aye-aye (Chiromys
madagascariensis), an allied form, is one of the most remarkable
animals known, forming a genus and family by itself. Its whole
structure is strangely modified to enable it to procure the wood-
boring larvae which form its food. Other peculiar animals are
twenty-three species of the Centetidae, a family of the Insectivora
almost confined to Madagascar; while of the Carnivora there are
several small creatures belonging to the civets (Viverridae). The
largest of these ferocious animals, also forming a genus and family by
itself, is the Cryptoprocta ferox ; it is a plantigrade animal, 3 ft. long,
but very like an enormous weasel, and attacks other animals with
the greatest ferocity. The island contains twenty-five species of
bats, mostly of African, but some of Indian, affinities. African
humped cattle were introduced several hundred years ago and now
exist in large herds all over the country. The fat-tailed sheep, goats
and swine have also been naturalized, as well as all kinds of domestic
poultry.

The avi-fauna is much richer than the mammalian, and, although
wanting the largest birds as well as the most brilliantly coloured,
comprises two hundred and sixty species, half of which are endemic.
Many of the birds are remarkable not so much for their shape or
colouring as for their distant relationships; many belong to peculiar
genera, and some are so isolated that new families have had to be
formed for their reception. There is a large variety of perching
birds, including several species of brilliant plumage — sun-birds,
kingfishers, rollers and flycatchers, &c. ; kites, hawks and owls are
numerous, and the lakes and marshes abound with water-fowl and
herons, ibises, &c.

The island is free from deadly serpents, but contains two or three

* See " On a Collection of Fossils from Madagascar," by R. B.
Newton, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (Feb. 1895).

3 The following are figures of mean temperature, kindly supplied
by the Rev. E. Colin, S. J., director of the observatory: Di6go-
Suarez, N., 79°; Farafangana, S.E. coast, 75°; Marovoay, W. intr.,
81°; Morondava, W. coast, 77°; Tullear, S.W. coast, 78*.

MADAGASCAR

273

small species of boa; crocodiles abound in the rivers and lakes; and
numerous species of lizard, chameleon and tree-frog inhabit the
woods. Madagascar may be considered as one of the headquarters
of the Chamaeleonidae, for of the fifty known species no fewer than
twenty-five have already been described from the island. Many of
these are of curious form, with remarkable developments of the
plates of the head and projecting horns and spines. There are
several peculiar tortoises, but the gigantic species are now found
alive only on the little island of Aldabra, to the north. The insect
life comprises many brilliantly-coloured beetles, butterflies (about
eight hundred species of which are known), moths, locusts, spiders
and flies, and also noxious spiders, with scorpions and centipedes.
The river fishes belong chiefly to the family Chromididae ; many of
thorn are of brilliant and bizarre appearance, with strongly con-
trasted colours in bands and spots. Those found in the coast waters
do not differ materially from the widely spread Indian Ocean species.

As a whole, the Madagascar fauna is marked by a strong individu-
ality, which would appear to be the result of long isolation from
the other zoological " regions." The Asiatic and Malayan affinities
of many of its animals, as well as the physical conditions of the bed
of the Indian Ocean, make it highly probable that Madagascar,
while once forming part of Africa, is the chief relic of a considerable
archipelago formerly connecting that continent with Asia, its other
portions being shown by groups of small islands, and by coral atolls
and shoals, which are gradually disappearing beneath the waves.
These questions have been fully treated by Dr A. R. Wallace in his
Geographical Distribution of Animals (vol. i. ch. ix., 1876) and
Island Life, ch. xix. (1880).

Flora. — The flora of Madagascar is one of great interest. One of
its most prominent features is the belt of forest round a large part
of the island at no great distance from the sea, and generally following
the coast-line. This forest is densest on the east side, and for about
120 m. iorms a double line, the lower one being much the broader
and averaging 30 m. across, but attaining a breadth of 60 or 70 m.
on the north-east, near Antongil Bay. The vegetation on the western
side of the island is much less dense, often appearing as scattered
clumps of trees on savannah-like plains rather than continuous
forest; while in the south-west, where the rainfall is very scanty,
the vegetation is largely of fleshy-leaved and spiny plants — aloes
and cacti (the latter introduced), with several species of Euphorbia,
as well as numerous lianas, one of which (Intisy) yields india-rubber.
It is estimated that there are about 30,000 sq. m. of forest-covered
country in Madagascar, or about one-eighth of its whole surface.
The vegetation of the forests, the abundant epiphytes, the tree-
mosses, the filmy ferns and the viviparous character of many of the
ferns, show clearly how abundant the rainfall is in the eastern forest
region. This contains a large variety of hard-wooded and valuable
timber trees, including species of Weinmannia (Lalbna *), Elaeocarpus
( Voanana) , Dalbergia ( Vbamboana), Nuxia ( Valanirana) , Podocarpus,
a pine, the sole species in the island (Hbtatra),Tambourissa (Ambbra),
Neobaronia (Harahara), Ocotea (Varbngy) and probably ebony,
Diospyros sp., &c. The following trees are characteristic of Mada-
gascar vegetation, some of them being endemic, and others very
prominent features in the landscape: the traveller's-tree (Urania
speciosa), with its graceful crown of plantain-like leayes growing
like an enormous fan at the top of a tall trunk, and affording a supply
of pure cool water, every part of the tree being of some service in
building; the Raphia (rona) palm (Sagus ruffia); the tall fir-like
Casuanna equisetifolia or beefwood tree, very prominent on the
eastern coast, as well as several species of screw-pine (Pandanus) ;
the Madagascar spice (Ravintsara madagascariinsis), a large forest
tree, with fragrant fruit, leaves and bark ; a beautiful-leaved species
of Calophyllum; and the Tangena (Tanghinia veneniflua), formerly
employed as a poison ordeal. On the lagoons and lower reaches of
the rivers the Viha (Typhonodorum lindleyanum) , an arum endemic
to Madagascar, grows in great profusion to a height of 12 or 13 ft.
and has a white spathe more than a foot in length; and on the
western coast dense thickets of mangrove line the creeks and rivers.
In the interior rivers is found the curious and beautiful lace-leaf
plant (Ouvirandra fenestralis), with an edible tuberous root. On
the western side of the island the baobab, the tamarind, the rotra
(Eugenia sp.), the rofia palm, and several species of fan-palm
(Hyphaene) and of Ficus are prominent ; and the mango (introduced)
grows to a large tree. In the generally bare interior highlands,
large trees, species of Ficus (Amdntana, Avi&vy, Nbnoka, Adabo,
&c.), often mark the position of the old towns; and some of these,
as Ambohimanga, V6hilena, &c., are surrounded by remnants of the
original forest, which formerly covered large portions of the interior.
The most prominent tree in the central province is now the Cape-
lilac (Melia azederach) introduced about 1825; and since the French
conquest several species of eucalyptus have been planted in vast
numbers by the road sides. These have given quite a new aspect
to the vegetation, while bright colour is imparted by species of
Bougainvillea and Poinsettia. In the eastern forests palms, bamboos,
lianas and tree-ferns, as well as species of Dracaena, are found.

Although flowers growing on the ground or on shrubs are not
conspicuous for number or beauty, there are many fine flowering
trees, such as Poinciana regia, presenting a mass of scarlet flowers;

1 The words in parentheses are the native Malagasy names.

Colvillia racemosa, with yellow flowers; Astrapaea Wallichii, striking
attention from its abundant flowers; and species of Cryptostegia, a
purple-flowered creeper, and Strongylodon, another creeper with
cream-coloured blossoms. Among attractive plants are species
of Hibiscus, Euphorbia, Buddleia, Ixora, Kilchingia, Clematis, &c.
On the east coast two orchids, species of Angraecum, with large white
waxy flowers, one with an extraordinarily long spur or nectary,
attract the attention of every traveller during June and July by
their abundance and beauty. Some 320 species of fern have been
collected, and there are large numbers of spiny and prickly
plants, as well as numerous grasses, reeds and rushes, many of
them of great service in the native manufactures of mats, hats,
baskets, &c.

The Rev R. Baron divides the flora into three distinctly marked
" regions," which run in a longitudinal direction, following approxi-
mately the longer axis of the island, and are termed respectively
eastern, western and central. The central includes the elevated
highland of the interior, while the eastern and western include the
forest belts and most of the wooded country and coast plains. Of the
4100 known plants — of which about three-fourths are endemic —
composing the Madagascar flora, there are 3492 Dicotyledons, 248
Monocotyledons and 360 Acotyledons. Of these, the orders most
largely represented (together with their species) are: Leguminosae,
346; Filices, 318; Compositae, 281 ; Euphorbiaceae, 228; Orchideae,
170; Cyperaceae, 160; Rubiaceae, 147; Acanthaceae, 131; Gra-
mineae, 130. The numberof endemic genera now known is 148. Ofthe
3178 species of plants whose localities have been determined, 35%
are peculiar to the eastern region, 27-5% to the central, and 22%
to the western. One natural order, Chlaenaceae, is strictly confined
to Madagascar. " A small proportion of the species are Asian, but
not African ; and the flora of the mountains corresponds closely with
that of the great ranges of the tropical zone of Africa." " The
general plan of the flora follows thoroughly the same lines as that of
the tropical regions of the Old World.

Among the food-giving plants are rice^— the staff of life to the
majority of the Malagasy — in many varieties, maize, millet, manioc,
yams,!sweet-potatoes, arrowroot, which is largely used by the western
tribes — as well as numerous vegetables, many of them of foreign
introduction. The fruits — the majority of which are introduced —
are the banana, peach, loquat, pineapple, mango, melon, grape,
quince, plum, apple, mulberry, orange, lemon, citron, guava, Chinese-
guava, Cape-gooseberry, fig, raspberry, tomato, &c. Several spices
are grown, including ginger, capsicum, &c. ; sugar-cane, coffee, indigo,
vanilla, tobacco, cotton, hemp, gourds, dye-woods, gums, mulberry
and other trees and plants for silk-culture, are also among the vege-
table productions; gum-copal was formerly, and india-rubber is still,
an important article of export.

Provinces and Towns. — The island may be divided into dis-
tricts or provinces, which in the main indicate tribal divisions.
Of these tribal territories the following may be distinguished,
taking them in three main divisions, from north to south:
(i) Eastern: Antankarana, occupying the northern peninsula;
the country of the Betsimisaraka, who inhabit a long extent
of the coast plains, about 500 m. in length; parallel with this
for about a third of it, and between the two lines of forest, is the
Beza.noza.no country. South again are the districts of the
Taimbahoaka, the Taimoro, the Taifasy and the Taisaka; and
at the south-eastern corner are the Tanosy. (2) Central: the
districts of Tsimihety and the Sihanaka; Imerina, the Hova
province; the Betsileo; the Tanala or foresters; the Bara;
and the emigrant Tanosy. (3) Western: the people from
almost the northern to the southern extremities of the island
are known as Sakalava, but consist of a number of distinct
tribes — the Tiboina, the Mailaka, the Tamenabe, and the
Fiherenana, &c. South of these last are the Mahafaly, with
the Tandroy at the extreme south. There are no distinctly
marked boundaries between any of these tribal territories; and
west of Imerina and Betsileo there is a considerable extent of
country with hardly any population, a kind of " no-man's-
land." There are numerous subdivisions of most of the
tribes.

The capital, Antananarivo (pop. 69,000), in the highlands of
Imerina, and Tamatave (pop. 4600), on the east coast and
the chief seaport, are separately described. Majunga (properly
Mojanga, pop. 5300) on the north-west coast, just north of
16° S., and Diego-Suarez, are important ports for foreign trade,
the latter being also a fortified naval and military station.
Other ports and towns are Mahanoro, Mananjary (S.E. coast,
pop. 4500), Tullear (S.W. coast), and Fianarantsoa (pop.
6200), the chief town of the Betsileo. There are very few
places besides these with as many as 2000 people.

274

MADAGASCAR

InJiabitanis. — The population is somewhat under two and
three-quarter millions,1 including some 10,000 or 11,000 Euro-
peans, and a smaller number of Indian, Arab, and other Asiatics,
mostly small traders found in the seaports, the Chinese being
found in every town of any size. The island, it will be seen,
is very sparsely inhabited; the most densely peopled province
is that of Imerina with (1905) 388,000 inhabitants. The natives,
collectively known as Malagasy, are divided into a considerable
number of tribes, each having its distinct customs. Although
geographically an African island, the majority of its inhabi-
tants are derived, the lighter portion of them from the Malayo-
Polynesian stock, and the darker races from the Melanesian.
This is inferred from their similarity to the peoples of the
Indian and Pacific archipelagoes in their physical appearance,
mental habits, customs, and, above all, in their language.
Their traditions also point in the same direction. There is,
however, an undoubted African mixture in the western and
some other tribes. There is also an Arab element both on the
north-west and south-east coasts; and it appears that most
of the families of the ruling classes in all parts of the island are
descended from Arabs, who married native women. It is
believed that there are traces of an aboriginal people (the
Vazimba), who occupied portions of the interior before the
advent of the present inhabitants, and these appear to have
been a somewhat dwarfish race, and lighter-coloured than the
Malagasy generally. The Hova became the dominant tribe
from the beginning of the igth century; they appear to be the
latest immigrants, and are the lightest in colour; and they are
also the most intelligent and civilized of all the peoples inhabiting
the island.

The most striking proof of the virtual unity of the inhabitants
of Madagascar is that substantially but one language is spoken
over the whole country. The Malay affinities of Malagasy were
noted in the i6th century; indeed, the second and fifth books
published upon the country (in 1603 and 1613) were comparative
vocabularies of these two languages. Later investigations have
confirmed the conclusions thus early arrived at; and Van der
Tuuk, Marre de Marin and W. E. Cousins have shown con-
clusively the close relationships between the language of the
Malagasy and those of the Malayo-Polynesian regions; similar
connexions exist, especially in grammatical construction, between
the Malagasy and Melanesian languages. The Malagasy had
never invented for themselves a written character, and had
consequently no manuscripts, inscriptions or books, until their
language was reduced to writing, and its orthography settled by
English missionaries. Their speech nevertheless is very full in
many of its verbal and other forms, while it also exhibits some
curious deficiencies. It is very soft and musical, full of vowels
and liquids, and free from all harsh gutturals. Native oratory
abounds in figures, metaphors and parables; and a large number
of folk-tales, songs and legends, together with the very numerous
proverbs, give ample evidence of the mental ability and imagin-
ative powers of the Malagasy.

Native society in Imerina among the Hova was formerly divided
into three great classes: the Andriana, or nobles; the Hova, freemen
or commoners; and the Andevo, or slaves; but these last became free
by a proclamation issued in 1896. The Andriana are, strictly speak-
ing, royal clans, being descendants of pet'ty kings who were conquered
or otherwise lost their authority through the increasing power of the
ancestors of the reigning family. Their descendants retained certain
honours in virtue of their royal origin, such as special terms of saluta-
tion, the use of the smaller scarlet umbrella (the larger one was the
mark of royal rank), the right to build a particular kind of tomb, &c. ;
they also enjoyed exemption from certain government service, and
from some punishments for crime. The Hova2 or commoners form
the mass of the population of Imferina. They are composed of a
large number of tribes, who usually intermarry strictly among them-
selves, as indeed do families, so that property and land may be kept
together. The third great division was the slave population, which
since 1896 has become merged in the mass of the people. The

1 The census taken in 1905 gives 2,664,000 as the total population,
but it is probably a little over that amount, as some localities are
still imperfectly known.

J This is a special and restricted use of the word, Hova in its widest
sense being a tribal name, including all ranks of people in ImSrina.

Mozambiques or African slaves, who had been brought from the
African coast by Arab dhows, were in 1877 formally set free by an
agreement with the British government.

Royalty and chieftainship in Madagascar had many peculiar
customs. It had a semi-sacred character; the chief was, in heathen
tribes, while living, the high priest for his people, and after death,
was worshipped as a god; in its modern development among the
Hova sovereigns it gathered round it much state and ceremony.
There were many curious examples of the taboo with regard to actions
connected with royalty, and also in the words used which relate
to Malagasy sovereigns and their surroundings. These were par-
ticularly seen in everything having to do with the burial of a monarch.
While the foregoing description of native society applied chiefly
to the people of the central province of Imferina, it is applicable,
with local modifications, to most of the Malagasy tribes. But on
the island becoming a French colony, in 1896, royalty was for-
mally abolished ; and little regard is paid to native rank by French
officials.

The chief employment of the Malagasy is agriculture. In the
cultivation of rice they show very great ingenuity, the ketsa grounds,
where the rice is sown before transplanting, being formed either on
the margins of the streams or in the hollows of the hills in a series
of terraces, to which water is often conducted from a considerable
distance. In this agricultural engineering no people surpass the
B6tsileo. No plough is used, all work being done by a long-handled
spade ; and oxen are only employed to tread out the soft mud prepara-
tory to transplanting. The rice is threshed by being beaten in
bundles on stones set upright on the threshing-floor; and when beaten
out the grain is stored by the H6va in rice-pits dug in the hard red
soil, but by the coast tribes in small timber houses raised on posts.
In preparing the rice for use it is pounded in a wooden mortar to
remove the husk, this work being almost always done by the women.
The manioc root is also largely consumed, together with several
other roots and vegetables; but little animal foods (save fish
and freshwater Crustacea) is taken by the mass of the people except
at festival times. Rice is used less by the western tribes than by
those of the central and eastern provinces, and the former people
are more nomadic in their habits than are the others. Large herds
of fine humped cattle are found almost all over the island.

The central and eastern peoples have considerable manual dex-
terity. The women spin and weave, and with the rudest appliances
manufacture a variety of strong and durable cloths of silk.cotton and
hemp, and of rofia palm, aloe and banana fibre, of elegant patterns,
and often with much taste in colour. They also make from straw
and papyrus peel strong and beautiful mats and baskets in great
variety, some of much fineness and delicacy, and also hats resembling
those of Panama. The people of the south and south-east make
large use of soft rush matting for covering, and they also prepare
a rough cloth of bark. Their non-employment of skins for clothing
is a marked distinction between the Malagasy and the South African
races, and their use of vegetable fibres an equally strong link be-
tween them and the Polynesian peoples. The men wear a loin-
cloth or salaka, the women a kitamby or apron folded round the
body from waist to heel, to which a jacket or dress is usually added ;
both sexes use over these the Idmba, a large square of cloth folded
round the body something like the Roman toga, and which is the
characteristic native dress. The Malagasy are skilful in metal-work-
ing; with a few rude-looking tools they manufacture silver chains
of great fineness, and filagree ornaments both of gold and silver.
Their iron-work is of excellent quality, and in copper and brass they
can produce copies of anything made by Europeans. They display
considerable inventive power, and they are exceedingly quick to
adopt new ideas from Europeans.

There is a considerable variety in the houses of the different
Malagasy tribes. The majority of Hova houses were formerly built
of layers of the hard red soil of the country, with high-pitched roofs
thatched with grass or rush; while the chiefs and wealthy people
had houses of framed timber, with massive upright planking, and
lofty roofs covered with shingles or tiles. But the introduction of
sun-dried and burnt bricks, and of roofing tiles in the central pro-
vinces has led to the general use of these materials in the building of
houses, large numbers of which are made in two storeys and in Euro-
pean fashion. The forest and coast tribes make their dwellings
chiefly of wood framing filled in with the leaf-stalks of the traveller's
tree, with the leaves themselves forming the roof covering. The houses
of the Betsileo and Sakalava are very small and dirty, but those of
the coast peoples are more cleanly and roomy. Among the Hova
and B6tsil6o the old villages were always built for security on the
summits of lofty hills, around which were dug several deep fosses,
one within the other. In other districts the villages and homesteads
are enclosed within formidable defences of prickly-pear or thorny
mimosa.

Apart from the modern influence of religious teaching, the people
are very immoral and untruthful, disregardful of human life and
suffering, and cruel in war. Until lately polygamy has been common
among all the Malagasy tribes, and divorce effected in an absurdly
easy fashion. At the same time the position of woman is
much higher in Madagascar than in most heathen countries; and,
the fact that for nearly seventy years there were (with a few months

MADAGASCAR

275

exception) only female sovereigns, helped to give women consider-
able influence in native society. The southern and western peoples
still practise infanticide as regards children born on several unlucky
days in each month. This was formerly the general practice all
over the island. The old laws among the H6va were very barbarous
in their punishments, and death in various cruel forms was inflicted
for very trifling offences. Drunkenness is very prevalent in many
parts of the island ; and it can hardly be said of many of the Malagasy
that they are very industrious. But they are courageous and loyal
to their chiefs and tribe, and for short periods are capable of much
strenuous exertion. They are affectionate and firm in their friend-
ships, kind to their children and their aged and infirm relatives, very
respectful to old age, most courteous and polite and very hospitable
to strangers. Slavery had a patriarchal and family character, and
was seldom exercised in a cruel or oppressive way.

The Malagasy have never had any organized religious system or
forms of worship ; there are no temples, images or stated seasons of
devotion, nor is there a priesthood, properly so-called. Yet they have
never been without some distinct recognition of a supreme being,
whom they call Andriamanitra, " The Fragrant One," and Zanahary,
" The Creator " — words which are recognized all over the island.
They have also retained many ancient sayings, proverbial in their
style, which enforce many of the truths of natural religion as to the
attributes of God. With all this, however, there has long existed
a kind of idolatry, which in its origin is simply fetishism — the belief
in charms— as having power to procure various benefits and protect
from certain evils. Among the H6va in modern times four or five
of these charms had acquired special sanctity and were each
honoured as a kind of national deity, being called " god," and brought
out on all public occasions. Together with this idolatry there is
also a firm belief in the power of witchcraft and sorcery, in divina-
tion, in lucky and unlucky days and times, in ancestor worship,
especially that of the sovereign's predecessors, and in several curious
ordeals for the detection of crime. The chief of these was the cele-
brated tangena poison ordeal, in which there was implicit belief,
and by which, until its prohibition by an article in the Anglo-
Malagasy treaty of 1865, thousands of persons perished every year.
Sacrifices of fowls and sheep are made at many places at sacred
stones and altars, both in thanksgiving at times of harvest, &c.,
and as propitiatory offerings. Blood and fat are used to anoint
many of these stones, as well as the tombs of ancestors, and especially
those of the Vazlmba. In some of the southern districts it is said
that human sacrifices were occasionally offered. The chief festival
among the H6va, and almost confined to them, was that of the New
Year, at which time a kind of sacrificial killing of oxen took place,
and a ceremonial bathing, from which the festival took its name of
Fandroana (the Bath). This festival is now merged in the French
national fete of the idth of July. Another great festival was at
circumcision times. This rite was observed by royal command at
intervals of a few years; these were occasions of great rejoicing, but
also of much drunkenness and licentiousness. Since 1868 circum-
cision has been observed by each family at any time convenient to
itself. It is practised by all the Malagasy tribes. Funerals were
also times of much feasting, and at the death of people of rank and
wealth numbers of bullocks were and are still killed. Although
there was no proper priesthood, the idol-keepers, the diviners, the
day-declarers and some others formed a class of people closely
connected with heathen customs and interested in their continued
observance.

Industries and Commerce. — The rearing of cattle and the
dressing of hides, the collection of rubber and bee culture are
important industries. The chief food crops grown have been
indicated (see Flora), and the gold-mining is separately noticed
below. Other industries undertaken or developed by Europeans
are silk and cotton weaving and raphia-fibre preparation, and
ostrich farming. Sugar, rice, soap and other factories have
been established. In 1904 the exportation of straw and other
fibre hats began; these resemble those of Panama and promise
to become an important item. Tanning bark, coffee and guano
are also recent exports.

Since 1862, when the country was thrown open to foreign
trade, the growth of over-sea commerce has been comparatively
slow. In the early days cattle were the chief export. About
1870 india-rubber began to be exported in considerable quan-
tities, and cattle, rubber and hides continue staple products.
Other important exports are raphia fibre and beeswax. Since
1900 gold has become a leading export, the value of the gold
sent .out of the country in the five years 1901-1906 being
£1,384,493. The imports consist chiefly of tissues (mostly
cotton goods), breadstuff s and rice, liquors, metal- ware and
coal. Better means of internal transport and increased pro-
duction in the island have greatly reduced the import of
rice, which came mostly from Saigon.

Before the occupation of Madagascar by France the duty
on imports and exports was 10% ad valorem, and the foreign
trade was very largely in the hands of British and American
merchants; In July 1897 the French tariff was applied and
increased rates levied on foreign goods, notably cottons. This
practically killed the American trade and reduced the British
trade to a very small proportion. In 1897 the British imports,
were valued at £179,000; the next year, with the new tariff
in force, they had dropped to £42,000. The only export duties
are: cattle 23. per head and rubber 2d. per Ib.

In 1880-1885 the entire foreign trade of Madagascar, imports
and exports, was estimated to be about £i,ooo,coo; in 1900-1906
the volume of trade had increased to a little over £2,500,000 a
year. But while from 1900 onwards imports had a tendency
to decrease (they were £1,841,310 in 1901 and £1,247,936 in
1905), exports steadily increased, owing to the working of gold-
mines. The total value of the exports rose from £359,019 in
1901 to £822,470 in .1906.* About 90% of the trade is with
France or other French colonies. The remaining trade is nearly
all British and German.

Banking business is in the hands of French companies. The
legal currency is the French s-franc piece and the smaller
French coins. There was no native coinage, the French s-franc
piece or dollar being the standard, and all sums under that
amount were obtained by cutting up those coins into all shapes
and sizes, which were weighed with small weights and scales
into halves, quarters, eighths, twelfths and twenty-fourths of a
dollar, and even reckoned down to the seven hundred and
twentieth fraction of the same amount.

Gold-mining. — Gold-mining has been carried on regularly since
1897, and by 1900 the value of the ore extracted exceeded £100,000.
Reports of rich discoveries attracted considerable attention in South
Africa and Europe during 1904-1906, but experts, sent from the
Transvaal, came to the conclusion that Madagascar would not
become one of the rich goldfields of the world. The chief mining
districts have been already indicated (see under Geology). Rich
finds were reported from the north of the island during 1907, in
which year the export of gold was £320,000. The mines afford a
lucrative occupation for some thousands of persons, and many of
the claim-holders are British. Decrees of 1902 and 1905 regulate
the conditions under which mining is carried on. By decree of the
23rd of May 1907, the radius of the circle within which claims may
be pegged is 2 kilometres (ij m.), and a tax of 5% is levied on the
value of the gold extracted. _

Communications. — There is regular steamship communication
between the chief ports and Marseilles, Zanzibar and India (via
Mauritius and Ceylon) ; and a submarine cable to Mozambique places
the island in telegraphic connexion with the rest of the world. The
French have built carriage roads from the interior to the principal
ports as well as to connect the principal towns. On these roads
large use is made of bullock wagons, as well as carts drawn by men,
and women also. Tamatave and Antananarivo are joined by coast
canals and lakes and by a railway service. Where other means
are not available, goods are carried by canoes, or on the shoulders
of bearers along the native footpaths.

There is a well-organized postal service, and all the towns of note
are linked by a telegraph system, which has a length of over 4000
miles.

Government, Revenue, 6*c. — The colony is not represented
in the French Chambers, nor has it self-government. At the
head of the administration is a governor-general, who is assisted
by a nominated council of administration which includes
unofficial members. This council must be consulted on matters
affecting the budget. In several towns there are chambres con-
sultative*, composed of local merchants and planters. The
island is divided into circles, placed under military officers, and
provinces, presided over by a civilian. As far as possible in
local affairs, each of the native races is granted autonomy, the
dominion of the Hova over the other tribes being abolished.
Each province has its native governor and minor officials, the
governor being generally selected by popular vote. Each
village has an organization (the Fdkon' dlona) resembling that

1 Exports:

1901

1906

Increase.

Rubber
Hides and skins .
Gold ....

£26,679
3L548
13 '.987

£301,518

250,339
270,613

£274.839
218,791
138,626

276

MADAGASCAR

of a commune; at its head is a chief or mpiadidy, who serves
for three years.

For Europeans and in suits between Europeans and natives the
French judicial code is applicable; suits between natives are tried
by native tribunals (established 1898) presided over by a European
assisted by two native assessors. These tribunals judge according
to native law and usages, except when such customs (e.g. polygamy
and slavery) have been expressly abolished. Arbitration councils
are available everywhere for the settlement of disputes between
native workmen and their employers. The native laws respecting
land tenure have been improved by the adoption of a method of
registration based on the Torrens system.

Revenue is derived from land, house and capitation taxes, from
customs, posts and telegraphs, ferries, licences and other indirect
imposts. The excess of expenditure over revenue is made good by
subventions from France. A considerable portion of the revenue
is expended on public works. Revenue and expenditure in 1905
were each just beneath £1,000,000. This is exclusive of the sums
spent by France in the island on the army, and for the naval base
at Diego-Suarez. There is a public debt amounting (1907) to
£4-°55»6oo. As stated in the French senate (February 1909),
everything is taxed in the island ; and no sooner has any enterprise
become fairly successful than it is so heavily taxed as to be no longer
worth carrying on, and certain crops have therefore been destroyed
by the colonists who had planted them. This has been the case
with tobacco, sugar, rum, and also in butter-making, cattle-breeding
and other things. Notwithstanding this taxation, from 1895 to
1908 £12,000,000 was required for Madagascar from the home
government, and the demand is constantly increasing.

History. — From the earliest accounts given of the people of
Madagascar by European travellers, as well as from what may
be inferred from their present condition, they seem for many
centuries to have been divided into a number of tribes, often
separated from one another by a wide extent of uninhabited
country. Each of these was under its own chief, and was often
at war with its neighbours. No one tribe seems to have gained
any great ascendancy over the rest until about the middle of
the 1 7th century, when a small but warlike people called
Sa.kala.va, in the south-west of Madagascar, advanced north-
ward, conquered all the inhabitants of the western half of the
island, as well as some northern and central tribes, and
eventually founded two kingdoms which retained their supre-
macy until the close of the i8th century. About that time, the
Hova in the central province of Imerina began to assert their
own position under two warlike and energetic chieftains,
Andrianimpoina and his son Radama; they threw off the
Sakalava authority, and after several wars obtained a nominal
allegiance from them; they also conquered the surrounding
tribes, and so made themselves virtual kings of Madagascar.
From that time until 1895 Hova authority was retained over
a large part of the central and eastern provinces, but it was
only nominal over much of the western side of the island, while
in the south-west the people were quite independent and
governed by their own chiefs.

While European intercourse with Madagascar is comparatively
recent, the connexion of the Arabs with the island dates from a
Arab very remote epoch; and in very early times settle-

intt-rcourse ments were formed both on the north-west and south-
*°d east coasts. In the latter locality there are still

influence. traces of their influence in the knowledge of Arabic
possessed by a few of the people. But in these provinces they
have become merged in the general mass of the people. Tt is
different, however, in the north-west and west of the island.
Here are several large Arab colonies, occupying the ports of
Anorontsanga, Mojanga, Marovoay and Morondava, and re-
taining their distinct nationality. There is also in these districts
a Hindu element in the population, for intercourse has also been
maintained for some centuries between India and northern
Madagascar, and in some towns the Banyan Indian element
is as prominent as the Arab element. In the early times of their
intercourse with Madagascar, the Arabs had a very powerful
influence upon the Malagasy. This is seen in the number of
words derived from the Arabic in the native language. Among
these are the names of the months and the days of the week,
those used in astrology and divination, some forms of salutation,
words for dress and bedding, money, musical instruments, books
and writings, together with a number of miscellaneous terms.

The island is mentioned by several of the early Arabic writers
and geographers, but medieval maps show curious ignorance of
its size and position. Marco Polo has a chapter upon
it, and terms it " Madeigascar," but his accounts are
confused with those of the mainland of Africa. The
first European voyager who saw Madagascar was a Portuguese
named Diogo Diaz, captain of one of the ships of a fleet com-
manded by Pedro Cabral and bound for India. Separated from
his companions by a storm near the Cape, he sighted the eastern
coast of the island on the loth of August 1500. That day being
the feast of St Lawrence, Madagascar was named the " Isle of
St Lawrence," and retained that name on all maps and charts for
a hundred years. The Portuguese gave names to most of the
capes, but made no persistent attempts at colonization. After
them the Dutch endeavoured, but with little success, to form
colonies; and in the time of Charles I. proposals were made to
form an English " plantation," but these were never carried
into effect, although for a short time there was a settlement
formed on the south-west coast. In the latter part of the 1 7th and
during most of the i8th century the French attempted to establish
military positions on the east coast. For some time they held
the extreme south-east point of the island at Fort Dauphin; but
several of their commandants were so incapable and tyrannical
that they were frequently involved in war with the people,
and more than once their stations were destroyed and the
French were massacred. Early in the igth century all their
positions on the mainland were relinquished, and they retained
nothing but the island of Ste Marie on the east coast. In 1811
Tamatave had been occupied by British troops, and the Treaty
of Paris of 1814 recognized as British the " French settlements
in Madagascar," but as a matter of fact France had then no
settlements on the mainland. The then governor of Mauritius,
Sir Robert Farquhar, endeavoured to prosecute British claims and
obtained a cession of Diego-Suarez Bay. These claims were not
backed up by the home government, and a little later the policy
was adopted by Great Britain of supporting the Hova authority.

The political history of Madagascar as a whole may be said
to date from the reign of Radama I. (1810-1828). He was a man
much in advance of his age — shrewd, enterprising, and padama 7
undeterred by difficulty — a kind of Peter the Great of
his time. He saw that it was necessary for his people to be
educated and civilized if the country was to progress; and making
a treaty with the governor of Mauritius to abolish the export of
slaves, he received every year in compensation a subsidy of arms,
ammunition, and uniforms, as well as English training for his
troops. He was thus enabled to establish his authority over a
large portion of the island. For some years a British agent,
Mr Hastie, resided at Radama's court, and exercised a powerful
influence over the king, doing much for the material advance of
the country. At the same period (1820) Christian introduc-
teaching was commenced in the capital by the tion ot
London Missionary Society, and by its missionaries Chris-
the language was reduced to a systematic written
form, and the art of printing introduced; books were pre-
pared, the Scriptures were translated, numerous schools were
formed, and several Christian congregations were gathered
together. The knowledge of many of the useful arts was also
imparted, and many valuable natural productions were dis-
covered. The power of superstition was greatly broken, a result
partly due to the keen good sense of the king, but chiefly to the
spread of knowledge and religious teaching.

The bright prospects thus opening up were clouded by the
death of Radama at the age of thirty-six, and the seizure of
the royal authority by one of his wives, the Princess , ag

Ranavalona. She looked with much suspicion upon /_
the ideas then gaining power among many of her
people, and determined to strike a decisive blow at the new
teaching. In 1835 the profession of the Christian religion
was declared illegal; all worship was to cease, and all religious
books were ordered to be given up. By the middle of 1836 all
the English missionaries were obliged to leave the island, and
for twenty-five years the most strenuous efforts were made by

MADAGASCAR

277

the queen and her government to suppress all opposition to her
commands. This, however, only served to show in a very
remarkable manner the courage and faith of the Christian
Malagasy, of whom about two hundred suffered death in various
cruel forms, while many hundreds were punished more or less
severely by fine, degradation, imprisonment and slavery.
During the queen's reign the political condition of the country
was deplorable; there were frequent rebellions, many of the
distant provinces were desolated by barbarous wars; and for
some years all Europeans were excluded, and foreign commerce
almost ceased. This last circumstance was partly owing to
an ill-managed attack upon Tamatave in 1846 by a combined
British and French force, made to redress the wrongs inflicted
upon the foreign traders of that port. But for the leaven of
Christianity and education which had been introduced into the
country it would have reverted to a state of barbarism.

This reign of terror was brought to a close in 1861 by the
death of the queen and the accession of her son Radama II. The
R d mall 's'and was reopened to European trade, and rhis-
' sionary efforts were recommenced. A determined
attempt was made by some Frenchmen to gain for their
country an overwhelming influence by means of a treaty
which they induced the king to sign. But this act, as well
as the vices and insane follies into which he was led by
worthless foreign and native favourites, soon brought his reign
and his life to an end. He was put to death in his palace
(1863) and his wife was placed on the throne. The new sovereign
and her government refused to ratify the agreement which had
been illegally obtained, choosing rather to pay a million francs
as compensation to the French company. During the five years'
reign of Queen Rasoherina, quiet and steady advances were
made in civilization and education, and treaties were concluded
with the British, French and American governments.

At the death of Rasoherina in 1868, she was succeeded by her
cousin, Ranavalona II. One of the first acts of the new queen
was the public recognition of Christianity; and very
Raaavsioaa soon afterwards she and her husband, the prime
minister, were baptized, and the erection of a chapel
royal was commenced in the palace yard. These acts were
followed in the succeeding year by the burning of the royal
idols, and immediately afterwards by the destruction of the idols
throughout the central provinces, the people generally putting
themselves under Christian instruction. From that time educa-
tion and enlightenment made great progress, chiefly through the
labours of missionaries of various societies.

The native Malagasy government, though theoretically
despotic, was limited in various ways. Radama I. and Rana-
Native valona I. were much more absolute sovereigns than
Govern- those before or after them, but even they were
largely restrained by public opinion. New laws were
announced at large assemblies of the people, whose consent was
asked, and always given through the headmen of the different
divisions of native sooiety; this custom was no doubt a survival
from a time when the popular assent was not a merely formal
act. The large disciplined army formed by Radama I. aided
much in changing what was formerly a somewhat limited
monarchy into an absolute one. The Hova queen's authority
was maintained over the central and eastern portions of Mada-
gascar, and at almost all the ports, by governors appointed by
the queen, and supported by small garrisons of Hova troops.
At the same time the chiefs of the various tribes were left in
possession of a good deal of their former honours and influence.
Ranavalona II., her predecessor and her successor were succes-
sively married to the prime minister, Rainilaiarivony, a man of
great ability and sagacity, who, by his position as husband and
chief adviser of the sovereign, became virtual ruler of the
country. Chiefly owing to his influence, many measures
tending to improve the administration were introduced. The
Hova army was estimated at from 30,000 to 40,000 men, several
English non-commissioned officers and, latterly, others of
higher rank being engaged to train them in European methods.
Revenue was derived from customs duties, firstfruits, fines and

confiscation of offenders' property, and a money offering called
h&sina, presented on a great variety of occasions both to the
sovereign in person and to her representatives; and these were
supplemented by " benevolences " (in the medieval sense of
the word) levied upon the people for occasional state necessities.
The government also claimed the unpaid service of all classes of
the community for every kind of public work.

The Hova government aspired to have Madagascar recognized
as an independent civilized state, and consuls appointed by the
British, French and American governments were
accredited to the Malagasy sovereign, the queen
having a consul in England, and a consular agent
at Mauritius. The treaty with Great Britain, concluded in 1865,
gave the consuls of that nation jurisdiction over the British sub-
jects in the island. At this period, on the initiative of the 4th
earl of Clarendon, then foreign secretary, an understanding was
come to between the British and French governments by which
it was agreed that each power should respect the independence
of Madagascar; and the future of the country appeared to be
bound up in the gradual consolidation of the central Hova
authority over the whole island. While this prospect would
have satisfied the British interests in the island, it was other-
wise with the French. The tradition of their former settlements
in and influence over the island was strong; in 1840 they had
taken under their protection the Sakalava ruler of the small
island of Nossi-be, off the north-west coast, and in virtue of that
act claimed a vague protectorate over the adjacent shores of
the mainland. A treaty, concluded in 1868, while establishing
French consular jurisdiction in Madagascar, recognized Rana-
valona II. as queen of Madagascar, and under the Second
Empire attempts to establish French political influence were dis-
couraged, and even as late as 1872 the subsidy enjoyed by the
Jesuit missionaries was withdrawn. In 1878 the French consul,
Laborde, died, and a dispute arose as to the disposal of his pro-
perty. This dispute was the occasion of further intervention on
the part of the French, for the Paris government supported the
claims of Laborde's heirs, and revived their claim to a protector-
ate over the Sakalava of the north-west coast, as based on their
agreement with them in 1840, ceding Nossi-be to France. A
policy of colonial expansion generally, and in Africa in par-
ticular at this time, was manifest in France, as in other Euro-
pean countries, and the French claims on the Hova were pressed
with vigour.

Towards the middle of 1882 the relations between the native
government and that of France became much strained, and
to settle, if possible, these causes of dispute, two Franco-
Hova officers of high rank were sent to France as Malagasy
ambassadors, but as they were not authorized to
concede any territory, their visit accomplished very
little. Treaties had been concluded with Great Britain, Ger-
many and America, giving improved facilities for trade with
Madagascar, but before the return of the envoys matters had
come to a crisis in the island. In May 1883 an ultimatum was
sent to the Malagasy queen, requiring immediate compliance
with the demands of France; and as these were refused by the
Hova government, Tamatave was bombarded by a French
squadron and then occupied by the marines. The war con-
tinued in a desultory fashion for many months; but no serious
attempt was made to invade the interior; and in 1885 terms
of peace were agreed to. By a treaty signed on the I7th of
December it was agreed that the foreign relations of Madagascar
should be directed by France; that a resident should live at
the capital, with a small guard of French soldiers; and that
the Bay of Diego-Suarez, together with surrounding territory,
should be ceded to France. The word "protectorate" was
carefully excluded from the treaty, although doubtless the
French envoys intended that this should be its practical issue.
It was at the same time agreed that there should be no foreign
interference with the internal government of the country, and
that the queen should retain her former position, with all its
honours and dignity. It should be here noticed that the queen,
Ranavalona II., died just at the beginning of the war, on the

278

MADAGASCAR

I3th of July 1883, and was succeeded by her niece, Princess
Razafindrahety, under the title of Ranavalona III., who main-
tained the same policy as her predecessor, and was much beloved
French Pro-ty her people and respected by all. Several French
tectorate, residents successively represented France at Antana-
1885-1894. narivo; but these found themselves unable to
obtain that influence which the home authorities thought they
had a right to demand. Although the British government, in
return for concessions in Zanzibar, had consented, in 1890, to
recognize a French protectorate over Madagascar, the Malagasy
prime minister, Rainilaiarivony, was not disposed to give any
advantage to France and continued to arm and train, by the
help of British officers, a large body of native soldiers. This
state of tension and irritation could not last, and at length,
towards the close of 1894, the French government sent an
ultimatum to the Malagasy sovereign, demanding such powers
as would have made French authority supreme in the island.
These demands were refused by the native government, and
other conditions were offered; but the French envoy, together
French la- witn tne resident's escort, left the capital, as also did
vasion and the French traders and others, including the large
Conquest, Jesuit mission. As soon as these had left the island,
l895' the chief ports were occupied by French troops, and

an expeditionary force under General Duchesne was afterwards
landed on the north-west coast at Mojanga — commonly, but in-
correctly, written Majunga — with the object of breaking the
Hova authority. Owing to the necessity of making a road for the
passage of artillery and military stores, many months were spent
on the march into the interior, and there was considerable loss
of life by fever and other disease among the invading troops.
But no effectual resistance was made by the Malagasy, and
at length, on the 3oth of September 1895, the French forces
appeared on the heights north and east of Antananarivo, bom-
barded the city, which surrendered in the afternoon, and on
the evening of the same day the French entered the capital.

The result was that the protectorate of France was re-estab-
lished in the central provinces, but the queen was allowed to
retain her position. Early in 1896, however, a serious
1896, and" rebellion broke out in several parts of Imerina. This
movement was not only anti-French and anti-foreign,
but also distinctly anti-Christian. The French troops
gradually broke up the power of the rebellion in the
central provinces, but as there appeared to be
considerable unrest in many other parts of the island, General
Gallieni, an officer with a reputation for vigour and ability in
the Sudan and Tongking campaigns, was sent out to relieve the
then resident-general.

General Gallieni had a difficult task in establishing the autho-
rity of France throughout the island among numbers of tribes
Adminis- wno had never submitted to any control from others.
tration of Among the first steps he took were to put the country
General under martial law, to abolish royalty and all semblance
Gauieal. Q{ Hova government, and to declare Madagascar to be
henceforth a colony of France. Queen Ranavalona III. was
exiled to Reunion, and subsequently to Algeria. Meanwhile
carriage roads were commenced to connect all the chief centres,
and the military posts were gradually extended so as to consoli-
date French rule over all the outlying tribes. French residents
and numerous other officials were placed at every important
town, and various projects were started for the civilization of the
Malagasy in accordance with French ideas. At the close of 1899,
General Gallieni was able to report that only portions of the west
and south-west remained to be brought into submission. Not
long afterwards the authority of France was recognized through-
out the island. General Gallieni, whose firm and vigorous ad-
ministration, and desire to treat the Malagasy justly and kindly,
made him liked by the people, retired in 1905, and was succeeded
in that office by M. Victor Augagneur, late mayor of Lyons.
Since the French occupation the Malagasy have conformed
pretty readily to the new order of things, although many of the
most intelligent Hova deeply regret that their country did not
retain its independence. Justice is administered, on the whole,

1896, and
Gradual
Subjection
of the
Malagasy.

with fairness and impartiality ; but the taxation seems too heavy
for the means of the people, indeed it is affirmed by trustworthy
natives that the well-to-do classes are being gradually drained of
their property. To an outsider it also appears that the staff of
officials is very largely in excess of any real needs of administra-
tion; several monopolies, which interfere with the habits of the
people, tend to produce discontent; and the taking of their land
and houses for public works, roads, &c., while but a mere fraction
of their real value is allowed as compensation, does not help to
increase their acquiescence in foreign control. But the most
serious cause for dislike to government action was the inter-
ference by the governor-general, in 1907, with their religious
customs, by the suppression of hundreds of their congregational
schools, and the closing of numbers of their churches. In
July 1910 M. Augagneur was replaced as governor-general by
N. Picquie, a prominent official of the Colonial Department,
who had previously served with acceptance as deputy governor-
general of French Indo-China, and who had a reputation for
tact and impartiality.

Christian Missions and Education. — As already noticed, the
Malagasy owe to missionaries of the London Missionary Society
their first school system and their first literature, in 1820 and
subsequent years; 1 and for fifteen years all educational work was
carried on by them, some 10,000 to 12,000 children having been
instructed in their schools. On the reopening of the country to
Europeans in 1862, the L.M.S. mission was resumed and was carried
on with vigour for several years, stations being formed in several
parts of Imerina, in the Be'tsile'o and Antsihanaka provinces, and at
the ports of Tamatave, Majunga and Farafangana (south-east coast).
In 1890 the number of their churches was 1220; adherents, 248,000;
and scholars, 68,000; so that for long the greater part of the educa-
tional work was in their hands, carried on not only in primary
schools, but also in high schools and colleges. In 1863 the Church
of England began work in the island through the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel and the Church Missionary Society.
After some time, however, the latter society withdrew, leaving the
field to the S.P.G. A bishop is stationed in the capital, with a
theological college in its neighbourhood, but the chief work of the
Anglican mission is on the east coast. In 1866 the Norwegian
Lutheran Society began work in Madagascar, and was joined in 1888
by an American Lutheran Society. With a representative church at
the capital, the chief work of these missions is in the Vakinankaratra
district (south-west of Imerina), in the B4tsil<So province, and on the
south-east and south-west coasts; in these places they have a large
number of converts and (until lately) schools. In 1867 a mission
was begun by the Society of Friends, who gave great attention to
education and literary work, and afterwards took up as their field
of labour the western and south-western parts of Imerina, where
they have a large and well-organized mission. Immediately after
the island became a French possession the French Protestant
Churches began (in 1896) to take part in the evangelizing of their
new colony, and about half the area for long occupied by the London
Missionary Society was transferred to the Paris Society. The bulk
of the Malagasy Christians are Protestants, probably three-fourths
or four-fifths of those professing Christianity. A Roman Catholic
(Jesuit) mission was begun in 1861, and a large force of priests with
a bishop and lay brethren and sisters engaged in education, have
been at work in the island since then, except during the two Franco-
Malagasy wars.2 Since the French conquest, the north of the island
has been occupied by a mission of priests of the Saint Esprit, and
the southern portion by the Lazarist mission, each with a bishop
at its head. The following table gives the statistics of the various
Protestant missions at the close of 1906: —

Mission

Mission-
aries

Churches

Adhe-
rents

Mem-
bers

Scho-
lars

Lond. Miss. Soc.

25

630

120,000

32,000

27,000

Soc. Prop. Gospel

15

121

13,000

4,094

7,655

Norweg. Luth.

60

892

84,000

71,500

38,000

Am. Luth.

14

?

?

?

?

Soc. of Friends

27

178

15,000

2,540

7,122

French Prot. Miss.

29

491

110,660

10,500

18,200

1 It is true that 200 years earlier than this, persistent efforts were
made for nineteen years (1600—1619) by Portuguese Roman Catholic
missionaries to propagate their faith among the south-east coast
tribes. But although much zeal and self-denial were shown by
these men, their efforts were abortive, and the mission was at length
abandoned, leaving no fruit of their labours in a single church or
convert. Half a dozen small books of devotion are all that remain
to show their presence in Madagascar.

2 The work of the " Freres chre'tiens " was, however, almost
broken up by the anti-clerical policy of the French government.

MADAN— MADDALONI

279

Since 1897 high schools, and medical and technical schools, and a
few primary schools, have been formed by the French government ;
and all other schools have been placed under regulations issued by
an educational department, the scholars being required to learn the
French language; but until the end of 1906 the bulk of the educa-
tional work was carried on by the various missions. At that date
the anti-clerical movement in France began to affect Madagascar.
In all the missions the churches had, in the vast majority of cases,
been used as school-houses, but in November 1906 it was strictly
forbidden to use churches for educational purposes after two months
from that date; and the effect of the decree, with other provisions,
was to close hundreds of schools, probably three-fourths of the
whole number.

For many years (1862-1896), all medical aid to the sick, the forma-
tion of hospitals and dispensaries, the training of native doctors,
midwives and nurses, ana the production of medical literature was
entirely due to the Protestant missionaries, viz. the LondonMission-
ary Society, the Friends and the Norwegians. Numbers of young
men received a full course of medical and surgical training, and were
awarded diplomas after passing strict examinations. This work is
now mostly in charge of a government department, and mission
medical work is much restricted; but for thirty-five years the Mala-
gasy owed all such help to the benevolence of European Christians.
Besides care for the sick in ordinary diseases, asylums for lepers
were for many years carried on; two by the London Missionary
Society, one, a large one, with 800 or 900 inmates, by the Norwegian
Society, and another by the Roman Catholic mission. This last,
with one of those of the L.M.S., is now taken over by the government.

AUTHORITIES. — As regards the scientific aspects of the country,
almost everything of value in previous books and papers is included
in the magnificent work (1882 et seq.), in 28 410 vols., by Alfred
Grandidier, entitled Histoire naturelle, physique, et politique de
Madagascar. Many of the volumes consist of coloured lithograph
plates illustrating the natural history of the country, as well as
atlases of maps from the earliest period.

General: Etienne de Flacourt, Histoire de la grande isle Madagas-
car (Paris, 1658) ; Madagascar, or Robert Drury's Journal during
Fifteen Years' Captivity on that Island (London, 1729 ; new ed., 1890) ;
Voyages et memoires de Maurice Auguste, comte de Benyowski (Paris,
1791); Froberville, Histoire de Madagascar (Isle de France, 1809);
Ellis, History of Madagascar (London, 1838); Guillain, Documents
sur ... /a partie occidentale de Madagascar (Paris, 1845) ; Mac6
Descartes, Histoire et geographic de Madagascar (Paris, 1846); Ellis,
Three Visits to Madagascar (London, 1859); J. Sibree, Madagascar
and its People (London, 1870) ; Tantara ny Andrtana eto Madagascar:
Histoire des rois d'Imerina d'apres les manuscrits malgaches,
(Antananarivo, 1875); Mullens, Twelve Months in Madagascar
(London, 1875); Blanchard, L'Jle de Madagascar (Paris, 1875);
Dahle, Madagascar og dels Beboere (Christiania, 1876^-1878); Sibree
and Baron (cds.), The Antananarivo Annual, Nos. i-xxiv. (1875-
1900, pp. 3115); Notes, reconnaissances, et explorations, revue men-
suelle (Antananarivo, 5 vols., 1897-1899, pp. 304^1); Sibree, A
Madagascar Bibliography (Antananarivo, 1885); Vaissiere, Histoire
de Madagascar (Paris, 1884), Vingt ans a Madagascar (Paris-, 1885);
Oliver, Madagascar: an Historical and Descriptive Account (2 vols.,
London, 1886); Cousins, Madagascar of To-day (London, 1895);
Bulletin du comite de Madagascar (monthly) (Paris, 1895, et seq.);
Sibree, Madagascar before the Conquest (London, 1896) ; Catat, Voyage
a Madagascar (Pari?, 1895) ; Annuairede Madagascar (Antananarivo,
1898,0! seq.); J. S. Gallieni, Rapport d' ensemble sur la situation
generate de Madagascar (2 vols., Paris, 1899); Revue de Madagascar,
mensuelle, illuslree (1895, ct seq.) ; Guide de I'immigrant d Madagascar
(3 vols., with atlas, Paris, 1899); Collection des anciens ouvrages
relatifs d Madagascar, par les soins du comite de Madagascar (a
collection and translation of all works relating to the island from
1500 to 1800, in 10 vols.), (Paris, 1899 et seq.) ; Bulletin trimestriel de
I'academie de Malgache (quarterly) (Antananarivo, 1902 et seq.) ;
G. Grandidier et autres, Madagascar au debut du xx* siecle (Paris,
1902); G. Grandidier, Bibliographic de Madagascar (2 vols., Paris,
1905 and 1907).

Political: Sibree, " What are ' French Claims ' on Madagascar?"
Madagascar Tracts (1882); Oliver, True Story of the French Dispute in
Madagascar (London, 1885) ; Shaw, Madagascar and France (London,
I885): Saillens, Nos droits sur Madagascar (Paris, 1885); K. Blind
" The Fictitious French Claim to Madagascar," Contemp. Rev.
(i894);'Martineau, Etude de politique contemporaine. Madagascar
(Paris, 1894) ; Rentier, Les droits dela France sur Madagascar (1895) ;
Corlay, Notre campagne a Madagascar(Paris, 1896) ; Knight, Madagas-
car in Wat-time (London. 1896); Carol, Chez les Hovas (Paris, 1898);
Gallieni, Neuf ans d Madagascar (Paris, 1908).

Philology: Houtman, Spraak ende woord boek in de Maleische ende
Madagaskarsche talen (Amsterdam, 1603) ; Voyage de C. van Heems-
kerk; Vocabulaire de la langue parlee dans Vile Saint-Laurent (Amster-
dam, 1603) Megiser, Beschretbung der Mechtigen und Weitberhiimbten
Insul Madagascar, with dictionary and dialogues (Altenburg, 1609) ;
Arthus, Colloquia latino-maleyica et madagascarica (Frankfort, 1613) ;
Challand, Vocabulaire franc,ais-malgac!ie et malgache-franc,ais (lie de
France, 1773); Froberville, Dictionnaire franfais-madecasse (3 vols.,
He de France, 1809) ; Freeman and Johns, Dictionary of the Malagasy

Language(Eng.-Mal. and Mal.-Eng.), (Antananarivo, 1835) ; Dalmond,
Vocabulaire et grammaire pour les langues malgaches, Sakalava
et Betsimisdra (Bourbon, 1842); R. C. Missionaries' Dictionnaire
franfais-malgache (Reunion, 1853); and Dictionnaire malgache-
franfais (R6union, 1855); Van der Tunk, " Outlines of a Grammar
of the Malagasy Language," Jour. Roy. Asiat. Soc. (1860); Ailloud,
Grammaire malgache-hova (Antananarivo, 1872); W. E. Cousins.
Concise Introduction to the Study of the Malagasy Language as
spoken in Imerina (Antananarivo, 1873); Marrc de Marin, Gram-
maire malgache (Paris, 1876); id., Essai sur le malgache, ou Etude
compares des langues javanaise, malgache, et malayse (Paris, 1876);
id., LeJardin des racines oceaniennes (Paris, 1876) ; Dahle, Specimens
of Malagasy Folk-lore (Antananarivo, 1877); and W. E. Cousins,
" The Malagasy Language," in Trans. Phil. Soc. (1878). Besides
these there are several valuable papers by Dahle in the yearly num-
bers of The Antananarivo Annual (ante) (1876— 1877) ; Richardson,
A New Malagasy-English Dictionary (Antananarivo, 1885); Cousins
and Parrett, Malagasy Proverbs (Antananarivo, 1885) ; Causseque,
Grammaire malgache (Antananarivo, 1886); Abinal et Malzac, Dic-
tionnaire malgache-franc,ais (Antananarivo, 1889); Brandstetter,
" Die Beziehungen des Malagasy zum Malaiischen," Malaio-poly-
nesische Forschungen, pt. 2 (Lucerne, 1893).

Missions and Religious History: Freeman and Johns, Narrative
of the Persecutions of the Christians in Madagascar (London, 1840);
Prout, Madagascar, its Missions and its Martyrs (London, 1863);
Ellis, Madagascar Revisited (London, 1867); id., The Martyr Church
(London, 1869); " Religion in Madagascar," Ch. Quar. Rev. (1878);
Briggs, The Madagascar Mission (L.M.S. 1879) ; id.. Ten Years'
Review of Mission Work in Madagascar (L.M.S. 1870—1880, 1881);
Johnson, Review of Work of the Friends' Foreign Mission Association
in Madagascar, 1867-1880 (Antananarivo, 1880); Vaissiere, Histoire
de Madagascar, ses habitants et ses missionaires (Paris, 1884); The
Church in Madagascar (S.P.G., 15 years' progress, 1874-1889, 1889);
La Liberte religieuse a Madagascar (Paris, 1897); Matthews, Thirty
Years in Madagascar (London, 1904) ; Sibree, The L.M.S. Mission
in Madagascar (L.M.S. Mission Hand Books, London, 1907);
id., " Christian Missions in Madagascar and French Colonial
Policy," The East and the West (Jan. 1909); and General Gallieni's
" Neuf ans £ Madagascar, Journal of the African Society (April
1909). G- Si.*)

MADAN, MARTIN (1726-1790), English writer, was educated
at Westminster School, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where
he graduated in 1746. In 1748 he was called to the bar, and for
some time lived a very gay life, until he was persuaded to change
his ways on hearing a sermon by John Wesley. He took holy
orders, and was appointed chaplain to the Lock Hospital, London.
He was closely connected with the Calvinistic Methodist move-
ment supported by the countess of Huntingdon, and from time to
time acted as an itinerant preacher. He was a first cousin of
William Cowper, with whom he had some correspondence on
religious matters. In 1767 much adverse comment was aroused
by his support of his friend Thomas Haweis in a controversy
arising out of the latter's possession of the living of Aldwinkle,
Northamptonshire (see Monthly Review, xxxvii. 382, 390. 465).
In 1780 Madan raised more serious storm of opposition by the
publication of his Thelyphlhora, or A Treatise on Female Ruin,
in which he advocated polygamy as the remedy for the evils he
deplored. The author was no doubt sincere in his arguments,
which he based chiefly on scriptural authority; but his book
called forth many angry replies. Nineteen attacks on it are
catalogued by Falconer Madan in Diet. Nat. Biog. Madan
resigned his chaplainship and retired to Epsom, where he pro-
duced, among other works, A New and Literal Translation of
Juvenal and Persius (1789). ' He died on the 2nd of May 1790.

MADDALONI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of
Caserta, about 35 m. S.E. of Caserta, withstationson the railways
from Caserta to Benevento and from Caserta to Avellino, 200 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901), I9',778 (town) ; 21,270 (commune).
It is prettily situated at the base of one of the Tifata hills, the
towers of its medieval castle and the church of San Michele crown-
ing the heights above. The fine old palace of the Caraffa family,
once dukes of Maddaloni, the old college now named after
Giordano Bruno, and the institute for the sons of soldiers are the
chief points of interest. About 2\ m. east of Valle di Madda-
loni, the Ponte della Valle, an aqueduct built by the orders
of Charles III. of Naples and his son to convey the water of the
Tiburno to Caserta (19 m.), is carried across the valley between
Monte Longano and Monte Gargano by a threefold series of
noble arches rising to a height of 210 ft. The work was

280

MADDEN— MADEIRA

designed by Lodovico Vanvitelli, and constructed between 1753
and 1759.

MADDEN, SIR FREDERIC (1801-1873), English palaeographer,
the son of an officer of Irish extraction, was born at Portsmouth
on the i6th of February 1801. From his earliest years he dis-
played a strong bent to linguistic and antiquarian studies. In
1826 he was engaged by the British Museum to assist in the pre-
paration of the classified catalogue of printed books then contem-
plated, and in 1828 he became assistant keeper of manuscripts.
In 1833 he was knighted, and in 1837 succeeded Josiah Forshall as
keeper of manuscripts. . He was not entirely successful in this
office, partly owing to want of harmony with his colleagues; he
retired in 1866. He edited for the Roxburghe Club Havelok the
Dane (1828), discovered by himself among the Laudian MSS. in
the Bodleian, William and the Werwolf (1832) and the old English
versions of the Gesta Romanorum (1838). In 1839 he edited the
ancient metrical romances of Syr Gaioayne for the Bannatyne
Club, and in 1847 Layamon's Brut, with a prose translation, for
the Society of Antiquaries. In 1850 the magnificent edition, in
parallel columns, of what are known as the " Wycliflfite " versions
of the Bible, from the original MSS., upon which he and his
coadjutor, Forshall, had been engaged for twenty years, was
published by the university of Oxford. In 1866-1869 he edited
the Historic*. Minor of Matthew Paris for the Rolls Series. In
1833 he wrote the text of Henry Shaw's Illuminated Ornaments
of the Middle Ages; and in 1850 edited the English translation
of Silvestre's Paleographie universelle. He died on the 8th of
March 1873, bequeathing his journals and other private papers
to the Bodleian Library, where they were to remain unopened
until 1920.

Madden was perhaps the first palaeographer of his day. He was
an acute as well as a laborious antiquary, but his ignorance of
German prevented his ranking high as a philologist, although he
paid much attention to the early dialectical forms of French and
English. His minor contributions to antiquarian research were
exceedingly numerous: the best known, perhaps, was his disser-
tation on the orthography of Shakespeare's name, which, mainly
on the strength of the Florio autograph, he contended should be
" Shakspere.'

MADDER, or DYERS' MADDER, the root of Rubia tinclorum
and perhaps also of R. peregrina, both European, R. cordifolia, a
native of the hilly districts of India and of north-east Asia and
Java, supplying the Indian madder or manjit. Rubia is a genus
of about thirty-five species of the tribe Galieae of the order
Rubiaceae, and much resembles the familiar Galiums, e.g. lady's
bedstraw (G. verum) and the cleavers (G. aparine) of English
hedges, having similarly whorled leaves, but the parts of the
flowers are in fives and not fours, while the fruit is somewhat
fleshy. The only British species is R. peregrina, which is found
in Wales, the south and west of England, and in east and south
Ireland. The use of madder appears to have been known from
the earliest times, as cloth dyed with it has been found on the
Egyptian mummies. It was the eptvdidavov used for dyeing the
cloaks of the Libyan women in the days of Herodotus (Herod, iv.
189). It is the ipvdpodavov of Dioscorides, who speaks of its cul-
tivation in Caria (Hi. 160), and of Hippocrates (De morb. mul. i.),
and the Rubia of Pliny (xix. 17). R. tinclorum, a native of
western Europe, &c., has been extensively cultivated in south
Europe, France, where it is called garance, and Holland, and to a
small extent in the United States. Large quantities have been
imported into England from Smyrna, Trieste, Leghorn, &c. The
cultivation, however, decreased after alizarin, the red colouring
principle of madder, was made artificially. Madder was employed
medicinally by the ancients and in the middle ages. Gerard, in
1597, speaks of it as having been cultivated in many gardens in
his day, and describes its supposed many virtues (Herball, p. 960) ;
but any pharmacological or therapeutic action which madder
may possess is unrecognizable. Its most remarkable physio-
logical effect is that of colouring red the bones of animals fed
upon it, as also the claws and beaks of birds. This appears to be
due to the chemical affinity of phosphate of lime for the colouring
matter (Pereira, Mat. med., vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 52). This property
has been of much use in enabling physiologists to ascertain the

manner in which bones develop, and the functions of the various
types of cells found in growing bone. R. chilensis has been used
for dyeing red from time immemorial. The chay-root, which
furnishes a red dye in Coromandel and other parts of India, is the
root-bark of Oldenlandia umbellata, a low-growing plant of the
same family as madder.

MADEC, RENE-MARIE (1736-1784)— called Medoc in Anglo-
Indian writings — French adventurer in India, was born at
Quimper in Brittany on the 7th of February 1 736, of poor parents.
He went out to India and served under Dupleix and Lally, but
being taken prisoner by the British he enlisted in the Bengal
army. Deserting with some of his companions shortly before
the battle of Buxar (1764), he became military instructor to
various native princes, organizing successively the forces of
Shuja-ud-Dowlah, nawab of Oudh, and of the Jats and Rohillas.
He took service under the emperor Shah Alam in 1772, and when
that prince was defeated at Delhi by the Mahrattas, Madec
rejoined his own countrymen in Pondicherry, where he took an
active part in the defence of the town (1778). After the capitula-
tion of Pondicherry he returned to France with a considerable
fortune, and died there in 1 784. At one time he formed a scheme
for a French alliance with the Mogul emperor against the British,
but the project came to nothing.

See Emile Barb6, Le Nabab Ren& Madec (1894).

MADEIRA, or THE MADEIRAS, a group of islands in the North
Atlantic Ocean, which belong to Portugal, and consist of two
inhabited islands named Madeira and Porto Santo and two
groups of uninhabited rocks named the Desertas and Selvagens.
Pop. (1900), 150,574; area, 314 sq. m. Funchal, the capital
of the archipelago, is on the south coast of Madeira Island, in
32° 37' 45" N. and 16° 54' W. It is about 360 m. from the
coast of Africa, 535 from Lisbon, 1215 from Plymouth, 240
from Teneriffe, and 480 from Santa Maria, the nearest of the
Azores.

Madeira (pop. 1900, 148,263), the largest island of the group,
has a length of 30 m., an extreme breadth of 12 m., and a coast-
line of 80 or 90 m. Its longer axis lies east and west, in which
direction it is traversed by a mountain chain, the backbone of the
island, having a mean altitude of 4000 ft., up to which many deep
ravines penetrate from both coasts and render travel by land very
difficult. Pico Ruivo, the highest summit, stands in the centre of
the island, and has a height of 6056 ft., while some of the adjacent
summits are very little lower. The depth and narrowness of
the ravines, the loftiness of the rugged peaks, often covered with
snow, that tower above them, the bold precipices of the coast,
and the proximity of the sea, afford many scenes of picturesque
beauty or striking grandeur. The greater part of the interior
is uninhabited, though cultivated, for the towns, villages and
scattered huts are usually built either at the mouths of ravines
or upon the lower slopes that extend from the mountains to the
coast. The ridges between the ravines usually terminate in lofty
headlands, one of which, called Cabo Girao, has the height of
1920 ft., and much of the seaboard is bound by precipices of dark
basalt. The north coast, having been more exposed to the erosion
of the sea, is more precipitous than the south, and presents every-
where a wilder aspect. On the south there is left very little
of the indigenous forest which once clothed the whole island
and gave it the name it bears (from the Portuguese madeira,
Lat. materia, wood), but on the north some of the valleys still
contain native trees of fine growth. A long, narrow and com-
paratively low rocky promontory forms the eastern extremity of
the island; and here is a tract of calcareous sand, known as the
Fossil Bed, containing land shells and numerous bodies resem-
bling the roots of trees, probably produced by infiltration.

Porto Santo is about 25 m. N.E. of Madeira. Pop. (1900),
2311. It has a length of 63 m. and a width of 3 m. The capital
is Porto Santo, called locally the villa or town. The island
is very unproductive, water being scarce and wood wholly absent.
Around the little town there is a considerable tract of pretty level
ground covered by calcareous sand containing fossil land-shells.
At each end of the island are hills, of which Pico do Facho, the
highest, reaches the altitude of 1663 ft. Barley, but little else,

MADEIRA

281

is grown here, the limited requirements of the inhabitants being
supplied from Funchal.

The Desertas lie about n m. S.E. of Madeira, and consist of
three islands, Ilheo Chao, Bugio and Deserta Grande, together
with Sail Rock off the north end of Ilheo Chao. They present
lofty precipices to the sea on all sides. Rabbits and goats abound
on them. The archil weed grows on the rocks, and is gathered
for exportation. The largest islet (Deserta Grande) is 6J m. long,
and attains the height of 1610 ft. These rocks are conspicuous
objects in the sea-views from Funchal.

MADEIRA ISLANDS

Scale. 1:1.115.000
English Miles
5 '° >S V>

The Selvagens or Salvages are a group of three islands, 156 m.
from Madeira, and between Madeira and the Canary Islands.
The largest island is the Great Piton, 3 m. long, and i m. broad.
The inclusion of the Selvagens in the Madeira Archipelago is due
to political rather than to geographical reasons.

Geology. — All the islands of the group are of volcanic origin.
They are the summits of very lofty mountains which have their
bases in an abyssal ocean. The greater part of what is now visible
in Madeira is of subaerial formation, consisting of basaltic and
trachytic lavas, beds of tuff and other ejectamenta, the result of a
long and complicated series of eruptions from innumerable vents.
Besides this building up by the emission of matter from craters and
clefts, a certain amount of upheaval in mass has taken place, for at
a spot about 1200 ft. above the sea in the northern valley of Sao
Vicente, and again at about the same height in Porto Santo, there
have been found fragments of limestone accompanied by tuffs
containing marine shells and echinoderms of the Miocene Tertiary
epoch. We have here proof that during or since that epoch portions
at least of these islands have been bodily uplifted more than 1000 ft.
The fossils are sufficiently well preserved to admit of their genera,
and in many instances even their species, being made out.

There were pauses of considerable duration whilst the island of
Madeira was being increased in height. The leaf bed and the
accompanying carbonaceous matter, frequently termed lignite,
although it displays no trace of structure, which lie under 1200 ft.
of lavas in the valley of Sao Jorge, afford proof that there had been
sufficient time for the growth of a vegetation of high order, many of
the leaf impressions belonging to species of trees and shrubs which
still exist on the island. Moreover, great alterations and dislocations
had taken place in the rocks of various localities before other lavas
and tuffs had been thrown upon them.

There are no data for determining when volcanic action began
in this locality, but looking at the enormous depth of the surrounding
sea it is clear that a vast period of time must have elapsed to allow
of a great mountain reaching the surface and then rising several
thousand feet. Again, considering the comparatively feeble agents
for effecting the work of denudation (neither glaciers nor thick
accumulations of alpine snow being found here), and then the
enormous erosion that has actually taken place, the inference is
inevitable that a very great lapse of time was required to excavate
the deep and wide ravines that everywhere intersect the island.
Nor is anything known as to. the period of the cessation of volcanic
action. At the present day there are no live craters or smoking
crevices, as at the Canaries and Cape Verdes, nor any hot springs,
as at the Azores.

In one of the northern ravines of Madeira by Porto da Cruz some
masses of a coarsely crystalline Essexite are exposed to view; this
rock is evidently the deep-seated representative of the Trachy-
doleritic and Nepheline basalt lavas. Fragments of a sodalite-syenite
have also been found at Soca in the same neighbourhood.

In the eastern part of the island several small crater rings are to
be seen ; their rims are formed of spheroidal basalt, while within the
craters themselves masses of bauxite are found accompanied by
evidences of fumerolic action.

In the sections afforded by the ravines, which strike north and
south from the central ridge of Madeira to the sea, the nucleus
of the island is seen to consist of a confused mass of more or
less stratified rock, upon which rest beds of tuff, scoriae and lava,
in the shape of basalt, trap and trachyte, the whole traversed
by dykes. These beds are thinnest near the central axis; as they
approach the coast they become thicker and less intersected by
dykes.

In various parts are elevated tracts of comparatively level ground.
These are supposed to have been formed by the meeting of numerous
streams of lava flowing from cones and points of eruption in close
proximity, various ejectamenta assisting at the same time to fill
up inequalities. Deep down in some of the lateral ravines may be
seen ancient cones of eruption which have been overwhelmed by
streams of melted matter issuing from the central region, and after-
wards exposed to view by the same causes that excavated the
ravines. These ravines may be regarded as having been formed at
first by subterranean movements, both gradual and violent, which
dislocated the rocks and cut clefts through which streams flowed to
the sea. In course of time the waters, periodically swollen by
melted snows and the copious rains of winter, would cut deeper and
deeper into the heart of the mountains, and would undermine the
lateral cliffs, until the valleys became as large as we now find them.
Even the Curral, which from its rounded shape and its position in
the centre of the island has been usually deemed the ruins of a
crater, is thought to be nothing more than a valley scooped out in
the way described. The rarity of crateriform cavities in Madeira is
very remarkable. There exists, however, to the east of Funchal,
on a tract 2000 ft. high, the Lagoa, a small but perfect crater,
500 ft. in diameter, and with a depth of 150 ft. ; and there is another,
which is a double one, in the district known as Fanal, in the north-
west of Madeira, nearly 5000 ft. above the sea. The basalt, of which
much of the outer part of the island is composed, is of a dark colour
and a tough texture, with small disseminated crystals of olivine and
augite. It is sometimes full of vesicular cavities, formed by the
expansion of imprisoned gases. A rudely columnar structure is
very often seen in the basalt, but there is nothing so perfect as the
columns of Staffa or the Giant's Causeway. The trachytic rocks are
small in quantity compared with those of the basaltic class. The
tufa is soft and friable, and generally of a yellow colour ; but where
it has been overflowed by a hot stream of lava it has assumed a red
colour. Black ashes ana fragments of pumice are sometimes found
in the tufaceous strata.

There are no metallic ores, nor has any sulphur been found ; but a
little iron pyrites and specular iron are occasionally met with. The
basalt yields an excellent building-stone, various qualities of which
are quarried near Camara de Lobos, five or six miles west of
Funchal.

In Porto Santo the trachytic rocks bear a much greater proportion
to the basaltic than in Madeira. An adjacent islet is formed of
tuffs and calcareous rock, indicating a submarine origin, upon
which supramarine lavas have been poured. The older series
contains corals and shells (also of the Miocene Tertiary epoch), with
water-worn pebbles, cemented together by carbonate of lime, the
whole appearing to have been a coral reef near an ancient beach.
The calcareous rock is taken in large quantities to Funchal, to be
burnt into lime for building purposes.

Climate. — Observations taken at Funchal Observatory (80 ft.
above sea-level) in the last twenty years of the 1 9th century showed
that the mean annual temperature is about 65° F. The mean
minimum for the coldest part of the year (October to May inclusive)
does not fall below 55°, and the average daily variation of tempera-
ture in the same period does not exceed 10 . Madeira thus has a
remarkably mild climate, though it lies only 10° north of the Tropic
of Cancer. This mildness is due to the surrounding ocean, from which
the atmosphere obtains a large supply of watery vapour. The mean
humidity of the air is about 75 (saturation = 100). The prevalent
winds are from the north or from a few points east or west of north,
but these winds are much mitigated on the south coast by the central
range of mountains. The west wind usually brings rain. That
from the east is a dry wind. A hot and dry wind, the leste of the
natives, occasionally blows from the east-south-east, the direction
of the Sahara, and causes the hill region to be hotter than below;
but even on the coast the thermometer under its influence sometimes
indicates 93°. The leste is often accompanied by sandstorms.
As the thermometer has never been known to fall as low as 46° at
Funchal, frost and snow are there wholly unknown; but snow falls
on the mountains once or twice during the winter, very seldom,
however, below the altitude of 2000 ft. Thunderstorms are rare,
and scarcely ever violent.

282

MADEIRA

Madeira has long had a high reputation as a sanatory resort for
persons suffering from diseases of the chest. Notwithstanding the
ever-increasing competition of other winter resorts, a consider-
able number of invalids, especially English and German, winter at
Funchal.

Fauna. — No species of land mammal is indigenous to the Madeiras.
Some of the early voyagers indeed speak of wild goats and swine,
but these animals must have escaped from confinement. The
rabbit, black rat, brown rat and mouse have been introduced. The
first comers encountered seals, and this amphibious mammal (Mona-
chus albiventer) still lingers at the Desertas. Amongst the thirty
species of birds which breed in these islands are the kestrel, buzzard
and barn owl, the blackbird, robin, wagtail, goldfinch, ring sparrow,
linnet, two swifts, three pigeons, the quail, red-legged partridge,
woodcock, tern, herring gull, two petrels and three puffins. Only
one species is endemic, and that is a wren (Regulus madeirensis),
but five other species are known elsewhere only at the Canaries.
These are the green canary (Fringilla butyracea, the parent of the
domesticated yellow variety), a chaffinch (Fringilla tintillon), a swift
(Cypselus unicolor), a wood pigeon (Columba trocaz) and a petrel
(Thalassidroma Bulwerii). There is also a local variety of the black-
cap, distinguishable from the common kind by the extension in the
male of the cap to the shoulder. About seventy other species have
been seen from time to time in Madeira, chiefly stragglers from the
African coast, many of them coming with the leste wind.

The only land reptile is a small lizard (Lacerta dugesii), which is
abundant and is very destructive to the grape crop. The logger-
head turtle (Caouana caretta, Gray) is frequently captured, and is
cooked for the table, but the soup is much inferior to that made from
the green turtle of the West Indies. A single variety of frog (Rana
esculenta) has been introduced ; there are no other batrachians.

About 250 species of marine fishes taken at Madeira have been
scientifically determined, the largest families being Scombridae with
35 species, the sharks with 24, the Sparidae with 15, the rays with 14,
the Labridae with 13, the Gadidae with 12, the eels with 12, the
Percidae with 1 1 , and the Carangidae with 10. Many kinds, such as
the mackerel, horse mackerel, groper, mullet, braise, &c.t are caught in
abundance, and afford a cheap article of diet to the people. Several
species of tunny are taken plentifully in spring and summer, one
of them sometimes attaining the weight of 300 ID. The only fresh-
water fish is the common eel, which is found in one or two of the
streams.

According to T. V. Wollaston (Testacea atlantica, 1878), there
have been found 158 species of mollusca on the land, 6 inhabiting
fresh water, and 7 littoral species, making a total of 171. A large
majority of the land shells are considered to be peculiar. Many of
the species are variable in form or colour, and some have an extra-
ordinary number of varieties. Of the land mollusca 91 species are
assigned to the genus Helix, 31 to the genus Pupa, and 15 to the genus
Achatina (or Lovea). About 43 species are found both living and
fossil in superficial deposits of calcareous sand in Madeira or Porto
Santo. These deposits were assigned by Lyell to the Newer Pliocene
period. Some 12 or 13 species have not been hitherto discovered
alive. More than 100 species of Pplyzoa (Bryozoa) have been col-
lected, among them are some highly interesting forms.

The only order of insects which has been thoroughly examined is
that of the Coleoptera. By the persevering researches of T. V.
Wollaston the astonishing number of 695 species of beetles has been
brought to light at the Madeiras. The proportion of endemic kinds
is very large, and it is remarkable that 200 of them are either wingless
or their wings are so poorly developed that they cannot fly, while
23 of the endemic genera have all their species in this condition.
With regard to the Lepidoptera, n or 12 species of butterflies have
been seen, all of which belong to European genera. Some of the
species are geographical varieties of well-known types. Upward
of 100 moths have been collected, the majority of them being of a
European stamp, but probably a fourth of the total number are
peculiar to the Madeiran group. Thirty-seven species of Neuroptera
have been observed in Madeira, 12 of them being so far as is known
peculiar.

The bristle-footed worms of the coast have been studied by Pro-
fessor P. Langerhans, who has met with about 200 species, of which
a large number were new to science. There are no modern coral
reefs, but several species of stony and . flexible corals have been
collected, though none are of commercial value. There is, however,
a white stony coral allied to the red coral of the Mediterranean which
would be valuable as an article of trade if it could be obtained in
sufficient quantity. Specimens of a rare and handsome red Para-
gorgia are in the British Museum and Liverpool Museum.

Flora. — The vegetation is strongly impressed with a south-Euro-
pean character. Many of the plants in the lower region undoubtedly
were introduced and naturalized after the Portuguese coloniza-
tion. A large number of the remainder are found at the Canaries
and the Azores, or in one of these groups, but nowhere else. Lastly,
there are about a hundred plants which are peculiarly Madeiran,
either as distinct species or as strongly marked varieties. The flower-
ing plants found truly wild belong to about 363 genera and 717
species, — the monocotyledons numbering 70 genera and 128 species,
the dicotyledons 293 genera and 589 species. The three largest

orders are the Compositae, Legiiminosae and Graminaceae. Forty-one
species of ferns grow in Madeira, three of which are endemic species
and six others belong to the peculiar flora of the North Atlantic
islands. About 100 species of moss have been collected, and 47
species of Hepaticae. A connexion between the flora of Madeira
and that of the West Indies and tropical America has been inferred
from the presence in the former of six ferns found nowhere in Europe
or North Africa, but existing on the islands of the east coast of
America or on the Isthmus of Panama. A further relationship to
that continent is to be traced by the presence in Madeira of the
beautiful ericaceous tree Clethra arborea, belonging to a genus which
is otherwise wholly American, and of a Persea, a tree laurel, also an
American genus. The dragon tree (Dracaena Draco) is almost
extinct. Amongst the trees most worthy of note are four of the
laurel order belonging to separate genera, an Ardisia, PiUosporum,
Sideroxylon, Notelaea, Rhamnus and Myrica, — a strange mixture of
genera to be found on a small Atlantic island. Two heaths of
arborescent growth and a whortleberry cover large tracts on the
mountains. In some parts there is a belt of the Spanish chestnut
about the height of 1500 ft. There is no indigenous pine tree as
at the Canaries; but large tracts on the hills have been planted with
Pinus pinaster, from which the fuel of the inhabitants is mainly
derived. A European juniper (/. Oxycedrus) , growing to the height
of 40 or 50 ft., was formerly abundant, but has been almost exter-
minated, as its scented wood is prized by the cabinet-maker. Several
of the native trees and shrubs now grow only in situations which are
nearly inaccessible, and some of tha indigenous plants are of the
greatest rarity. But some plants of foreign origin have spread in a
remarkable manner. Among these is the common cactus or prickly
pear (Opuntia Tuna), which in many spots on the coast is sufficiently
abundant to give a character to the landscape. As to Algae, the
coast is too rocky and the sea too unquiet for a luxuriant marine
vegetation, consequently the species are few and poor.

Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are of Portuguese descent, with
probably some intermixture of Moorish and negro blood amongst
the lower classes. The dress of the peasantry, without being
picturesque, is peculiar. Both men and women in the outlying
country districts wear the carapuQa, a small cap made of blue
cloth in shape something like a funnel, with the pipe standing
upwards. The men have trousers of linen, drawn tight, and
terminating at the knees; .a coarse shirt enveloping the upper
part of their person, covered by a short jacket, completes their
attire, with the exception of a pair of rough yellow boots. . The
women's outer garments consist of a gaudily coloured gown,
made from island material, with a small cape of coarse scarlet or
blue woollen cloth.) The population tends to increase rapidly.
In 1900 it amounted to 150,574, including 890 foreigners, of
whom the majority were British. The number of females exceeds
that of males by about 6000, partly because many of the able-
bodied males emigrate to Brazil or the United States. The
density of population (479-5 per sq. m. ) is very great for a
district containing no large town and chiefly dependent on
agriculture and viticulture.

Agriculture. — A large portion of the land was formerly entailed
in the families of the landlords (morgados), but entails have been
abolished by the legislature, and the land is now absolutely free.
The deficiency of water is a great obstacle to the proper cultiva-
tion of the land, and the rocky nature or steeo inclination of the
upper parts of the islands is an effectual bar to all tillage. An
incredible amount of labour has been expended upon the soil,
partly in the erection of walls intended to prevent its being
washed away by the rains, and to build up the plots of ground
in the form of terraces. Watercourses have been constructed
for purposes of irrigation, without which at regular intervals the
island would not produce a hundredth part of its present yield.
These watercourses originate high up in the ravines, are built of
masonry or driven through the rock, and wind about for miles
until they reach the cultivated land. Some of them are brought
by tunnels from the north side of the island through the central
crest of hill. Each occupier takes his turn at the running stream
for so many hours in the day or night at a time notified to him
beforehand. In this climate flowing water has a saleable value
as well as land, which is useless without irrigation.

The agricultural implements employed are of the rudest kind,
and the system of cultivation is extremely primitive. Very few of
the occupiers own the land they cultivate ; but they almost invariably
own the walls, cottages and trees standing thereon, the land alone
belonging to the landlord. The tenant can sell his share of the pro-
perty without the consent of the landlord, and if he does not so

MADELENIAN

283

•dispose of it that share' passes to his heirs. In this way the tenant
practically enjoys fixity of tenure, for the landlord is seldom in a
position to pay the price at which the tenant's share is valued. Money
rents are rare, the me'tayer system regulating almost universally
the relations between landlord and tenant; that is, the tenant pays
to the owner a certain portion of the produce, usually one half or one
third. The holdings are as a rule rarely larger than one man can
cultivate with a little occasional assistance. There are few meadows
and pastures, the cattle being stall-fed when not feeding on the moun-
tains. Horses are never employed for draught, all labour of that
kind being done by oxen.

The two staple productions of the soil are wine and sugar. The
vine was introduced from Cyprus or Crete soon after the discovery
of the island by the Portuguese (1420), but it was not actively
cultivated until the early part of the i6th century. The vines,
after having been totally destroyed by the oidium disease, which
made its first appearance in the island in 1852, were replanted, and
in a few years wine was again made. The phylloxera
also made its way to the island, and every vineyard in
Madeira was more or less affected by it. The wine usually termed
Madeira is made from a mixture of black and white grapes, which
are also made separately into wines called Tinta and Verdelho, after
the names of the grapes. Other high-class wines, known as Bual,
Sercial and Malmsey, are made from varieties of grapes bearing the
same names. (See also WINE.)

The sugar cane is said to have been brought from Sicily about
1452, and in course of time its produce became the sole staple of the
island. The cultivation languished, however, as the more abundant
produce of tropical countries came into the European market,
and sugar had long ceased to be made when the destruction of the
vines compelled the peasants to turn their attention to other things.
Its cultivation was resumed and su'gar machinery imported. A
considerable quantity of spirit is made by the distillation
of the juice or of the molasses left after extracting the
sugar, and this is consumed on the island. The cane does not
flourish here as luxuriantly as within the tropics; but in localities
below 1000 ft., where there is a good supply of water, it pays the
cultivator well.

The grain produced on the island (principally wheat, barley and
Indian corn) is not sufficient for the consumption of the people.
The common potato, sweet potato and gourds of various kinds are
extensively grown, as well as the Colocasia esculenta, the kalo of the
Pacific islanders, the root of which yields an insipid food. Most
of the common table vegetables of Europe are plentiful. Besides
apples, pears and peaches, all of poor quality, oranges, lemons,
guavas, mangoes, loquats, custard-apples, figs, bananas and pine-
apples are produced, the last two forming articles of export. The
date palm is occasionally grown, but its fruit is scarcely edible. On
the hills large quantities of the Spanish chestnut afford an item in
the food of the common people. A little tobacco is grown, and is
made into cigars of inferior quality.

The total foreign trade of Madeira was valued at £628,000 in 1900.
The principal exports are wine, sugar, embroidery, vegetables, fruits
and wicker goods. Coal is imported for the ships calling at Funchal,
which is the headquarters of Madeiran commerce and industry.
Spirits, beer, olive oil, soap, butter, linen and woollen goods, straw
hats and leather, are manufactured for home consumption, and there
are important fisheries.

Chief Towns and Communications. — Funchal (pop. 20,850) is
described in a separate article. The other chief towns are Camara
de Lobos (7150), Machico (6128), Santa Cruz (5876) Ponta do
Sol (5665), Sao Vicente (4896), Calheta (3475), Sant' Anna
(3011) and Porto Santo (2311). Each of these is the capital of
a commune (concelho), to which it gives its name. Madeira is
connected by regular lines of steamships with Great Britain,
Germany, Portugal, Cape Colony, Brazil and the United States.
There is no railway in the archipelago, and partly owing to the
irregularities of the surface of the roads, of which there are some
580 m., are bad, except in the neighbourhood of Funchal. Wheel
carriages are rare, and all heavy goods are transported either on
the backs of mules or upon rude wooden sledges drawn by
bullocks. When horses are not employed, locomotion is effected
either by means of hammocks or by bullock cars. The ham-
mock (rede) is a piece of stout canvas gathered up and secured
at each end to a long pole carried by a couple of bearers. In
place of cabs, curtained cars on sledges, made to hold four
persons, and drawn by a pair of bullocks, are employed. They
are convenient, but the rate of progress is very slow.

Administration. — The archipelago is officially styled the dis-
trict of Funchal; it returns members to the Portuguese Cortes,
and is regarded as an integral part of the kingdom. The district
is subdivided into the eight communes already enumerated,
and is administered in accordance with the same laws that

regulate local government on the mainland (see PORTUGAL).
Funchal is a Roman Catholic bishopric in the archiepiscopal
province of Lisbon. Education is compulsory in name only, for
less than 2% of the population could read when the census of
1900 was taken. An infantry regiment and a battery of garrison
artillery are permanently stationed in Madeira.

History. — It has been conjectured, but on insufficient evidence,
that the Phoenicians discovered Madeira at a very early period.
Pliny mentions certain Purple or Mauretanian Islands, the posi-
tion of which with reference to the Fortunate Islands or Canaries
might seem to indicate the Madeiras. There is a romantic story, to
the effect that two lovers, Robert Machim, a Machin, or Macham,
and Anna d'Arfet, fleeing from England to France (c. 1370) were
driven out of their course by a violent storm and cast on the
coast of Madeira at the place subsequently named Machico, in
memory of one of them. Both perished here, but some of their
crew escaped to the Barbary coast, and were made slaves.
Among them was the pilot Pedro Morales of Seville, who is said
to have been ransomed and to have communicated his knowledge
of Madeira to Joao Goncalvez Zarco (or Zargo). How far this story
is true cannot now be ascertained. It is, however, certain that
Zarco first sighted Porto Santo in 1418, having been driven thither
by a storm while he was exploring the coast of West Africa.
Madeira itself was discovered in 1420. It is probable that the
whole archipelago had been explored at an earlier date by Genoese
adventurers, and had been forgotten; for an Italian map dated
1351 (theLaurentian portolano) shows the Madeiras quite clearly,
and there is some reason to believe that they were known to the
Genoese before 1339. When Zarco visited Madeira in 1420 the
islands were uninhabited, but Prince Henry the Navigator at once
began their colonization, aided by the knights of the Order of
Christ. Sanctioned by the pope and by two charters which the
king of Portugal granted in 1430 and 1433, the work proceeded
apace; much land was deforested and. brought into cultivation,
and the Madeiran sugar trade soon became important. For the
sixty years 1580-1640 Madeira, with Portugal itself, was united
with Spain. Slavery was abolished in Madeira in 1775, by order
of Pombal. In 1801 British troops, commanded by General
Beresford, occupied the island for a few months, and it was again
under the British flag from 1807 to 1814. It shared in the civil
disturbances brought about by the accession of Dom Miguel (see
PORTUGAL: History), but after 1833 its history is a record of
peaceful commercial development.

See A. S. Brown, Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores
(1903), a comprehensive study of the three archipelagoes. The
Land of the Wine, by A. J. D. Biddle (Philadelphia, 1901) is generally
valuable, but its history cannot be trusted. See also P. Langerhaus,
Handbnch fur Madeira (1884) and Vahl, Madeira's Vegetation
(Copenhagen, 1904).

MADELENIAN, a term derived from La Madeleine, a cave in
the Vezere, about midway between Moustier and Les Eyzies,
France, and given by the French anthropologist Gabriel de
Mortillet to the third stage of his system of cave-chronology,
synchronous with the fourth or most recent division of the
Quaternary Age. The Madelenian epoch was a long one, repre-
sented by numerous stations, whose contents show progress in
the arts and general culture. It was characterized by a cold and
dry climate, the existence of man in association with the reindeer,
and the extinction of the mammoth. The use of bone and ivory
for various implements, already begun in the preceding Solutrian
epoch, was much increased, and the period is essentially a Bone
age. The bone instruments are very varied: spear-points,
harpoon-heads, borers, hooks and needles. Most remarkable
is the evidence La Madeleine affords of prehistoric art. Numbers
of bones, reindeer antlers and animals' teeth were found, with rude
pictures, carved or etched on them, of seals, fishes, reindeer,
mammoths and other creatures. The best of these are a mammoth
engraved on a fragment of its own ivory; a dagger of reindeer
antler, with handle in form of a reindeer; a cave-bear cut on a flat
piece of schist; a seal on a bear's tooth; a fish well drawn on a
reindeer antler; and a complete picture, also on reindeer antler,
showing horses, an aurochs, trees, and a snake biting a man's
leg. The man is naked, and this and the snake suggest a warm

MADELEY— MADISON, JAMES

climate, in spite of the presence of the reindeer. The fauna of
the Madelenian epoch seems, indeed, to have included tigers and
other tropical species side by side with reindeer, blue foxes,
Arctic hares and other polar creatures. Madelenian man appears
to have been of low stature, dolichocephalic, with low retreating
forehead and prominent brow ridges. Besides La Madeleine the
chief stations of the epoch are Les Eyzies, Laugerie Basse, and
Gorge d'Enfer in Dordogne; Grotte du Placard in Charente and
others in south-west France.

See G. de Mortillet, Le Prehistoriqiie (1900); Edouard Lartet and
Henry Christy, Reliquiae A quitanicae (1865-1875) ; Edouard Dupont,
Le Temps prehistorique en Belgique (1872) ; Lord Avebury, Prehistoric
Times (1900).

MADELEY, a market town in the municipal borough of Wen-
lock, and the Wellington (Mid) parliamentary division of Shrop-
shire, England, 159 m. N.W. from London, with stations on the
London & North Western (Madeley Market) and Great Western
railways (Madeley Court). Pop. of civil parish (1901), 8442.
There are large ironworks, ironstone and coal are mined, and
potter's clay is raised. The church of St Michael (1796 ) replaced
a Norman building. The living was held from 1760 to 1783 by
John William Fletcher or de la Fleche're, a close friend of the
Wesleys. The parish includes a portion of Coalbrookdale (q.v.),
and the towns of Ironbridge and Coalport. IRONBRIDGE, a
town picturesquely situated on the steep left bank of the Severn,
adjoins Madeley on the south-west. It takes its name from the
iron bridge of one span crossing the river, erected in 1779. This
bridge is a remarkable work considering its date; it was probably
the first erected, at any rate on so large a scale, and attracted
great attention. It is the work of Abraham Darby, the third of
the name, one of the famous family of iron-workers in Coalbrook-
dale. Here are brick and tile works and lime-kilns. There is a
station (Ironbridge and Broseley) on the Great Western railway,
across the river. COALPORT lies also on the Severn, S. of Madeley
and 2 m. S.E. of Ironbridge, with a station on the Great Western
railway. It has large china works, founded at the close of
the 1 8th century, which subsequently incorporated those of
Caughley, across the Severn, and of Nantgarw in Glamorganshire.

MADHAVA ACHARYA (fl. c. 1380), Hindu statesman and
philosopher, lived at the court of Vijayanagar (the modern
Humpi in the district of Bellary), the vigorous Southern Hindu
kingdom that so long withstood Mahommedan influence and
aggression. His younger brother Sayana (d. 1387) was associated
with him in the administration and was a famous commentator on
the Rigveda. Sayana's commentaries were influenced by and
dedicated to Madhava, who is best known as the author of the
Sawadarsana Samgraha (Compendium of Speculations). With
remarkable mental detachment he places himself in the position
of an adherent of sixteen distinct systems. Madhava also wrote
a commentary on the Mimamsa Sutras. He died as abbot of the
monastery of Sringeri.

MADI (A-MADi), a negro race of the Nile valley, occupying
both banks of the Bahr-el-Jebel immediately north of Albert
Nyanza. Tradition makes them immigrants from the north-
west. They are remarkable for the consideration shown to their
women, who choose their own husbands, are never ill-treated or
hard-worked, and take part in tribal deliberations. The Madi
build sepulchral monuments of an elaborate type, two -huge
narrow stones sloping towards each other with two smaller slabs
covering the opening between them. They have been much
harried by the Azandeh and Abarambo. They were visited by
W. Junker in 1882-1883, and described by him in Petermann's
Millheilungen for May 1883.

MADISON, JAMES (1751-1836), fourth president of the
United States, was born at Port Conway, in King George county,
Virginia, on the i6thof March 1751. His first ancestor in America
may possibly have been Captain Isaac Maddyson, a colonist of
1623 mentioned by John Smith as an excellent Indian fighter.
His father, also named James Madison, was the owner of large
estates in Orange county, Virginia. In 1769 the son entered the
college of New Jersey (now Princeton University), where, in the
same year, he founded the well-known literary club, "The

American Whig Society." He graduated in 1771, but remained
for another year at Princeton studying, apparently for the
ministry, under the direction of John Witherspoon (1722-1794).
In 1772 he returned to Virginia, where he pursued his reading and
studies, especially theology and Hebrew, and acted as a tutor to
the younger children of the family. In 1 775 he became chairman
of the committee of public safety for Orange county, and wrote
its response to Patrick Henry's call for the arming of a colonial
militia, and in the spring of 1776 he was chosen a delegate to the
new Virginia convention, where he was on the committee which
drafted the constitution for the state, and proposed an amend-
ment (not adopted) which declared that " all men are equally
entitled to the full and free exercise " of religion, and was more
radical than the similar one offered by George Mason. In 1777,
largely, it seems, because he refused to treat the electors with
rum and punch, after the custom of the time, he was not re-
elected, but in November of the same year he was chosen a
member of the privy council or council of state, in which he
acted as interpreter for a few months, as secretary prepared
papers for the governor, and in general took a prominent part
from the I4th of January 1778 until the end of 1779, when he
was elected a delegate to the Continental Congress.

He was in Congress during the final stages of the War of Inde-
pendence, and in 1780 drafted instructions to Jay, then repre-
senting the United States at Madrid, that in negotiations with
Spain he should insist upon the free navigation of the Mississippi
and upon the principle that the United States succeeded
to British rights affirmed by the treaty of Paris of 1763. When
the confederation was almost in a state of collapse because of the
failure of the states to respond to requisitions of Congress for
supplies for the federal treasury, Madison was among the first
to advocate the granting of additional powers to Congress, and
urged that congress should forbid the states to issue more paper
money. In 1781 he favoured an amendment 'of the Articles of
Confederation giving Congress power to enforce its requisitions,
and in 1783, in spite of the open opposition of the Virginia
legislature, which considered the Virginian delegates wholly
subject to its instructions, he advocated that the states should
grant to Congress for twenty-five years authority to levy an
import duty, and suggested a scheme to provide for the interest
on the debt not raised by the import duty — apportioning it
among the states on the basis of population, counting three-fifths
of the slaves, a ratio suggested by Madison himself. Accompany-
ing this plan was an address to the states drawn up by Madison,
and one of the ablest of his state papers. In the same year, with
Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, Nathaniel Gorham of Massachu-
setts, Gunning Bedford of Delaware, and John Rutledge of South
Carolina, he was a member of the committee which reported on
the Virginia proposal as to the terms of cession to the Confedera-
tion of the " back lands," or unoccupied Western territory, held
by several of the states; the report was a skilful compromise made
by Madison, which secured the approval of the rather exigent
Virginia legislature.

In November 1783 Madison's term in Congress expired, and he
returned to Virginia and took up the study of the law. In the
following year he was elected to the House of Delegates. As a
member of its committee on religion, he opposed the giving of
special privileges to the Episcopal (or any other) church, and
contended against a general assessment for the support of the
churches of the state. His petition of remonstrance against
the proposed assessment, drawn up at the suggestion of
George Nicholas (c. 1755-1799), was widely circulated and
procured its defeat. On the 26th of December 1785 Jeffer-
son's Bill for establishing religious freedom in Virginia,
which had been introduced by Madison, was passed. In
the Viginia House of Delegates, as in the Continental Con-
gress, he opposed the further issue of paper money; and
he tried to induce the legislature to repeal the law con-
fiscating British debts, but he did not lose sight of the interests
of the Confederacy. The boundary between Virginia and Mary-
land, according to the Baltimore grant, was the south shore of the
Potomac, a line to which Virginia had agreed on condition of free

MADISON, TAMES

285

navigation of the river and the Chesapeake Bay. Virginia now
feared that too much had been given up, and desired joint regu-
lation of the navigation and commerce of the river by Maryland
and Virginia. On Madison's proposal commissioners from the
two states met at Alexandria (q.v.) and at Mount Vernon in
March 1785. The Maryland legislature approved the Mount
Vernon agreement and proposed to invite Pennsylvania and
Delaware to join in the arrangement. Madison, seeing an oppor-
tunity for more general concert in regard to commerce and trade
(and possibly for the increase of the power of Congress) , proposed
that all the states should be invited to send commissioners to
consider commercial questions, and a resolution to that effect
was adopted (on Jan. 21, 1786) by the Virginia legislature.
This led to the Annapolis convention of 1786, and that in
turn led to the Philadelphia convention of 1787. In April 1787
Madison had written a paper, The Vices of the Political System of
the United Stales, and from his study of confederacies, ancient
and modern, later summed up in numbers 17, 18, and 19 of
The Federalist, he had concluded that no confederacy could
long endure if it acted upon states only and not directly upon
individuals. As the time for the convention of 1787 approached
he drew up an outline of a new system of government, the basis
of the " Virginia plan " presented in the convention by Edmund
Jennings Randolph. Madison's scheme, as expressed in a letter
to Washington dated the i6th of April 1787, was that indi-
vidual sovereignty of states was irreconcilable with aggregate
sovereignty, but that the " consolidation of the whole into one
simple republic would be as inexpedient as it is unattainable."
He considered as a practical middle ground changing the basis of
representation in Congress from states to population; giving the
national government " positive and complete authority in all
cases which require uniformity"; giving it a negative on all
state laws, a power which might best be vested in the Senate, a
comparatively permanent body; electing the lower house, and the
more numerous, for a short term; providing for a national execu-
tive, for extending the national supremacy over the judiciary
and the militia, for a council to revise all laws, and for an express
statement of the right of coercion; and finally, obtaining the
ratification of a new constitutional instrument from the people,
and not merely from the legislatures. The " Virginia plan "
was the basis of the convention's deliberations which resulted in
the constitution favourably voted on by the convention on the
1 7th of September 1787. Among the features of the plan which
were not embodied in the constitution were the following: pro-
portionate representation in the Senate and the election of its
members by the lower house " out of a proper number of persons
nominated by the individual legislatures"; the vesting in the
national Congress of power to negative state acts; and the estab-
lishment of a council of revision (the executive and a convenient
number of national judges) with veto power over all laws passed
by the national Congress. Madison, always an opponent of
slavery, disapproved of the compromise (in Art. I. § 9 and Art.V.)
postponing to 1808 (or later) the prohibition of the importation of
slaves. He took a leading part in the debates of the convention,
of which he kept full and careful notes, afterwards published by
order of Congress (3 vols., Washington, 1843). Many minute
and wise provisions are due to him, and he spoke before the con-
vention more frequently than any delegate except James Wilson
and Gouverneur Morris. In spite of the opposition to the consti-
tution of the Virginia leaders George Mason and E. J. Randolph,
Madison induced the state's delegation to stand by the consti-
tution in the convention. His influence largely shaped the form
of the final draft of the constitution, but the labour was not
finished with this draft; that the constitution was accepted by
the people was due in an eminent degree to the efforts of Madison,
who, to place the new constitution before the public in its true
light, and to meet the objections brought against it, joined
Alexander Hamilton (?.».) and John Jay in writing The Federal-
ist, a series of eighty-five papers, out of which twenty certainly,
and nine others probably, were written by him. In the Virginia
convention for ratifying the constitution (June 1788), when eight
states had ratified and it seemed that Virginia's vote would be

needed to make the necessary nine (New Hampshire's favourable
vote was cast only shortly before that of Virginia), and it
appeared that New York would vote against the constitution
if Virginia did not ratify it, Madison was called upon to defend
that instrument again, and he appeared at his best against its
opponents, Patrick Henry, George Mason, James Monroe, Benja-
min Harrison, William Grayson and John Tyler. He answered
their objections in detail, calmly and with an intellectual power
and earnestness that carried the convention. The result was a
victory against an originally adverse public opinion and against
the eloquence of the opponents of the constitution, for Madison
and for his lieutenants, Edmund Pendleton, John Marshall,
George Nicholas, Harry Innes and Henry Lee. At the same
time Madison's labours in behalf of the constitution alienated
from him valuable political support in Virginia. He was defeated
by Richard Henry Lee and William Grayson in his candidacy
for the United States Senate, but in his own district he was
chosen a representative to Congress, defeating James Monroe,
who seems to have had the powerful support of Patrick Henry.
Madison took his seat in the House of Representatives in
April 1789, and assumed a leading part in the legislation neces-
sary to the organization of the new government. He drafted a
Tariff Bill giving certain notable advantages to nations with
which the United States had commercial treaties, hoping to force
Great Britain into a similar treaty; but his policy of discrimi-
nation against England was rejected by Congress. It was his
belief that such a system of retaliation would remove the possi-
bility of war arising from commercial quarrels. He introduced
resolutions calling for the establishment of three executive
departments, foreign affairs, treasury and war, the head of each
removable by the president. Most important of all, he proposed
nine amendments to the constitution, embodying suggestions
made by a number of the ratifying states, especially those made
by Virginia at the instance of George Mason; and the essential
principles of Madison's proposed amendments were included in a
Bill of Rights, adopted by the states in the form of ten amend-
ments. The absence of a Bill of Rights from the constitution
as first adopted had been the point on which the opposition had
made common cause, and the adoption of this now greatly
weakened the same opposition. Although a staunch friend of the
constitution, Madison believed, however, that the instrument
should be interpreted conservatively and not be made the means
of introducing radical innovations. The tide of strict con-
struction was setting in strongly in his state, and he was borne
along with the flood. It is very probable that Jefferson's
influence over Madison, which was greater than Hamilton's,
contributed to this result. Madison now opposed Hamilton's
measures for the funding of the debt, the assumption of state
debts, and the establishment of a National Bank, and on other
questions he sided more and more with the opposition, gradually
assuming its leadership in the House of Representatives and
labouring to confine the powers of the national government
within the narrowest possible limits; his most important argu-
ment against Hamilton's Bank was that the constitution did not
provide for it explicitly, and could not properly be construed
into permitting its creation. Madison, Jefferson and Randolph
were consulted by Washington, and they advised him not to
sign the bill providing for the Bank, but Hamilton's counter-
argument was successful. On the same constitutional grounds
Madison objected to the carrying out of the recommendations
in Hamilton's famous report on manufactures (Dec. §, 1791),
which favoured a protective tariff. In the presidential cam-
paign of 1792 Madison seems to have lent his influence to the
determined efforts of the Jeffersonians to defeat John Adams
by electing George Clinton vice-president. In 1793-1796 he
strongly criticized the administration for maintaining a neutral
position between Great Britain and France, writing for the public
press five papers (signed " Helvidius "), attacking the " monar-
chical prerogative of the executive " as exercised in the proclama-
tion of neutrality in 1793 and denying the president's right to
recognize foreign states. He found in Washington's attitude —
as in Hamilton's failure to pay an instalment of the moneys

286

MADISON, JAMES

due France — an " Anglified complexion," in direct opposition
to the popular sympathy with France and French Republicanism.
In 1 794 he tried again his commercial weapons, introducing in the
House of Representatives resolutions based on Jefferson's report
on commerce, advising retaliation against Great Britain and dis-
crimination in commercial and navigation laws in favour of
France; and he deslared that the friends of Jay's treaty were " a
British party systematically aiming at an exclusive connexion
with the British government," and in 1796 strenuously but
unsuccessfully opposed the appropriation of money to carry
this treaty into effect. Still thinking that foreign nations could
be coerced through their commercial interests, he scouted as
visionary the idea that Great Britain would go to war on a refusal
to carry Jay's treaty into effect, thinking it inconceivable that
Great Britain " would wantonly make war " upon a country
which was the best market she had in the world for her manu-
factures, and one with which her export trade was so much
larger than her import.

In 1797 Madison retired from Congress, but not to a life of
inactivity. In 1798 he joined Jefferson in opposing the Alien and
Sedition Laws, and Madison himself wrote the resolutions of the
Virginia legislature declaring that it viewed " the powers of the
Federal government as resulting from the compact to which the
states are parties, as limited by the plain sense and intention of
the instrument constituting that compact; as no further valid
than they are authorized by the grants enumerated in that com-
pact; and that, in case of a deliberate, palpable and dangerous
exercise of other powers, not granted by the said compact, the
states, who are parties thereto, have the right and are in duty
bound to interpose for arresting the progress of the evil, and for
maintaining within their respective limits, the authorities, rights
and liberties appertaining to them." The Virginia resolutions
and the Kentucky resolutions (the latter having been drafted by
Jefferson) were met by dissenting resolutions from the New
England states, from New York, and from Delaware. In answer
to these, Madison, who had become a member of the Virginia
legislature in the autumn of 1799, wrote for the committee to
which they were referred a report elaborating and sustaining in
every point the phraseology of the Virginia resolutions.1

Upon the accession of the Republican party to power in 1801,
Madison became secretary of state in Jefferson's cabinet, a
position for which he was well fitted both because he possessed
to a remarkable degree the gifts of careful thinking and discreet
and able speaking, and of large constructive ability; and because
he was well versed in constitutional and international law and
practised a fairness in discussion essential to a diplomat. During
the eight years that he held the portfolio of state, he had con-
tinually to defend the neutral rights of the United States against
the encroachments of European belligerents; in 1806 he published
An Examination of the British Doctrine which subjects to Capture
a, Neutral Trade not open in Time of Peace, a careful argument —
with a minute examination of authorities on international law
— against the rule of war of 1756 extended by Great Britain in
1793 and 1803.

1 Thirty years later Madison's arguments for the Virginia resolu-
tions ana the resolutions themselves were freely used by Calhoun
and his followers in support of his doctrine of nullification. But
Madison insisted that the Resolutions of 1798 did not involve the
principles of nullification. Nearly all his arguments, especially
where he attempts to interpret Jefferson's writings on the point,
notably the Kentucky resolutions, are rather strained and specious,
but it does seem that the Virginia resolutions were based on a
different idea from Calhoun's doctrine of nullification. Madison's
theory was that the legislature of Virginia, being one of the bodies
which had chosen delegates to the constitutional convention, was
legally capable of considering the question of the constitutionality
of laws passed by the Federal government, and that the state of
Virginia might invite other states to join her, but could not singly,
as Calhoun argued, declare any law of the Federal legislature null and
void. (It is to be noted the words "null and void "were in Madison's
first draft of the Virginia resolutions, but that they were omitted
by the Virginia legislature.) It is notable, besides, that Madison
had always feared that the national congress would assume too great
power, that he had approved of Supreme Court checks on the national
legislature, and of veto power by a council of revision.

During Jefferson's presidency and whilst Madison was secretary
of state, by the purchase of Louisiana, Madison's campaign begun
in 1780 for the free navigation of the Mississippi was brought to a
successful close. The candidate in 1808 of the Republican party,
although bitterly opposed in the party by John Randolph and
George Clinton, Madison was elected president, defeating C. C.
Pinckney, the Federalist candidate, by 1 2 2 votes to 47. Madison
had no false hopes of placating the Federalist opposition, but as
the preceding administration was one with which he was in har-
mony, his position was different from that of Jefferson in 1801,
and he had less occasion for removing Federalists from office.
Jefferson's peace policy — or, more correctly, Madison's peace
policy — of commercial restrictions to coerce Great Britain and
France he continued to follow until 1812, when he was forced to
change these futile commercial weapons for a policy of war, which
was very popular with the extreme French wing of his party.
There is a charge, which has never been proved or disproved, that
Madison's real desire was for peace, but that in order to secure the
renomination he yielded to that wing of his party which was
resolved on war with Great Britain. The only certain fact is that
Madison, whatever were his personal feelings in this matter,
acted according to the wishes of a majority of the Republicans;
but whether in doing so he was influenced by the desire of another
nomination is largely a matter of conjecture. Madison was re-
nominated on the i8th of May 1812, issued his war message on
the ist of June, and in the November elections he was re-elected,
defeating De Witt Clinton by 128 votes to 89. His administra-
tion during the war was pitiably weak. His cabinet in great part
had been dictated to him in 1809 by a senatorial clique, and
it was hopelessly discordant; for two years he was to all intents
and purposes his own secretary of state, Robert Smith being a
mere figure-head of whom he gladly got rid in 181 1, giving Monroe
the vacant place. Madison himself had attempted alternately
to prevent war by his " commercial weapons " and to prepare the
country for war, but he had met with no success, because of the
tricky diplomacy of Great Britain and of France, and because
of the general distrust of him coupled with the particular opposi-
tion to the war of the prosperous New England Federalists, who
suggested with the utmost seriousness that his resignation should
be demanded. In brief, Madison was too much the mere scholar
to prove a strong leader in such a crisis. The supreme disgrace
of the administration was the capture and partial destruction
in August 1814 of the city of Washington — this was due, how-
ever, to incompetence of the military and not to any lack of
prudence on the cabinet's part. In general, Congress was more
blamable than either the president or his official family, or the
army officers. With the declaration of peace the president again
gained a momentary popularity much like that he had won in
1809 by his apparent willingness at that time to fight France.

Retiring from the presidency in 1817, Madison returned to his
home, Montpelier (in Orange county, Virginia), which he left in
no official capacity save in 1829, when he was a delegate to the
state constitutional convention and served on several of its com-
mittees. Montpelier, like Jefferson's Monticello and Monroe's
Oak-Hill, was an expensive bit of " gentleman farming," which
with his generous Virginia hospitality nearly ruined its owner
financially. Madison's home was peculiarly a centre for literary
travellers in his last years; when he was eighty-three he was
visited by Harriet Martineau, who reported her conversations
with him in her Retrospect of Western Travel (1838). He took a
great interest in education — his library was left to the university
of Virginia, where it was burned in 1895 — in emancipation, and in
agricultural questions, to the very last. He died at Montpelier
on the 28th of June 1836. Madison married, in 1794, Dorothy
Payne Todd (1772-1849), widow of John Todd, a Philadelphia
lawyer. She had great social charm, and upon Madison's enter-
ing Jefferson's cabinet became " first lady " in Washington
society. Her plump beauty was often remarked — notably by
Washington Irving — in contrast to her husband's delicate and
feeble figure and wizened face — for even in his prime Madison
was, as Henry Adams says, " a small man, quiet, somewhat pre-
cise in manner, pleasant, fond of conversation, with a certain

MADISON

287

mixture of ease and dignity in his address." Her son, spoilec
by his mother and his step-father, became a wild young fellow
and added his debts to the heavy burden of Montpelier upon
Madison.

Madison's portrait was painted by Gilbert Stuart and by Charle
Willson Peale; Giuseppe Ceracchi made a marble bust of him in 1792
and John H. J. Browere another in 1827, now in possession of th<
Virginia Historical Society at Richmond. Though commonl;
dignified and a little stiff he seems to have had a strong sense o
humour and he was fond of telling a good story. Henry Clay, con
trasting him with Jefferson, said that Jefferson had more genius
Madison more judgment and common sense; that Jefferson was
a visionary and a theorist; Madison cool, dispassionate, practical
and safe.1 The broadest and most accurate scholar among the
" founders and fathers," he was particularly an expert in constitu-
tional history and theory. In the great causes for which Madison
fought in his earlier years — religious freedom and separation o!
church and state, the free navigation of the Mississippi, and the
adoption of the constitution — he met with success. His greatest
and truest fame is as the " father of the constitution." The " com-
mercial weapons " with which he wished to prevent armed conflict
proved less useful in his day than they have since been in inter-
national disputes.

AUTHORITIES. — Madison's personality is perplexingly vague; the
biographies of him are little more than histories of the period, and
the best history of the later period in which he was before the public,
Henry Adams's History of the United States from 1801 to 1817 (1889-
1890), gives the clearest sketch and best criticism of him. The lives
of Madison are: J. Q. Adams's (Boston, 1850); W. C. Rives's
(Boston, 1859-1869, 3 vols.), covering the period previous to 1797;
S. H. Gay's (Boston, 1884) in the" American Statesmen Series ";and
Gaillard Hunt's (New York, 1902). Madison's Writings (7 vols.,
New York, 1900-1906) were edited by Hunt, who 'also edited
The Journal ef the Debates in the Convention which framed the Con-
stitution of the United States, as Recorded by James Madison (2 vols.,
New York, 1908). See also Mrs Madison's Memoirs and Letters
(Boston, 1887) and Maud Wilder Goodwin, Dolly Madison (New
York, 1897).

MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Ohio river, about
90 m. below Cincinnati, and 44 m. above Louisville, Kentucky.
Pop. (1870), 10,709; (1890), 8936; (1900), 7835 (554 foreign-
born and 570 negroes); (1910), 6934. Madison is served by
the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railroad and by
river steamboats. The city is picturesquely situated on bluffs
above the river and has two public parks. In Madison are a
King's Daughters' Hospital, a children's home, and the Drusilla
home for old ladies, and immediately north of the city are the
buildings of the Indiana South-eastern Insane Hospital. Madison
is a trading centre of the surrounding farming region, whose
principal products are burley tobacco, grain and fruits (peaches,
apples, pears, plums and small fruits). The municipality owns
and operates the waterworks. Madison was settled about the
beginning of the igth century; was incorporated as a town in
1824, and was first chartered as a city in 1836.

MADISON, a borough of Morris county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
27 m. (by rail) W. of New York City and 4 m. S.E. of Morris-
town. Pop. (1890), 2469; (1900), 3754, of whom975 wereforeign-
born and 300 were negroes; (1005), 4115; (IQIO), 4658. It is
served by the Morris & Essex division of the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western railroad. The borough is attractively situated
among the hiljs of Northern New Jersey, is primarily a residential
suburb of New York and Newark, and contains many fine
residences. There are a public library and a beautiful public
park, both given to the borough by Daniel Willis James (1832-
1007), a prominent metal manufacturer; the library is closely
allied with the public schools. Madison is the seat of the well-
known Drew theological seminary (Methodist Episcopal; founded
in 1866 and opened in 1867), named in honour of Daniel Drew
(1788-1879), who, having acquired great wealth from steamboat
and railway enterprises, especially from trading in railway stocks,
presented the large and beautiful grounds and most of the build-
ings. The seminary's course covers three years; no fee is charged.
In connexion with the seminary the Drew settlement in New
York City — officially the department of applied Christianity —

1 Clay's opinion is given in a report written by Mrs Samuel H.
Smith of a conversation in 1829 between Clay and her husband, a
prominent politician.

has for its object the " practical study of present-day problems
in city evangelism, church organization, and work among the
poor." In 1907-1908 the seminary had 9 instructors, 175 stu-
dents, and a library of more than 100,000 volumes, especially
rich in works dealing with the history of Methodism and in Greek
New Testament manuscripts. About 2 m. N.W. of Madison is
Convent Station, the seat of a convent of the Sisters of Charity,
who here conduct the college of St Elizabeth, for girls, founded in
1859; also conducted by the Sisters of Charity is St Joseph's
preparatory school for boys, founded in 1862. The cultivation
of roses and chrysanthemums is practically the only industry of
Madison. Madison owns and operates its waterworks and
electric-lighting plant. Before 1844 when it took its present
name (in honour of President Madison), Madison was called
Bottle Hill; it is one of the older places of the state, and its first
church (Presbyterian) was built about 1748. The borough was
incorporated in 1889.

MADISON, the capital of Wisconsin, U.S.A., and the county-
seat of Dane County, situated between Lakes Mendota and
Monona in the south central part of the state, about 82 m. W. of
Milwaukee and about 131 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1800),
I3,426; (1900) 19,164, of whom 3362 were foreign-born and
69 were negroes; (1910 census) 25,531. Madison is served
by the Chicago & North- Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee &
St Paul, and the Illinois Central railways (being the northern
terminus of the last), and by interurban electric lines, connecting
with Janesville, Beloit and Chicago. It has a picturesque
situation in what is known as " the Four-Lakes region "; this
region takes its name from a chain of lakes, Kegonsa, Waubesa,
Monona and Mendota, which, lying in the order named and
connected with one another by the Yahara or Catfish River,
form the head-waters of Rock river flowing southward through
Illinois into the Mississippi. The city occupies a hilly isthmus
about a mile wide between Lakes Mendota and Monona, bodies
of water of great clearness and beauty, with bottoms of white
sand and granite.

The state capitol is in a wooded park at the summit of a hill
85 ft. high in the centre of the city. From this park the streets
and avenues radiate in all directions. The capitol, built in
1860-1867 (with an addition in 1883) on the site of the original
capitol building (1837-1838), was partially destroyed by fire in
1904, and in 1909-1910 was replaced by a larger edifice. The
principal business portion of the city is built about the capitol
>ark and the university. Among the public buildings on or
near the park are the federal building, housing the post office
nd the United States courts, the city hall, the Dane county
court-house, the public library, the Fuller opera-house, the
:ounty gaol, and the high school. Running directly west from
he capitol is State Street, at the western end of which lie the
grounds of the university of Wisconsin (q.v.), occupying a hilly
wooded tract of 300 acres, and extending for a mile along the
south shore of Lake Mendota. University Hill, on which
he main building of the university stands, is 125 ft. above
he lake; at its foot stands the magnificent library building
f the State Historical Society. In it, in addition to the inter-
sting and valuable historical museum and art gallery, are the
Society's library of more than 350,000 books and pamphlets,
he university library of 150,000 volumes, and the library of the
Wisconsin academy of arts and sciences, 5000 volumes. Other
braries in the city include the state law library (45,000 volumes)
n the capitol, the Madison public library (22,500 volumes), and
he Woodman astronomical library (7500 volumes). The
iladison public library houses also the state library school
maintained by the Wisconsin library commission. Connected
with the university is the Washbum observatory. On the
margin of the city lies the extensive experimental farm of
the state college of agriculture. In addition to the state
niversity, Madison is the seat of several Roman Catholic
nd Lutheran parochial schools, two business schools, and the
Wisconsin academy, a non-sectarian preparatory school of
igh grade. On the banks of Lake Monona are the beautiful
rounds of the Monona Lake assembly, a summer assembly

288

MADOU— MADRAS

on the Chautauqua model. Near the city is one of the five
fish-hatcheries maintained by the state; it is largely devoted
to the propagation of trout and other small fish. North of
the city, occupying a tract of 500 acres, on Lake Mendota,
are the buildings and grounds of the state hospital for the
insane, opened in 1860.

The city's streets are broad and heavily shaded with a pro-
fusion of elm, oak and maple trees. There are many fine
stone residences dating from the middle of the igth century.
There are several parks of great beauty, and along the shores
of Lake Mendota there is a broad bouleyarded drive of 1 2 m.
The municipality owns its waterworks, the water being obtained
from eleven artesian wells, and being chemically similar to that
of Waukesha Springs. The city and surrounding region are
a summer resort, the lakes affording opportunities for fishing
and for yachting and boating.

Madison is an important jobbing centre for central and
south-western Wisconsin; it has an extensive trade in farm,
garden and dairy products, poultry and tobacco; and there
are various manufactures. In 1905 the value of the total
factory product was $3,291,143, an increase of 22-4% over
that in 1900.

At the time of the settlement by the whites the aboriginal
inhabitants of the Four-Lakes region were the Winnebago.
Prehistoric earthworks are to be seen in the neighbourhood,
several animal-shaped mounds upon the shores of Lakes Men-
dota, Monona and Waubesa being among the best examples.
A regular trading post is known to have been established on
Lake Mendota as early as 1820. The title to the Indian lands
was acquired by the United States by treaty in 1825. Colonel
Ebenezer Brigham established himself at Blue Mounds, in the
western part of Dane county, in 1827. In 1832 the " Four-
Lakes " country was in the theatre of hostilities during the
Black Hawk War; Colonel Henry Dodge held a conference with
Winnebago chiefs on Lake Mendota, and there were several
skirmishes in the neighbourhood between his troops and the
followers of Black Hawk, one of which took place on the site
of Madison. After Black Hawk's defeat on the Bad Axe he
fled to the Wisconsin river Dalles, near the present Kilbourn,
where he was betrayed by the Winnebago. In 1836 Stevens
T. Mason, governor of Michigan, and James Duane Doty,
then U.S. district judge, who had visited the region as early
as 1829, recorded a tract of land, including most of the present
site of Madison. Here they surveyed a " paper " city which
they named in honour of James Madison. On the 3rd of
December 1836 the territorial legislature in session at Belmont,
after a protracted and acrimonious debate, determined, largely
through Doty's influence, to make Madison the permanent
capital. The construction of houses began in the early spring
of 1837. The first constitutional convention met here in
1846, the second in 1847. Madison was chartered as a city
in 1856. In 1862 a large number of Confederate prisoners
were confined in Camp Randall, at Madison, and many of
them died in hospital.

See D. S. Durrie, History of Madison, Wisconsin (Madison, 1874) ;
Lyman C. Draper, Madison the Capital of Wisconsin (Madison, 1857) ;
J. D. Butler, " The Four Lakes Country " in Wisconsin Historical
Society Collections, vol. IO (1888), and R. G. Thwaites, " Madison "
in Historic Towns of the Western Slates (New York, 1900), and his
" Story of Madison " in The University of Wisconsin (Madison,
1900).

MADOU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1796-1877), Belgian painter
and lithographer, was born at Brussels on the 3rd of February
1796. He studied at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts and
was a pupil of Francois. While draughtsman to the topo-
graphical military division at Courtrai, he received a com-
mission for lithographic work from a Brussels publisher. It
was about 1820 that he began his artistic career. Between
1825 and 1827 he contributed to Les Vues pittoresques de la
Belgique, to a Life of Napoleon, and to works on the costumes
of the Netherlands, and later made a great reputation by his
work in La Physionomie de la sociilt en Europe depitis 1400
iusqu' a nos jours (1836) and Les Scenes de la vie des peintres.

It was not until about 1840 that he began to paint in oils,
and the success of his early efforts in this medium resulted
in a long series of pictures representing scenes of village and
city life, including " The Fiddler," " The Jewel Merchant,"
"The Police Court," "The Drunkard," "The Ill-regulated
Household," and "The Village Politicians." Among his
numerous works mention may also be made of " The Feast
at the Chateau" (1851), "The Unwelcome Guests" (1852,
Brussels Gallery), generally regarded as his masterpiece, " The
Rat Hunt" (acquired by Leopold II., king of the Bel-
gians), " The Arquebusier "(1860), and "The Stirrup Cup."
At the age of sixty-eight he decorated a hall in his house with
a series of large paintings representing scenes from La Fon-
taine's fables, and ten years later made for King Leopold
a series of decorative paintings for the chateau of Ciergnon.
Madou died at Brussels on the 3ist of March 1877.

For a list of his paintings see the annual report of the Academy "of
Belgium for 1879. (F. K.*)

MADOZ, PASCUAL (1806-1870), Spanish statistician, was
born at Pampeluna on the 7th of May 1806. In early life
he was settled in Barcelona, as a writer and journalist. He
joined the Progresista party formed during the first Carlist
war, 1833-40. He saw some service against the Carlists;
was elected deputy to the Cortes of 1836; took part for Espar-
tero, and then against him; was imprisoned in 1843; went
into exile and returned; was governor of Barcelona in 1854,
and minister of finance in 1855; had a large share in secularizing
the Church lands; and after the revolution of 1868 was governor
of Madrid. He had, however, no great influence as a leader
and soon went abroad, dying at Genoa in 1870. Madoz was
distinguished from most of the politicians of his generation
by the fact that in middle life he compiled what is still a book
of value — a geographical, statistical and historical dictionary
of Spain and its possessions oversea, Dicciamario geografico,
estadlstico y historico de Espana, y sus posesiones de Ultramar
(Madrid, 1848-1850).

MADRAS, a presidency of British India — officially styled
Fort St George — occupying, with its dependencies, the entire
south of the Indian peninsula. The north boundary is extremely
irregular. On the extreme N.E. is the Bengal province of
Orissa; then the wild highlands of the Central Provinces; next
the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad; and lastly, on the
N.W., the Bombay districts of Dharwar and North Kanara.
Geographically Mysore and Coorg lie within the bounds of
Madras, and politically it includes the Laccadive Islands,
off the Malabar coast, in the Indian Ocean. Its total area,
including native states, is 151,695 sq. m., and its popula-
tion in 1901 was 42,397,522, showing an increase of 7-7%
in the decade. The seat of government is at Madras city
(«-«.).

Physical Aspect. — The Madras presidency may be roughly divided
into three tracts: (l) the long and broad east coast, (2) the shorter
and narrower west coast, and (3) the high interior table-land.
These divisions are determined by the great mountain ranges of the
Eastern and Western Ghats (q.v.). Between these two ranges lies
the central table-land, with an elevation of 1000 to 3000 ft., which
includes the whole of Mysore, and extends over about half a dozen
districts of Madras. The Anaimudi mountain (8837 ft.) in Travan-
core is the highest in southern India. The Nilgiri hills, which join
the Ghats, culminate in Dodabetta (8760 ft.). There are besides
many outlying spurs and tangled masses of hills, of which the She-
varoys, Anamalais and Palnis are the most important. The Godavari,
Kistna and Cauvery rivers, each having a large tributary system, all
rise in the Western Ghats, and run across the peninsula in a south-east
direction into the Bay of Bengal. In the upper parts of their course
they drain rather than water the country through which they flow,
and are comparatively valueless either for navigation or irrigation;
but before reaching the sea they spread over alluvial deltas. Smaller
rivers of the same character are the Pennar and South Pennar or
Ponniar, Palar, Vaigai, Vellar and Tambraparni. The principal
lake is that of Pulicat on the east coast, which is 37 m. long from
north to south, and forms an important means of communication
between Madras city and the northern districts. On the west coast
are a remarkable series of backwaters or lagoons, fringing the sea-
board of Kanara, Malabar and Travancore. The largest is the back-
water of Cochin, which extends 120 m. from north to south.

MADRAS

289

Geology. — By far the greater part of Madras is occupied by
granitic and gneissic rocks of very ancient date. Among them are
the " charnockites," a series of associated eruptive rocks character-
ized by the presence of rhombic pyroxenes. In Bellary and Ananta-
pur districts, as well as in Mysore and Hyderabad, several long
narrow strips of a later formation, known as the Dharwar system,
are folded or faulted into the gneissic floor. They run from N.N.W. to
S.S.E., and consist of conglomerates, lavas and schists. All the
quartz reefs which contain gold in paying quantities are found within
these Dharwar bands, those of the Kolar goldfield in Mysore being
the most important. The gneissic and Dharwar rocks are overlaid
unconformably by the sandstones, limestones, shales, &c., of the
Cuddapah and Kurnool series. It is in the sandstones and shales
of the Kurnool group that most of the diamonds of southern India
are found ; but as these rocks are of sedimentary origin, it is probable
that the diamonds were originally derived from some still unknown
source. A strip of Gondwana beds follows approximately the course
of the Godavari. In Hyderabad it includes the important Singareni
coalfield, but in the Presidency no good coal seams have yet been
found. Upper Gondwana beds also occur in small patches at several
other places near the east coast. Marine cretaceous deposits are
found in three detached areas, near Trichinopoly, Viruddhachalam
and Pondicherry. Some of the coastal sandstones may be of late
Tertiary age, but Tertiary fossils have not been found except in a
few small patches on the west coast, the most southerly being near
Quilon in Travancore.

Climate. — The climate varies in accordance with the height of the
mountain chain on the western coast. Where this chain is lofty, as
between Malabar and Cpimbatore, the rainclouds are intercepted
and give a rainfall of 150 in. on the side of the sea, and only 20 in. on
the landward side. Where the range is lower, the rainclouds pass
over the hills and carry their moisture to the interior districts. The
Nilgiri hills enjoy the climate of the temperate zone, with a mode-
rate rainfall. The Malabar coast has a rainfall of 150 in., and the
clouds on the Western Ghats sometimes obscure the sun for months
at a time. Along the eastern coasts and central table-lands the
rainfall is low and the heat excessive. At Madras city the aver-
age rainfall is 50 in., but this is considerably above the mean of the
east coast.

Minerals. — The mineral wealth of the province is undeveloped.
Iron of excellent quality has been smelted by native smiths in many
localities from time immemorial ; but attempts to work the beds after
European methods have proved unsuccessful. Carboniferous sand-
stone extends across the Godavari valley as far as Ellore, but the
coal has been found to be of inferior quality. Among other minerals
may be mentioned manganese in Vizagapatam, and mica in Nellore.
Garnets are abundant in the sandstone of the Northern Circars, and
diamonds of moderate value are found in the same region. Stone
and gravel quarries are very numerous.

Forests.— The forest department of Madras was first organized in
1856, and it is estimated that forests cover a total area of more than
19,600 sq. m., the whole of which is under conservancy rules. An
area of about 1500 sq. m. is strictly conserved. In the remaining
forests, after supplying local wants, timber is either sold direct by
the department or licences are granted to wood-cutters. The more
valuable timber trees comprise teak, ebony, rosewood, sandal-wood
and redwood. The trees artificially reared are teak, sandal-wood,
Casuarina and eucalyptus. The finest teak plantation is near
Beypur in Malabar. At Mudumalli there are plantations of both
teak and sandal-wood ; and the eucalyptus or Australian gum-tree
grows on the Nilgiris in magnificent clumps.

Fauna. — The wild animals include the elephant, bison, sambur
and ibex of the Western Ghats and the Nilgiris. Bison are found
also in the hill tracts of the Northern Circars. In Travancore state the
black leopard is not uncommon. The elephant is protected by law
from indiscriminate destruction. The cattle are small, but in Nellore
and along the Mysore frontier a superior breed is carefully kept up
by the wealthier farmers. The best buffaloes are imported from the
Bombay district of Dharwar.

Population. — The population in 1901 was divided into
Hindus (37,026,471), Mahommedans (2,732,931), and Chris-
tians (1,934,480). The Hindus may be subdivided into Siva-
ites, Vishnuvites and Lingayats. The Sivaites are most
numerous in the extreme south and on the west coast, while
the Vishnuvites are chiefly found in the northern districts.
The Lingayats, a sect of Sivaite puritans, derive their name
from their practice of carrying about on their persons the
lingo, ror emblem of Siva. The Brahmans follow various
pursuits, and some of them are recent immigrants, who came
south in the train of the Mahratta armies. A peculiar caste
of Brahmans, called Nambudri, is found in Malabar. The
most numerous of the hill tribes are the Kondhs and Savaras,
two cognate races who inhabit the mountainous tracts of the
Eastern Ghats, attached to several of the large estates of Ganjam
and Vizagapatam. On the Nilgiris the best known aboriginal
xvu. 10

tribe is the Todas (?.».). The Mahommedans are subdivided
into Labbai, Moplah, Arab, Sheikh, Sayad, Pathan and Mogul.
The Labbais are the descendants of Hindu converts, and are
traders by hereditary occupation, although many now employ
themselves as sailors and fishermen. The Moplahs are the
descendants of Malayalam converts to Islam — the head of
the tribe, the raja of Cannanore, being descended from a fisher
family in Malabar. They are a hard-working, frugal people,
but quite uneducated and fanatical, and under the influence
of religious excitement have often disturbed the public peace.
Christians are more numerous in Madras than in any other
part of India. In Travancore and Cochin states the native
Christians constitute as much as one-fourth of the popu-
lation. The Roman Catholics, whose number throughout
southern India is estimated at upwards of 650,000, owe their
establishment to St Francis Xavier and the famous Jesuit
mission of Madura; they are partly under the authority of
the archbishop of Goa, and partly under twelve Jesuit vicar-
iates. Protestant missions date from the beginning of the
1 8th century. The Danes were the pioneers; but their work
was taken up by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
under whom laboured the great Lutherans of the i8th century
— Schultz, Sartorius, Fabricius and Schwartz. The Church
Missionary Society entered the field in 1814; and subsequently
an American mission joined in the work.

Languages. — Broadly speaking, the entire population of
Madras belongs to the five linguistic offshoots of the great
Dravidian stock, dominant throughout southern India. At
an early period, before the dawn of history, these races appear
to have accepted some form of the Brahmanical or Buddhist
faiths. Many storms of conquest have since swept over the
land, and colonies of Mogul and Mahratta origin are to be
found here and there. But the evidence of language proves
that the ethnical character of the population has remained
stable under all these influences, and that the Madras Hindu,
Mahommedan, Jain and Christian are of the same stock. Of
the five Dravidian languages in British territory Telugu is
spoken by over 14,000,000 persons; Tamil by over 15,000,000
persons; Kanarese by over 1,500,000 persons; Malayalam by
nearly 3,000,000 persons; and Tulu by about 500,000 persons.
Oriya is the native tongue in the extreme north of Ganjam,
bordering on Orissa; and various sub-dialects of Dravidian
origin are used by the hill tribes of the Eastern Ghats, 'of whom
the Kondhs may be taken as the type.

Agriculture. — Over the greater part of the area of Madras artificial
irrigation is impossible, and cultivation is dependent upon the local
rainfall, which rarely exceeds 40 in. a year, and is liable to fall
irregularly. The Malabar coast is the only part where the rainfall
brought by the south-west monsoon may be trusted both for its
amount and regularity. Other districts, such as Bellary, are also
dependent upon this monsoon; but in their case the rainclouds have
spent themselves in passing over the Western Ghats, and cultivation
becomes a matter of hazard. Over the greater part of the presidency
the rainy season is caused by the south-east monsoon, which breaks
about the end of September. The deltas of the Godavari, Kistna
and Cauvery rivers are the only spots on the east coast which artificial
irrigation is able to save from the risk of occasional scarcity. The
principal food staples are rice, cholam, cambu, ragi and varagu (four
kinds of millet). The most common oil-seed is gingelly (sesamum).
Garden crops comprise tobacco, sugar-cane, chillies, betel-leaf and
plantains. Sugar is chiefly derived from the sap of palms. The fruit
trees are coco-nut, areca-nut, palmyra palm, jack, tamarind and
mango. Special crops include cotton, indigo, coffee, tea, cinchona.
The best cotton is grown in Tinnevelly. The principal coffee tract
stretches along the slopes of the Western Ghats from the north of
Mysore almost down to Cape Comorin. The larger portion of this area
lies within Mysore, Coprgand Travancore states, but the Wynaad and
the Nilgiri hills are within Madras. The first coffee plantation was
opened in the Wynaad in 1840. Many of the early clearings proved
unprofitable, and the enterprise made little progress till about 1855.
Coffee, which is much cultivated on the Nilgiris, covers about loo sq.
m., though the area fluctuates. The tea plant was also introduced
into the Nilgiri hills about 1840, but was not taken up as a commer-
cial speculation till 1865, and is still unimportant. The cinchona
plant was successfully introduced into the Nilgiri hills by the govern-
ment in 1860, and there are now a few plantations belonging to
private owners.

The greater part of the soil in Madras is held by the cultivators

290

MADRAS

direct from the government under the tenure known as ryotwari.
Besides these lands in the hands of the government, there are also
proprietary or zamindari estates in all parts of the country. These
estates are either the remains of ancient principalities, which the
holder cannot sell or encumber beyond his own life interest, or they
are creations of British rule and subject to the usual Hindu custom
of partition. The total area of the zamindari estates is about 26
million acres, more than one-fourth of the whole presidency. The
peshkash or tribute payable to government in perpetuity amounts
to about £330,000 a year. Indms, revenue-free or quit-rent grants
of lands made for religious endowments or for services rendered to
the state, occupy an aggregate area of nearly 8 million acres.

Manufactures. — Madras possesses few staple manufactures. The
chief industries of the presidency are cotton-ginning, coffee-curing,
fish-curing, indigo-pressing, oil-pressing, printing, rice-curing, rope-
making, sugar-refining, tanning, tile and brick-making, and tobacco-
curing. Up to the close of the 1 8th century cotton goods constituted
the main article of export. Masulipatam, where the first English
factory on the- Coromandel coast was established in 1620, enjoyed a
special reputation for its chintzes, which were valued for the fresh-
ness and permanency of their dyes. There is still a small demand
for these articles in Burma, the Straits and the Persian Gulf; but
Manchester goods have nearly beaten the Indian exporter out of the
field. Native looms, however, still hold their own in the local market,
in face of strenuous opposition. After weaving, working in metals
appears to be the most widespread native industry. Among local
specialities which have attracted European curiosity may be men-
tioned the jewelry of Trichinopoly, ornaments of ivory and horn
worked at Vizagapatam, and sandal-wood carving in Kanara.

Commerce and Trade. — -The continuous seaboard of the Madras
presidency, without any natural harbours of the first rank, has
tended to create a widely diffused trade. Madras city conducts
nearly one-half of the total sea-borne commerce ; next comes Malabar,
containing the western railway terminus near Calicut; then Godavari,
with its cluster of ports along the fringe of the delta; Tinnevelly,
with the harbour at Tuticorin, which has opened Jarge dealings with
Ceylon and Burma ; Tanjore, South Kanara, Ganjam and Vizagapa-
tam. As compared with the other provinces, the trade of Madras
is broadly marked by the larger proportion assigned to coasting trade
with other Indian ports and with Ceylon. The chief staples of the
export trade are hides and skins, coffee and raw cotton.

Railways and Irrigation. — The presidency is well supplied with
railways, which naturally have their centre in Madras city, the chief
seaport. The broad-gauge line of the Madras & Southern Mahratta
railway connects with Bombay and Bangalore, and also crosses the
peninsula to Calicut on the western coast. The South Indian
(narrow-gauge) serves the extreme south, with its terminus at Tuti-
corin, and branches to Tinnevelly, Negapatam, Erade, Pondicherry
and Nellore. The narrow-gauge line of the Madras & Southern
Mahratta railway traverses the Deccan districts; and the East Coast
line (broad-gauge), through the Northern Circars, has brought
Madras into direct communication with Calcutta. The Madras
system of. irrigation has been most successful in the case of the three
great eastern rivers, the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery. Each of
these is intercepted by an anicut or dam at the head of its delta, from
which canals diverge on each side for navigation as well as irrigation.
The scheme for diverting the waters of the Tungabhadra (a tributary
of the Kistna) over the thirsty uplands of Kurnool proved a failure.
The bold project of leading the Periyar river through a tunnel across
the watershed of the Travancore hills on to the plain of Madura has
been more successful.

Administration. — The Madras presidency is administered
by a governor and a council, consisting of two members of
the civil service, which number may be increased to four.
There is also a board of revenue of three members. The number
of districts is 24, each under the charge of a collector, with
sub-collectors and assistants. The districts are not grouped
into divisions or commissionerships, as in other provinces. For
legislative purposes the council of the governor is augmented
by additional members, numbering 45 in all, of whom not
more than 17 may be nominated officials, while 19 are elected
by various representative constituencies. Members of the
legislative council enjoy the right of interpellation, of proposing
resolutions on matters of public interest, and of discussing
the annual financial statement. The principle of local devolu-
tion is carried somewhat further in Madras than in other pro-
vinces. At the bottom are union panchayats or village com-
mittees, whose chief duty is to attend to sanitation. Above
them come taluk or subdivisional boards. At the head of
all are district boards, a portion of whose members are elected
by the taluk boards.

Education. — The chief educational institutions are the
Madras University, the Presidency College, Madras Christian

College, and Pachayyappa's College at Madras; the government
arts colleges at Combaconum and Rajahmundry; the law
college, medical college and engineering college at Madras;
the college of agriculture at Coimbatore; the teachers' college at
Saidapet; the school of arts at Madras; and the military ophan-
age at Ootacamund, in memory of Sir Henry Lawrence. In
1007, the total number of pupils at all institutions was 1,007,118,
of whom 164,706 were females, and 132,857 were learning
English.

History. — Until the British conquest the whole of southern
India had never acknowledged a single ruler. The difficult
nature of the hill passes and the warlike character of the highland
tribes forbade the growth of great empires, such as succeeded
one another on the plains of Hindustan. The Tamil country
in the extreme south is traditionally divided between the three
kingdoms of Pandya, Chola and Chera. The west coast
supplied the nucleus of a monarchy which afterwards extended
over the highlands of Mysore, and took its name from the
Carnatic. On the north-east the kings of Kalinga at one time
ruled over the entire line of seaboard from the Kistna to the
Ganges. Hindu legend has preserved marvellous stories of
these early dynasties, but our only authentic evidence consists
in their inscriptions on stone and brass, and their noble archi-
tecture (see INDIA). The Mahommedan invader first estab-
lished himself in the south in the beginning of the I4th century.
Ala-ud-din, the second monarch of the Khilji dynasty at Delhi,
and his general Malik Kafur conquered the Deccan, and over-
threw the kingdoms of Karnataka and Telingana, which were
then the most powerful in southern India. But after the
withdrawal of the Mussulman armies the native monarchy
of Vijayanagar arose out of the ruins. This dynasty gradually
extended its dominions from sea to sea, and reached a pitch
of prosperity before unknown. At last, in 1565, it was over-
whelmed by a combination of the four Mahommedan princi-
palities of the Deccan. At the close of the reign of Aurangzeb,
although that emperor nominally extended his sovereign!
as far as Cape Comorin, in reality South India had again fallen
under a number of rulers who owned no regular allegiance.
The nizam of the Deccan, himself an independent sovereign,
represented the distant court of Delhi. The most powerful
of his feudatories was the nawab of the Carnatic, with his
capital at Arcot. In Tanjore, a descendant of Sivaji ruled;
and on the central table-land a Hindu chieftain was gradually
establishing his authority and founding the state of Mysore,
destined soon to pass to a Mahommedan usurper.

Vasco da Gama cast anchor off Calicut on the 2oth of May
1498, and for a century the Portuguese retained in their control
the commerce of India. The Dutch began to establish them-
selves on the ruin of the Portuguese at the beginning of the
1 7th century, and were quickly followed by the English, who
established themselves at Calicut and Cranganore in 1616.
Tellicherry became the principal English emporium on the
west coast of Madras. The Portuguese eventually retired
to Goa, and the Dutch to the Spice Islands. The first English
settlement on the east coast was in 1611, at Masulipatam,
even then celebrated for its fabrics. Farther south a fort,
the nucleus of Madras city, was erected in 1640. Pondicherry
was purchased, by the French in 1762. For many years the
English and French traders lived peacefully side by side, and
with no ambition for territorial aggrandisement. The war
of the Austrian succession in Europe lit the first flame of hostility
on the Coromandel coast. In 1746 Madras was forced to sur-
render to La Bourdonnais, and Fort St David remained the
only English possession in southern India. By the peace
of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the English; but
from this time the rivalry of the two nations was keen, and
found its opportunities in the disputed successions which
always fill a large place in Oriental politics. English influence
was generally able to secure the favour of the rulers of the
Carnatic and Tanjore, while the French succeeded in placing
their own nominee on the throne at Hyderabad. At last
Dupleix rose to be the temporary arbiter of the fate of southern

[

MADRAS

291

India, but he was overthrown by Clive, whose defence of Arcot
in 1751 forms the turning point in Indian history. In 1760
the crowning victory of Wandewash was won by Colonel (after-
wards Sir Eyre) Coote, over Lally, and in the following year,
<• help from Mysore, Pondicherry was captured.

Though the English had no longer any European rival, they
hiul yet to deal with Mahommedan fanaticism and the warlike
population of the highlands of Mysore. The dynasty founded
by Hyder Ali, and terminating in his son Tippoo Sultan, proved
itself in four several wars, which terminated only in 1799,
the most formidable antagonist which the English had ever
encountered (see HYDER ALI and INDIA). Since the beginning
of the igth century Madras has known no regular war, but
occasional disturbances have called for measures of repression.
The pdlegdrs or local chieftains long clung to their independence
after their country was ceded to the British. On the west
coast, the feudal aristocracy of the Nairs, and the religious
fanaticism of the Moplahs, have more than once led to rebellion
and bloodshed. In the extreme north, the wild tribes occupying
the hills of Ganjam and Vizagapatam have only lately learned
the habit of subordination. In 1836 the zaminddri of Gumsur
in this remote tract was attached by government for the rebel-
lious conduct of its chief. An inquiry then instituted revealed
the wide prevalence among the tribe of Kondhs of human
sacrifice, under the name of meriah. The practice has since
been suppressed by a special agency. In 1879 the country
round Rampa on the northern frontier was the scene of riots
sufficiently serious to lead to the necessity of calling out troops.
The same necessity arose three years later, when the Hindus
and Mahommedans of Salem came into collision over a question
of religious ceremonial. A more serious disturbance was that
known as the " Anti-Shanar riots " of 1899. The Maravans
of Tinnevelly and parts of Madura, resenting the pretensions
of the Shanans, a toddy-drawing caste, to a higher social and
religious status, organized attacks on Shanan villages. The
i of Sivakasi was looted and burnt by five thousand
Maravans. Quiet was restored by the military, and a punitive
police force was stationed in the disturbed area.

The different territories comprising the Madras presidency
were acquired by the British at various dates. In 1763 the
tract encircling Madras city, then known as the Jagir, now
Chingleput district, was ceded by the nawab of Arcot. In
1765 the Northern Circars, out of which the French had recently
been driven, were granted to the Company by the Mogul emperor,
but at the price of an annual tribute of £90,000 to the nizam
of Hyderabad. Full rights of dominion were not acquired
till 1823, when the tribute was commuted for a lump payment.
In 1792 Tippoo was compelled to cede the Baramahal (now
part of Salem district), Malabar and Dindigul subdivision of
Madura. In 1799, on the reconstruction of Mysore state after
Tippoo's death, Coimbatore and Kanara were appropriated as
the British share; and in the same year the Mahratta raja of
Tanjore resigned the administration of his territory, though
his descendant retained titular rank till 1855. In 1800 Bellary
and Cuddapah were made over by the nizam of Hyderabad
to defray the expense of an increased subsidiary force. In
the following year the dominions of the nawab of the Carnatic,
extending along the east coast almost continuously from Nellore
to Tinnevelly, were resigned into the hands of the British by
a puppet who had been put upon the throne for the purpose.
The last titular nawab of the Carnatic died in 1855; but his
representative still bears the title of prince of Arcot, and is
recognized as the first native nobleman in Madras. In 1839
the nawab of Kurnool was deposed for misgovernment and
suspicion of treason, and his territories annexed.

See Madras Manual of Administration, 3 vols. (Madras, 1885 and
'893); S. Ayyangar, Forty Years' Progress in Madras (Madras,
'893); J. P. Rees, Madras (Society of Arts, 1901); Madras Pro-
vincial Gazetteer (2 vols., Calcutta, 1908).

MADRAS, the capital of Madras presidency, and the chief
seaport on the eastern coast of India, is situated in 13° 4' N.
and 80° 17' E. The city, with its suburbs, extends nine miles

along the sea and nearly four miles inland, intersected by
the little river Cooum. Area, 27 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 509,346,
showing an increase of 12-6% in. the decade. Madras is the
third city in India.

Although at first sight the city presents a disappointing
appearance, and possesses not a single handsome street, it
has several buildings of architectural pretensions, and many
spots of historical interest. It is spread over a very wide area,
and many parts of it are almost rural in character. Seen from
the roadstead, the fort, a row of merchants' offices, a few spires
and public buildings are all that strike the eye. Roughly
speaking, the city consists of the following divisions, (i)
George Town (formerly Black Town, but renamed after the
visit of the Prince of Wales in 1906), an ill-built, densely-popu-
lated block, about a mile square, is the business part of the
town, containing the banks, custom house, high court, and all
the mercantile offices. The last, for the most part handsome
structures, lie along the beach. On the sea-face of George
Town are the pier and the new harbour. Immediately south
of George Town there is (2) an open space which contains Fort
St George, the Marina, or fashionable drive and promenade
by the seashore, Government House, and several handsome
public buildings on the sea-face. (3) West and south of this
lung of the city are crowded quarters known by native names —
Chintadrapet, Turuvaleswarampet, Pudupak, Royapet, Kist-
nampet and Mylapur, which bend to the sea again at the old
town of Saint Thome. (4) To the west of George Town are the
quarters of Veperi and Pudupet, chiefly inhabited by Eurasians,
and the suburbs of Egmore, Nangambakam, and Perambur,
adorned with handsome European mansions and their spacious
" compounds " or parks, which make Madras a city of magnifi-
cent distances. (5) South-west and south lie the European
quarters of Tanampet and aristocratic Adyar. Among the
most notable buildings are the cathedral, Scottish church,
Government House, Pachayappa's Hall, senate house, Chepauk
palace (now the revenue board), and the Central railway
station.

Madras possesses no special industries. There are several
cotton mills, large cement works, iron foundries and cigar
factories. Large sums of money have from time to time been
spent upon the harbour works, but without any great success.
The port remains practically an open roadstead, protected
by two breakwaters, and the P. & O. steamers ceased to
call in 1898. Passengers or cargo are landed or embarked
in flat-bottomed masula boats. The sea bottom is unusually
flat, reaching a depth of ten fathoms only at a mile from the
shore. The harbour is not safe during a cyclone, and vessels
have to put out to sea. Madras conducts about 56% of the
foreign trade of the presidency, but a much smaller share of
the coasting trade. As the capital of southern India, Madras
is the centre on which all the great military roads converge.
It is also the terminal station of two lines of railway, the
Madras & Southern Mahratta line and the Madras & Tanjore
"section of the South Indian railway. The Buckingham canal,
which passes through an outlying part of the city, connects
South Arcot district with Nellore and the Kistna and Godavari
system of canal navigation. The municipal government of
the city was framed by an act of the Madras legislature passed
in 1884. The governing body consists of 32 commissioners,
of whom 24 are elected by the ratepayers, together with a paid
president. The Madras University was constituted in 1857,
as an examining body, on the model of the university of London.
The chief educational institutions in Madras city are tl e Presi-
dency College; six missionary colleges and one native College;
the medical college, the law college, the college of engin jering,
the teachers' college in the suburb of Saidapet, all maintained
by government; and the government school of arts.

The foundation of Madras dates from 1640, when Francis
Day, chief of the East India Company's settlement at Armagon,
obtained a grant of the present site of the city from a native
ruler. A fort — called Fort St George, presumably from having
been finished on St George's Day (April 23) — was at once

292

MADRAZO Y KUNT— MADRID

constructed, and a gradually increasing population settled
around its walls. In 1653 Madras, which had previously been
subordinate to the settlement of Bantam in Java, was raised
to the rank of an independent presidency. In 1702 Baud
Khan, Aurangzeb's general, blockaded the town for a few
weeks, and in 1741 the Mahrattas unsuccessfully attacked
the place. In 1746 La Bourdonnais bombarded and captured
Madras. The settlement was restored to the English two
years later by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but the govern-
ment of the presidency did not return to Madras till 1762. In
1758 the French under Lally occupied the Black Town and
invested the fort. The siege was conducted on both sides
with great skill and vigour. After two months the arrival of
an English fleet relieved the garrison, and the besiegers retired
with some precipitancy. With the exception of the threatening
approach of Hyder Ali's horsemen in 1769, and again in 1780,
Madras has since the French siege been free from external
attack. The town of Saint Thome, now part of Madras city,
was founded and fortified by the Portuguese in 1504, and was
held by the French from 1672 to 1674.

See Mrs F. Penny, Fort St George (1900); W. Foster, Founding of
Fort St George (1902).

MADRAZO Y KUNT, DON FEDERICO DE (1815-1894),
Spanish painter, was born in Rome on the 12th of February
1815. He was the son of the painter Madrazo y Agudo (1781-
1859), and received his first instruction from his father. While
still attending the classes at the Academy of San Fernando
he painted his first picture, " The Resurrection of Christ "
(1829), which was purchased by Queen Christina. Not long
afterwards he painted " Achilles in his Tent," and subsequently
presented to the Academy " The Continence of Scipio," which
secured him admission as a member " for merit." While
decorating the palace of Vista Alegre he took up portraiture.
In 1852 he went to Paris, where he studied under Winterhalter,
and painted portraits of Baron Taylor and of Ingres. In
1837 he was commissioned to produce a picture for the gallery
at Versailles, and painted " Godfrey de Bouillon proclaimed
King of Jerusalem." The artist then went to Rome, where
he worked at various subjects, sacred and profane. Then
he painted " Maria Christina in the Dress of a Nun by the
bedside of Ferdinand III." (1843), " Queen Isabella," " The
Duchess of Medina-Coeli," and " The Countess de Vilches "
(1845-1847), besides a number of portraits of the Spanish aristo-
cracy, some of which were sent to the exhibition of 1855. He
received the Legion of Honour in 1846. He was made a corre-
sponding member of the Paris Academy of Fine Arts on the
loth of December 1853, and in 1873, on the death of Schnorr,
the painter, he was chosen foreign member. After his father's
death he succeeded him as director of the Prado Gallery and
president of the Academy of San Fernando. He originated
in Spain the production of art reviews and journals, such as
El Arlisla, El Renacimiento and El Semanario pinloresco.
He died at Madrid on the nth of June 1894. His brother^
DON Louis DE MADRAZO, was also known as a painter, chiefly*
by his " Burial of Saint Cecilia " (1855). Don Federico's best-
known pupil was his son, DON RAIMUNDO DE MADRAZO (b. 1841).

MADRID, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of
districts previously included in New Castile, and bounded
on the W. and N. by Avila and Segovia, E. by Guadalajara,
S.E. by Cuenca and S. by Toledo. Pop. (1900), 775,°34,
of whom 539,835 inhabit the city of Madrid; area, 3084 sq. m.
Madrid belongs to the basin of the Tagus, being separated
from th it of the Douro by the Sierra de Guadarrama on the
N.W. and N., and by the Sierra de Credos on the S.W. The
Tagus is the southern boundary for some distance, its chief
tributary being the Jarama, which rises in the Somosierra
in the north and terminates at Aranjuez. The Jarama, in
turn, is joined by the Henares and Tajuna on the left, and by
the Lozoya and Manzanares on the right. The Guadarrama,
another tributary of the Tagus, has its upper course within
the province. Like the rest of Castile, Madrid is chiefly of
Tertiary formation; the soil is mostly clayey, but there are

tracts of sandy soil. Agriculture is somewhat backward;
the rainfall is deficient, and the rivers are not utilized as they
might be for irrigation. The south-eastern districts are the
best watered, and produce in abundance fruit, vegetables,
wheat, olives, esparto grass and excellent wine. Gardening
and viticulture are carried on to some extent near the capital,
though the markets of Madrid receive their most liberal supply
of fruits and vegetables from Valencia. Sheep, goats and
horned cattle are reared, and fish are found in the Jarama
and other rivers. Much timber is extracted from the forests
of the northern and north-eastern parts of the province for
building purposes and for firewood and charcoal. The royal
domains of the Escorial, Aranjuez and El Pardo, and the pre-
serves of the nobility, are all well wooded and contain much
game. Efforts have also been made by the local authorities
to cover the large stretches of waste ground and commons
with pines and other trees.

The Sierra de Guadarrama has quarries of granite, lime
and gypsum, and is known to contain iron, copper and argenti-
ferous lead; but these resources are undeveloped. Other in-
dustries are chiefly confined to the capital; but cloth, leather,
paper, earthenware, porcelain, glass, bricks and tiles, ironware,
soap, candles, chocolate and lace are also manufactured on a
small scale beyond its boundaries. There is very little commerce
except for the supply of the capital with necessaries.

Besides the local lines, all the great railways in the kingdom
converge in this province, and it contains in all 221 m. of line.
Besides Madrid, the towns of Aranjuez (12,670) and Alcala
de Henares (11,206) and the Escorial are described in separate
articles. The other towns with more than 5000 inhabitants
are Vallecas (10,128), Colmenar de Oreja (6182), Colmenar
Viejo (5255) and Carabanchel Bajo (5862).

MADRID, the capital of Spain and of the province of Madrid,
on the left bank of the river Manzanares, a right-hand tributary
of the Jarama, which flows south into the Tagus. Pop. (1877),
397,816; (1887), 472,228; (1897), 512.150; (1900), 539,835-
Madrid was the largest city in Spain in 1900; it is the see
of an archbishop, the focus of the principal Spanish railways,
the headquarters of an army corps, the seat of a university, the
meeting-place of parliament, and the chief residence of the king,
the court, and the captain-general of New Castile. It is.
however, surpassed in ecclesiastical importance by Toledo and
in commerce by Barcelona.

Situation and Climate. — Madrid is built on an elevated and undula-
ting plateau of sand and clay, which is bounded on the north by the
Sierra Guadarrama and merges on all other sides into the barren and
treeless table-land of New Castile. Numerous water-courses (arroyos),
dry except at rare intervals, furrow the surface of the plateau ; these
as they pass through the city have in certain cases been converted
into roads — e.g. the Paseo de Recoletos and Prado, which are still
so liable to be flooded after prolonged rain that special channels have
been constructed to carry away the water. The highest point in
Madrid is 2372 ft. above sea-level. The city is close to the geo-
graphical centre of the peninsula, nearly equidistant from the Bay
of Biscay, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Owing to its high
altitude and open situation it is liable to sudden and frequent varia-
tions of climate, and the daily range of temperature sometimes
exceeds 50° F. In summer the heat is rendered doubly oppressive
by the fiery, dust-laden winds which sweep across the Castihan table-
land ; at this season a temperature of 109° has been registered in the
shade. In winter the northerly gales from the Sierra Guadarrama
bring intense cold ; snow falls frequently, and skating is carried on
in the Buen Retire park. A Spanish proverb describes the wind
of Madrid as so deadly and subtle that " it will kill a man when it
will not blow out a candle " ; but, though pulmonary diseases are not
uncommon, the climate appears to be exceptionally healthy. In
1901 the death-rate was 22-07 per 1000, or lower than that of any
other town on the Spanish mainland. The Sierra Guadarrama
renders the atmosphere unusually dry and clear by intercepting the
moisture of the north-western winds which prevail in summer;
hence the average daily number of deaths decreases from 80 in winter
to about 25 in summer. The sanitation of the older quarters is
defective, and overcrowding is common, partly owing to the royal
decrees which formerly prohibited the extension of the city; but
much has been done in modern times to remove or mitigate these
evils.

The Inner City. — The form of Madrid proper (exclusive of the
modern suburbs) is almost that of a square with the corners

MADRID

293

rounded off ; from east to west it measures rather less than from
north to south. It was formerly surrounded by a poor wall,
partly of brick, partly of earth, some 20 ft. in height, and pierced
by five principal gates (puertas) and eleven doorways (portillos).
Of these only three, the Puerta de Alcala on the east, the Puerta
de Toledo on the south and the Portillo de San Vicente on the
west, actually exist; the first and the third were erected in the
time of Charles III. (1759-1788), and the second in honour of
the restoration of Ferdinand VII. (1827). The Manzanares — or
rather its bed, for the stream is at most seasons of the year quite
insignificant — is spanned by six bridges, the Puente de Toledo
and Puente de Segovia being the chief.

The Puerta del Sol is the centre of Madrid, the largest of its
many plazas, and the place of most traffic. It derived its name
from the former east gate of the city, which stood here until
1570, and had on its front a representation of the sun. On its
south side stands the Palacio de la Gobernacion, or ministry of
the interior, a heavy square building by a French architect,
J. Marquet, dating from 1768. From the Puerta del Sol diverge,
immediately or mediately, ten of the principal streets of Madrid
— eastward by north, the Calle de Alcala, terminating beyond
the Buen Retiro park; eastward, the Carrera de San Jeronimo,
terminating by the Plaza de las Cortes in the Prado; southward,
the Calle de Carretas; westward, the Calle Mayor, which leads
to the council chamber and to the palace, and the Calle del
Arenal, terminating in the Plaza de Isabel II. and the royal
opera house; north-westward, the Calles de Preciados and Del
Carmen; and northward, the Calle de la Montera, which after-
wards divides into the Calle de Fuencarral to the left and the
Calle de Hortaleza to the right. The contract for another wide
street through central Mudrid, to be called the Gran Via, was
given to an English firm in 1905.

The Calle de Alcala is bordered on both sides with acacias, and
contains the Real Academia de Bellas Artes, founded in 1752 as an
academy of art and music; its collection of paintings by Spanish
masters includes some of the best-known works of Munllo. The
handsome Bank of Spain (i884-i89i)stands where the Calle de Alcala
meets the Prado; in the oval Plaza de Madrid, at the same point, is
a fine 18th-century fountain with a marble group representing the
goddess Cybele drawn in a chariot by two lions. The Calle de Alcala
is continued eastward past the Buen Retiro gardens and park, and
through the Plaza de Independencia, in the middle of which is the
Puerta de Alcala. The Plaza de las Corte's is so called from the
Congreso de los Diputados, or House of Commons, on its north side.
The square contains a bronze statue of Cervantes, by Antonio Sola,
erected in 1835. The Calle de Carretas, on the west side of which is
the General Post Office, ranks with the Carrera de San Jeronimo and
Calle de la Montera for the excellence of its shops. From the Calle
Mayor is entered the PlazaMayor.a rectangle of about 430 ft.by 330 ft.,
formerly the scene of tournaments, bull fights, autos de fe, acts of
canonization (including that of Ignatius Loyola in 1622) and similar
exhibitions, which used to be viewed by the royal family from the
balcony of one of the houses called the Panaderia (belonging to the
guild of bakers). The square, which was built under Philip III. in
1619, is surrounded by an arcade; the houses are uniform in height
and decoration. In the centre stands a bronze equestrian statue of
Philip III., designed by Giovanni da Bologna, after a painting by
Pantoja de la Cruz, and finished by Pietro Tacca. From the south-
east angle of the Plaza Mayor the Calle de Atocha.one of the principal
thoroughfares of Madrid, leads to the outskirts of the inner city; it
contains two large hospitals and part of the university buildings
(faculty of medicine). The house occupied by Cervantes from 1606
until his death in 1616 stands at the point where it meets the Calle
de L6on; in this street is the Real Academia de la Historia, with a
valuable library and collections of MSS. and plate. From the south-
west angle of the Plaza Mayor begins the Calle de Toledo, the chief
mart for the various woollen and silken fabrics from which the pictu-
resque costumes peculiar to the peninsula are made. In the Plaza de
Isabel II., at the western extremity of the Calle del Arenal, stands
the royal opera-house, the principal front of which faces the Plaza
del Onente and the royal palace. In the centre of the plaza is a fine
bronze equestrian statue of PhilipIV.(l62l-l665); it was designed by
Velazquez and cast by Tacca, while Galileo is said to have suggested
the means by which the balance is preserved. The gift of the grand
duke of Tuscany in 1640, it stood in the Buen Retiro gardens until
1844.

Modern Development of the City. — The north and east of the
city — the new suburbs — have developed past the Retiro Park
as far as the Bull-ring, and have covered all the vast space
included between the Retiro, the Bull-ring, the long Castellana

Drive to the race-course and the exhibition building. On the
slopes of the other side of the Castellana, and along what were
the northern limits of Madrid in 1875, the modern suburbs have
extended to the vicinity of the fine cellular prison that was built
at the close of the reign of King Alphonso XII. to replace the
gloomy building known as El Saladero.

The new parts of the capital, with their broad streets and
squares, and their villas sometimes surrounded with gardens,
their boulevards lined by rather stunted trees, and their modern
public buildings, all resemble the similar features of other Euro-
pean capitals, and contrast with the old Madrid that has pre-
served so many of its traits in architecture, popular life and
habits. Some of the streets have been slightly widened, and in
many thoroughfares new houses are being built among the ugly,
irregular dwelling-places of the i8th and earlier centuries. This
contrast is to be seen especially in and about the Calle Mayor,
the Plaza Mayor, the Calle de Toledo, the Rastro, and the heart
of the city.

Few capitals have more extensively developed their electric and
horse tramways, gas and electric light installations and telephones.
Much was done to improve the sanitary conditions of the city in the
last twenty years of the igth century. The streets are deluged
three times a day with fire-hose, but even that has little effect upon
the dust. Unfortunately the water supply, which used to be famed
for its abundance and purity, became wholly insufficient owing to
the growth of the city. The old reservoir of the Lozoya canal, a
cutting 32 m. long, and the additional reservoir opened m 1883, are
quite inadequate for the requirements of modern Madrid, and were
formerly kept in such an unsatisfactory state that for several months
in 1898 and 1899 the water not only was on the point of giving out,
but at times was of such inferior quality that the people had recourse
to the many wells and fountains available. The construction of
new waterworks was delayed by a terrible accident, which occurred
on the 8th of April 1905; the whole structure collapsed, and nearly
400 persons lost their lives in the flooded ruins. A decided improve-
ment has been made in the burial customs of Madrid. No bodies
are allowed to be interred in the churches and convents. Some of
the older burial grounds in the northern suburbs have been closed
altogether, and in those which remain open few coffins are placed
in the niche vaults in the depth of the thick walls, as was once the
practice. A large modern necropolis has been established a few miles
to the north-east.

Principal Buildings. — As compared with other capitals
Madrid has very few buildings of much architectural interest.
The Basilica de Nuestra Sefiora de Atocha, on the Paseo de
Atocha, a continuation of the Calle de Atocha, was originally
founded in 1523. After being almost destroyed by the French,
it was restored by Ferdinand VII., and rebuilt after 1896. The
modern church is Romanesque in style; it contains a much
venerated statue of the Virgin, attributed to St Luke. The
collegiate church of San Isidro el Real, in the Calle de Toledo,
dates from 1651; it has no architectural merit, but contains
one or two valuable pictures and other works of art. It
was originally owned by the Jesuits, but after their expulsion
in 1769 it was reconsecrated, and dedicated to St Isidore the
Labourer (d. 1170), the patron saint of Madrid, whose remains
were entombed here. When the diocese of Madrid was separated
from that of Toledo San Isidro was chosen as the cathedral.
The modern Gothic church of San Jeronimo el Real occupies a
conspicuous site eastward of the town. The church of San
Francisco el Grande, which contains many interesting monu-
ments, is also known as the National Pantheon. An act was
passed in 1837 declaring that the remains of all the most dis-
tinguished Spaniards should be buried here; but no attempt to
enforce the act systematically was made until 1869, and even
then the attempt failed. Towards the close of the I9th century
the church was splendidly restored at the expense of the state.
Its interior was decorated with paintings and statuary by most
of the leading Spanish artists of the time. Of secular buildings
unquestionably the most important is the royal palace (Palacio
Real), on the west side of the town, on rising ground overhanging
the Manzanares. It occupies the site of the ancient Moorish
alcazar (citadel), where a hunting seat was built by Henry IV.;
this was enlarged and improved by Charles V. when he first
made Madrid his residence in 1532; was further developed by
Phillip II., but ultimately was destroyed by fire in 1734. The

294

MADRID

present edifice was begun under Philip V. in 1737 by Sacchetti
of Turin, and was finished in 1 764. It is in the Tuscan style, and
is 470 ft. square and 100 ft. in height, the material being white
Colmenar granite, resembling marble. To the north of the palace
are the royal stables and coach-houses, remarkable for their
extent; to the south is the armoury (Museo de la Real Armeria),
containing what is possibly the best collection of the kind in
existence. After the Palacio Real may be .mentioned the
royal picture gallery (Real Museo de Pinturas), adjoining the
Salon del Prado; it was built about 1785 for Charles III. by Juan
de Villanueva as a museum of natural history and academy of
sciences. ' It contains the collections of Charles V., Philip II. and
Philip IV., and the pictures number upwards of two thousand.
The specimens of Titian, Raphael, Tintoretto, Velazquez, Van-
dyck, Rubens and Teniers give it a claim to be considered the
finest picture gallery in the world. The Biblioteca Nacional,
in the Paseo de Recoletos, was founded in 1866, and completed
in 1892. Not only the national library, with its important collec-
tions of MSS. and documents, but the archaeological museum,
the museums of modern painting and sculpture, and the fine
arts academy of San Fernando, are within its walls. The two
houses of the Cortes meet in separate buildings. The deputies
have a handsome building with a very valuable library in the
Carrera San Jeronimo; the senators have an old Augustinian
convent which contains some fine pictures. A large and hand-
some building near the Retiro Park contains the offices of the
ministers of public works, agriculture and commerce, and of fine
arts and education; nearly opposite stands the new station of
the Southern Railway Company. The Great Northern and the
Spain to Portugal Railway Companies have also replaced their
old stations by very spacious, handsome structures, much resem-
bling those of Paris. In 1896 the Royal Exchange was installed
in a large monumental building with a fine colonnade facing the
Dos de Mayo monument, not far from the museum of paintings.

Of the promenades and open places of public resort the most
fashionable and most frequented is the Prado (Paseo del Prado,
Salon del Prado) on the east side of the town, with its northward
continuation — the Paseo de Recoletos. To the south of the town
is the Paseo de las Delicias, and on the west, below the royal
palace, and skirting the Manzanares, is the Paseo de la Virgen
del Puerto, used chiefly by the poorer classes. Eastward from
the Prado are the Buen Retiro Gardens, with ponds and
pavilions, and a menagerie. The gardens were formerly the
grounds surrounding a royal hunting seat, on the site of which
a palace was built for Philip IV. in 1633; it was destroyed
during the French occupation.

Education, Religion and Charity. — Madrid University
developed gradually out of the college of Dona Maria de Aragon,
established in 1 590 by Alphonso Orozco. Schools of mathematics
and natural science were added in the i6th and i7th centuries,
and in 1786 the medical and surgical college of San Carlos was
opened. In 1836-1837 the university of Alcala de Henares (q.v.)
was transferred to the capital and the older foundations
incorporated with it. The university of Madrid thenceforth
became the headquarters of education in central Spain. It has
an observatory, and a library containing more than 2,000,000
printed books and about 5500 MSS. It gives instruction, chiefly
in law and medicine, but also in literature, philosophy, mathe-
matics and physics, to about 5000 students. Associated with
the university is the preparatory school of San Isidro, founded
by Philip IV. (1621-1665), and reorganized by Charles III. in
1770.

There are upwards of 100 official primary schools and a large
number of private ones, among which the schools conducted by the
Jesuits and the Scolapian fathers claim special mention. Madrid
also has schools of agriculture, architecture, civil and mining engi-
neering, the fine arts, veterinary science and music. The school of
military engineering is at Guadalajara. Besides these special
schools there are a self-supporting institute for preparing girls for
the higher degrees and for certificates as primary teachers, and an
institute for secondary education, conducted chiefly by ecclesiastics.
Among the educational institutions may be reckoned the botanical
garden, dating from 1781, the libraries of the palace, the university,
and San Isidro, and the museum of natural science, exceedingly rich

in the mineralogical department. The principal learned society is
the royal Spanish Academy, founded in 1713 for the cultivation and
improvement of the Spanish tongue. The Academy of History
possesses a good library, rich in MSS. and incunabula, as well as a
fine collection of coins and medals. In addition to the academies of
fine arts, the exact sciences, moral and political science, medicine
and surgery, and jurisprudence and legislation, all of which possess
'•'braries, there are also anthropological, economic and geographical
societies, and a scientific and literary athenaeum. Madrid has a
British cemetery opened in 1853, when the older Protestant cemetery
in the Paseo de Recoletos was closed. The town also contains a
British embassy chapel, a German chapel, and several Spanish
Protestant chapels, attended by over 1200 native Protestants, while
the Protestant schools, chiefly supported by British, German and
American contributions, are attended by more than 2500 children.
The first Protestant bishop of Madrid was consecrated in 1895 by
Archbishop Plunkett of Dublin. The charitable institutions were
greatly improved between 1885 and 1905. The Princess Hospital
was completely restored on modern methods, and can accommodate
several hundred patients. The old contagious diseases hospital
of San Juan de Dios was pulled down and a fine new hospital built
in the suburbs beyond the Retiro Park, to hold 700 patients. The
military hospital was demolished and a very good one built in the
suburbs. There are in all twenty hospitals in Madrid, and a lunatic
asylum on the outskirts of the capital, founded by one of the most
eminent of Spanish surgeons, and admirably conducted. New
buildings have been provided for the orphanages, and for the asylums
for the blind, deaf and dumb, incurables and aged paupers. There
are hospitals supported by the French, Italian and Belgian colonies;
these are old and well-endowed foundations. Public charity gener-
ally is very active. _ In Madrid, as in the rest of Spain, there has been
an unprecedented increase in convents, monasteries and religious
institutions, societies and Roman Catholic workmen's clubs and
classes.

Apart from private institutions for such purposes, the state
maintains in the capital a savings bank for the poorer classes, and
acts as pawnbroker for their benefit. The mercantile and industrial
classes are organized in gilds, which themselves collect the lump sum
of taxation exacted by the exchequer and 'the municipality from each
gremio or class of taxpayers. The working classes also have com-
mercial and industrial circulos or clubs that are obeyed by the gilds
with great esprit de corps, a chamber of commerce and industries,
and " associations of productions " for the defence of economic
interests.

Industries. — The industries of the capital have developed
extraordinarily since 1890. In the town, and within the muni-
cipal boundaries in the suburbs, many manufactories have been
established, giving employment to more than 30,000 hands, ,
besides the 4000 women and girls of the Tobacco Monopoly
Company's factory. Among the most important factories are
those which make every article in leather, especially cigar and
card cases, purses and pocket-books. Next come the manu-
factures of fans, umbrellas, sunshades, chemicals, varnishes,
buttons, wax candles, beds, cardboard, porcelain, coarse pottery,
matches, baskets, sweets and preserves, gloves, guitars, biscuits,
furniture, carpets, corks, cards, carriages, jewelry, drinks of
all kinds, plate and plated goods. There are also tanneries,
saw and flour mills, glass and porcelain works, soap works,
brickfields, paper mills, zinc, bronze, copper and iron foundries.
The working classes are strongly imbued with socialistic ideas.
Strikes and May Day demonstrations have often been trouble-
some. Order is kept by a garrison of 12,500 men in the barracks
of the town and cantonments around, and by a strong force of
civil guards or gendarmes quartered in the town itself. The
civil and municipal authorities can employ beside the gendarmes
the police, about 1400 strong, and what is called the guardias
urbanos, another police force whose special duty it is to regulate
the street traffic and prevent breaches of the municipal regula-
tions. There is not, on the average, more crime in Madrid than
in the provinces.

History. — Spanish archaeologists have frequently claimed for
Madrid a very high antiquity, but the earliest authentic historical
mention of the town (Majrit, Majoritum) occurs in the Arab
chronicle, and does not take us farther back than to the first
half of the loth century. The place was finally taken from the
Moors by Alphonso VI. (1083), and was made a hunting-seat by
Henry IV., but first rose into importance when Charles V.,
benefiting by its keen air, made it his occasional residence.
Philip II. created it his capital and " only court " (Anica corte)
in 1560. It is, however, only classed as a town (villa), having

MADRIGAL— MADURA

295

never received the title of city (ciitdad). Fruitless attempts
were made by Philip III. and Charles III. respectively to transfer
the seat of government to Valladolid and to Seville. (See also
SPAIN: History).

See J Amador de los Rios, Historia de la villa y corte de Madrid
(Madrid 1 861-1864); ValverdeyAlvarez,J!^Ca,frt7a/deEj£aSa(Madrid,
1881) • E Sepulveda, La Vida en Madrid en 1886 (Madrid, 1887) ; H.
Penasco Las Calles de Madrid (Madrid, 1889); C. Perez Pastor,
BMiogmfia madrileha, sigh XVI. (Madrid, 1891); F. X. de Palacio v
Garcia, count of las Almenas, La Municipalidad de Madrid (Madrid,
1896)- E. Sepulveda, El Madrid de los recuerdos: coleccion de
articu'los (Madrid, 1897); P. Mauser, Madrid bajo el punlo de vista
mtdtco-social (Madrid, 1902) ; L. Williams, Toledo and Madrid, their
Records and Romances (London, 1903).

MADRIGAL (Ital. madrigale), the name of a form of verse,
the exact nature of which has never been decided in English,
and of a form of vocal music.

(i) In Verse. — The definition given in the New English
Dictionary, " a short lyrical poem of amatory character,"
offers no distinctive formula; some madrigals are long, and many
have nothing whatever to do with love. The most important
English collection of madrigals, not set to music, was published
by William Drummond of Hawthornden (1585-1649) in his
Poems of 1616. Perhaps the best way of ascertaining what was
looked upon in the i?th century as a madrigal is to quote
one of Drummond's: —

The beauty and the life

Of life's and beauty's fairest paragon,

O tears! O grief! hung at a feeble thread,

To which pale Atropos had set her knife ;

The soul with many a groan

Had left each outward part,

And now did take his last leave of the heart ;

Nought else did want, save death, even to be dead;

When the afflicted band about her bed,

Seeing so fair him come in lips, cheeks, eyes,

Cried ah ! and can death enter Paradise?

This may be taken as a type of Drummond's madrigals, of which
he has left us about eighty. They are serious, brief, irregular
lyrics, in which neither the amatory nor the complimentary tone
is by any means obligatory. Some of these pieces contain as
few as six lines, one as many as fourteen, but they average from
nine to eleven. In the majority of examples the little poem
opens with a line of six syllables, and no line extends beyond
ten syllables. The madrigal appears to be a short canzone of
the Tuscan type, but less rigidly constructed. In French the
madrigal has not this Italian character. It is simply a short
piece of verse, ingenious in its turn and of a gallant tendency.
The idea of compliment is essential. J. F. Guichard ( 1 730-1 8 1 1 )

writes: —

Orgon, po&te marital,

A Venus compare sa femme;
C'est pour la belle un madrigal,

C'est pour Venus une 6pigramme.

This quatrain emphasizes the fact that in French a madrigal
is a trifling piece of erotic compliment, neatly turned but not
seriously meant. The credit of inventing the old French verse-
form of madrigal belongs to Clement Marot, and one of his may
be quoted in contrast to that of Drummond: —
Un doux nenni avec un doux sourire

Est tant honneste, il le vous faut apprendre;
Quant est de oui, si veniez a le dire,

D'avoir trop dit je voudrois vous reprendre;
Non que je sois ennuy6 d'entreprendre
D'avoir le fruit dont le d6sir me point ;

Mais je voudrois qu'en ne le laissant prendre,
Vous me disiez : vous ne 1'aurez point.

In English, when the word first occurred — it has not been
traced farther back than 1588 (in the preface to Nicholas
Yonge's Musica transalpine) — it was identified with the chief
form of secular vocal music in the i6th century. In 1741 John
Immyns (d. 1764) founded the Madrigal Society, which met in
an ale-house in Bride Lane, Fleet Street; this association still
exists, and is the oldest musical society in Europe.

The word " madrigal " is frequently also used to designate
a sentimental or trifling expression in a half-contemptuous
sense. (E. G.)

(2) In Music.— As a definite musical art-form, the madrigal
was known in the Netherlands by the middle of the isth century;
ike the motet, it obviously originated in the treatment of counter-
joint on a canto fermo, some early examples even combining
an ecclesiastical canto fermo in the tenor with secular counter-
3oint in the other parts. Thus Josquin's Deploration de Jehan
Okenheim (see Music) might equally well be called a madrigal
or motet, if the word " madrigal " were used for compositions
to French texts at all. But by the middle of the 1 6th century
the Italian supremacy in music had developed the madrigal into
the greatest of secular musical forms, and made it independent
of the form of the words; and thus when Lasso sets Marot's
madrigals to appropriately witty and tuneful music he calls
the result a " chanson "; while when Palestrina composes
Petrarca's Sonnets to the Virgin in memory of Laura, the result
appears as a volume of Madrigali spirituali. Elegiac madrigals,
whether spiritual or secular, were thus as common as any other
kind; so that when the Musica transalpine, brought the word

madrigal " to England it brought a precedent for the poet
Drummond's melancholy type of madrigal poetry.

Italian madrigals, however, are by no means always elegiac;
but the term always means a highly organized and flowing
polyphonic piece, often as developed as the motet, though, in
the mature classical period, distinct in style. Yet masses were
often founded on the themes of madrigals, just as they were
on the themes of motets (see MASS; MOTET) ; and it is interesting,
in such beautiful cases as Palestrina's Missa gia fu chi m'ebbe
cara, to detect the slight strain the mildly scandalous origin of
the themes puts upon the ecclesiastical style.

The breaking strain was put on the madrigal style at the end
of the i6th century, in one way by the new discords of Monte-
verde and (with more musical invention) Schiitz; and in another
way by the brilliant musical character-drawing of Vecchi, whose
Amfiparnasso is a veritable comic opera in the form of a set of
fourteen madrigals, all riotously witty in the purest and most
masterly polyphonic style. It was probably meant, or at least
made use of, to laugh down the earliest pioneers of opera (q.v.) ;
but it is the beginning of the end for the madrigal as a living
art. Long afterwards we occasionally meet with the word
again, when a I7th or i8th century composer sets to some kind
of accompanied singing a poem of madrigalesque character.
But this does not indicate any continuation of the true musical
history of the madrigal. The strict meaning of the word in its
musical sense is, then, a musical setting of an Italian or English
non-ecclesiastical poem (typically a canzone) for unaccompanied
chorus, in a 16th-century style less ecclesiastical than the motet,
but as like it in organization as the form and sentiment of the
words admit. The greatest classics in the madrigal style are
those of Italy; and but little, if at all, below them come the
English. The form, though not the name, of course, exists in
the 16th-century music of other languages whenever the poetry
is not too light for it.

It is important but easy to distinguish the madrigal from the
lighter 16th-century forms, such as the Italian villanella and the
English ballet, these being very homophonic and distinguished
by the strong lilt of their rhythm.

The madrigal has been very successfully revived in modern
English music with a more or less strict adherence to the i6th
century principles; the compositions of De Pearsall being of high
artistic merit, while the Madrigale spirituale in Stanford's
oratorio Eden is a movement of rare beauty. (D. F. T.)

MADURA (Dutch Madoera), an island of the Dutch East
Indies, separated by the shallow Strait of Madura from the N.E.
coast of Java. Pop. (1897), 1,652,580, of whom 1,646,071 were
natives, 4252 Chinese and 558 Europeans. It extends from
about 112° 32' to 114° 7' E., and is divided into two nearly
equal portions by the parallel of 7° S.; the area is estimated at
1725 sq. m. It is a plateau-like prolongation of the limestone
range of northern Java, with hills (1300 to 1600 ft. high) and
dales. The formation of the coast and plains is Tertiary and
recent alluvium. Hot springs are not infrequent; and in the
valley between Gunong Geger and Banjar lies the mud volcano of

296

MADURA— MAECENAS

Banju Ening. The coasts are clothed with tropical vegetation;
but the soil is better fitted for pastoral than agricultural purposes.
Fishing and cattle-rearing are the chief means of subsistence.
Besides rice and maize, Madura yields coco-nut oil and jati.
The manufacture of salt for the government, abolished in other
places, continues in Madura. Hence perhaps the name is derived
(Sansk. mandura, salt). Petroleum is found in small quantities.

The principal town is Sumenep; and there are populous Malay,
Arab and Chinese villages between the town and the European
settlement of Maringan. On a hill in the neighbourhood lies
Asia, the burial-place of the Sumenep princes. Pamekasan is
the seat of government. Bangkalang is a large town with the
old palace of the sultan of Madura and the residences of the
princes of the blood; the mosque is adorned with the first three
suras of the Koran, thus differing from nearly all the mosques
in Java and Madura, though resembling those of western Islam.
In the vicinity once stood the Erfprins fort. Arisbaya (less
correctly Arosbaya) is the place where the first mosque was built
in Madura, and where the Dutch sailors first made acquaintance
with the natives. The once excellent harbour is now silted up.
Sampang is the seat of an important market. The Kangean and
Sapudi islands, belonging to Madura, yield timber, trepang,
turtle, pisang and other products.

Madura formerly consisted of three native states — Madura
or Bangkalang, Pamekasan and Sumenep. The whole island
was considered part of the Java residency of Surabaya. The
separate residency of Madura was constituted in 1857; it now
consists of four" departments " — Pamekasan, Madura, Sumenep
and Sampang.

See P. J. Veth, Java, vol. iii. ; Kielstra, " Het Eiland Madoera,"
in De Gids (1890); H. van Lennep, " De Madoereezen," in De
Indische Gids (1895), with detailed bibliography.

MADURA, a city and district of British India, in the Madras
Presidency. The city is situated on the right bank of the river
Vaigai, and has a station on the South Indian railway 345 m.
S.E. of Madras. Pop. (1901), 105,984. The city was the capital
of the old Pandyan dynasty, which ruled over this part of India
from the sth century B.C. to the end of the nth century A.D.
Its great temple forms a parallelogram about 847 ft. by 729 ft.,
and is surrounded by nine gopuras, of which the largest is
152 ft. high. These ornamental pyramids begin with door-
posts of single stones 60 ft. in height, and rise course upon
course, carved with rows of gods and goddesses, peacocks, bulls,
elephants, horses, lions, and a bewildering entanglement of sym-
bolical ornament all coloured and gilded, diminishing with dis-
tance until the stone trisul at the top looks like the finest
jeweller's work. The temple, which contains some of the finest
carving in southern India, is said to have been built in the reign
of Viswanath, first ruler of the Nayak dynasty. Its chief feature
is the sculptured " Hall of a Thousand Pillars." The palace of
Tirumala Nayak is the most perfect relic of secular architecture
in Madras. This palace, which covers a large area of ground,
has been restored, and is utilized for public offices. The Vasanta,
a hall 333 ft! long, probably dedicated to the god Sundareswara,
and the Tamakam, a pleasure-palace, now the residence of the
collector, are the other principal buildings of this period.

The last of the old Pandyan kings is said to have extermi-
nated the Jains and conquered the neighbouring kingdom of
Chola; but he was in his turn overthrown by an invader from the
north, conjectured to have been a Mahommedan. In 1324 a
Moslem army under Malik Kafur occupied Madura, and the
Hindus were held in subjection for a period of fifty years. Sub-
sequently Madura became a province of the Hindu Empire of
Vijayanagar. In the middle of the i6th century the governor
Viswanath established the Nayak dynasty, which lasted for a
century. The greatest of the line was Tirumala Nayak (reigned
1623-1659), whose military exploits are recorded in the contem-
porary letters of the Jesuit missionaries. He adorned Madura
with many public buildings, and extended his empire over the
adjoining districts of Tinnevelly, Travancore, Coimbatore,
Salem and Trichinopoly. His repudiation of the nominal
allegiance paid to the raja of Vijayanagar brought him into

collision with the sultan of Bijapur, and after a lapse of three
centuries Mahommedans again invaded Madura and compelled
him to pay them tribute. After the death of Tirumala the king-
dom of Madura gradually fell to pieces, being invaded by both
Mahommedans and Mahrattas. About 1736 the district fell
into the hands of the nawab of the Carnatic, and the line of
the Nayaks was extinguished. About 1764 British officers took
charge of Madura in trust for Mahommed Ali (Wallah Jah), the
last independent nawab of the Carnatic, whose son finally ceded
his rights of sovereignty to the East India Company in 1801.

The DISTRICT of MADURA has an area of 8701 sq. m. Pop.
(1901), 2,831,280, an increase of 8-5% in the decade. It con-
sists of a section of the plain stretching from the mountains east
to the sea, coinciding with the basin of the Vaigai river, and grad-
ually sloping to the S.E. The plain is broken by the outlying
spurs of the Ghats, and by a few isolated hills and masses of
rock scattered over the country. The most important spur of
the Ghats is known as the Palni hills, which project E.N.E.
across the district for a distance of about 54 m. Their highest
peaks are more than 8000 ft. above sea-level, and they enclose
a plateau of about 100 sq. m., with an average height of 7000 ft.
On this plateau is situated the sanatorium of Kodaikanal, and
coffee-planting is successfully carried on. The other principal
crops of the district are millets, rice, other food-grains, oil-seeds
and cotton. Tobacco is grown chiefly in the neighbourhood of
Dindigul, whence it is exported to Trichinopoly, to be made into
cigars. There are several cigar factories and a number of salt-
petre refineries. The only other large industry is that of coffee-
cleaning. Madura is traversed by the main line of the South
Indian railway. It has four small seaports, whose trade is
chiefly carried on with Ceylon. The most important irrigation
work, known as the Periyar project, consists of a tunnel thro'ugh
the Travancore hills, to convey the rainfall across the watershed.

See Madura District Gazetteer (Madras, 1906).

MADVIG, JOHAN NICOLAI (1804-1886), Danish philologist,
was born on the island of Bornholm, on the 7th of August 1804.
He was educated at the classical school of Frederiksborg and the
university of Copenhagen. In 1828 he became reader, and in
1829 professor, of Latin language and literature at Copenhagen,
and in 1832 was appointed university librarian. In 1848
Madvig entered parliament as a member of what was called the
" Eider-Danish " party, because they desired the Eider to be the
boundary of the country. When this party came into power
Madvig became minister of education. In 1852 be became direc-
tor of public instruction. Some years later, from 1856 to 1863,
Madvig was president of the Danish parliament and leader of
the National Liberal party. With these brief interruptions the
greater part of his life was devoted to the study and teaching
of Latin and the improvement of the classical schools, of which
he was chief inspector. As a critic he was distinguished for learn-
ing and acumen. He devoted much attention to Cicero, and
revolutionized the study of his philosophical writings by an
edition of De Finibus (1839; 3rd ed., 1876). Perhaps his most
widely known works are those on Latin grammar and Greek
syntax, especially his Latin grammar for schools (Eng. trans,
by G. Woods). In 1874 his sight began to fail, and he was
forced to give up much of his work. He still, however, con-
tinued to lecture, and in 1879 he was chosen rector for
the sixth time. In 1880 he resigned his professorship, but
went on with his work on the Roman constitution, which was
completed and published before his death. In this book Madvig
takes a strongly conservative standpoint and attacks Mommsen's
views on Caesar's programme of reforms. It is a clear ex-
position, though rather too dogmatic and without sufficient
regard for the views of other scholars. His last work was his
autobiography, Livserindringer (published 1887). Madvig died
at Copenhagen on the i2th of .December 1886.

See J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (1908), iii.,
3I9-324-

MAECENAS, GAIUS (CiLNius), Roman patron of letters,
was probably born between 74 and 64 B.C., perhaps at Arretium.
Expressions in Propertius (ii. i, 25-30) seem to imply that he

MAECIANUS— MAELDUIN, VOYAGE OF

297

had taken some part in the campaigns of Mutina, Philippi
and Perusia. He prided himself on his ancient Etruscan
lineage, and claimed descent from the princely house of the
Cilnii, who excited the jealousy of their townsmen by their
preponderating wealth and influence at Arretium in the 4th
century B.C. (Livy x. 3). The Gaius Maecenas mentioned
in Cicero (Pro Cluentio, 56) as an influential member of the
equestrian order in 91 B.C. may have been his grandfather,
or even his father. The testimony of Horace (Odes iii. 8, 5)
and Maecenas's own literary tastes imply that he nad profited
by the highest education of his time. His great wealth may
have been in part hereditary, but he owed his position and
influence to his close connexion with the emperor Augustus. He
first appears in history in 40 B.C., when he was employed by
Octavian in arranging his marriage with Scribonia, and after-
wards in assisting to negotiate the peace of Brundusium and
the reconciliation with Antony. It was in 39 B.C. that Horace
was introduced to Maecenas, who had before this received Varius
and Virgil into his intimacy. In the " Journey to Brundusium,"
(Horace, Satires, i. 5) in 37, Maecenas and Cocceius Nerva are
described as having been sent on an important mission, and they
were successful in patching up, by the Treaty of Tarentum, a
reconciliation between the two claimants for supreme power.
During the Sicilian war against Sextus Pompeius in 36, Maecenas
was sent back to Rome, and was entrusted with supreme
administrative control in the city and in Italy. He was vice-
gerent of Octavian during the campaign of Actium, when, with
great promptness and secrecy, he crushed the conspiracy of
the younger Lepidus; and during the subsequent absences of
his chief in the provinces he again held the same position.
During the latter years of his life he fell somewhat out of favour
with his master. Suetonius (Augustus, 66) attributes the loss
of the imperial favour to Maecenas having indiscreetly revealed
to Terentia, his wife, the discovery of the conspiracy in which
her brother Murena was implicated. But according to Dio
Cassius (liv. 19) it was due to the emperor's relations with
Terentia. Maecenas died in 8 B.C., leaving the emperor heir to
his wealth.

Opinions were much divided in ancient times as to the
personal character of Maecenas; but the testimony as to his
administrative and diplomatic ability was unanimous. He
enjoyed the credit of sharing largely in the establishment of
the new order of things, of reconciling parties, and of carrying
the new empire safely through many dangers. To his influence
especially was attributed the humaner policy of Octavian after
his first alliance with Antony and Lepidus. The best summary
of his character as a man and a statesman is that of Velleius
Paterculus (ii. 88), who describes him as " of sleepless vigilance
in critical emergencies, far-seeing and knowing how io act, but
in his relaxation from business more luxurious and effeminate
than a woman."

Expressions in the Odes of Horace (ii. 17. i) seem to imply that
Maecenas was deficient in the robustness of fibre characteristic of
the average Roman. His character as a munificent patron of
literature — which has made his name a household word — is
gratefully acknowledged by the recipients of it and attested
by the regrets of the men of letters of a later age, expressed
by Martial and Juvenal. His patronage was exercised, not
from vanity or a mere dilettante love of letters, but with a view to
the higher interest of the state. He recognized in the genius
of the poets of that time, not only the truest ornament of the
court, but a power of reconciling men's minds to the new order
of things, and of investing the actual state of affairs with an
ideal glory and majesty. The change in seriousness of purpose
between the Eclogues and the Georgics of Virgil was in a great
measure the result of the direction given by the statesman
to the poet's genius. A similar change between the earlier
odes of Horace, in which he declares his epicurean indifference
to affairs of state, and the great national odes of the third book
is to be ascribed to the same guidance. Maecenas endeavoured
also to divert the less masculine genius of Propertius from
harping continually on his love to themes of public interest. But

if the motive of his patronage had been merely politic it never
could have inspired the affection which it did in its recipients.
The great charm of Maecenas in his relation to the men of genius
who formed his circle was his simplicity, cordiality and sincerity.
Although not particular in the choice of some of the associates
of his pleasures, he admitted none but men of worth to his
intimacy, and when once admitted they were treated like
equals. Much of the wisdom of Maecenas probably lives in the
Satires and Epistles of Horace. It has fallen to the lot of no
other patron of literature to have his name associated with
works of such lasting interest as the Georgics of Virgil, the first
three books of Horace's Odes, and the first book of his Epistles.

Maecenas himself wrote in both prose and verse. The few
fragments that remain show that he was less successful as an
author than as a judge and patron of literature. His prose works
on various subjects — Prometheus, Symposium (a banquet at
which Virgil, Horace and Messalla were present), Decultusuo
(on his manner of life) — were ridiculed by Augustus, Seneca
and Quintilian for their strange style, the use of rare words and
awkward transpositions. According to Dio Cassius, Maecenas
was the inventor of a system of shorthand.

There is no good modern biography of Maecenas. The best known
is that by P. S. Frandsen (1843). See " Horace et Mecene " by J.
Girard, in La Revue politique et litteraire (Dec. 27, 1873); V.
Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit, i. 762 seq.; ii. 432 seq. The
chief ancient authorities for his life are Horace (Odes with Scholia),
Dio Cassius, Tacitus (Annals), Suetonius (Augustus). The frag-
ments have been collected and edited by F. Harder (1889).

MAECIANUS, LUCIUS VOLUSIUS (znd cent.) Roman jurist,
was the tutor in law of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. When
governor of Alexandria he was slain by the soldiers, as having
participated in the rebellion of Avidius Cassius (175). Maecianus
was the author of works on trusts (Fideicommissd) , on the
Judicia publica, and of a collection of the Rhodian laws relating
to maritime affairs. His treatise on numerical divisions, weights
and measures (Distributio) is extant, with the exception of the
concluding portion.

See Capitolinus, Antoninus, 3; Vulcacius Gallicanus, Avidius
Cassius, i ; edition of the metrological work by F. Hultsch in Metrolo-
gicorum scriptorum reliquiae, ii.(i866) ;Mommsen \nAbhandlungen der
sdchsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, iii. (1853).

MAELDUIN (or MAELDUNE), VOYAGE OF (Imram Maeleduin),
an early Irish romance. The text exists in an nth-century
redaction, by a certain Aed the Fair, described as the " chief
sage of Ireland," but it may be gathered from internal evidence
that the tale itself dates back to the 8th century. It belongs
to the group of Irish romance, the Navigations (Imrama), the
common type of which was probably imitated from the classical
tales of the wanderings of Jason, of Ulysses and of Aeneas.
Maelduin, the foster-son of an Irish queen, learnt on reaching
manhood that he was the son of a nun, and that his father,
Ailill of the edge of battle, had been slain by a marauder from
Leix. He set sail to seek his father's murderer, taking with
him, in accordance with the instructions of a sorcerer, seventeen
men. His three foster-brothers swam after him, and were taken
on board. This increase of the fateful number caused Maelduin's
vengeance to be deferred for three years and seven months,
until the last of the intruders had perished. The travellers
visited many strange islands, and met with a long series of
adventures, some of which are familiar from other sources.
The Voyage of St Brendan (q.v.) has very close similarities
with the Maelduin, of which it is possibly a clerical imitation,
with the important addition of the whale-island episode,. which
it has in common with " Sindbad the Sailor."

Intrant Curaig Mailduin is preserved, in each case imperfectly,
in the Lebor na h Uidre, a MS. in the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin;
and in the Yellow Book of Lecan, MS. H. 216 in the Trinity College
Library, Dublin ; fragments are in Harleian MS. 5280 and Egerton
MS. 1782 in the British Museum. There are translations by Patrick
Joyce, Old Celtic Romances (1879), by Whitley Stokes (a more
critical version, printed together with the text) in Revue celtique,
vols. ix. and x. (1888-1889). See H. Zimmer, " Brendan's Meer-
fahrt " in Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum, vol. xxxiii. (1889).
Tennyson's Voyage of Maeldune, suggested by the Irish romance,
borrows little more than its framework.

MAELIUS— MAETERLINCK

HAELIUS, SPURIUS (d. 4393.0.), a wealthy Roman plebeian,
who during a severe famine bought up a large amount of corn
and sold it at a low price to the people. Lucius (or Gaius)
Minucius, the patrician praefectus annonae (president of the
market), thereupon accused him of courting popularity with a
view to making himself king. The cry was taken up. Maelius,
summoned before the aged Cincinnatus (specially appointed
dictator), refused to appear, and was slain by Gaius Servilius
Ahala; his house was razed to the ground, his corn distributed
amongst the people, and his property confiscated. The open
space called Aequimaelium, on which his house had stood,
preserved the memory of his death. Cicero calls Ahala's deed
a glorious one, but, whether Maelius entertained any ambitious
projects or not, his summary execution was an act of murder,
since by the Valerio-Horatian laws the dictator was bound
to allow the right of appeal.

See Niebuhr's History of Rome, ii. 418 (Eng. trans., 1851) ; G. Corne-
wall Lewis, Credibility of early Roman History, ii. ; Livy, iv. 13;
Cicero, De senectute 16, De amicitia 8, De republica, ii. 27; Florus,
i. 26; Dion. Halic. xii. I.

MAELSTROM (whirlpool), a term originally applied to a strong
current running past the south end of the island of Moskenaes,
a member of the group of Lofoten Islands on the west coast of
Norway. It is known also as the Moskenstrom. Though
dangerous in certain states of wind and tide, the tales of ships
being swallowed in this whirlpool are fables. The word is
probably of Dutch origin, from malen, to grind or whirl, and
strom or stroom, a stream or current. It appears on Mercator's
Atlas of 1595.

MAENADS (Gr. Maivaots, frenzied women), the female
attendants of Dionysus. They are known by other names —
Bacchae, Thyiades, Clodones and Mimallones (the last two
probably of Thracian origin) — all more or less synonymous.

See the exhaustive articles by A. Legrand in Daremberg and
Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquit&s and A. Rapp in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie; also editions of Euripides, Bacchae (e.g.
J. E. Sandys).

MAENIUS, GAIUS, Roman statesman and general. Having
completed (when consul in 338 B.C.) the subjugation of Latium,
which with Campania had revolted against Rome, he was
honoured by a triumph, and a column was erected to him in
the Forum. When censor in 318, in order that the spectators
might have more room for seeing the games that were
celebrated in the Forum, he provided the buildings in the
neighbourhood with balconies, which were called after him
maeniana.

See Festus, s.v. Maeniana; Livy viii. 13, ix. 34; Pliny, Nat. Hist.
xxxiv. ii (5).

MAERLANT, JACOB VAN (c. 1235-0. 1300), Flemish poet,
was born in the Franc de Burges (tradition says at Damme)
between 1230 and 1240. He was sacristan of Maerlant, in the
island of Ost-Voorne, and afterwards clerk to the magistrates at
Damme. His early works are translations of French romances.
Maerlant's most serious work in the field of romance was his
Ystorien van Troyen (c. 1264), a poem of some forty thousand
lines, translated and amplified from the Roman de Troie of
Benoit de Sainte-More. From this time Maerlant rejected
romance as idle, and devoted himself to writing scientific and
historical works for the education and enlightenment of the
Flemish people. His Heimelicheit der H eimelicheden (c. 1266)
is a translation of the Secreta secreiorwn, a manual for the
education of princes, ascribed throughout the middle ages to
Aristotle. Van der Naturen Bloeme is a free translation of
De nalura rerum, a natural history in twenty books by a native
of Brabant, Thomas de Cantimpre; and his Rijmbijbel is taken,
with many omissions and additions, from the Historia scholastica
•of Petrus Comestor. He supplemented this metrical paraphrase
of Scripture history by Die Wrake van Jherusalem (1271) from
Josephus. Although Maerlant was an orthodox Catholic, he is
said to have been called to account by the priests for translating
the Bible into the vulgar tongue. In 1284 he began his magnum
opus, the Spiegel historiael, a history of the world, derived
chiefly from the third part of the Speculum majus of Vincent de

Beauvais. This work was completed by two other writers,
Philipp Utenbroeke and Lodowijk van Velthem. Maerlant
died in the closing years of the i3th century, his last poem, Van
den lande van oversee, dating from 1 291. The greater part of his
work consists of translations, but he also produced poems which
prove him to have had real original poetic faculty. Among
these are Die Clausule van der Bible, Der Kerken Clage, imitated
from the Complaintes of Rutebeuf, and the three dialogues
entitled Martijn, in which the fundamental questions of theology
and ethics were discussed. In spite of his orthodoxy, Maerlant
was a keen satirist of the corruptions of the clergy. He was
one of the most learned men of his age, and for two centuries
was the most celebrated of Flemish poets.

See monographs by J. van Beers (Ghent, 1860); C. A. Serrure
(Ghent, 1861); K. Versnaeyen (Ghent, 1861); J. te Winkel (Leiden,
1877, 2nd ed., Ghent, 1892); and editions of Torec (Leiden, 1875)
by J. te Winkel; of Naturen Bloeme, by Eelco Verwijs; of Alexanders
Geesten (Groningen, 1 882), by J.Franck; Merlijn (Leiden, 1880-1882),
by J. van Bloten; Heimelicheit der Heimelicheden (Dordrecht, 1838),
by Clarisse; Der Naturen Bloeme (Groningen, 1878), by Verwijs; of
Rijmbijbel (Brussels, 1858-1869), by David ; Spiegel historiael (Leiden
1857-1863), by Verwijs and de Vries; selections from the Ystorien
van Troyen (1873), by J. Verdam.

MAES, NICOLAS (1632-1693), Dutch painter, was born at
Dordrecht, and went about 1650 to Amsterdam, where he entered
Rembrandt's studio. Before his return to Dordrecht in 1654
Maes painted a few Rembrandtesque genre pictures, with
life-size figures and in a deep glowing scheme of colour, like
the " Reverie " at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, the " Card
Players " at the National Gallery, and the " Children with a
Goat Carriage," belonging to Baroness N. de Rothschild. So
closely did his early style resemble that of Rembrandt, that
the last-named picture, and other canvases in the Leipzig and
Budapest galleries and in the collection of Lord Radnor, were
or are still ascribed to Rembrandt. In his best period, from 1655
to 1665, Maes devoted himself to domestic genre on a smaller
scale, retaining to a great extent the magic of colour he had
learnt from Rembrandt. Only on rare occasions did he treat
scriptural subjects, as in the earl of Denbigh's " Hagar's
Departure," which has been ascribed to Rembrandt. His
favourite subjects were women spinning, or reading the Bible, or
preparing a meal. In 1665 he went to Antwerp, where he
remained till 1678, in which year he probably returned to
Amsterdam. His Antwerp period coincides with a complete
change in style and subject. He devoted himself almost
exclusively to portraiture, and abandoned the intimacy and
glowing colour harmonies of his earlier work for a careless
elegance which suggests the influence of Van Dyck. So great
indeed was the change, that it gave rise to the theory of the
existence of another Maes, of Brussels. Maes is well represented
at the National Gallery by five paintings: " The Cradle," " The
Dutch Housewife," " The Idle Servant," " The Card Players,"
and a man's portrait. At Amsterdam, besides the splendid
examples to be found at the Ryks Museum, is the " Inquisitive
Servant " of the Six collection. At Buckingham Palace is
" The Listening Girl " (repetitions exist), and at Apsley House
" Selling Milk " and " The Listener." Other notable examples
are at the Berlin, Brussels, St Petersburg, the Hague, Frankfort,
Hanover and Munich galleries.

MAESTRO, a north-westerly wind observed in the Adriatic
and surrounding regions, chiefly during summer. The maestro
is a " fine weather " wind, and is the counterpart of the
sirocco.

MAETERLINCK, MAURICE (1862- ), Belgian-French
dramatist and poet, of Flemish extraction, was born at' Ghent
on the 29th of August 1862. He was educated at the College
Sainte-Barbe, and then at the university of his native city,
where, at the age of twenty-four, he was enrolled as a barrister.
In 1887 he settled in Paris, where he immediately became
acquainted with Villiers de ITsle-Adam and the leaders of the
symbolist school of French poetry. At the death of his
father, Maeterlinck returned to Belgium, where he thenceforth
mainly resided: in the winter at Ghent, in the summer on an

MAFEKING— MAFIA

299

estate at Oostacker. He had by this time determined to devote
his whole life to poetry, a dedication which his fortune permitted.
His career as an author began in 1889, when he published a
volume of verse, Serres chaudes, and a play, La Princesse Maleine,
the latter originally composed in metre, but afterwards carefully
rewritten in prose, the vehicle which the author continued to
use for his dramatic work. Maeterlinck was at this time totally
unknown, but he became famous through an article by Octave
Mirbeau, prominently published in the Paris Figaro, entitled
" A Belgian Shakespeare." The enthusiasm of this review
and the excellence of the passages quoted combined to make
Maeterlinck the talk of the town. Maeterlinck, among his Belgian
roses, continued to work with extreme deliberation. In 1890
he published, in Brussels, two more plays, L'Intruse and Les
Aveugles; followed in 1891 by Les Sept princesses. His strong
leaning to mysticism was now explained, or denned, by a trans-
lation of the Flemish medieval visionary, the Admirable
Ruysbroeck, which Maeterlinck brought out in 1891. In 1892
appeared what has been perhaps the most successful of all his
plays on the stage, Pelleas el Milisande, followed in 1894 by
those very curious and powerful little dramas written to be
performed by marionettes: Alladine el Palomides, Interieur
and La Mart de Tintagiles. In 1895 Maeterlinck brought out,
under the title of Annabella, a translation of Ford's 'Tis Pity
She's a Whore, with a preface. Two philosophical works followed,
a study on Novalis (1895) and Le Tresor des humbles (1896).
In 1896 he returned to drama with Aglavaine et Selyselte and to
lyric verse with Douze chansons. A monograph on the ethics
of mysticism, entitled La Sagesse el l-a destinee, was issued,
as a kind of commentary on his own dramas, in 1898; and in
1901 Maeterlinck produced a fascinating volume of prose,
founded upon observations made in his apiaries at Oostacker,
in which philosophy, fancy and natural history were surprisingly
mingled — La Vie des abeilles. In 1902 he published Le Temple
ensevcli and Monna Vanna; in 1903 Joyzelle. In 1901 he
began to issue, in Brussels, an edition of his complete dramatic
works.

The nature of Maeterlinck's writings, whether in prose or
verse, has been strictly homogeneous. Few poets have kept
so rigorously to a certain denned direction in the practice of their
art. Whether in philosophy, or drama, or lyric, Maeterlinck
is exclusively occupied in revealing, or indicating, the mystery
which lies, only just out of sight, beneath the surface of ordinary
life. In order to produce this effect of the mysterious he aims
at an extreme simplicity of diction, and a symbolism so realistic
as to be almost bare. He allows life itself to astonish us by its
strangeness, by its inexplicable elements. Many of his plays
are really highly pathetic records of unseen emotion; they are
occupied with the spiritual adventures of souls, and the ordinary
facts of time and space have no influence upon the movements
of the characters. We know not who these orphan princesses,
these blind persons, these pale Arthurian knights, these aged
guardians of desolate castles, may be; we are not informed
whence they come, nor whither they go; there is nothing concrete
or circumstantial about them. Their life is intense and consis-
tent, but it is wholly of a spiritual character; they are mysterious
with the mystery of the movements of a soul. These character-
istics, which make the dramatic work of Maeterlinck so curious
and unique, are familiar to most readers in PelUas et Mtlisande,
but are carried, perhaps, to their farthest intensity in Aglavaine
el Selyselte, which seems to be written for a phantom stage and
to be acted by disembodied spirits. In spite of the violence
of his early admirers, and of the fact that the form of his dramas
easily lent itself to the cheap ridicule of parodists, the talent
of Maeterlinck has hardly met with opposition from the criticism
of his time. It has been universally felt that his spirit is one of
grave and disinterested attachment to the highest moral beauty,
and his seriousness, his serenity and his extreme originality have
impressed even those who are bewildered by his diaphanous
graces and offended at his nebulous mysticism. While the crude
enthusiasm which compared him with Shakespeare has been
shown to be ridiculous, the best judges combine with Camille

Mauclair when he says: " Maurice Maeterlinck est un homme
de genie authentique, un tres grand phenomene de puissance
mentale a la fin du xixe siecle." In spite of the shadowy action
of Maeterlinck's plays, which indeed require some special
conditions and contrivances for their performance, they are
frequently produced with remarkable success before audiences
who cannot be suspected of mysticism, in most of the countries
of Europe. In his philosophical writings Maeterlinck shows
himself a disciple of Novalis, of Emerson, of Hello, of the Flemish
Catholic mystics, and he evolves from the teachings of those
thinkers a system of aesthetics applicable to the theatre as he
conceives it. (E. G.)

MAFEKING, a town in the British Bechuanaland division
of the Cape, 870 m. N.E. of Cape Town and 492 m. S.S.W. of
Bulawayo by rail, and 162 m. in a direct line W. by N. of
Johannesburg. (Pop. 1904), 2713. It is built on the open
veld, at an elevation of 4194 ft., by the banks of the Upper
Molopo, is 9 m. W. of the western frontier of the Transvaal
and 15 m. S. of the southern boundary of the Bechuanaland
protectorate. The Madibi goldfields are some 10 m. south of the
town. Mafeking is thus an important trading and distributing
centre for Bechuanaland and the western Transvaal. Here
are, too, the chief railway workshops between Kimberley and
Bulawayo. The headquarters of the administration for the
Bechuanaland protectorate are in the town. The chief build-
ings are the town-hall, Anglican church, Masonic temple, and
hospital.

Mafeking was originally the headquarters of the Barolong
tribe of Bechuana and is still their largest station, the native
location (pop. 2860) being about a mile distant from the town.
It was from Pitsani Pothlugo (or Potlogo), 24 m. north of Mafe-
king, that Dr Jameson started, on the 29th of December 1895, on
his raid into the Transvaal. On the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer
war in 1899 Mafeking was invested by a Boer force. Colonel
R. S. S. Baden-Powell was in command of the defence, which
was stubbornly maintained for 217 days (Oct. 12 to May 17),
when a relief column arrived and the Boers dispersed (see
TRANSVAAL: History). The fate of the town had excited the
liveliest sympathy in England, and the exuberant rejoicings
in London on the news of its relief led to the coining of the
word mafficking to describe the behaviour of crowds on occasions
of extravagant demonstrations of a national kind. In Sep-
tember 1904 Lord Roberts unveiled at Mafeking an obelisk
bearing the names of those who fell in defence of the town.

R. S. S. Baden-Powell's Sketches in Mafeking and East Africa
(1907) and Lady Sarah Wilson's South African Memories (1909)
deal largely with the siege of Mafeking.

MAFFEI, FRANCESCO SCIPIONE, MARCHESE DI (1675-
I7SS), Italian archaeologist and man of letters, was born at
Verona on the ist of June 1675. He studied for five years in
Parma, at the Jesuit College, and afterwards from 1698 at Rome;
and in 1703-1704 he took part as a volunteer in the war of
succession, fighting on the Bavarian side at Donauwerth In
1709 he began at Padua along with Apostolo Zeno and Valisnieri
the Giornale dei letlerati d' Italia, a literary periodical which had
but a short career; and subsequently an acquaintance with
the actor Riccoboni led him to exert himself for the improvement
of dramatic art in Italy. His Merope, a tragedy, appeared in
1713; Teatro italiano, a small collection of works for presentation
on the stage, in 1723-1725; and Le Ceremonie, an original
comedy, in 1728. From 1718 he became specially interested
in the archaeology of his native town, and his investigations
resulted in the valuable Verona illustrate. (1731-1732). Maffri
afterwards devoted four years to .travel in France, England,
Holland and Germany. He died at Verona on the nth of
•February 1755.

A complete edition of his works appeared at Venice (28 vols., 8vo)
in 1790.

MAFIA (MAFFIA), a secret society of Sicily. Its organization
and purposes much resemble those of the Camorra (?.».).

Various derivations are found for the name. Some hold it to be
a Tuscan synonym for miscria; others, a corruption of Fr. mauvais

300

MAFRA— MAGAZINE

(bad). Others connect it with the name of an alleged Arab tribe
Ma-ifir, once settled at Palermo. Giuseppe Pitr6 asserts that th<
word is peculiar to western Sicily and that, with its derivatives, i
formerly meant, in II Borgo, a district of Palermo, beauty or excel
lence. Thus, a handsome woman showily dressed was said " to have
mafia," or to be mafiusa. Often in Palermo the street merchants
call arance-mafiuse (fine oranges). Thus, PitnS argues, mafia
applied to a man to express manly carriage and bravery, woulc
naturally become the title of a society the members of which were
all " bravos." A less credible explanation of the term is connectec
with Mazzini, who is said to have formed a secret society the mem-
bers of which were called Mafiusi, from Mafia, a word composed o
the initial letters of five Italian words, Mazzini autorizzafurti, incendi
awelenamenti, " Mazzini authorizes theft, arson and poisoning.'
This theory suggests that the word was unknown before 1859 or
1860.

The Mafia, however named, existed long before Mazzini 's day
In its crudest form it was co-operative brigandage, blendec
with the Vendetta (?.».). The more strictly organized Mafia
was the result of the disorders consequent upon the expulsion
of the king of Naples by Napoleon. When the Bourbon court
took refuge in Sicily there were a large number of armed retainers
in the service of the Sicilian feudal nobility. Ferdinand IV.
at the bidding of England, granted a constitution to the island
in 1812, and with the destruction of feudalism most of the feudal
troops became brigands. Powerless to suppress them, Ferdinand
organized the bandits into a rural gendarmerie, and they soon
established a reign of terror. The abject poverty of the poorer
classes, unable to eke out existence by work in the sulphur
mines or on the fields, fostered the growth of two classes of
mafiusi — the vast majority of the inhabitants who were glad
to put themselves as passive members under the protection of
the Mafia, while the active members shared in the plunder.
The Mafia thus became a loosely organized society under an
unwritten code of laws or ethics known as Omerta, i.e., manliness
(from Sicil. omu, .Ital. uomo, a man), which embodied the
rules of the Vendetta. Candidates were admitted after trial
by duel, and were sworn to resist law and defeat justice. Like
the Camorra, the Mafia was soon powerful in all classes, and
even the commander of the royal troops acted in collusion with
it. The real home of Mafia was in and around Palermo, where no
traveller was safe from robbery and the knife. In an organized
form the Mafia survives only in isolated districts. Generally
speaking, it is to-day not a compact criminal association
but a complex social phenomenon, the consequence of centuries
of misgovernment. The Mafiuso is governed by a sentiment
akin to arrogance which imposes a special line of conduct upon
him. He considers it dishonourable to have recourse to lawful
authority to obtain redress for a wrong or a crime committed
against him. He therefore hides the identity of the offender
from the police, reserving vengeance to himself or to his friends
and dependants. This sentiment, still widely diffused among
the lower classes of many districts, and not entirely unknown
to the upper classes, renders difficult legal proof of culpability
for acts of violence, and multiplies sanguinary private reprisals.
In September 1892 about 150 Mafiusi were arrested at Catania,
but all repressive measures proved useless. The only result
was to drive some of the members abroad, with disastrous
results to other countries. In October 1890 David Hennessy,
chief of police in New Orleans, was murdered. Subsequent
legal inquiry proved the crime to be the work of the Mafia,
which had been introduced into the United States thirty years
before. In May 1890 a band of Italians living in New Orleans
had ambushed another gang of their fellow-countrymen
belonging to a society called Stoppaghera. The severe police
measures taken brought the vengeance of the society
upon Hennessy. Eleven Italians were indicted on suspicion of
being implicated in his murder; but the jury was terrorized
and acquitted six. On the I4th of March 1891 a mob led
by well-known New Orleans citizens broke into the gaol
where nineteen Italians were imprisoned and lynched eleven
of them.

See W. Agnew Paton, Picturesque Sicily (1898) ; C. W. Heckethorn,
Secret Societies of all Ages (1897); Alongi, La Maffia (Turin, 1887);
Le Faure, La Maffia (Paris, 1892).

MAFRA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon (formerly
in the province of Estremadura) ; near the Atlantic coast and the
right bank of the river Lizandro, and 20 m. N.W. of Lisbon.
Pop. (1900), 4769. Mafra is remarkable for its monastery,
church, and palace, built by John V. in 1717-1732, in conse-
quence of a vow made during a dangerous illness to build a
convent for the poorest friary of the kingdom — which proved
to be a small Franciscan settlement here. The architects,
Johann Friedrich Ludwig of Regensburg, and his son Johann
Peter, took the Escurial for their model; but the imitation is
less successful than the original, though the cost exceeded
£4,000,000. The building is in the form of a parallelogram
measuring upwards of 800 ft. from north to south and 700 ft.
from east to west; it is said to contain 866 rooms, and to be
lighted by no fewer than 5200 windows. The centre is occupied
by the church, sumptuously built of marble, and richly adorned
with statues and other objects of art. In each of the twin
towers there is a chime of 57 bells. Part of the palace, originally
designed as barracks, is used as a military academy. Adjoining
the palace are fine gardens and a royal model farm.

MAGADHA, an ancient kingdom of India, mentioned in both
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It comprised that portion
of Behar lying S. of the Ganges, with its capital at Pataliputra
or Patna. As the scene of many incidents in the life of Gautama
Buddha, it was a holy land. It was also the seat of the
Maurya Empire, founded by Chandragupta, which extended
over all India under Asoka; and, later, of the powerful Gupta
dynasty.

MAGALDAN, a town in the northern part of the province of
Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 2 m. from the
shore of the Gulf of Lingayen. Pop. (1903), 15,841. In 1903
the adjacent municipality of Mapandan (pop. in 1903, 4198)
was annexed to Magaldan. Most of its inhabitants are engaged
in rice culture. The principal language is Pangasinan; Ilocano
is also spoken.

MAGALLANES (Spanish form of Magellan), a territory of
southern Chile extending from 47° S. to Cape Horn and including
the mainland from the Argentine frontier to the Pacific coast, the
islands extending along that coast, the Fuegian archipelago, and
the western half of Tierra del Fuego. Area, about 71,127 sq. m.;
pop. (1895), 5170. It is one of the most inhospitable regions
of the world, being exposed to cold westerly storms for most
of the year. The islands are barren, but the mainland is covered
with forests, practically inaccessible to exploitation because of
the inclement climate and the wet spongy soil. The coast is
indented with bays and fjords and affords remarkable scenery.
There is little animal life on land, but the coast is frequented
by the seal and sea-otter and the sheltered waters by count-
ess sea-fowl. The only permanent settlements are at Punta
Arenas, the capital, on the Straits of Magellan, Palomares on
Dtway Water, Mina Marta on Skyring Water, and Ultima
Esperanza (Last Hope) on the east shore of Worsley Sound.
All are east of the Andean ranges and partially sheltered from
the westerly storms. In this sheltered region there are open
:>lains where sheep are grazed. A few sheep ranges have
seen established on Tierra del Fuego. Some nomadic tribes
of Indians inhabit Tierra del Fuego and the extreme southern
end of the mainland, but their numbers are small. Coal
las been found in the vicinity of Punta Arenas, and gold
occurs.

See The Voyage of the Adventure and Beagle (1839).

MAGAZINE, primarily a warehouse for goods or merchandise

Arab, makhzan, a storehouse, from khazana, to store up). In

Morocco makhzan (or maghzen) has come to be used as the name

)f the government. The Spaniards adopted the Arabic in the

orm magacen, and the English form comes through the older

'rench magazin, modern magasin. The meaning of a storehouse

>r large shop, common in French, is rare in English except in

he military use of the term for a building for the storage of

explosives and ammunition. It is applied to the chamber

f a repeating rifle or machine-gun containing the supply of

artridges. The name as applied to a periodical publication

MAGDALA— MAGDEBURG

301

containing articles on various subjects was first used in the
Gentleman's Magazine (1731), described as " a monthly collec-
tion, to treasure up as in a magazine " articles on the subjects
with which it was proposed to deal.

MAGDALA (more correctly MAKDALA), a natural stronghold
in the country of the Wollo Gallas, Abyssinia, about 250 m. W.
of Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden, in 11° 22' N., 39° 25' E. The
basaltic plateau of which it consists rises 9110 ft. above the
sea. It is about three-quarters of a mile in length by less than
half a mile in breadth, and lies more than a thousand feet higher
than the neighbouring plain of Arogie. Chosen about 1860 by
the emperor Theodore of Abyssinia as his principal stronghold
in the south, Magdala owes its celebrity to the fact that, as the
place of imprisonment of the English captives, it became the
goal of the great English Expedition of 1868. At the time of
its capture it contained huts for a population of about three
thousand. The whole rock was burned bare by order of the
commander of the British force, Sir Robert Napier, who, on
being raised to the peerage for his services on this occasion,
took the title of Lord Napier of Magdala. The plateau was
subsequently refortified by the Abyssinians.

See Clements Markham, History of the Abyssinian Expedition
(1869); and H. Rassam, British Mission to Theodore (1869).

MAGDEBURG, a city of Germany, capital of the Prussian
province of Saxony, a fortress of the first rank and one of the
principal commercial towns of the German Empire. It lies in
a broad and fertile plain, mainly on the left bank of the Elbe,
88 m. S.W. from Berlin and at the junction of main lines to
Leipzig, Brunswick, Cassel and Hamburg. Pop. (1885), 159,520;
(1890), 202,234; (1905), 240,661. It consists of the town proper,
and of the five suburbs of Friedrichstadt, Wilhelmstadt, Neu-
stadt, Sudenburg and Buckau; the last four are separated from
the town by the ramparts and glacis, but are all included within
the new line of advanced bastions, while Friedrichstadt lies
on the right bank of the river. In the Elbe, between the old
town and the Friedrichstadt, lies an island whereon stands the
citadel; this is united with both banks by bridges. With the
exception of the Breite Weg, a handsome thoroughfare running
from north to south, the streets of the town proper are narrow
and crooked. Along the Elbe, however, extend fine promenades,
the Fiirstenwall and the Fursten t)fer. To the south of the
inner town is the Friedrich Wilhelms Garten, a beautiful park
laid out on the site of the celebrated convent of Berge, which
was founded in 968 and suppressed in 1809. By far the most
important building in Magdeburg is the cathedral, dedicated to
SS Maurice and Catherine, a handsome and massive structure
of the i4th century, exhibiting an interesting blending of
Romanesque and Gothic architecture. The two fine western
towers were completed about 1520. The interior contains the
tombs of the emperor Otto the Great and his wife Edith, an
English princess, and the fine monument of Archbishop Ernest
(d. 1513), executed -in 1495 by Peter Vischer of Nuremberg.
The Liebfrauenkirche, the oldest church in Magdeburg, is an
interesting Romanesque edifice of the I2th and I3th centuries,
which was restored in 1890-1891. The chief secular buildings
are the town-hall (Rathaus), built in 1691 and enlarged in 1866,
the government offices, the palace of justice, the central railway
station and the exchange. The Breite Weg and the old market
contain numerous fine gable-ended private houses in the style
of the Renaissance. In front of the town-hall stands an eques-
trian statue of Otto the Great, erected about 1290. The modern
streets are spacious, and the houses well-built though monoto-
nous. There are two theatres, an agricultural college, an art
school, several gymnasia, a commercial and other schools, an
observatory, and two fine hospitals. The first place amongst
the industries is taken by the ironworks (one being a branch of
the Krupp firm, the Grusonwerke, employing about 4000 hands),
which produce naval armour and munitions of war. Of almost
equal importance are the sugar refineries and chicory factories.
Then come establishments for making tobacco, gloves, chocolate,
artificial manure, cement, varnish, chemicals and pottery. There
are also distilleries and breweries, and factories for the

manufacture of cotton and silk goods. Magdeburg is the central
market in Germany for sugar and chicory, but trades extensively
also in cereals, fruit, vegetables, groceries, cattle, horses, wool,
cloth, yarn, leather, coal and books. A new winter harbour,
made at a cost of £400,000, facilitates the river traffic along the
Elbe. Three million tons of merchandise pass Magdeburg, going
upstream, and nearly i million tons, going downstream, annually.
Magdeburg is the headquarters of the IV. corps of the German
army and the seat of the provincial court of appeal and admini-
strative offices, and of a Lutheran consistory.

History. — Magdeburg, which was in existence as a small
trading settlement at the beginning of the 9th century, owes
its early prosperity chiefly to the emperor Otto the Great, who
established a convent here about 937. In 968 it became the
seat of an archbishop, who exercised sway over an extensive
territory. Although it was burnt down in 1188, Magdeburg
became a flourishing commercial town during the i3th century,
and was soon an important member of the Hanseatic League.
Its bench of jurats (Schoppenstuhl) became celebrated, and
" Magdeburg law " (Magdeburger Recht), securing the adminis-
trative independence of municipalities, was adopted in many
parts of Germany, Poland and Bohemia. During the middle
ages the citizens were almost constantly at variance with the
archbishops, and by the end of the isth century had become
nearly independent of them. It should, however, be noted that
Magdeburg never became a free city of the Empire. The town
embraced the Reformation in 15 24, and was thenceforth governed
by Protestant titular archbishops (see BISHOP). On the refusal
of the citizens to accept the " Interim," issued by the emperor
Charles V., Magdeburg was besieged by Maurice of Saxony in
1550, and capitulated on favourable terms in November 1551.
During the Thirty Years' War it was twice besieged, and suffered
terribly. It successfully resisted Wallenstein for seven months
in 1629, but was stormed and sacked by Tilly in May 1631.
The whole town, with the exception of the cathedral, and about
140 houses, was burned to the ground, and the greater part
of its 36,000 inhabitants were butchered without regard to age
or sex, but it recovered from this deadly blow with wonderful
rapidity. By the peace of Westphalia (1648) the archbishopric
was converted into a secular duchy, to fall to Brandenburg
on the death of the last administrator, which happened in 1680.
In 1806 Magdeburg was taken by the French and
annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia, but it was restored
to Prussia in 1814, on the downfall of Napoleon. Otto von
Guericke (1602-1686), the inventor of the air-pump, was
burgomaster of Magdeburg. Count Lazare Carnot died here
in exile, and was buried in the cemetery, but his remains
were exhumed in 1889 and conveyed to Paris. Luther was
at school here, and sang in the streets for bread with other
poor choristers.

See W. Kawerau, Aus Magdeburgs Vergangenheit (Halle, 1886)
O. von Guericke, Geschichte der Belagerung, Eroberung und Zer-
sto'rungvon Magdeburg (Magdeburg, 1887) ; M. Dittmar, Beitrdgezur
Geschichte der Stadt Magdeburg (Halle, 1885); F. W. Hoffmann,
Geschichte der Stadt Magdeburg (Magdeburg, 1885-1886) ; F. Htilsse,
Die Einfuhrung der Reformation in der Stadt Magdeburg (Magdeburg,
1883); R. Volkholz, Die Zerstorung Magdeburgs 1631 (Magdeburg,
1892); W. Leinung and R. Stumvoll, Aus Magdeburgs Sage und
Geschichte (Magdeburg, 1894); and the Urkundenbuch der Stadt
Magdeburg (1892).

THE ARCHBISHOPRIC or MAGDEBURG was carved out of the
bishopric of Halberstadt when it was founded in 968, and its
history is largely bound up with that of the city and of the
prelates who have ruled the see. The first archbishop was
Adalbert, and he and his successors had six or seven suffragan
bishops. Several of the archbishops took very prominent parts
in German politics. Early in the 15th century their residence
was fixed at Halle, and about the same time it became the
custom to select them from one of the reigning families of
Germany, most often from the house of Brandenburg, The
doctrines of the reformers made their appearance in the diocese
early in the i6th century, and soon Archbishop Sigismund, a
son of Joachim II., elector of Brandenburg, openly avowed his
adherence to Lutheram'sm. After the issue of the edict of

302

MAGEE, W.— MAGELLAN

restitution by the emperor Ferdinand II. in 1629, there were
three rival candidates for the see, and their struggles added to
the confusion caused by the Thirty Years' War. By the peace
of Prague, however, in 1635, the archbishopric was given to
Augustus, prince of Saxe-Weissenfels, who retained it until his
death in 1680. In 1773 the area of the see was over 2000 sq. m.
It included 29 towns and over 400 villages and contained about
250,000 inhabitants.

See the Regesta archiepiscopatus magdeburgensis, edited by G. A.
von Mulyerstedt (Magdeburg, 1876-1899) ; and K. Uhlirz, Geschichle
des ErzbistUms Magdeburg unter den Kaisern aus sachsischem Hause
(Magdeburg, 1887).

Distinct both from the archbishopric and from the city was
the BURGRAVIATE OF MAGDEBURG. The office of burgrave dates
from the time of Charlemagne, although its holder was not at
first called by this name, and it soon became one of great impor-
tance. The burgrave was the king's representative; he was
charged with the administration of the royal estates in a given
district, and in general with watching the royal interests therein.
The burgraviate of Magdeburg was held by several countly
families in turn until 1 269, when it was purchased by Archbishop
Conrad II., who, however, soon sold it. In 1294 it was again
united with the archbishopric and the prelates retained it until
1538; then in 1579 Augustus, elector of Saxony, made an arrange-
ment which again gave the office to the archbishops, who held
it until the secularization of the see.

The MAGDEBURG CENTURIES (Magdeburger Zenturien) is the
name given to the first general history of the Christian Church
written from a Protestant point of view. It was compiled in
Magdeburg, and the history is divided into periods of one hundred
years each. It was written in Latin in 1562, its principal
author being the reformer Matthias Flacius, who was assisted
by other Lutheran theologians. The cost of the undertaking
was borne by some of the German Protestant princes. As the
Historia ecclesiae Christi it was first published at Basel in seven
volumes (1559-1574). It deals with the history of the Church
down to 1400, and considering the time at which it was written
it is a remarkable monument to the scholarship of its authors.
The earlier part of it has been translated into German (Jena,
1560-1565).

See E. Schaumkell, Beitrag zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Magde-
burger Zenturien (Ludwigslust, 1898).

MAGEE, WILLIAM (1766-1831), archbishop of Dublin, was
born at Enniskillen, Co. Fermanagh, and educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, where he was elected fellow in 1788. He was
ordained in 1790. Two sermons, preached in the college chapel
in 1798 and 1799, form the basis of his Discourses on the Scrip-
tural Doctrines of Atonement and Sacrifice (1801), a polemic
against Unitarian theology which was answered by Lant Car-
penter. Magee was appointed professor of mathematics and
senior fellow of Trinity in 1800, but in 1812 he resigned, and
undertook the charge of the livings of Cappagh, Co. Tyrone, and
Killeleagh, Co. Down. Next year he became dean of Cork. He
was well known as a preacher and promoter of the Irish refor-
mation, and in 1819 he was consecrated bishop of Raphoe. In
1822 the archbishop of Dublin was translated to Armagh, and
Magee succeeded him at Dublin. Though in most respects a
tolerant man, he steadily opposed the movement for Catholic
Emancipation. He died on the i8th of August 1831.

A memoir of his life is included with the Works of the Most Reverend
William Magee, D.D. (1842), by A. H. Kenney.

MAGEE, WILLIAM CONNOR (1821-1891), Anglican divine,
archbishop of York, was born at Cork in 1821. His father was
curate of the parish attached to the Protestant cathedral in
that city; his grandfather was archbishop of Dublin. Young
Magee entered Trinity College, Dublin, with a scholarship at
thirteen. He was ordained to the curacy of St Thomas's,
Dublin, but, being threatened with consumption, went after
two years to Malaga. On his return he took a curacy at Bath,
and was speedily appointed to the Octagon Chapel, where his
fame both as preacher and platform speaker continued to
spread. Some years afterwards he was made prebendary of
Wells Cathedral. In 1860 the delicate state of his health

caused him to accept the living of Enniskillen. In 1864 he
was made dean of Cork and chaplain to the lord lieutenant.
Here he manifested those great gifts which ultimately raised
him to high office; a powerful grasp of mental, moral and
political problems, combined with eloquence of a high order
and illuminated with brilliant flashes of wit. In 1868 the
question of the disestablishment of the Irish Church came to
the front, and Magee threw himself into the task of its defence
with his usual energy and vivacity. The success of his orations
caused Disraeli to offer him the bishopric of Peterborough. He
justified his appointment by his magnificent speech when the
Disestablishment Bill reached the House of Lords in 1869, and
then plunged into diocesan and general work in England. He
preached three remarkable sermons on Christian Evidence in
Norwich Cathedral in 1871. He took up the temperance
question, and declared in the House of Lords that he would
rather see "England free than England compulsorily sober,"
an utterance which the extreme advocates of total abstinence
misquoted and attacked. He was also a supporter of the
movement for abolishing the recitation of the Athanasian
Creed in the public services of the Church of England, believing,
as he said, that the " presence " of the damnatory clauses, " as
they stand and where they stand, is a real peril to the Church
and to Christianity itself," and that those clauses " are no
essential part " of the creed. The project was laid aside in
consequence of the hostility of a large body of the clergy,
reinforced by the threat of Dr Pusey and Canon Liddon to
abandon their offices if it were carried. Magee took a prominent
part in the Ritual controversy, opposing what he conceived to
be romanizing excess in ritual, as well as the endeavour of the
opposite party to " put down Ritualism," as Disraeli expressed
it, by the operation of the civil law. His incisive way of putting
things earned for him the title of the "Militant Bishop," but,
as he himself remarked in. relation to this title, his efforts were
ever for peace. Unfortunately for the Church, he was not
elevated to the see of York until his energies were exhausted.
He died on the sth of May 1891, about four months after his
appointment. Magee's manifold activities, his capability as an
administrator, his sound judgment, and his remarkable insight
into the ecclesiastical problems of his time, rank him among
the most distinguished of English prelates.
See Life and Letters, by Canon MacDonnell (2 vols. 1896).

MAGELLAN, FERDINAND (in Sp. FERNANDO MAGALLANES,
in Port. FERNAO DE MAGALHAES) (c. 1480-1521), the first
circumnavigator of the globe, was born at Sabrosa in the Villa
Real district of the Traz-os-Montes province of Portugal. He
was a son of Pedro de Magalhaes, and belonged to the fourth
order of Portuguese nobility (fidalgos de cola de armas). He was
brought up as one of the pages of Queen Leonor, consort of
King John (Joao) II " the Perfect." In 1495 he entered the
service of Manuel " the Fortunate," John's successor, and in
1504 enlisted as a volunteer for the Indian voyage of the first
Portuguese viceroy in the East, Francisco d'Almeida. He sailed
on the 25th of March 1505; was wounded at Cannanore on
the 1 6th of March 1506; was then sent with Nuno Vaz Pereira
to Sofala to build a Portuguese fortress at that place; returned
to India early in 1508; and was again wounded at the battle
of Diu on the 3rd of February 1509. At Cochin (Aug. 19,
1509) he joined Diogo Lopes de Sequeira on his famous voyage
intended for the Spice Islands, when the Portuguese almost fell
victims to Malay treachery at Malacca. In this crisis he fought
bravely and skilfully (though it is not true, as often asserted,
that he discovered the Malay plot); and before the loth of
October 1510 he had been rewarded for his many services with
the rank of captain. He again distinguished himself at the
taking of Malacca by Albuquerque (July-Aug., 1511), and
was then sent on by the viceroy with Antonio d'Abreu to explore
the Spice Islands (Moluccas). Leaving Malacca at the end of
December 1511, this squadron^ sailed along the north of Java,
passed between Java and Ma'dura, left Celebes on their left,
coasted by the Gunong Api volcano, touched at Bura, and so
reached Amboyna and Banda. At the last-named they found

MAGELLAN

303

such abundance of spices that they came straight back to
Malacca without visiting Ternate, as had been intended.

Magellan returned to Portugal in 1512. On the I4th of July
of that year he was raised to the rank of fidalgo escudeiro;
and in 1513 he accompanied a Portuguese expedition against
Azamor in Morocco. The city was taken on the zSth-agth of
August 1513; but Magellan was subsequently wounded, and
lamed for life, in a sortie; he was also accused of trading with
the Moors. The accusation was subsequently dropped, but
Magellan fell into disfavour with King Manuel, who let him
understand that he would have no further employment in his
country's service (after the isth of May 1514). Magellan
formally renounced his nationality, and went to offer his services
to the court of Spain. He reached Seville on the zoth of October
1517, and thence went to Valladolid to see Charles V. With
the help of Juan de Aranda, one of the three chief officials of
the India House at Seville, and of other friends, especially
Diogo Barbosa, a Portuguese like himself, naturalized as a
Spaniard, who had acquired great influence in Seville, and whose
daughter he now married, he gained the ear of Charles and of
the powerful minister, Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca, bishop of
Burgos, the persistent enemy of Columbus, the steady supporter
of his great successor. Magellan proposed to reach the Spice
Islands of the East Indies by the west; for that purpose he
hoped to discover a strait at the extreme south of South America,
and is said to have declared himself ready to sail southwards to
75° to realize his project. Ruy Faleiro the astronomer, another
Portuguese exile, aided him in the working out of his plan, and
he found an invaluable financial ally in Christopher de Haro,
a member of a great Antwerp firm, who owed a grudge to the
king of Portugal. On the 22nd of March 1518, Magellan and
Faleiro, as joint captains-general, signed an agreement with
Charles V., by which one-twentieth of the clear profits were to
fall to them; further, the government of any lands discovered
was vested in them and their heirs, with the title of Adelantados.
On the roth of August 1519, the fleet of five vessels, under
Magellan's command, left Seville and dropped down the Guadal-
quivir to S. Lucar de Barrameda, at the mouth of the river,
where they remained more than five weeks. On the 2oth of
September the armada put to sea. Of the vessels which com-
posed it, the " Trinidad " was the flagship, and the " Vittoria "
the only one which accomplished the circumnavigation. The
crew, officers, volunteers, &c., numbered about 270-280, of
whom the names of 268 are preserved; 237 of these received
pay; at least 37 were Portuguese, 30 or more Italians (mostly
Genoese), 19 French, i English, i German. Only 31 returned
in the " Vittoria "; 4 survivors of the crew of the " Trinidad "
reappeared later. Antonio Pigafetta of Vicenza, an Italian
gentleman who has left the best history of the voyage, went
as a volunteer in Magellan's suite. Faleiro stayed behind,
having cast his horoscope and found that the venture would
be fatal to him. The fleet was well armed, and the total cost
of equipment was 8,751,000 maravedis, or £5032 (equal to over
£50,000 in present value). Three-quarters were defrayed by
the Spanish Crown, one-quarter by Christopher Haro and his
friends. Before starting, Magellan made his will and addressed
a memorandum to Charles V., assigning geographical positions
connected with the controversy he was intending to settle:
viz., the proper drawing of a demarcation-line between the
spheres of Spain and Portugal in the East Indies, and the in-
clusion of the Moluccas within the Spanish sphere.

Steering south-west and calling at Teneriffe (Sept. 26-Oct.3),
Magellan sighted South America at Cape St Augustine,
near Pernambuco on the 29th of November; thence he followed
the east coast of the New World down to the La Plata
estuary, which he examined in the hope of finding a passage
at this point (Jan. n-Feb. 6, 1520). On the 3ist of March
following, he arrived at Port St Julian (in 49° 20' S.)
where he wintered. Here he crushed a formidable mutiny
{April 1-2), and made acquaintance with the natives, whom he
called Patagonians (" Big Feet "), whose great size and lofty
stature are magnified by Pigafetta to gigantic proportions.

Leaving Port St Julian on the 24th of August 1520,
he discovered on the 2ist of October the cape of the Eleven
Thousand Virgins, the eastern entrance of the long-sought
passage. Through this strait, 360 m. long, often narrow and
very tortuous, fringed by snow-clad mountains, he guided his
armada for thirty-eight days, weakened by the desertion of one
vessel (the " S. Artonio "). On the 2ist of November a council
of pilots and captains was held to consider the continuation of
the voyage, and on the 28th of November the fleet rounded Cabo
Deseado, the " desired " western terminus of the strait, variously
called by the first discoverers, " Victoria Strait," " Strait of
the Patagonians," "of all Saints," "of the Eleven Thousand
Virgins," or " of Magellan," now only known by the last of
these names. To the south of the passage lay the forbidding
land " stark with eternal cold," which from the many fires
here observed Magellan named "Tierra del Fuego." The
expedition now entered the " Great South Sea," first sighted
by Vasco Nunez de Balboa (q.v.), which, from the steady and
gentle winds that drove the fleet across the immeasurable
expanse, was by Magellan called " Pacific." For ninety-eight
days Magellan crossed this sea, almost beyond the grasp of
man's mind for vastness (as Maximilian of Transylvania puts
it), from Cabo Deseado to the Ladrones. On the whole transit
he discovered only two islands, sterile and uninhabited,
which he called "St Paul's" (Jan, 24, 1521) and "Shark
Island " (Feb. 3). The first of these has been identified
with Puka Puka in the Tuamotu Archipelago, the second with
Flint Island in the Manihiki group; neither identification
seems convincing. For most of these ninety-eight days the
explorers had no -fresh provisions, little water (and that bad),
and putrid biscuit; the ravages of scurvy became terrible.
The worst anticipations of Magellan ("he would push on, if
they had to eat the leather of the rigging") were realized;
ox-hides, sawdust, and rats became coveted food. At last,
on the 6th of March 1521, the Ladrones (so named by Magellan
from the thievish habits of the natives) came in sight, Guam
being probably the first port of call. Here the fleet rested,
watered, revictualled and refitted; on the gth of March they
started again westward; and on the i6th of March sighted the
southern point of Samar Island in the archipelago, since 1542
called the Philippines, but named by Magellan, its first dis-
coverer, after St Lazarus. On the 7th of April the squadron
arrived at Cebu, south-west of Samar, in the heart of the Philip-
pines; here Magellan contracted a close friendship and alliance
with the treacherous native sovereign, who professed Christianity
the better to please and utilize his Catholic friends. Undertaking
an expedition to conquer, for the Catholic faith and the king
of Cebu, the neighbouring island of Mactan, Magellan was killed
there in a fight with the islanders (April 27, 1521). The king
of Cebu after this got into his power several of the leading
personages of the squadron, including Juan Serrano, one of
the two admirals elected to replace Magellan, and murdered
them. The survivors, burning one of the three remaining
vessels, left the Philippines, and made their way to thye
Moluccas (Nov. 6), visiting Borneo on the way (July 9-Sept.
27, 1521). ^At Tidor a heavy cargo of cloves was taken in;
the "Trinidad," becoming leaky, stayed behind with her crew;
and the " Vittoria," under Juan Sebastian del Canb, proceeded
to Europe alone (Dec. 21, 1521). To « double the Cape
of Good Hope the " Vittoria " reached between 40° and 41° S.
(April 7-16, 1522) and suffered from contrary winds, heavy
seas, scurvy and starvation. In th'e Cape Verde Islands
(July 9-15, 1522) thirteen of the crew were detained prisoners
by the Portuguese. Only thirtj>-one men returned with del
Cano to Seville in the fijst, vessel that had ever made the tour
of the earth. Though Magellan had not quite reached the
Spice Islands when he fell at Mactan, his task had then been
accomplished. He had already reached and passed the longitude
of the Moluccas, where he had already been; the way home from
the Philippines by the Indian Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope
was perfectly known to the Portuguese, himself included.
Magellan's name has never received its due recognition in

304

MAGELLANIC CLOUDS— MAGIC

general history. It ranks with those of Columbus, Marco Polo,
and Henry the Navigator. The circumnavigation of the globe
is as great an event as the discovery of America. Magellan
achieved what Columbus planned — the linking of west Europe
with east Asia by direct transit over the western ocean. Had
America not intervened, the project of 1492 must have failed;
by 1519 European pioneers had formed a more adequate notion
of the task and its magnitude.

Magellan's Straits, the Magellanic clouds (not first observed
by him), and Magellan's Land — a name long given to Patagonia
and that hypothetical southern continent of which Tierra del
Fuego was considered only a portion, and now again bestowed
by Chile on her territory in the extreme south — preserve the
memory of the first circumnavigator. The largest of the oceans
has also kept the flattering name given to it by the man who
first crossed it.

No record of his exploits was left by Magellan himself; and
contemporary accounts are less detailed and consistent than could
be wished. The best is that of Antonio Pigafetta, a volunteer in the
fleet. It is printed in Ramusio, and exists in four early MS. copies,
one in Italian and three in French. The latter was perhaps the
original language of this work, which was addressed by Pigafetta,
as a knight of Rhodes, to the Frenchman Villiers de 1'Isle Adam,
grand master of the order of the Hospital of St John. But this
view is rejected by J. A. Robertson (see below), who believes the
Ambrosian MS. to be the ultimate text. See the Prime viaggio
inlorno al mondo, otherwise the Navigation et descouvrement de la
Indie superieure faicte par moi Anthoyne Pigapheta, Vincentin,
chevallier de Rhodes, probably published in 1524 (in August of that
year Pigafetta obtained leave to print his book in Venice). Of the
three French MSS., two are in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris
(5650 and 24,224 Fr.), the latter is wrongly supposed by Thomassy,
followed by Lord Stanley of Alderley, to have been the copy pre-
sented by Pigafetta to the regent of France, Marie Louise of Savoy,
mother of Francis I. The third French MS., often called the MS. of
Nancy, first noticed by Thomassy in 1 84 1 , was bought by Sir Thomas
Phillipps at Libri's sale, and became MS. Philhpps 16,405. The
Italian MS. is in the Ambrosian library at Milan. From this Carlo
Amoretti, prefect of the Ambrosiana, published his Italian edition
of Pigafetta in 1800; a French translation of this, by Amoretti
himself, was issued by H. J. Jansen, 1801. An English version of
Pigafetta was made by Richard Eden in his Decodes of the Newe Worlde
(London, 1555). The earliest printed edition, apparently a summary
of the Italian MS., was issued in French by Simon de Colines of Paris
about 1525. The earliest Italian edition is of 1534 (or 1536).

Other authorities are: (i) The narrative of an unknown Portu-
guese in Ramusio's Navigationi et viaggi; (2) the Derrotero or Log-
Book in the Seville Archives, supposed to be the work of Francisco
Albo, contramaestre of Magellan's flagship, the "Trinidad": this
consists mainly of nautical observations; (3) the narrative of the
so-called Genoese pilot, written in excellent Portuguese, and printed
in vol. iv. of the CoUecao de noticias of the Lisbon Academy ; (4)
various informations and other papers in the Seville Archives,
especially bearing on the mutiny; (5) the letter of Maximilian of
Transylvania, under-secretary to Charles V., to the cardinal of
Salzburg; (6) the references in Correa and Herrera, often based on
good information, and adding points of interest to other records.
Of these (i)-(3), (5), and an instance of (6) are translated in the
Hakluyt Society's volume. Magellan's two wills (i) executed at
Belem on the i;th of December 1504, on the eve of his departure
with Almeida, (ii) executed at Seville on the 24th of August, 1519,
just before starting on his voyage round the world, are both of some
value for his life.

See also Lord Stanley of Alderley, The First Voyage round the World
by Magellan, translated from . . . Pigafetta, &c., Hakluyt Society
(London, 1874); Diego de Barros Arana, Vida e viagems de Fernao
de Magalhaes, a trans, of the Spanish life by Fernando de Magalhaes
Villas Boas (Lisbon, 1881); F. H. H. Guillemard, Life of Magellan
(London, 1890); Magellan . . . the original text of the Ambrosian MS.
(of Pigafetta), with English translation, notes, bibliography, &c.,
by J. A. Robertson (Cleveland, U.S.A., 1906). Before the appear-
ance of this indispensable work, the best edition of Pigafetta had been
in vol. iii. part 5 of the Raccolta di documenti e studi pubblicati nella
r. commissione colombiana, edited by Andrea da Mosto (Rome,
Ministry of Public Instruction, 1894). (C. R. B.)

MAGELLANIC CLOUDS (named after Ferdinand Magellan),
two cloud-like condensations of stars in the southern constella-
tion of Mensa about 69° S. Dec. and between 5° and 5° 40' of
R. A. They are remarkable in the resemblance of their stars
as regards spectra and physical constitution to the stars of the
Milky Way, though entirely detached from that object.

MAGENTA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Milan, 16 m. by rail W. of Milan city, 364 ft. about sea-level

situated in the midst of rice-fields. Pop. (1901), 8012. It
manufactures silks and matches, and is famous for the battle
(1859) in which the allied French and Piedmontese defeated
the Austrians (see ITALIAN WARS). A memorial chapel and
a monument were erected on the battle-field in 1862. A crimson-
purple aniline dye, discovered about the time of the battle, was
given from it the name of " magenta,"

MAGGIORE, LAGO (Locus Verbanus of the Romans; Fr.
Lac Majeur; Ger. Langensee), the most extensive of the lakes
that extend along the foot of the Alps in Lombardy, N. Italy.
Its area is about 83 sq. m., its length 37 m., its greatest width
5? m., and its greatest depth 1198 ft., while its surface is 646 ft.
about sea-level. It is mainly formed by the Ticino (Tessin)
River, flowing in at the north and out at the south end, on its
way to join the Po, but on the west the lake receives a very
important tributary, the Toce or Tosa River, which flows down
through the Val d'Ossola from the mountains around the
Simplon Pass. Other important afHuents are the Maggia (N. W . )
and the Tresa (E.). The upper end of the lake (about 16 sq. m.)
is in the Swiss canton of Ticino (Tessin). Locarno, at the
northern or Swiss end, is 14 m. by rail S.W. of Bellinzona on
the St Gotthard line. There is a railway along the south-
eastern shore, from Magadino (io£ m. S.W. of Bellinzona) to
Sesto Calende (36501.), at the southern end of the lake and 20 m.
by rail from Novara. The east shore of the lake is reached at
Luino by a steam tramway from Ponte Tresa on the lake of
Lugano (8 m.), while the direct Simplon line runs along the west
shore of the lake for 153 m. from near Pallanza past Baveno and
Stresa to Arena, which is 23 m. by rail from Novara. On the
east shore are Luino (Ital. Luvino) and Laveno. On the west
shore are (reckoning from N. to S.) Cannobio, Pallanza, Baveno,
Stresa and Arona. Opposite (S.E.) Baveno are the famous
Borromean Islands, on the largest of which (Isola Bella) are very
remarkable gardens (formed about 1617), wherein many tropical
plants flourish abundantly, while south-west of Baveno rises the
glorious view-point of the Monte Mottarone (4892 ft.) between
Lago Maggiore and the northern end of the Lake of Orta.
In the morning the tramontana wind blows from the north
down the lake, while in the afternoon the inverna, blowing from
the south, prevails. The first steamer was placed on the lake
in 1826. (W. A. B. C.)

MAGIC1 (i.e. "art magic"; Lat. ars magica), the general
term for the practice and power of wonder-working, as depend-
ing on the employment of supposed supernatural agencies.
Etymologically the Gr. fia-ytla, meant the science and religion
of the magi, or priests of Zoroaster, as known among the Greeks;
in this sense it was opposed to yoriTtia (? necromancy) and
0ap,uowia (the use of drugs) ; but this distinction was not
universally recognized, and ftrrjTeia is often used as a synonym
of Aio/yeto. There is no general agreement as to the proper
definition of " magic," which depends on the view taken of
" religion."

I. — NATURE OF MAGIC

Theories of Magic. — Existing theories of magic may be
classified as objective or subjective. The objective school regards
magic as a thing by itself, entirely distinct from religion,
recognizable by certain characteristics, and traceable to a
definite psychological origin. Magic, on this view, is a system
of savage science based on imaginary laws supposed to operate
with the regularity ascribed to natural laws by the science of
to-day. If practices prima facie magical form part of the
recognized ritual of religion, it is because the older ideas have
persisted and at most assumed a veneer of religion. For the
subjective school, on the other hand, only those rites are magical
which their practitioners qualify with the name of magic; there
is no inherent quality which makes a rite magical; practices
based on a belief in the law of sympathy may be religious as well
as magical; rites may pass from the category of religion to that
of magic when public recognition is withdrawn from them.

1 For what is often called " magic," but is really trick-perform-
ance, see CONJURING.

MAGIC

305

a. For E. B. Tylor the distinguishing characteristic of magic
is its unreality; it is a confused mass of oeliefs and practices, and
their unity consists in the absence of the ordinary nexus of natural
cause and effect. Under the general head of magic he distinguishes
(i) a spiritual and (ii) a non-spiritual element, (i) The former is
made up of such rites as involve the intervention of spiritual beings,
ghosts of the dead, demons or gods; hence, in Tylor's view, this
form of magic is merely an inferior branch of religion, (ii) The non-
spiritual part, but for which the category of magic would be unneces-
sary, depends on imagined powers and correspondences in nature;
it is merely imperfect reasoning, the mistaking of an ideal connexion
for a real one. When the American Indian medicine man draws the
picture of a deer on a piece of bark and expects that shooting at
it will cause him to kill a real deer the next day, he mistakes a
connexion which exists only in the mind of the sorcerer for a real
bond independent of the human mind.

b. In J. G. Frazer's view all magic is based on the law of sympathy
— i.e. the assumption that things act on one another at a distance
through a secret link, due either to the fact that there is some
similarity between them or to the fact that they have at one time
been in contact, or that one has formed part of the other. These
two branches of " sympathetic magic " Frazer denominates " homoeo-
pathic magic " and contagious magic." Homoeopathic or imita-
tive (mimetic) magic may be practised by itself, but contagious
magic generally involves the application of the imitative principle,
(i) One of the most familiar applications of the former is the belief
that an enemy may be destroyed or injured by destroying or injuring
an image of him. (ii) Under the head of contagious magic are
included such beliefs as that which causes the peasant to anoint the
weapon with which he has been injured, which, according to Frazer,
is founded on the supposition that the blood on the weapon continues
to feel with the blood in the body, (iii) Implicitly Frazer seems to
distinguish a third kind of magic; "the rain-charm," he says,
" operates partly or wholly through the dead ... in Halmahera
there is a practice of throwing stones on a grave, in order that the
ghost may fall into a passion and avenge the disturbance, as he
imagines, by sending heavy rain." Here there is no assumption of
an invariable course of nature set in motion by magical rites; save
that it is coercive and not propitiatory, the practice does not differ
from ordinary religious rites.

In his theory of the origin of magic Frazer follows the association-
ist school. But, as R. R. Marett has pointed out in a criticism of the
associationist position, it is proved beyond question that even in the
individual mind association by similarity, contiguity or contrast,
is but the passive condition, the important element being interest
and attention. Frazer assumes that magic has everywhere preceded
religion : man tried to control nature by using what he conceived to be
immutable laws; failing in this he came to believe in the existence
of higher powers whom he could propitiate but not coerce; with this
transformation religion appeared on the scene; the priest supplanted
the magician, at least in part, and the first blows were struck in the
perennial warfare of magic and religion. Frazer recognizes, how-
ever, that magical and religious rites are at the present day, and have
been in historical times, frequently intermingled; it should be noted
that for him religion means propitiation and that he does not recognize
the existence of anything beyond magic among the aborigines of
Australia. His theory is based on a selection of facts, and not on the
whole body of beliefs and rites recognized as magical, among which
are many wherein spirits figure. Frazer's position appears to be
that such rites are relatively late and may be neglected in framing
a definition of magic. It may be perfectly true that the idea of
magic has been progressively extended ; but belief in transformation
is also for Dr Frazer magical; this belief is certainly primitive;
yet sympathy will not explain it, as it should if Frazer's theory is
correct.

c. L. Marillier distinguished three classes of magic : (i) the magic
of the word or act; (ii) the magic of the human being, indepen-
dent of rite or formula, &c. ; (iii) the magic which demands at once a
human being of special powers (or in a special state) and the use of
certain forms, (i) Under the first head he included such rites as
mimetic dances, rain-making, disease- making, and sympathetic magic
generally. Some of these rites are conceived to affect the course
of nature directly, as by influencing winds or the sun, others
do so through the intermediary of a god or spirit, who controls
the course of nature, and is himself coerced by man with magical
acts and incantations, (ii) Other rites cannot be performed by all
and sundry: ceremonial purity, initiation or other conditions may
be needed to make the charm effective, (iii) Individuals are found
who are invested with magical power (mana), whose will rules the
universe, whose simple words bring rain or sunshine, and whose
presence gives fertility to the fields. Sometimes this power is an
attribute of the individual, sometimes it is bound up with the office
which he fills. In many cases the magical powers of both men and
other objects, animate and inanimate, are put down to the fact that
a god resides in them.

d. Hubert and Mauss have made the most complete and sys-
tematic study of magic which has yet appeared. They hold that,
implicitly at any rate, magic is everywhere distinguished from other
systems of social facts ; in order to be magical an act or belief must

be common to the whole of a society ; the acts which the whole of a
group does not regard as efficacious are not, for this school of thought ,
magical: consequently the practices of gamesters, &c., do not come
under the head of magic. Magic is essentially traditional; a dis-
tinguishing characteristic of primitive thought is that the individual
mind is markedly unoriginal; and this feature is as prominent, if
not more so, in magic as in technology or any other important ele-
ment in human life. The correspondence between magic and tech-
nology can be traced far; for the gestures of the craftsman are as
strictly prescribed as the ritual acts of the magician or priest : but in
magic the results of the gestures are not of the same order as the
results of the craftsman's movements, and herein lies the distinction
between magic and technic. The distinction between magic and
religion is to be sought not in the sympathetic character of the
former, nor in any supposed necessary sequence of cause and effect,
nor yet in its maleficent character. Religion is prescribed, official,
an organized cult. Magic is prohibited, secret; at most it is per-
mitted, without being prescribed.. Three important laws may be
traced in the machinery of magical operations — magical power
flows along channels determined by the contiguity, similarity or
contrast of the object of the act and the object to be affected;
but these laws do not suffice to explain magic: equally insufficient
are the demonological theory and the theory of properties inherent
in the objects used in magical operations. The underlying idea of
magic is dynamical ; to this power may be given the name of mana
(see below), of which sanctity is a special development. This mana
operates in a milieu different from the ordinary material world;
distance is no obstacle to contact ; wishes are immediately realized ;
but law reigns in the milieu in question, necessary relations are con-
ceived as existing. The notion of time as it is found in the world
of magic is even more alien from European ideas; the notion of
sanctity enters into it, but time in magic and religion is qualitative
rather than quantitative. The homogeneity of periods of time not
depending on their duration, conventional numbers are employed;
successive periods of time apparently equal are not so for the primi-
tive consciousness; and both in magic and religion periods are homo-
geneous by reason of occupying the same position m the calendar.

e. For A. Lehmann magic is the practice of superstitions, and his
explanation of magic is purely psychological. Relying mainly on
modern spiritualism for his examples, he traces magic back to illusions,
prejudices and false precepts due to strained attention. This is
ultimately also the view of Hubert and Mauss, who hold that " at
the root of magic are states of consciousness which generate illusions;
and that these states are not individual but collective and arise
from the amalgamation of the ideas of a given person with those
current in the society of which he forms a part." The reunion of a
group supplies a soil in which illusions flourish readily, and it is impor-
tant to note that in magic and religion attention is above all necessary
for the success of a rite, witness the frequent rule imposing silence;
but this concentration of attention is precisely calculated to favour
illusions; it is indeed the ordinary condition of successful hypnotism;
even in civilized countries collective hallucinations without verbal
suggestion are not unknown.

/. R. R. Marett regards religion and magic as two forms of a
social phenomenon originally one and indivisible ; primitive man had
an institution which dealt with the supernatural, and in this institu-
tion were the germs of both magic and religion, which were gradually
differentiated; magic and religion differ in respectability; religion
is always the higher, the accepted cult ; but between what is definitely
religious and what is definitely magical lies a mass of indeterminate
elements, such as " white-magic," which do not attain to the public
recognition of religion, nor suffer the condemnation meted out to
the indisputably magical. For primitive man the abnormal was
the supernormal, and the supernormal was the supernatural, the
object of fear; this is especially evident when we consider the case
of taboo ; it may be regarded as a public scare for which no particular
individual is responsible, which becomes traditional along fairly
constant lines, growing as it goes. Mana was attributed to taboo
objects, among which were men in any way abnormal, whether as
geniuses or idiots; and such men were expected to exercise their
powers for the good of society; hence came into existence the pro-
fessional medicine man; man originally argued from cause to effect
and not vice versa. Priest and magician were originally one; but
the former, learning humility in the face of might greater than his
own, discarded the spell for the prayer and prostratea himself before
a higher power.

Definition of Magic. — To arrive at a definition of magic we
may either follow the a priori road mapped out by Frazer and
decline to recognize the distinction actually drawn by various
societies between magical and religious practices; or we may
ask what magic and corresponding terms actually connote.
Frazer's method ignores the fact that magic, like religion, is
an institution, f.e. a product of society, not of any single indi-
vidual; there is no more reason to suppose that a child reared
in isolation would develop any kind of magical practices than
that it would invent for itself a religion; but if this is the case,

306

MAGIC

the associationist account of magic cannot be true. It is there-
fore by an analysis of actually existing practices that we must
define and limit the term magic. There is, however, a serious
difficulty in the way of determining the attitude of non-European
peoples towards religio-magical practices; general terms are
things of slow growth; it is therefore prima facie improbable
that peoples in the lower stages of culture will have anything
corresponding to our terms " religion " and " magic "; more-
over, if we are right in assuming the fundamental unity of the
two, it is by no means certain that they have even the con-
sciousness of any distinction. Even when this consciousness
is present, it by no means follows that the whole of the field is
mapped out according to our categories; there will be a large
indeterminate area which is neither magical nor religious. This
suggests that the consciousness of the educated Occidental, for
which the spheres of magic and religion in civilized society are
sharply defined and contrasted, should be the ultimate arbiter;
but here again we are confronted by a difficulty, for, to the
educated man, the characteristic of magic is its unreality,
and this does not help us to distinguish primitive magic and
religion.

We must, it appears, determine the relation of magic to
religion by an analysis of the conceptions of those who believe
in both ; but in so doing we must consider that, like all other
institutions, magic has a history. Even if we go back to the
i6th century and take the view of magic then held by the
average European, it is still a complex idea. When we ask
what the most primitive races now on the earth regard as
magic, we are applying to their ideas a touchstone made for a
very different age and culture; as well might we ask what their
theory of knowledge is. If, however, we reverse the process and
ask what elements of primitive institutions correspond most
nearly to later conceptions of magic, we can at once say that
the forbidden and private arts are the prototypes of the magic
of later times. Magic is therefore the practice of maleficent
arts which involve the use of religio-magical power, with perhaps
a secondary idea of the use of private arts, which are to benefit,
not the community as a whole, but a single individual. Religion
in the lower stages of culture is essentially the tribal creed which
all practise and in which all believe; if therefore an individual
has a cult of his own, even if otherwise indistinguishable from
a public cult, it is for this very reason on a lower plane, and
probably corresponds in a degree to what is later regarded as
magic. But our information as to the attitude of the uncivilized
towards magico-religious rites in general is seldom sufficiently
clear; our terminology is influenced by the prepossession of
alien observers whose accounts cannot be assumed to-correspond
to the native view of the case.

Magico-religious Force. — The mere fact that we cannot draw
an exact line between magic and religion suggests that they may
have some fundamental feature in common. Both terms have
greatly changed their connotation in the course of their ex-
istence; religio seems to have meant originally Kara&o^os
(magical spell), and Pliny says that fiaytia is a deceptive art
compounded of medicine, religion and astrology. Among the
Greeks, on the other hand, fiayeia occupied a respectable
position. More important is the fact that taboo (q.v.) is both
religious and magical. There is a universal tendency to regard
as magical the religions of alien races, as well as national religions
which have been superseded; Lelarid tells us that witchcraft
in Italy is known as la vecchia religione. An examination of the
ideas of primitive peoples shows that there is a widely found
notion of a power which manifests itself both in religion and
magic. Observers have often been content to describe cere-
monies without attempting to penetrate to the fundamental
ideas which underlie them; this is particularly the case with
magic, and only recently have anthropologists realized that in
many primitive societies exists a fairly well-defined idea of
magico-religious power, to which the generic name of mana,
from the Melanesian word, has been given.

a. Mana in Melanesia is a force, a being, an action, a quality, or a
state ; it is transmissible and contagious, and is hence associated with

taboo; it may be regarded as material and seen in the form of flames
or heard ; it is the power which is inherent in certain spirits, among
which are included such of the dead as are denominated tindalos;
it may also be a force inherent in some inanimate object, such as a
stone which causes the yams to grow, but it is a spiritual force and
does not act mechanically ; it is the power of the magician and of the
rite; the magic formula is itself mana. There seem to be a variety
of manas, but probably the underlying idea is essentially one, though
it does not follow that the Melanesians have arrived at the conscious-
ness of this unity. Hubert and Mauss go even further and regard
all force as mana; it is a quality added to objects without prejudice
to their other qualities, one which supplements without destroying
their mechanical action.

6. Similar ideas are found in other areas, (i) The continental
Malays have a word Kramat (hrm), which means sacred or magical;
in Indo-China the Bahnars use the word deng; in Madagascar hasina
seems to embody in part the same notion, (ii) In Africa the idea
is less apparent; perhaps the ngai of the Tanganika tribes comes
nearest to the notion of mana; on the Congo nkici has a similar
but more restricted sense, (iii) In Australia there are two, or perhaps
three, kinds of magical power distinguished by the aborigines ; all
over the continent we find the maleficent power, boolya in West
Australia, arungquiltha in the central tribes, koochie in New South
Wales; the central tribes have certain objects termed churinga, to
which magical power (which we may term churinga) is attributed;
the power of magicians is held to reside in certain stones, called
atnongara, and in this we must, provisionally at any rate, see a third
kind of magical power: churinga is beneficent and seems to originate
with the mythical ancestors, whereas arungquiltha is of immediate
origin, created by means of incantations or acquired by contact
with certain objects; the power of the magicians seems to proceed
from the ancestors in like manner, (iv) In America these ideas
are widely found; the orenda of the Hurons has been elaborately
described by J. N. B. Hewitt; everything in nature, and particularly
all animate objects, have their orenda; so have gods and spirits;
and natural phenomena are the product of the orenda of their spirits.
Orenda is distinct from the things to which it is attached; the cry
of birds, the rustle of the trees, the soughing of the wind, are expres-
sions of their orenda ; the voice of the magician is orenda, so are the
prayer and the spell, and in fact all rites ; orenda -is above all the power
of the medicine man. Among the Algonquins we find the word
manitu, among the Sioux wakanda, mahowa, &c., among the Shoshones
pokunt; all of which seem to carry, at least in part, the same signifi-
cation. In Central America, according to Hubert and Mauss, naval
or nagual is the corresponding term, (v) Traces of similar ideas may
be found in more advanced nations; the Hindu brahman is identified
by Hubert and Mauss as the correlative of mana ; in Greece <}>vais is
possibly the echo of a similar idea; but we are yet far from having
adequately fathomed the dynamical theories of pre-scientific days.

Origin of Magic. — The associationist theory of magic sets out
with the assumption that primitive man began with general
conceptions; he started with certain means at his disposal — the
law of sympathy — by which he could, in his own belief, influence
the outer world. But it is more probable that he argued from
concrete instances and arrived little by little at abstract ideas
of magical power.

a. Death and disease are universally regarded by uncivilized
people as due to so-called " magic," i.e. to non-natural causes.
Primitive man was familiar with the wounds and bruises caused by
physical means; he would naturally attribute any pain not so caused
to the operation of analogous but invisible weapons, and eventually
attempt to discover how he himself could apply on his own behalf
the forces thus used against him. Similarly he may have asked
himself to what causes were to be attributed the superiority of one
man over another; he may have decided the problem by referring
it to the superior power of the one, and then inquired in what way
this power could in individual instances be increased. In fact we may
say generally that man probably explained the already existing
and happening by reference to the supernormal, and then endeavoured
to guide the supernormal for his own benefit, direct or indirect.

b. Ritual, however (the primitive magico-religious plasm), is
negative as well as positive. The corpse is uncanny, and man's
dread of the corpse may well have been an early development ; this
dread, become traditional, with accretions of various sorts, crystal-
lized into taboo, the magico-religious prohibition. The notion of the
uncanny, once arrived at, may have been exploited positively;
psychical abnormalities are present among savage races in very
different degrees; but if they were developed at an early stage in
human history they doubtless suggested the possibility that man
might exploit them for the collective advantage. But it by no means
follows that beneficent rites were originally regarded as magical;
and it should be noted that the initiator of the so-called magician in
Australia is often the god of the tribe or nation. The limits of
magic or its correlatives in the lower stages of culture are thus far
undecided.

c. Magic as it represents itself to the Occidental mind of the pre-
sent day, and perhaps to the great part of theinhabitantsof the world,

MAGIC

307

seems to be a thing of gradual growth, (i) In the earlier stages there
was probably no animistic feature about magic; it was essentially
" the prohibited." (ii) Then with the rise of animistic beliefs and
practices came the association of the magician with demons — the
spirits of the dead, or of animals, or unattached spirits — upon whose
co-operation the powers of the magician are often now held to depend.
These spirits were not in the position of gods; such recognition,
worship, or cult as they received was often not a social institution,
but the work of individuals, liable to fall into desuetude at the death
of the individual, if not earlier, (iii) Again, the magical tends to
be the less important and eventually the less respectable; therefore
ancient cults which are conquered, like the religion of Rome by
Christianity, come to be reckoned as within the sphere of magic
and witchcraft, (iv) All non-animistic practices tend to become
ipso facto magical; many ritual prohibitions fall under the head
of negative magic. Religion is predominantly animistic, and with
the rise of gods magic and religion become antagonistic. Thus rites
of a neutral character, such as leechcraft, and perhaps agricultural
ceremonies which are not absorbed by religion, tend to acquire the
reputation of being magical, as also do alF amulets and talismans,
and, in fact, everything not directly associated with religion. We
therefore arrive at a period when magic is distinguished as while,
i.e. the laudable, or at least permitted form, and black, i.e. the
prohibited form.

Magic and Demonology. — Primitive psychology, tends to
anthropomorphize and personify; it is in many of its stages
inclined to an animistic philosophy. To this is due in part the
difficulty of distinguishing magic from religion. In many rites
there is no obvious indication that a spirit or personal being is
concerned. A portion of the ceremonies in which the spirits of
the dead are concerned falls under the head of religion (see
ANCESTOR WORSHIP), but in the very name " necromancy "
(vtKpos, corpse) lies an implication of magic; and dealings with
the departed are viewed in this light in many parts of the world,
sometimes concurrently with a cult of ancestors. Side by side
with the human souls we find demons (see DEMONOLOGY);
but on the whole only a small proportion of the world of spirits
is recognized as powerful in magic; others, such as disease-
spirits, are objects, not sources, of magical influence. Magic
is sometimes made to depend upon the activity of demons and
spirits, and it is true that the magician usually if not invariably
has a spirit helper, often an animal; but there is no evidence that
magical power had ever been confined to those who are thus aided.
It is not easy to define the relation of fetishism (q.v.) to magic.

Magic and Science. — It is a commonplace, that the sciences
have developed from non-scientific beginnings; the root of
astronomy is to be sought in astrology (q.v.), of chemistry in
alchemy (q.v.), of leechcraft in the practices of the savage magi-
cian, who depends for much of his success on suggestion, conscious
or unconscious, but also relies on a pharmacopeia of ho mean
extent. The dynamical theory of magic and religion brings
primitive man from one point of view far nearer to the modern
man of science than was previously suspected, we may fairly
say that the Australians have an idea not unlike that of the trans-
formation and conservation of energy, that this energy they store
in accumulators, transmit by means of conductors, and so on.
The discovery of these complicated ideas only serves to show
how far the present-day peoples in the lower stages of culture
have travelled from the primitive man who knew neither magic
nor religion. But it is perhaps less in respect of abstract ideas
than by its concrete investigations into properties, experiment
and otherwise that magic has been the forerunner of science.

Magic and Divination. — Magic is an attempt to influence the
course of events, divination (q.v.) to foresee them; but divination
is frequently regarded as magical. It is certain that a large part
of divination is religious, and the knowledge is explained as a
message from the gods; but necromancy, the practice of dis-
covering the future by consulting the dead, is in many respects
essentially magical. Perhaps the magical character of divina-
tion may be in part explained, when we regard it as a group of
practices in many varieties of which animism plays no part ; for
non-animistic ceremonies tend to be regarded as magical (cf.
rain-making). Thus, heteroscopic divination seems to involve
the idea of what may be termed a return current of magico-
religious force; the event is not influenced, but itself determines
the issue of the diviner's experiment.

II. — LAWS AND RlTUAl OF MAGIC

The practice of magic involves the belief in the operation of
certain laws, and demands certain conditions. The number of
positive rites is not unlimited; a certain rite tends to become
stable and is finally used for all sorts of purposes; and each
magician tends to specialize in this respect. Just as there are
well-marked schools of magic, and the rain-maker is not the same
as the fetish-man, so within the school there are various groups,
differentiated not by the purposes at which they aim nor by the
powers they claim to possess, but by the ceremonies which they
practise. Chief among the laws lying at the base of magical
practice is that of sympathy.

Sympathy. — That the law of sympathy is an essential element
of magic is admitted equally by the associationist school and by
its critics. Under the head of sympathy are embraced the laws
of contiguity or contagion, of similarity or homoeopathy, and
of contrariety or antipathy.

a. In its simplest form the law of contiguity asserts that whatever
has once formed part of a body continues to form part of it or to
represent it for magical purposes; thus, by obtaining possession of
the parings of a person's nails, or the clippings of his hair, and by
working magic upon them, it is held to be possible to produce on
the actual human body the effects which are in reality produced on
the object of the magical rite. As is clear by the well-known case of the
" life index," the current of magical power may pass in either direc-
tion ; if the life of a man is supposed to be bound up with the life of
a tree, so that any injury to the tree reacts on the man, it is equally
believed that the death of the man will not fail to be manifest by
the state of the tree. In particular this sympathetic relation is
predicated of wizards or witches and their animal familiars; it is
then known by the name of " repercussion." It is not only upon
parts of the body that contagious magic can be worked; anything
which has been in contact with the body, such as clothes, anything
which has been in part assimilated by the body, such as the remains
of food, and even representations of the body or of parts of it such
as footprints, &c., may be used as objects of magical rites, in order
to transmit to the human being some influence, maleficent or other-
wise. The contact demanded may be actual, or mediate, for in
Australia it suffices to connect the magician and his patient by a
thread in order that the disease may be removed, (i) The use of
clothes for magical purposes gives us perhaps the clue to the wide-
spread custom of " rag-trees "; in nearly every part of the world it
is the practice to suspend wool or rags to trees associated with some
spirit, or, in Christian countries, with some saint, in order to reap a
benefit; similarly nails are .driven into trees or images; pins are
dropped into wells, stones are cast upon cairns, and missiles aimed
at various holy objects; but it cannot be assumed that the same ex-
planation lies at the root of the whole group of practices, (ii) This
jaw may perhaps be taken as the explanation of the " couvade ";
in many parts of the world relatives, and in particular the father
of a new-born child, are compelled to .practise various abstinences,
in order that the health of the child may not be affected, member-
jhip of the same family therefore establishes a sympathetic relation,
(iii) In this direct transference of qualities if exemplified another
magical process, which may also be referred to the operation of the
law of sympathy; it is a world- wide belief that the assimilation of
food involves the transference to the eater of the qualities, or of
some of them, inherent in the source of the food ; a South African
warrior, for example, may not eat hedgehog, because the animal is
held to be cowardly and the eater would himself become a coward ;
on the other hand, the flesh of lions is fit meat for brave men, because
they at the same time transfer its courage to themselves.

6. The law of homoeopathy takes two forms, (i) The magician
may proceed on the assumption that like produces like ; he may, for
example, take an image of wax or wood, and subject it to heat or
other influences under the belief that it represents the human being
against whom his malefice is directed, and that without any contact,
real or pretended ; so that any results produced on the image, which
may be replaced by an animal or a portion of one, are equally pro-
duced in the human being. There need not even be any resemblance
between the representation and the person or thing represented; a
pot may serve to represent a village ; hence step by step we pass from
the representation to the symbol, (ii) The law of homoeopathy also
manifests itself in the formula similia similibus curantur; the Brah-
man in India treated dropsy with ablutions, not in order to add to,
but to subtract from, the quantity of liquid in the patient's body.
So, too, the yellow turmeric was held to be a specific for jaundice.

c. Here we approach the third class of sympathetic rites; it is
clear that a remedy produces the contrary, when it cures the like;
conversely, like by producing like expels its contrary.

Some statements of the law of sympathy suggest that it is
absolute in its application. It is true that the current of magical
power is sometimes held to be transmitted along lines indicated

3o8

MAGIC

by the law of sympathy, without the intervention of any volition,
human or otherwise; thus, the crow which carries stray hairs
away to weave them into the structure of its nest is nowhere
supposed to be engaged in a magical process; but it is commonly
held that the person whose hair is thus used will suffer from head-
ache or other maladies; this seems to indicate that the law of
sympathy operates mechanically in certain directions, though
the belief may also be explained as a secondary growth. In
general the operation of these laws is limited in the extreme.
For example, the medieval doctrine known as the Law of Signa-
tures asserted that the effects of remedies were correlated to their
external qualities; bear's grease is good for baldness, because
the bear is a hairy animal. But the transference was held to
terminate with the acquisition by the man of this single quality;
in some magical books powdered mummy is recommended
as a means of prolonging life, but it is simply the age of the
remedy which is to benefit the patient; the magician who removes
a patient's pains or diseases does not transfer them to himself;
the child whose parents eat forbidden foods is held to be affected
by their transgression, while they themselves come off unharmed.
The magical effects are limited by exclusive attention and ab-
straction ; and this is true not only of the kind of effect produced
but also as to the direction in which it is held to be produced.

The Magic of Names. — For primitive peoples the name is as
much a part of the person as a limb; consequently the magical
use of names is in some of its aspects assimilable to the processes
dependent on the law of sympathy. In some cases the name
must be withheld from any one who is likely to make a wrong use
of it, and in some parts of the world people have secret names
which are never used. Elsewhere the name must not be told
by the bearer of it, but any other person may communicate it
without giving an opening for the magical use of it. Not only
human beings but also spirits can be coerced by the use of their
names; hence the names of the dead are forbidden, lest the men-
tion of them act as an evocation, unintentional though it be.
Even among more advanced nations it has been the practice to
conceal the real name of supreme gods; we may probably explain
this as due to the fear that an enemy might by the use of them
turn the gods away from those to whom they originally belonged.
For the same reason ancient Rome had a secret name.

Magical Rites. — The magic of names leads us up to the magic of
the spoken word in general. The spell or incantation and the
magical act together make up the rite, (a) The manual acts are
very frequently symbolic or sympathetic in their nature; sometimes
they are mere' reversals of a religious rite ; such is the marching
against the sun (known as luiddershins or deisul) ; sometimes they
are purificatory ; and magic has its sacrifices just as much as religion.
(6) There are many types of oral rites; some of the most curious
consist in simply reciting the effect intended to be produced, describ-
ing the manual act, or, especially in Europe, telling a mythical
narrative in which Christ or the apostles figure, and in which they
are represented as producing a similar effect to the one desired ; in
other cases the " origin " of the disease or maleficent being is recited.
Oral rites, which are termed spells or incantations, correspond in
many cases to the oral rites of religion; they, like the manual rites,
are a heterogeneous mass and hardly lend themselves to classifica-
tion. Some formulae may be termed sympathetic; it suffices to
name the result to be produced in order to produce it ; but often an
incantation is employed, not to produce a result directly, but to
coerce a god or other being and compel him to fulfil the magician's
will. The language of the incantations often differs from that of
daily life; it may be a survival of archaic forms or may be a special
creation for magical purposes. In many languages the word used
to express the idea of magic means an act, a deed ; and it may be
assumed that few if any magical ceremonies consist of formulae only ;
on the other hand, it is certain that no manual act in magic stands
absolutely alone without oral rite; if there is no spoken formula,
there is at least an unspoken thought. It is in many cases difficult
to discover the relative proportions and importance of manual and
oral acts. _ Not only the words but also the tone are of importance
in magic ; in fact, the tone may be the more important. Rhythm
and repetition are no less necessary in oral than in manual acts, (c)
As preliminaries, more seldom as necessary sequels to the central
feature of the rite, manual or oral, we usually find a certain number
of accessory observances prescribed, which find their parallel in the
sacrificial ritual. For example, it is laid down at what time of year,
at what period of the month or week, at what hour of the day a rite
must be performed ; the waxing or waning of the moon must be noted ;
and certain days must be avoided altogether. Similarly, certain

places may be prescribed for the performance of the ritual ; often
the altar of the god serves magical purposes also ; but elsewhere it
is precisely the impure sites which are devoted to magical operations
— the cemeteries and the cross roads. The instruments of magic
are in like manner often the remains of a sacrifice, or otherwise
consecrated by .religion; sometimes, especially when they belong
to the animal or vegetable world, they must be sought at certain
seasons, May Day, St George's Day, Midsummer Day, &c. The
magician and his client must undergo rites of preparation rrd the
exit may be marked by similar ceremonies.

Magicians. — Most peoples know the professional worker of magic,
or what is regarded as magic, (a) In most if not all societies magic,
or certain sorts of it, may be performed by any one, so far as we can
see, who has mastered the necessary ritual ; in other cases the magician
is a specialist who owes his position to an accident of birth (seventh
son of a seventh son) ; to simple inheritance (families of magicians
in modern India, rain-makers in New Caledonia) ; to revelation from
the gods or the spirits of the dead (Malays), showing itself in the
phenomena of possession ; or to initiation by other magicians.
(6) From a psychical point of view it may probably be said that the
initiation of a magician corresponds to the " development " of the
modern spiritualistic medium ; that is to say, that it resolves itself
into exercises and rites which have for their object the creation or
evolution of a secondary personality. From this point of view it is
important to notice that certain things are forbidden to magicians
under pain of loss of their powers ; thus, hot tea is taboo to the Arunta
medicine man; and if this seems unlikely to cause the secondary
personality to disappear, it must be remembered that to the physio-
logical effects, if any, must be added the effects of suggestion. Of
this duplication of personality various explanations are given ; in
Siberia the soul of the shaman is said to wander into the other world,
and this is a widely spread theory ; where the magician is supposed
to remain on earth, his soul is again believed to wander, but there
is an alternative explanation which gives him two or more bodies.
Here we reach a point at which the familiar makes its appearance;
this is at times a secondary form of the magician, but more often is
a sort of life index or animal helper (see LYCANTHROPY) ; in fact, the
magician's power is sometimes held to depend on the presence — that
is, the independence — of his animal auxiliary. Concurrent with this
theory is the view that the magician must first enter into a trance
before the animal makes its appearance, and this makes it a double
of the magician, or, from the psychological point of view, a phase of
secondary personality, (c) In many parts of the world magical
powers are associated with the membership of secret societies, and
elsewhere the magicians form a sort of corporation; in Siberia, for
example, they are held to be united by a certain tie of kinship ; where
this is not the case, they are believed, as in Africa at the present day
or in medieval Europe, to hold assemblies, so-called witches Sabbaths ;
in Europe the meetings of heretics seem to be responsible for the
prominence of the idea if not for its origin (see WITCHCRAFT). The
magician is often regarded as possessed (see POSSESSION) either by
an animal or by a human or super-human spirit. The relations of
priest and magician are for various reasons complex; where the
initiation of the magician is regarded as the work of the gods, the
magician is for obvious reasons likely to develop into a priest, but
he may at the same time remain a magician; where a religion has
been superseded, the priests of the ojd cult are, for those who super-
sede them, one and all magicians; in the medieval church, priests
were regarded as especially exposed to the assaults of demons, and
were consequently often charged with working magic. The great
magicians who are gods rather than men — e.g. kings of Fire and Water
in Cambodia — enjoy a reverence and receive a cult which separates
them from the common herd, and assimilates them to priests rather
than to magicians. The function of the so-called magician is often
said to be beneficent; in Africa the witch-doctor's business is to
counteract evil magic; in Australia the magician has to protect his
own tribe against the assaults of hostile magicians of other tribes;
and in Europe " white magic " is the correlative of this beneficent
power; but it may be questioned how far the beneficent virtue is
regarded as magical outside Europe.

Talismans and Amulets. — Inanimate objects as well as living
beings are credited with stores of magical force; when they are
regarded as bringing good, i.e. are positive in their action, they may
be termed "talismans"; "amulets" are protective or negative
in their action, and their function is to avert evil; a single object
may serve both purposes. Broadly speaking, the fetish, whose
" magical " properties are due to association with a spirit, tends to
become a talisman or amulet. The " medicine " of the Red Indian,
originally carried as means of union between him and his manito, is
perhaps the prototype of many European charms. In other cases
it is some specific quality of the object or animal which is desired;
the boar's tusk is worn on the Papuan Gulf as a means of imparting
courage to the wearer; the Lukungen Indians of Vancouver Island
rub the ashes of wasps on the faces of their warriors, in order that
they may be pugnacious. Some Bechuanas wear a ferret as a charm,
in the belief that it will make them difficult to kill, the animal being
very tenacious of life. Among amulets may be mentioned horns
and crescents, eyes or their representations, and grotesque figures,
all of which are supposed to be powerful against the Evil Eye (q.v.).

MAGIC

3°9

Tylor has shown that the brass objects so often seen on harness were
originally amuletic in purpose, and can be traced back to Roman
times. Some amulets are supposed to protect from the evil eye

k simply by attracting the glance from the wearer to themselves, but,
as a rule, magical power is ascribed to them.

Evil Magic. — The object of " black " magic is to inflict injury,
disease, or death on an enemy, and the various methods employed
illustrate the general principles dealt with above and emphasize the
conclusion that magic is not simply a matter of sympathetic rites,
but involves a conception of magical force, (a) It has been men-
tioned that contagious magic makes use of portions of a person's
body ; the Cherokee magician follows his victim till he spits on the
ground ; collecting the spittle mingled with dust on the end of a stick,
the magician puts it into a tube made of a poisonous plant together
with seven earth worms, beaten into a paste, and splinters of a tree
blasted by lightning; the whole is buried with seven yellow stones
at the foot of a tree struck by lightning, and a fire is built over the
spot ; the magician fasts till the ceremony is over. Probably the
worms are supposed to feed on the victim's soul, which is said to
become " blue " when the charm works; the yellow stones are the
emblem of trouble, and lightning-struck trees are reputed powerful
in magic. If the charm does not work, the victim survives the
criticalseven days, and the magician and his employer are themselves
in danger, for a charm gone wrong returns upon the head of him who
sent it forth. (b) In homoeopathic magic the victim is represented
by an image or other object. In the Malay Peninsula the magician
makes an image like a corpse, a footstep long. " If you want to
cause sickness, you pierce the eye and blindness results; or you pierce
the waist and the stomach gets sick. If you want to cause death,
you transfix the head with a palm twig; then you enshroud the image
as you would a corpse and you pray over it as if you were praying
over the dead ; then you bury it in the middle of the path which leads
to the place of the person whom you wish to charm, so that he may
step over it." Sometimes the wizard repeats a form of words
signifying that not he but the Archangel Gabriel is burying the
victim; sometimes he exclaims, " It is not wax I slay but the liver,
heart and spleen of So-and-so." Finally, the image is buried in front
of the victim's doors, (c) Very widespread is the idea that a magician
can influence his victim by charming a bone, stick or other object,
and then projecting the magical influence from it. It is perhaps
the commonest form of evil magic in Australia; in the Arunta tribe
a man desirous of using one of these pointing sticks or bones goes
away by himself into the bush, puts the bone on the ground and
crouches over it, muttering a charm : " May your heart be rent
asunder." After a time he brings the irna back to the camp and
hides it ; then one evening after dark he takes it and creeps near
enough to see the features of his victim; he stoops down with the
irna in his hand and repeatedly jerks it over his shoulder, muttering
curses all the time. The evil magic, arungquUtha, is said to go
straight to the victim, who sickens and dies without apparent cause,
unless some medicine-man can discover what is wrong and save him
by removing the evil magic. The irna is concealed after the cere-
mony, for the magician would at once be killed if it were known that
he had used it. (d) Magicians are often said to be able to assume
animal form or to have an animal familiar. They are said to suck
the victim's blood or send a messenger to do so; sometimes they are
said to steal his soul, thus causing sickness and eventually death.
These beliefs bring the magician into close relation with the werwolf
(see LYCANTHROPY).

Rain-making. — In the lower stages of culture rain-making assumes
rather the appearance of a religious ceremony, and even in higher
stages the magical character is by no means invariably felt. It will,
however, be well to notice some of the methods here, (a) Among
the Dieri of Central Australia the whole tribe takes part in the
ceremony ; a hole is dug, and over this a hut is built, large enough for
the old men ; the women are called to look at it and then retire some
five hundred yards. Two wizards have their arms bound at the
shoulder, the old men huddle in the hut, and the principal wizard
bleeds the two men selected by cutting them inside the arm below
the elbow. The blood is made to flow on the old men, and the two
men throw handfuls of down into the air. The blood symbolizes
the rain ; the down is the clouds. Then two large stones are placed
in the middle of the hut ; these two represent gathering clouds. The
women are again summoned, and then the stones are placed high
in a tree; other men pound gypsum and throw it into a water-hole;
the ancestral spirits are supposed to see this and to send rain. Then
the hut is knocked down, the men butting at it with their heads; this
symbolizes the breaking of the clouds, and the fall of the hut is the
rain. If no rain comes they say that another tribe has stopped their
power or that the Mura-mura (ancestors) are angry with them.
(b) Rain-making ceremonies are far from uncommon in Europe.
Sometimes water is poured on a stone; a row of stepping-stones runs
into one of the tarns on Snowdon, and it is said that water thrown
upon the last one will cause rain to fall before night. Sometimes the
images of saints are carried to a river or a fountain and ducked or
sprinkled_with water in the belief that rain will follow; sometimes
ram is said to ensue when the water of certain springs is troubled ;
perhaps the idea is that the rain-god is disturbed in his haunts. But
perhaps the commonest method is to duck or drench a human figure

or puppet, who represents in many instances the vegetation demon.
The gipsies of Transylvania celebrate the festival of " Green George "
at Easter or on St George's Day; a boy dressed up in leaves and
blossoms is the principal figure; he throws grass to the cattle of the
tribe, and after various other ceremonies a pretence is made of throw-
ing him into the water; but in fact only a puppet is ducked in the
stream.

Negative Magic. — There is also a negative side to magic,
which, together with ritual prohibitions of a religious nature, is
often embraced under the name of taboo (q.v.) ; this extension of
meaning is not justified, for taboo is only concerned with sacred
things, and the mark of it is that its violation causes the taboo
to be transmitted. All taboos are ritual prohibitions, but all
ritual prohibitions are not taboos; they include also (a) inter-
dictions of which the sanction is the wrath of a god; these may
be termed religious interdictions; (b) interdictions, the violation
of which will automatically cause some undesired magico-religious
effect; to these the term negative magic should be restricted,
and they might conveniently be called " bans "; they correspond
in the main to positive rites and are largely based on the same
principles.

(a) Certain prohibitions, such as those imposed on totem kins,
seem to occupy an intermediate place; they depend on the sanctity
of the totem animal without being taboos in the strict sense ; to them
no positive magical rites correspond, for the totemic prohibition is
clearly religious, not magical.

(b) Among cases of negative magic may be mentioned (i.) the
couvade, and prohibitions observed by parents and relatives gener-
ally ; this is most common in the case of young children, but a sym-
pathetic relation is held to exist in other cases also. In Madagascar
a son may not eat fallen bananas, for the result would be to cause
the death of his own father; the sympathy between father and son
establishes a sympathy between the father and objects touched or
eaten by the son, and, in addition, the fall of the bananas is equated
with the death of a human being. Again, the wife of a Malagasy
warrior may not be faithless to him when he is absent ; if she is,
he will be killed or wounded. Ownership, too, may create a sym-
pathetic relation of this kind, for it is believed in parts of Europe
that if a man _kills a swallow his cows will give bloody milk. In
some cases it is even harder to see how the sympathetic bond is
established; some Indians of Brazil always hamstring animals before
bringing them home, in the belief that by so doing they make it
easier for themselves and their children to run down their enemies,
who are then magically deprived of the use of their legs. These are
all examples of negative magic with regard to persons, but things
may be equally affected ; thus in Borneo men who search for camphor
abstain from washing their plates for fear the camphor, which is
found crystallized in the crevices of trees, should dissolve and dis-
appear, (ii.) Rules which regulate diet exist not only for the benefit
of others but also for that of the eater. Some animals, such as the
hare, are forbidden, just as others, like the lion, are prescribed;
the one produces cowardice, while the other makes a man's heart
bold, (iii.) Words may not be used; Scottish fishermen will not
mention the pig at sea; the real names of certain animals, like the
bear, may not be used ; the names of the dead may not be mentioned ;
a sacred language must be used, e.g. camphor language in the Malay
peninsula, or only words of good omen (cf. Gr. «60j|/i«re) ; or
absolute silence must be preserved. Personal names are concealed ;
a man may not mention the names of certain relatives, &c. There
are customs of avoidance not only as to (iv.) the names of relatives,
but as to the persons themselves; the mother-in-law must avoid the
son-in-law, and vice versa; sometimes they may converse at a
distance, or in low tones, sometimes not at all, and sometimes they
may not even meet, (v.) In addition to these few classes selected at
random, we have prohibitions relating to numbers (cf. unlucky
thirteen, which is, however, of recent date), the calendar (Friday as
an unlucky day, May as an unlucky month for marriage), places,
persons, orientation, &c ; but it is impossible to enumerate even the
main classes. The individual origin of such beliefs, which with us
form the superstitions of daily life but in a savage or semi-civilized
community play a large part in regulating conduct, is often shrouded
in darkness; the meaning of the positive rite is easily forgotten; the
negative rite persists, but it is observed merely to avoid some
unknown misfortune. Sometimes we can, however, guess at the
meaning of our civilized notions of ill luck; it is perhaps as a
survival of the savage belief that stepping over a person is injurious
to him that many people regard going under a ladder as unlucky;
in the one case the luck is taken away by the person stepping
over, in the other left behind by the person passing under.

History of Magic. — The subject is too vast and our data are
too slight to make a general sketch of magic possible. Our
knowledge of Assyrian magic, for example, hardly extends
beyond the rites of exorcism ; the magic of Africa is most inade-
quately known, and only in recent years have we well-analysed

310

MAGIC SQUARE

repertories of magical rituals from any part of the world. For
certain departments of ancient magic, however, like the Pytha-
gorean philosophy, there is no lack of illustrative material; it
depended on mystical speculations based on numbers or analo-
gous principles. The importance of numbers is recognized in
the magic of America and other areas, but the science of the
Mediterranean area, combined with the art of writing, was needed
to develop such mystical ideas to their full extent. Among the
neo-Platonists there was a strong tendency to magical specula-
tion, and they sought to impress into their service the demons
with which they peopled the universe. Alexandria was the
home of many systems of theurgic magic, and gnostic gems
afford evidence of the nature of their symbols. In the middle
ages the respectable branches of magic, such as astrology and
alchemy, included much of the real science of the period; the
rise of Christianity introduced a new element, for the Church
regarded all the religions of the heathen as dealings with demons
and therefore magical (see WITCHCRAFT). In our own day the
occult sciences still find devotees among the educated; certain
elements have acquired a new interest, in so far as they are the
subject matter of psychical research (q.v.) and spiritualism (q.v.).
But it is only among what are regarded as the lower classes,
and in England especially the rural population, that belief in its
efficacy still prevails to any large extent.

Psychology of Magic. — The same causes which operated to
produce a belief in witchcraft (q.v.) aided the creed of magic in
general. Fortuitous coincidences attract attention; the failures
are disregarded or explained ' away. Probably the magician is
never wholly an impostor, and frequently has a whole-hearted
belief in himself; in this connexion may be noted the fact that
juggling tricks have in all ages been passed off as magical; the
name of " conjuring " (q.v.) survives in our own day, though the
conjurer no longer claims that his mysterious results are produced
by demons. It is interesting to note that magical leechcraft
depended for its success on the power of suggestion (q.v.), which
is to-day a recognized element in medicine; perhaps other ele-
ments may have been instrumental in producing a cure, for there
are cases on record in which European patients have been cured
by the apparently meaningless performances of medicine-men,
but an adequate study of savage medicine is still a desideratum.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For a general discussion of magic with a list of
selected works see Hubert and Mauss in Annee sociologique, vii.
1-146; also A. Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei; the article
" Religion " in La Grande encyclopedic; K. T. Preuss in Globus,
vols. 86, 87; Mauss, L'Origine des pouvoirs magiques, and Hubert,
La Representation du temps (Reports of Ecole pratique des
hautes Etudes, Paris). For general bibliographies see Hauck,
Realencyklopddie, s.v. " Magie ' ; A. C. Haddon, Magic and Fetish-
ism. J. G. T. Graesse's Bibliotlieca magica is an exhaustive list of
early works dealing with magic and superstition. For Australia
see Spencer and Gillen's works, and A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes.
For America see Reports of Bureau of Ethnology, vii. xvii. For
India see W. Caland, Altindisches Zauber-ritual; and W. Crooke,
Popular Religion; also V. Henry, La Magie. For the Malays see
W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic. For Babylonia and Assyria see L. W.
King's works. For magic in Greece and Rome see Daremberg and
Saglio, s.v. " Magia," " Amuletum," &c. For medieval magic see
A. Maury, La Magie. For illustrations of magic see J. G. Frazer,
The Golden Bough; E. S. Hartland, Legend of Perseus; E. B. Tylor,
Primitive Culture; W. G. Black, Folkmedicine. For negative magic
see the works of Frazer and Skeat cited above; also Journ. Anthrop.
Inst. xxxvi. 92-103; Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie (Verhandlungen)
(1905), 153-162; Bulletin trimestriel de I'academie malgache, iii.
JOS-tSQ- See also bibliography to TABOO and WITCHCRAFT.

(N. W. T.)

MAGIC SQUARE, a square divided into equal squares, like a
chess-board, in each of which is placed one of a series of con-
secutive numbers from i up to the square of the number of cells
in a side, in such a manner that the sum of the numbers in each
row or column and in each diagonal is constant.

From a very early period these squares engaged the attention
of mathematicians, especially such as possessed a love of the
marvellous, or sought to win for themselves a superstitious
regard. They were then supposed to possess magical properties,
and were worn, as in India at the present day, engraven in metal
or stone, as amulets or talismans. According to the old astro-

logers, relations subsisted between these squares and the planets.
In later times such squares ranked only as mathematical curiosi-
ties; till at last their mode of construction was systematically
investigated. The earliest known writer on the subject was
Emanuel Moscopulus, a Greek (4th or 5th century). Bernard
Frenicle de Bessy constructed magic squares such that if one or
more of the encircling bands of numbers be taken away the
remaining central squares are still magical. Subsequently
Poignard constructed squares with numbers in arithmetical pro-

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gression, having the magical summations. The later researches of
Phillipe de la Hire, recorded in the Memoires de V Academic
Roy ale in 1705, are interesting as giving general methods of
construction. He has there collected the results of the labours
of earlier pioneers; but the subject has now been fully systema-
tized, and extended to cubes.

Two interesting magical arrangements are said to have been given
by Benjamin Franklin; these have been termed the " magic square
of squares " and the " magic circle of circles." The first (fig. i)
is a square divided into 256 squares, i.e. 1 6 squares along a side, in

FIG. 2.

which are placed the numbers from I to 256. The chief properties of
this square are (i) the sum of the 16 numbers in any row or column
is 2056; (2) the sum of the 8 numbers in half of any row or column
is 1028, i.e. one half of 2056; (3) the sum of the numbers in two half-
diagonals equals 2056; (4) the sum of the four corner numbers of
the great square and the four central numbers equals 1028 ; (5) the
sum of the numbers in any 16 cells of the large square which them-
selves are disposed in a square is 2056. This square has other curious

MAGIC SQUARE

properties. The " magic circle of circles " (fig. 2) consists of eight
annular rings and a central circle, each ring being divided into eight
rrlU by radii drawn from the centre; there are therefore 65 cells.
The number 12 is placed in the centre, and the consecutive numbers
13 to 75 are placed in the other cells. The properties of this figure
include the following: (l) the sum of the eight numbers in any ring
together with the central number 12 is 360, the number of degrees
in a circle; (2) the sum of the eight numbers in any set of radial cells
together with the central number is 360; (3) the sum of the numbers
in any four adjoining cells, either annular, radial, or both radial
and two annular, together with half the central number, is 1 80.

Construction of Magic Squares. — A square of 5 (fig. 3) has
adjoining it one of the eight equal squares by which any square

may be conceived to
be surrounded, eacli of
which has two sides
resting on adjoining
squares, while four
have sides resting on
the surrounded square,
and four meet it only
at its four angles. 1,2,

a

e

s

<

4

b

a

4

S

7

C

3

1

M

ft

d

if

a

e

FIG. 3.

3 are placed along the path of a knight in chess; 4, along the same
path, would fall in a cell of the outer square, and is placed instead
in the corresponding cell of the original square; 5 then falls
within the square, a, b, c, d are placed diagonally in the square;
but e enters the outer square, and is removed thence to the same
cell of the square it had left, a, /3, j, S, f pursue another regular
course; and the diagram shows how that course is recorded in
the square they have twice left. Whichever of the eight sur-
rounding squares may be entered, the corresponding cell of the
central square is taken instead. The i, 2, 3, ... ., a, b, c, . . . .,
o, (3, 7, .... are said to lie in "paths."

Squares whose Roots are Odd. — Figs 4, 5, and 6 exhibit one of
the earliest methods of constructing magic squares. Here the

I

4

X

S

3

4

•

S

3

I

•

S

3

X

4

S

3

i

4

•

3

I

4

a

S

FIG. 6.

FIG. 4. FIG. 5.

3*s in fig. 4 and 2's in fig. 5 are placed in opposite diagonals to
secure the two diagonal summations; then each number in fig. 5
is multiplied by 5 and added to that in the corresponding square
in fig. 4, which gives the square of fig. 6. Figs. 7, 8 and 9 give
De la Hire's method; the squares of figs. 7 and 8, being combined,
give the magic square of fig. 9. C. G. Bachet arranged the num-
bers as in fig. 10, where there are three numbers in each of four
surrounding squares; these being placed in the corresponding cells
of the central square, the square of fig. 1 1 is formed. He also con-

a

l

S

3

4

3

4

a

I

S

I

5

3

4

a

4

a

i

S

3

5

3

4

a

t

FIG. 7.

FIG. 8.

FIG. 9.

structed squares such that if one or more outer bands of numbers
are removed the remaining central squares are magical. His
method of forming them may be understood from a square of 5.
Here each summation is 5X13; if therefore 13 is subtracted from
each number, the summations will be zero, and the twenty-five

cells will contain the series ± i, =*= 2, ± 3 * 12, the odd

cell having o. The central square of 3 is formed with four of the
twelve numbers with + and — signs and zero in the middle; the
band is filled up with the rest, as in fig. 12; then, 13 being added
in each cell, the magic square of fig. 13 is obtained.

Squares whose Roots are Even. — These were constructed in
various ways, similar to that of 4 in figs. 14, 1 5 and 16. The num-
bers in fig. 1 5 being multiplied by 4, and the squares of figs. 14
and 15 being superimposed, give fig. 16. The application of

11

7

3

12

8

'7

'3

9

18

«4

»3

19

'S

FIG. 10. FIG. ii.

this method to squares the half of whose roots are odd requires
a complicated adjustment. Squares whose half root is a multiple
of 4, and in which there are summations along all the diagonal

-9

12

S

-»

-6

4

3S

i*

ti

7

1

7

-li

4

-I

M

ao

a

17

»

-8

-3

o

3

L 8

S

M

•3

16

at

10

-4

ii

•7

-10

*3

9

•4

«

3

6

-i*

-S

*

9

<9

i

8

«s

22

FIG. 12. FIG. 13.

paths, may be formed, by observing, as when the root is 4, that

the series i to 16 may be changed into the series 15, 13

3, i, -i, -3, . . . .-13,-is, by multiplying each number by a

FIG. 14. FIG. 15. FIG. 16.

and subtracting 1 7 ; and, vice versa, by adding 17 to each of the
latter, and dividing by 2. The diagonal summations of a square,
filled as in fig. 17, make zero; and, to obtain the same in the rows

A

A

«,

«*

•

-3

IX

-9

f,

A

°3

«.

-s

7

-«S

>3

-a,

-«j

-A

-A

-IX

9

-I

3

-s

-«4

-A

-A

>5

-'3

S

-7

FIG. 17. FIG. 18. FIG. 19.

and columns, we must assign such values to the />'s and g's as

satisfy the equations pi + P^ + ai + at = o, ps + pi + as -f 04 = O,

pi + p> — cti— 03 = O, and pt + pt — at — at = O, — a solution of

which is readily obtained by inspection, as in fig. 18; this leads

to the square, fig. 19. When

the root is 8, the upper four

subsidiary rows may at once

be written, as in fig, 20; then,

if 65 be added to each, and

the sums halved, the square

is completed. In such squares

as these, the two opposite

squares about the same diagonal (except that of 4) may be

turned through any number of right angles, in the same

direction, without altering the summations.

Nasik Squares. — Squares that have many more summations than
in rows, columns and diagonals were investigated by A. H. Frost
(Cambridge Math. Jour., 1857), and called Nasik squares, from the
town in India where he resided; and he extended the method to
cubes, various sections of which have the same singular properties.
In order to understand their construction it will be necessary to

-i

3

5

-7

-33

35

37

-39

9

-IX

-»3

IS

41

-43

-45

47

'7

-«9

-IX

*3

49

-S'

-S3

Si

-»S

«7

*9

-3«

-57

S9

61

-63

FIG. 20.

312

MAGIC SQUARE

a

g

f

e

d

c

b

a

d

g

c

f

b

e

a

e

e

g

b

d

f

a

f

d

b

S

t

c

a

e

b

f

c

e

d

a

b

c

d

e

f

sr

0

h

h

h

h

h

h

FIG. 21.

consider carefully fig. 21, which shows that, when the root is a prime,
and not composite, number, as 7, eight letters a, b, . . . h may proceed
from any, the same, cell, suppose that marked o, each letter being
repeated in the cells along different paths. These eight paths are
called " normal paths," their number being one more than the root
Observe here that, excepting the cells from which any two letters
start, they do not occupy again the
same cell, and that two letters, starting
from any two different cells along differ-
ent paths, will appear together in one
and only one cell. Hence, if pL be placed
in the cells of one of the n+l normal
paths, each of the remaining n normal
paths will contain one, and only one,
of these />,'s. If now we fill each row
with p2, P3, . . . pn in the same order,
commencing from the pi in that row,
the />2's, ^3's and £n's will lie each in a
path similar to that of pl: and each of
the n normal paths will contain one,
and only one, of the letters p,, p2 , . . . £„,
whose sum will be 2p. Similarly, if
gi be placed along any of the normal paths, different from that of
the p's, and each row filled as above with the letters g2, g3, . . . qn,
the sum of the g's along any normal path different from that of
the gi will be 2g. The n2 cells of the square will now be found to
contain all the combinations of the p's and g's; and if the g's
be multiplied by n, the p's made equal to 1,2,... n, and the g's
to o, i, 2,. . .(n — i) in any order, the Nasik square of n will be
obtained, and the summations along all the normal paths, except
those traversed by the p's and g's, will be the constant 2ng + 2£.
When the root is an odd composite number, as 9, 15, &c., it will be
found that in some paths, different from the two along which the
pi and gi were placed, instead of having each of the p's and g's,
some will be wanting, while some are repeated. Thus, in the case
of 9, the triplets, p,ptp7, pj>,ps, p3PePe,and g,g,g7, g,g5gs, g^, occur,
each triplet thrice, along paths whose summation should be — 2/> 45
and 2r 36. But if we make p,, pit . . .pg, = i, 3, 6, 5, 4, 7, 9, 8, 2, and
the TI, r2, . . .r9 =o, 2, 5, 4, 3, 6, 8, 7, i, thrice each of the above sets

of triplets will equal 2/> and
2g respectively. If now the
g's are multiplied by 9, and
added to the p's in their
several cells, we shall have a
Nasik square, with a constant
summation along eight of its
ten normal paths. In fig. 22
the numbers are in the nonary
scale; that in the centre is
the middle one of I to 92, and
the sum of pair of numbers
equidistant from and opposite
to the central 45 is twice 45;
and the sum of any number
and the 8 numbers 3 from it,
diagonally, and in its row and
column, is the constant Nasi-
cal summation, e.g. 72 and
32, 22, 76, 77, 26, 37, 36, 27. The numbers in fig. 22 being kept
in the nonary scale, it is not necessary to add any nine of them
together in order to test the Nasical summation; for, taking the
first column, the figures in the place of units are seen at once

to form the series, I, 2, 3 9, and those in the other place three

triplets of 6, I, 5. For the squares of 15 the p's and g's may be
respectively 1,2, 10, 8, 6, 14, 15, 11,4, 13,9, 7,3, 12, 5, ando, 1,9,7.
5, 13, 14, 10, 3, 12, 8, 6, 2, ii, 4, where five times the sum of every
third number and three times the sum of every fifth number makes
and 2g; then, if the g's are multiplied by 15, and added to the
^>'s, the Nasik square of 15
is obtained. When the root
is the multiple of 4, the same
process gives us, for the
square of 4, fig. 23. Here
the columns give.2/>, but
alternately 2g,, 2g3, and 2g2,
2g, ; and the rows give 2g,
but alternately 2pi, 2p3,
and 2p2, 2pt; the diagonals

«3

88

74

'3

8

M

ST

48

34

zl

9

*S

Si

49

35

61

89

75

5'

47

3«

6*

87

76

12

7

26

68

84

73

18

4

*3

5«

44

33

'9

S

21

59

45

3i

69

85

7i

57

4«

3*

«7

86

1*

'7

6

22

«4

83

7»

M

3

18

54

43

38

IS

i

*9

55

4«

39

«5

81

79

56

4>

37

66

8s

77

16

•

27

FIG. 22.

FIG. 24.

FIG. 23.

giving 2/> and 2g. If pt,' Pv *p\, pt and"g,, g2, g3, qt be I, 2, 4, 3,
and o, 1,3, 2, we have the Nasifc square of ng. 24. A square like this
is engraved in the Sanskrit character on the gate of the fort of
Gwalior, in India. The squares of higher multiples of 4 are readily
obtained by a similar adjustment.

Nasik Cubes. — A Nasik cube is composed of n3 small equal cubes,
here called cubelets, in the centres of which the natural numbers
from i to n' are so placed that every section of the cube by planes
perpendicular to an edge has the properties of a Nasik square ; also
sections by planes perpendicular to a face, and passing through the
cubelet centres of any path of Nasical summation in that face.
Fig. 25 shows by dots the way in which these cubes are constructed.

A dot is here placed on three faces of a cubelet at the corner, showing
that this cubelet belongs to each of the faces AOB, BOC, COA, of
the cube. Dots are placed on the cubelets of some path of AOB
(here the knight's path), beginning from O, also on the cubelets of
a knight's path in BOC. Dots are now placed in the cubelets of
similar paths to that on BOC in the other six sections parallel to
BOC, starting from their dots in AOB. Forty-nine of the three
hundred and forty-three cubelets will now contain a dot; and
it will be observed that the dots in sections perpendicular to BO
have arranged themselves in similar
paths. In this manner, pt, gp r,
being placed in the corner cubelet

0, these letters are severally placed
in the cubelets of three different
paths of AOB, and again along
any similar paths in the seven
sections perpendicular to AO, start-
ing from the letters' position in
AOB Next, pAf? p^q3r3, . . .
p7q,r7 are placed in the other cube-
lets ol the edge AO, and dispersed
in the same manner as piqrfi.
Every cubelet will then be found to
contain a different combination of
the p's, g's and r's. If therefore
the p's are made equal to i, 2,
... 7, and the g's and r's to o,

1, 2,. . . 6, in any order, and the
g's multiplied by 7, and the r's

by 72, then, as in the case of the squares, the 7* cubelets will
contain the numbers from I to 73, and the Nasical summations will
be 272r+27g + p. If 2, 4, 5 be values of r,p,q, the number for
that cubelet is written 245 in the septenary scale, and if all the
cubelet numbers are kept thus, the paths along which summations
are found can be seen without adding, as the seven numbers
would contain I, 2, 3,. .. 7 in the unit place, and o, I, 2, ... 6 in
each of the other places. In all Nasik cubes, if such values are given
to the letters on the central cubelet that the number is the middle
one of the series I to n3, the sum of all the pairs of numbers opposite

FIG. 25 — Nasik Cube.

I

8

•9

18

tz

14

»3

18

3»

«7

»

7

XI

20

9

16

4

5

3»

»5

so

«s

XI

«9

3»

26

3

6

M

«7

i*

»3

FIG. 26.

to and equidistant from the middle number is the double of it.
Also, if around a Nasik cube the twenty-six surrounding equal cubes
be placed with their cells filled with the same numbers, and their
corresponding faces looking the same way, — and if the surrounding
space be conceived thus filled with similar cubes, and a straight line
of unlimited length be drawn through any two cubelet centres, one
in each of any two cubes, — the numbers along that line will be found
to recur in groups of seven, which (except in the three cases where
the same p, q or r recur in the group) together make the Nasical
summation of the cube. Further, if we take n similarly filled
Nasik cubes of n, n new letters, s,, S2, . . .sn, can be so placed, one in
each of the n* cubelets of this group of n cubes, that each shall
contain a different combination of the p's, g's, r's and s's. This is
done by placing Si on each of the n2 cubelets of the first cube that

30

•X

6

IS

28

'9

7

«6

29

CO

5

>4

22

3«

8

35

18

*7

9

3«

'7

26

'3

4

3*

«3

a

IS

34

«5

i

so

33

34

3

12

FIG. 27.

FIG. 28.

contain pi, and on the n2 cubelets 01 the 2d, 3d, ... and wth cube
that contain p2, p3, ... pn respectively. This process is repeated with
Si, beginning with the cube at which we ended, and so on with the
other s's; the n4 cubelets, after multiplying the g's, r's, and s's by
n, n2, and n3 respectively, will now be filled with the numbers from
I to n4, and the constant summation will be 2n3s + 2n2r + 2ng + 2£.
This process may be carried on without limit ; for, if the n cubes are
placed in a row with their faces resting on each other, and the corres-
ponding faces looking the same way, n such parallelepipeds might be
put side by side, and the w6 cubelets of this solid square be Nasically
filled by the introduction of a new letter /; while, by introducing
another letter, the n6 cubelets of the compound cube of n' Nasik

MAGINN— MAGISTRATE

cubes might be filled by the numbers from I to n1, and so ad infinitum.
When the root is an odd composite number the values of the three
groups of letters have to be adjusted as in squares, also in cubes
of an even root. A similar process enables us to place successive
numbers in the cells of several equal squares in which the Nasical
summations are the same in each, as in fig. 26.

Among the many ingenious squares given by various writers, this
article may justly close with two by L. Euler, in the Histoire de
I'academie royale des sciences (Berlin, 1759). In fig. 27 the natural
numbers show the path of a knight that moves within an odd square
in such a manner that the sum of pairs of numbers opposite to and
equidistant from the middle figure is its double. In fig. 28 the knight
returns to its starting cell in a square of 6, and the difference between
thr pairs of numbers opposite to and equidistant from the middle
point is 18.

A model consisting of seven Nasik cubes, constructed by A. H.
Frost, is in the SouthKensington Museum. The centres of the cubes
an- placed at equal distances in a straight line, the similar faces look-
ing the same way in a plane parallel to that line. Each of the cubes
h.t- seven parallel glass plates, to which, on one side, the seven
numbers in the septenary scale are fixed, and behind each, on the
other side, its value in the common scale. 1201, the middle number
from i to 74, occupies the central cubelet of the middle cube. Besides
each cube having separately the same Nasical summation, this is
also obtained by adding the numbers in any seven similarly situated
cubelets, one in each cube. Also, the sum of all pairs of numbers,
in a straight line, through the central cube of the system, equidistant
from it, in whatever cubes they are, is twice 1201. (A. H. F.)

Fenndl's Magic Ring. — It has been noticed that the numbers
of magic squares, of which the extension by repeating the rows
and columns of « numbers so as to form a square of zn-i sides
yields »2 magic squares of n sides, are arranged as if they were
all inscribed round a cylinder and also all inscribed on another
cylinder at right angles to the first. C. A. M. Fennell explains
this apparent anomaly by describing such magic squares as
Mercator's projections, so to say, of " magic rings. "

The surface of these magic rings is symmetrically divided into
n* quadrangular compartments or cells by n. equidistant zonal
circles parallel to the circular axis of the ring and by n transverse
circles which divide each of the n zones between any two neighbour-
ing zonal circles into n equal quadrangular cells, while the zonal
circles divide the sections between two neighbouring transverse circles
into n unequal quadrangular cells. The diagonals of cells which
follow each other passing once only through each zone and section,
form similar and equal closed curves passing once quite round
the circular axis of the ring and once quite round the centre of the
ring. The position of each number is regarded as the intersection of
two diagonals of its cell. The numbers are most easily seen if
the smallest circle on the surface of the ring, which circle is
concentric with the axis, be one of the zonal circles. In a perfect
magic ring the sum of the numbers of the cells whose diagonals form
any one of the 2n diagonal curves aforesaid is Jn(ns + i) with or
without increment, i.e. is the same sum as that of the numbers in
each zone and each transverse section. But if n be 3 or a multiple
of 3, only from 2 to n of the diagonal curves carry the sum in question,
so that the magic rings are imperfect ; and any set of numbers which
can be arranged to make a perfect magic ring or magic square can
also make an imperfect magic ring, e.g. the set i to 16 if the numbers
1,6, n, i61ie thus on a diagonal curve instead of in the order i, 6, 16
n. From a perfect magic ring of n! cells containing one number
each, n1 distinct magic squares can be read off; as the four numbers
round each intersection of a zonal circle and a transverse circle
constitute corner numbers of a magic square. The shape of a magic
ring gives it the function of an indefinite extension in all directions
of each of the aforesaid ri1 magic squares. (C. A. M. F.)

See F. E. A. Lucas, Recreations mathimatiques (1891-1894) ; W.W.R.
Ball, Mathematical Recreations (1892); W. E. M. G. Ahrens, Mathe-
matische Unterhaltungen und Spiele (1901); H. C. H. Schubert,
Mathematische Mttssestunden (1900). A very detailed work is B.
Violle, Traite complet des carr&s magiques (3 vols., 1837-1838).
The theory of " path nasiks " is dealt with in a pamphlet by C.
Planck (1906).

MAGINN, WILLIAM (1793-1842), Irish poet and journalist,
was born at Cork on the loth of July 1793. The son of a
schoolmaster, he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1811,
and after his father's death in 1813 succeeded him in the school.
In 1819 he began to contribute to the Literary Gazette and to
Blackwood's Magazine, writing as " R. T. Scott " and " Morgan
O'Doherty." He first made his mark as a parodist and a writer
of humorous Latin verse. In 1821 he visited Edinburgh, where
he made acquaintance with the Blackwood circle. He is credited
with having originated the idea of the Nodes ambrosianae,
of which some of the most brilliant chapters were his. His

connexion with Blackwood lasted, with a short interval, almost
to the end of his life. His best story was " Bob Burke's Duel
with Ensign Brady." In 1823 he removed to London. He was
employed by John Murray on the short-lived Representative,
and was for a short time joint-editor of the Standard. But his
intemperate habits and his imperfect journalistic morality pre-
vented any permanent success. In connexion with Hugh
Fraser he established Eraser's Magazine (1830), in which ap-
peared his " Homeric Ballads." Maginn was the original of
Captain Shandon in Pendennis. In spite of his inexhaustible
wit and brilliant scholarship, most of his friends were eventually
alienated by his obvious failings and his persistent insolvency.
He died at Walton-on-Thames on the 2ist of August 1842.

His Miscellanies were edited (5 vols., New York, 1855-1857) by
R. Shelton Mackenzie and (2 vols., London, 1885) by R. W. Montagu
[Johnson].

MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistrates, from magister, master,
properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office),
in general, one vested with authority to administer the law or
one possessing large judicial or executive authority. In this
broad sense the word is used in such phrases as " the first magis-
trate " of a king hi a monarchy or " the chief magistrate "
of the president of the United States. But it is more generally
applied to minor or subordinate judicial officers, whether unpaid,
as justices of the peace, or paid, as stipendiary magistrates. A
stipendiary magistrate is appointed in London under the Metro-
politan Police Courts Act 1839, in municipal boroughs under the
Municipal Corporations Act 1882, and in particular districts
under the Stipendiary Magistrates Act 1863 and special acts.
In London and municipal boroughs a stipendiary magistrate
must be a barrister of at least seven years' standing, while under
the Stipendiary Magistrates Act 1863 he may be of five years'
standing. A stipendiary magistrate may do alone all acts
authorized to be done by two justices of the peace.

The term magistratus in ancient Rome originally implied
the office of magister (master) of the Roman people, but
was subsequently applied also to the holder of the office, thus
becoming identical in sense with magister, and supplanting it
in reference to any kind of public office. The fundamental
conception of Roman magistracy is tenure of the imperium,
the sovereignty which resides with the Roman people, but
is by it conferred either upon a single ruler for life, as in
the later monarchy, or upon a college of magistrates for a fixed
term, as in the Republican period. The Roman theory of magis-
tracy underwent little change when two consuls were substituted
for the king; but the subdivision of magisterial powers which
characterized the first centuries of the Republic, and resulted
in the establishment of twenty annually elected magistrates of
the people, implied some modification of this principle of the
investiture of magistrates with supreme authority. For when
the magistracies were multiplied a distinction was drawn be-
tween magistrates with imperium, namely consuls, praetors
and occasionally dictators, and the remaining magistrates, who,
although exercising independent magisterial authority and in no
sense agents of the higher magistrates, were invested merely
with an authority (potestas) to assist in the administration of the
state. At the same time the actual authority of every magistrate
was weakened not only by his colleagues' power of veto, but by
the power possessed by any magistrate of quashing the act of
an inferior, and by the tribune's right of putting his veto on the
act of any magistrate except a dictator; and the subdivision of
authority, which placed a great deal of business in the hands
of young and inexperienced magistrates, further tended to in-
crease the actual power as well as the influence of the senate at
the expense of the magistracy.

In the developed Republic magistracies were divided into two
classes: (a) magistrates of the whole people (populi Romani)
and (6) magistrates of the plebs. The former class is again
divided into two sections: (a) curule and 03) non-curule, a dis-
tinction which rests mainly on dignity rather than on actual
power, for it cuts across the division of magistrates according
to their tenure or non-tenure of imperium.

MAGLIABECHI— MAGNA CARTA

o. The magistrates of the people — also known as patrician magis-
trates, probably because the older and more important of these
magistracies could originally be held only by patricians (g.v.) — were:
(a) Dictator, master of the horse (see DICTATOR), consuls, praetors,
curule, aediles and censors (curule) ; and (/?) Quaestors, and the body
of minor magistrates known as xxoi. viri (non-curule). The dictator-
ship and consulship were as old as the Republic. The first praetor
was appointed in 366 B.C., a second was added in 242 B.C., and the
number was gradually increased for provincial government until
Sulla brought it up to eight, and under the early principate it grew
to eighteen. Censors were first instituted in 443 B.C., and the office
continued unchanged until its abolition by Sulla, after which, though
restored, it rapidly fell into abeyance. Curule aediles were instituted
at the same time as the praetorship, and continued throughout the
Republic. The quaestorship was at least as old as the Republic,
but the number rose during the Republic from two to twenty. All
these offices except the censorship continued for administrative
purposes during the principate, though shorn of all important powers.

b. The plebeian magistrates had their origin in the secession of the
plebs to Mons Sacer in 494 B.C. (see ROME: History). In that year
tribunes of the plebs were instituted, and two aediles were given
them as subordinate officials, who were afterwards known as plebeian
aediles, to distinguish them from the curule magistrates of the same
name. Both these offices were abolished during the decemvirate,
but were restored in 449 B.C., and survived into the principate.

The powers possessed by all magistrates alike were two: —
that of enforcing their enactments (coercitio) by the exercise of
any punishment short of capital, and that of veto( intercessio)
of any act of a colleague or minor magistrate. The right of
summoning and presiding over an assembly of that body of
citizens with whose powers the magistrate was invested lay with
the higher magistrates only in each class, with the consuls and
praetors, and with the tribunes of the plebs. Civil jurisdiction
was always a magisterial prerogative at Rome, and criminal
jurisdiction also, except in capital cases, the decision of which was
vested in the people at least as early as the first year of the
Republic, was wielded by magistrates until the establishment of
the various quaestiones perpetuae during the last century of the
Republic. But in civil cases the magistrate, though controlling
the trial and deciding matters of law, was quite distinct from
the judge or body of judges who decided the question of fact;
and the quaestiones perpetuae, which reduced the magistrate in
criminal cases to a mere president of the court, gave him a posi-
tion inferior to that of the praetor, who tried civil cases, only
in so far as the praetor controlled the trial in some degree by his
formula, under which the judges decided the question of fact.

Tenure of magistracy was always held to depend upon election
by the body whose powers the magistrate wielded. Thus the
magistrates of the plebs were elected by the plebeian council,
those of the people in the Comitia (q.v.). In every case the out-
going magistrate, as presiding officer of the elective assembly,
exercised the important right of nominating his successor for
election.

See A. H. J. Greenidge, Roman Public Life, 152 seq., 363 seq.
(London, 1901); T. Mommsen, Romisches Slaatsrecht, I. n. i. (1887).

(A. M. CL.)

MAGLIABECHI, ANTONIO DA MARCO (1633-1714), Italian
bibliophile, was born at Florence on the 28th of October 1633.
He followed the trade of a goldsmith until 1673, when he received
the appointment of librarian to the grand-duke of Tuscany, a
post for which he had qualified himself by his vast stores of self-
acquired learning. He died on the 4th of July 1714, bequeathing
his large private library to the grand-duke, who in turn handed it
over to the city.

MAGLIANI, AGOSTINO (1824-1891), Italian financier, was a
native of Lanzino, near Salerno. He studied at Naples, and a
book on the philosophy of law based on Liberal principles won
for him a post in the Neapolitan treasury. He entered the
Italian Senate in 1871, and had already secured a reputation as
a financial expert before his Questione monetaria appeared in
1874. In December 1877 he became minister of finance in the
reconstructed Depretis ministry, and he subsequently held the
same office in three other Liberal cabinets. In his second tenure
he carried through (1880) the abolition of the grist tax, to take
effect in 1884. Having to face an increased expenditure without
offending the Radical electorate by unpopular taxes, he had

recourse to unsound methods of finance, which seriously embar-
rassed Italian credit for some years after he finally laid down
office in 1888. He died in Rome on the 22nd of February 1891.
He was one of the founders of the anti-socialistic " Adam Smith
Society" at Florence.

MAGNA CARTA, or the Great Charter, the name of the famous
charter of liberties granted at Runnimede in June 1215 by King
John to the English people. Although in later ages its importance
was enormously magnified, it differs only in degree, not in kind,
from other charters granted by the Norman and early Plantagenet
kings. Its greater length, however, still more the exceptional
circumstances attending its birth, gave to it a position absolutely
unique in the minds of later generations of Englishmen. This
feeling was fostered by its many confirmations, and in sub-
sequent ages, especially during the time of the struggle between
the Stewart kings and the parliament, it was regarded as some-
thing sacrosanct, embodying the very ideal'of English liberties,
which to some extent had been lost, but which must be regained.
Its provisions, real and imaginary, formed the standard towards
which Englishmen must strive.

The causes which led to the grant of Magna Carta are described
in the article on English History. Briefly, they are to be found in
the conditions of the time; the increasing insularity of the English
barons, now no longer the holders of estates in Normandy; the
substitution of an unpopular for a popular king, an active spur
to the rising forces of discontent; and the unprecedented de-
mands for money — demands followed, not by honour, but by
dishonour, to the arms of England abroad. So much for the
general causes. The actual crisis may be said to begin with
the quarrel between John and Pope Innocent III. regarding the
appointment of a new archbishop to the see of Canterbury. This
was settled in May 1213, and in the new prelate, the papal
nominee, Stephen Langton, who landed in England and absolved
the king in the following July, the baronial party found an able
and powerful ally. But before this event John had instituted a
great inquiry, the inquest of service of June 1212, for the purpose
of finding out how much he could exact from each of his vassals,
a measure which naturally excited some alarm; and then, fearing
a baronial rising, he had abandoned his proposed expedition into
Wales, had taken hostages from the most prominent of his foes,
and had sought safety in London.

His absolution followed, and then he took courage. Turning
once more his attention to the recovery of Normandy, he asked
the barons for assistance for this undertaking; in reply they,
or a section of them, refused, and instead of crossing the seas the
king marched northwards with the intention of taking vengeance
on his disobedient vassals, who were chiefly barons of the north
of England. Langton followed his sovereign to Northampton
and persuaded him, at least for the present, to refrain from any
serious measures of revenge. Before this interview a national
council had met at St Albans at the beginning of August 1213,
and this Vas followed by another council, held in St Paul's church,
London, later in the same month; it was doubtless summoned by
the archbishop, and was attended by many of the higher clergy
and a certain number of the barons. Addressing the gathering,
Langton referred to the laws of Edward the Confessor as " good
laws," which the king ought to observe, and then mentioned the
charter granted by Henry I. on his accession as a standard of
good government. This event has such an important bearing
on the issue of Magna Carta that it is not inappropriate to quote
the actual words used by Matthew Paris in describing the incident.
The chronicler represents the archbishop as saying " Inventa
est quoque nunc carta quaedam Henrici primi regis Angliae per
quam, si volueritis, libertates diu amissas poteritis ad statum
pristinum revocare." Those present decided to contend to the
death for their "long-lost liberties," and with this the meeting
came to an end. Nothing, however, was done during the re-
mainder of the year, and John, feeling his position had grown
stronger, went abroad early in 1214, and remained for some
months in France. With his mercenaries behind him he met with
some small successes in his fight for Normandy, but on the 2yth
of July he and his ally, the emperor Otto IV., met with a crushing.

MAGNA CARTA

defeat at Bouvines at the hands of Philip Augustus, and even the
king himself was compelled to recognise that his hopes of recover-
ing Normandy were at an end.

Meanwhile in England, which was ruled by Peter des Roches
•as justiciar, the discontent had been increasing rather than
diminishing, and its volume became much larger owing to an
event of May 1214. Greatly needing money for his campaign,
John ordered another scutagc to be taken from his tenants; this,
moreover, was to be at the unprecedented rate of three marks on
the knight's fee, not as on previous occasions of two marks,
although this latter sum had hitherto been regarded as a very high
rale. The northern barons refused to pay, and the gathering forces
of resistance received a powerful stimulus when a little later came
the news of the king's humiliation at Bouvines. Then in October
the beaten monarch returned to England, no course open to him
but to bow before the storm. In November he met some of his
nobles at Bury St Edmunds, but as they still refused to pay the
scutage no agreement was reached. At once they took another
step towards the goal. With due solemnity (super majus allare)
they swore to withdraw their allegiance from the king and to
make war upon him, unless within a stated time he restored to
them their rightful laws and liberties. While they were collecting
troops in order to enforce their threats, John on his part tried to
divide his enemies by a concession to the clerical section. By a
charter, dated the zist of November 1214, he granted freedom of
election to the church. However, this did not prevent the pre-
lates from continuing to act to some extent with the barons, and
early in January 1215 the malcontents asked the king to confirm
the laws of Edward the Confessor and the other liberties of the
kingdom. He evaded the request and secured a truce until
Easter was passed. Energetically making use of this period of
respite, he again issued the charter to the church, ordered his
subjects to take a fresh oath of allegiance to him, and sent to the
pope for aid; butjieither these precautions, nor his expedient of
taking the cross, deterred the barons from returning to the attack.
In April they met in arms at Stamford, and as soon as the truce
had expired they inarched to Brackley, where they met the
royal ministers and again presented their demands. These were
carried to the king at Oxford, but angrily he refused to consider
them. Then the storm burst. On the sth of May the barons
formally renounced their allegiance to John, and appointed
Robert Fitzwalter as their leader. They marched towards
London, while John made another attempt to delay the crisis, or
to divide his foes, by granting a charter to the citizens of London
(May 9, 1215), and then by offering to submit the quarrel to a
court of arbitrators under the presidency of the pope. But
neither the one nor the other expedient availed him. Arbitration
under such conditions was contemptuously rejected, and after
the king had ordered the sheriffs to seize the lands and goods of
t he revolting nobles, London opened its gates and peacefully wel-
comed the baronial army. Other towns showed also that their
sympathies were with the insurgents, and John was forced to his
knees. Promising to assent to their demands, he agreed to meet
the barons, and the gathering was fixed for the isth of June, and
was to take place in a meadow between Staines and Windsor,
called Runnimede.

At the famous conference, which lasted from Monday the isth
to Tuesday the 2$rd of June, the hostile barons were present in
large numbers; on the other hand John, who rode over each day
from Windsor, was only attended by a few followers. At once
the malcontents presented their demands in a document known
popularly as the Articles of lite Barons, more strictly as Capitula
•quae barones petunt el dominus rex concedit. Doubtless this had
been drawn up beforehand, and was brought by the baronial
leaders to Runnimede ; possibly it was identical with the document
presented to the royal ministers at Brackley a few weeks before.
John accepted the Articles on the same day and at once the great
seal was affixed to them. They are forty-eight in number, and
•on them Magna Carta was based, the work of converting them
into a charter, which was regarded as a much more binding form
•of engagement, being taken in hand immediately. This duty
occupied three days, negotiations between the two parties taking

place over several disputed points, and it was completed by
Friday the igth, when several copies of the charter were sealed.
All then took an oath to keep its terms, and orders were sent to
the sheriffs to publish it, and to see that its provisions were
observed, two or three days being taken up with making and
sending out copies for this purpose. It should be mentioned
that, although the charter was evidently not sealed until the
igth, the four existing copies of it are dated the isth, the day
on which John accepted the articles.

The days between Friday the ipth and the following Tuesday,
when the conference came to an end, were occupied in pro-
viding, as far as possible, for the due execution of the reforms
promised by the king in Magna Carta. The document itself
provided for an elected committee of twenty-five barons, whose
duty was to compel John, by force if necessary, to keep his
promises; but this was evidently regarded as insufficient, and the
matter was dealt with in a supplementary treaty (Conventio facta
inter regem Angliae et barones ejusdum regni). As a guarantee of
his good faith the king surrendered the city of London to his
foes, while the Tower was entrusted to the neutral keeping of the
archbishop of Canterbury. John then asked the barons for a
charter that they on their part would keep the peace. This was
refused, and although some of the bishops entered a mild protest,
the question was allowed to drop. Regarding another matter
also, the extent of the royal forests, the prelates made a protest.
John and his friends feared lest the inquiry promised into the
extent of the hated forest areas would be carried out too rigor-
ously, and that these would be seriously curtailed, if not abolished
altogether. Consequently, the two archbishops and their
colleagues declared that the articles in the charter which pro-
vided for this inquiry, and for a remedy against abuses of the
forest laws by the king, must not be interpreted in too harsh a
spirit. The customs necessary for the preservation of the
forests must remain in force.

No securities, however, could bind John. Even before Magna
Carta was signed he had set to work to destroy it, and he now
turned to this task with renewed vigour. He appealed to the
pope, and hoped to crush his enemies by the aid of foreign troops,
while the barons prepared for war, and the prelates strove to
keep the peace. Help came first from the spiritual arm. On the
24th of August 1215 Innocent III. published a bull which declared
Magna Carta null and void. It had been extorted from the king
by force (per vim et metum), and in the words of the bull the pope
said " compositionem hujusmodi reprobamus penitus et damna-
mus." He followed this up by excommunicating the barons
who had obtained it, and in the autumn of 1215 the inevitable
war began. Capturing Rochester castle, John met with some
other successes, and the disheartened barons invited Louis, son
of Philip Augustus of France and afterwards king as Louis VIII.,
to take the English crown. In spite of the veto of the pope
Louis accepted the invitation, landed in England in May 1216,
and occupied London and Winchester, the fortune of war having
in the meantime turned against John. The " ablest and most
ruthless of the Angevins," as J. R. Green calls this king, had not,
however, given up the struggle, and he was still in the field when
he was taken ill, dying in Newark castle on the igth of October
1216.

In its original form the text of Magna Carta was not divided
into chapters, but in later times a division of this kind was
adopted. This has since been retained by all commentators, the
number of chapters being 63.

The preamble states that the king has granted the charter on
the advice of various prelates and barons, some of whom, in-
cluding the archbishop of Canterbury, the papal legate Pandulf,
and William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, are mentioned by
name.

Chapter I. declares that the English church shall be free and shall
enjoy freedom of election. This follows the precedent set in the
accession charter of Henry I. and in other early charters, although
it had no place in the Articles of the Barons. On the present occa-
sion it was evidently regarded as quite a formal and introductory
matter, and the same remark applies to the general grant of liberties
to all freemen and their heirs, with which the chapter concludes.

316

MAGNA CARTA

Then follows a series of chapters intended to restrain the king
from raising money by the harsh and arbitrary methods adopted
in the past. These chapters, however, only afforded protection
to the tenants-in-chief of the crown, and it is clear from their
prominent position that the framers of the charter regarded them
as of paramount importance.

Chapter II. fixes the amount of the relief to be paid to the king
by the heir of any of his vassals. Previously John, disregarding
the custom of the past, had taken as much as he could extort. Hence-
forward he who inherits a barony must pay £100, he who inherits a
knight's fee 100 shillings or less, and for smaller holdings less " accord-
ing to the ancient custom of fiefs."

Chapters III. to VI. deal with the abuses of the king's privilege
of acting as guardian of minors and their lands. Money must not
be extorted from a ward when he receives his inheritance. The
guardian or his servant must not take from the ward's property
more than a reasonable amount for his expenses and the like ; on the
contrary he must maintain the houses, estates and other belongings
in a proper state of efficiency. A ward must be allowed a reasonable
liberty in the matter of marriage. He or she must not, as had been
so often the case in the past, be forced to marry some royal favourite,
or some one who had paid a sum of money for the privilege.

Chapters VII. and VIII. are for the protection of the widows of
tenants-in-chief. On the death of her husband a widow must
receive her rightful inheritance, without delay or hindrance. More-
over she must not be compelled to marry, a proceeding sometimes
adopted to get her lands into the possession of a royal minion.

Chapter IX. is intended to prevent the king from collecting the
money owing to him in an oppressive manner.

Now for a short time the document leaves the great questions at
issue between the king and the barons, and two chapters are
devoted to protecting the people generally against the exactions
of the Jews.

Chapter X. declares that money borrowed from the Jews shall not
bear interest during a minority.

Chapter XI. provides for the repayment of borrowed money to
the Jews, and also to other creditors. This, however, is only to be
done after certain liabilities have been met out of the estate, including
the services due to the lord of the land.

Having thus disposed of this matter, the grievances of the barons
are again considered, the vexed question of scutage being dealt
with.

Chapter XII. says that in future no scutage or aid, beyond the
three recognized feudal aids, shall be levied except by the consent
of the general council of the nation (commune concilium regni nostri),
while the three recognized aids shall only be levied at a reasonable
rate. In dealing with this matter the Articles of the Barons had
declared that aids and tallages must not be taken from the citizens
of London and of other places without the consent of the council.
This provision was omitted from Magna Carta, except so far as it
related to aids from the citizens of London. This chapter does not
give the people the right to control taxation. It gives to the men
interested a certain control over one form of taxation, and protects
one class only from arbitrary exactions, and that class the most
powerful and the most wealthy.

Chapter XIII. gives to the citizens of London all their ancient
liberties and free customs.

Chapter XIV. provides for the assembly of the council when its
consent is necessary for raising an aid or a scutage. Individual
summonses must be sent to the prelates and greater barons, while
the lesser barons will be called together through the sheriffs and
bailiffs. At least forty days' notice of the meeting must be given,
and the cause thereof specified. No chapter corresponding to this
is found in the Articles and none was inserted in the reissues of
Magna Carta. It is very interesting, but it does not constitute any
marked advance in the history of parliament, as it merely expresses
the customary method of summoning a council. It does not, as
has been sometimes asserted, in any way establish a representative
system, as this is understood to-day.

Chapter XV. extends the concessions obtained by the greater
barons for themselves to the lesser landholders, the tenants of the
tenants-in-chief.

Chapter XVI. declares that those who owe military service for
their lands shall not be called upon to perform more than the due
amount of such service.

We now come to an important series of articles which deal with
abuses in the administration of justice. Henry II. made the
royal courts of law a lucrative source of revenue, but he gave
protection to suitors. Under his sons justice was equally,
perhaps more, costly, while adequate protection was much harder
to obtain. Here were many grievances, and the barons set to
work to redress them.

Chapter XVII. declares that common pleas must henceforward
be heard in a fixed place. This had already been to some extent
the practice when this class of cases was heard ; it was now made the
rule. From this time suitors in this court were not put to the expense
and inconvenience of following the king from place to place.

Chapters XVIII. and XIX. deal with the three petty assizes, •
three kinds of cases regarding disputes about the possession of land.
These must be heard in the county courts before two visiting justices
and four knights of the shire. The hardship of attendance at the
county courts was to some extent obviated.

Chapters XX. to XXII. regulate the amount of fines imposed for
offences against the law. Property necessary for one's livelihood
must not be taken. The fines must only be imposed by the oath
of honest men of the neighbourhood. In the same way earls and
barons must only be fined by their peers, and a similar privilege is
extended to the clergy, who, moreover, were not to be fined in accord-
ance with the value of their benefices, but only of their other property.
It should be noticed that trial by one's peers, as understood in Magna
Carta, is not confined to the nobility; in every class of society an
accused man is punished in accordance with the verdict of his peers,
or equals.

Chapter XXIII. asserts that persons shall not be compelled to
make bridges, unless they are bound to do so by ancient custom.
John had oppressed his subjects in this way before he visited a dis-
trict for purposes of sport, and the hardship was a real one.

Chapter XXIV. declared that the sheriffs and other officers of
the king must not hold the pleas of the crown. This was intended
to remove an old and serious evil, as the sheriffs had earned a very
bad reputation by their methods of administering justice.

Chapter XXV. also concerns the sheriffs. It prevents the king
from increasing by their agency the amount of money annually due
to him from the various counties and hundreds. The custom was
for the king to get a fixed sum from the sheriff of each county, this
being called the firma, comilatus, and for the sheriff to collect this as
best he could. Henceforward this amount must not be raised.

Chapters XXVI. and XXVII. were intended to protect the property
of deceased persons, and also to secure the full payment of debts
due therefrom to the crown. Other creditors were also protected,
and the property of an intestate must be distributed to his heirs under
the supervision of the church.

Chapter XXVIII. strikes a blow at the custom of purveyance.
Royal officials must pay for the corn and provisions which they take
on behalf of the king.

Chapter XXIX. says knights must not be compelled to give money
instead of performing castle-guard, if they are willing to perform this
service. Castle-guard was the liability incumbent on the holders
of some estates to serve in the garrison of the royal castles. The
constables of these castles had adopted the custom of compelling
these landholders to give money and not service, mercenaries being
then hired to perform this.

Chapters XXX. and XXXI. forbid the royal officials to seize the
horses or carts of freemen for transport duty, or to take wood for
the king's buildings.

Chapter XXXII. says that the lands of convicted felons shall be
handed over to the lords of such lands and not kept by the king
beyond a year and a day. In cases of treason the king had a right
to the forfeited lands, but he was not allowed to establish a similar
right in cases of felony.

Chapter XXXIII. provided for the removal of kydells, or weirsv
from all English rivers. This was intended to give greater freedom
to inland navigation, the rivers being the main highways of trade.

Chapter XXXIV. limits the use of the writ known as Praecipe.
This writ was one transferring cases concerning the ownership of
property from the courts of the feudal lords to those of the king.
This custom, which owes its origin to Henry II., meant a loss of
revenue to the lords, whose victory in this matter, however, was a
step backwards. It checked temporarily the process of centralizing
the administration of justice.

Chapter XXXV. provides for the uniformity of weights and
measures throughout the kingdom.

Chapter XXXVI. promises that in future writs of inquisition shall
be granted freely without payment of any kind. This kind of writ
allowed a man to refer the question of his guilt or innocence to the
verdict of his neighbours instead of proving his innocence by the duel.

Chapter XXXVII. prevents the king from administering certain
kinds of land when these fall into the possession of minors. In the
past John had evidently stretched his authority and seized lands
over which others had really the right of wardship.

Chapter XXXVIII. prevents a bailiff from compelling an accused
man to submit to the ordeal without the approval of credible wit-
nesses.

Chapter XXXIX. is more important and the English rendering of
it may be given in full. " No freeman shall be arrested, or detained
in prison, or deprived of his freehold, or outlawed, or banished, or
in any way molested ; and we will not set forth against him, nor send
against him, unless by the lawful judgment of his peers and by the
law of the land." The object of this was clearly to restrain John
from arbitrary proceedings against his free subjects. The principle

MAGNA CARTA

of judgment by one's peers is asserted, and is obviously the privilege
of every class of freemen, not of the greater lords alone.

Chapter XL. simply says, " To no one will we sell, to no one will
we refuse or delay, right or justice."

Chapters XLI. and XLII. give permission to merchants, both
English and foreign, to enter and leave the kingdom, except in time
of war. They are not to pay " evil tolls." The privilege is extended
to all travellers, except the prisoner and the outlaw, and natives of a
country with which England is at war.

Chapter XLI 1 1. is intended to compel the king to refrain from
exacting greater dues from an escheated barony than were pre-
viously due from such barony.

Chapter XLIV. deals with the hated and oppressive forest laws.
In future attendance at the forest courts is only obligatory on those
who have business thereat.

Chapter XLV. says that the royal officials must know something
of the law and must be desirous of keeping it.

Chapter XLVI. gives to the founders of religious houses the right
of acting as guardians of such houses when they are without heads.

Chapters XLVII. and XLVIII. deal again with the great grievance
of the royal forests. John undertakes to disforest all forests which
have been made in his time, and also to give up such river banks
as he has seized for his own use when engaged in sport. Twelve
knights in each county are to make a thorough inquiry into all
evil customs connected with the forests, and these are to be utterly
abolished.

Chapter XLIX. provides for the restoration of hostages. John
had been in the habit of taking the children of powerful subjects
as pledges for the good behaviour of their parents.

Chapter L. says that certain royal minions, who are mentioned
by name, are to be removed from their offices.

Chapter LI. says that as soon as peace is made all foreign mercen-
aries are to be banished.

Chapters LII. and LIII. are those in which the king promises to
make amends for the injuries he has done to his barons in the past.
He will restore lands and castles to those who have been deprived of
them without the judgment of their peers; he will do the same
concerning property unlawfully seized by Henry II. or Richard I.
and now in his hands. In the latter case, however, he was allowed
a respite until he returned from the projected crusade. He promises
also to do right concerning forests, abbeys and the wardship of lands
which belong lawfully to others.

' hapter LIV. prevents any one from being arrested on the appeal
of a woman, except on a charge of causing the death of her husband.
As a woman could not prove her case in the judicial combat, it was
felt that the earlier practice gave her an unfair advantage.

Chapter LV. provides for the remission of unjust fines. The deci-
sion on these matters is to rest with the archbishop of Canterbury
and the twenty-five barons appointed to see that the terms of the
charter are carried out.

Chapters LVI. and LVII. deal with the grievances of Welshmen.
Restoration of property is promised to them practically in the same
way as to Englishmen. Welsh law is to be used in Wales, and in
the marches the law of the marches is to be employed.

Chapter LVIII. promises that his hostages and his charters shall
be restored to Llewellyn, prince of Wales.

Chapter LIX. promises a restoration of hostages to Alexander I.
king of Scotland. Right is also to be done to him concerning the
lands which he holds in England.

Chapter LX. is a general statement that the aforesaid customs and
liberties are to be observed by all classes.

Chapter LXI. provides for the execution of the royal promises.
A committee is to be formed of twenty-five barons. Then if the king
or any of his servants do wrong and complaint is made to four of
the twenty-five, they are to ask for redress. In the event of this
not being granted within forty days the matter is to be referred
to the twenty-five, who are empowered to seize the lands and pro-
perty of the king, or to obtain justice in any other way possible.
They must, however, spare the persons of the king, the queen and
their children. Vacancies in the committee are to be filled by the
barons themselves. The twenty-five barons were duly appointed,
their names being given by Matthew Paris. This chronicler also
reports that another committee of thirty-eight members was ap-
pointed to assist and control the twenty-five. S. R. Gardiner calls the
scheme "a permanent organization for making war against the king."
Chapter LXI I. is an expression of general forgiveness.
Chapter LXIII. repeats the promise of freedom to the English
church and of their rights and liberties to all.

Magna Carta is an elaboration of the accession charter of
Henry I., and is based upon the Articles of the Barons. It is,
however, very much longer than the former charter and somewhat
longer than the Articles. Moreover, it differs in several particu-
lars from the Articles, these differences being doubtless the out-
come of deliberation and of compromise. For instance, the pro-
visions in Magna Carta concerning the freedom of the church
find no place in the Articles, while a comparison between the two
documents suggests that in other ways also influences favourable

to the church and the clergy were at work while the famous
charter was being framed. When one reflects how active and
prominent Langton and other prelates were at Runnimede the
change is not surprising. Another difference between the two
documents concerns the towns and the trading classes. Certain
privileges granted to them in the Articles are not found in Magna
Carta, although, it must be noted, this document bestows
exceptionally favoured treatment on the citizens of London. The
conclusion is that the friends of the towns and the traders were
less in evidence at Runnimede than they were at the earlier
meetings of the barons, but that the neighbouring Londoners
were strong enough to secure a good price for their support.

Magna Carta throws much light on the condition of England
in the early i3th century. By denouncing the evil deeds of John
and the innovations practised by him, it shows what these were
and how they were hated; how money had been raised, how
forest areas had been extended, how minors and widows had been
cheated and oppressed. By declaring, as it does, what were the
laws and customs of a past age wherein justice prevailed, it
shows what was the ideal of good government formed by John's
prelates and barons. Magna Carta can hardly be said to have
introduced any new ideas. As Pollock and Maitland (History
of English Law) say " on the whole the charter contains little
that is absolutely new. It is restorative." But although mature
study has established the truth of this proposition it was not
always so. Statesmen and commentators alike professed to find
in Magna Carta a number of political ideas which belonged to a
later age, and which had no place in the minds of its framers. It
was regarded as having conferred upon the nation nothing less
than the English constitution in its perfect and completed form.
Sir Edward Coke finds in Magna Carta a full and proper legal
answer to every exaction of the Stuart kings, and a remedy for
every evil suffered at the time. Sir William Blackstone is almost
equally admiring. Edmund Burke says " Magna Carta, if it did
not give us originally the House of Commons, gave us at least a
House of Commons of weight and consequence." Lord Chatham
used words equally superlative. " Magna Carta, the Petition of
Rights and the Bill of Rights form that code, which I call the
Bible of the English Constitution." Modern historians, although
less rhetorical, speak in the highest terms of the importance
of Magna Carta, the view of most of them being summed up in
the words of Dr Stubbs: " The whole of the constitutional
history of England is a commentary on this charter."

Many regard Magna Carta as giving equal rights to all English-
men. J. R. Green says " The rights which the barons claimed for
themselves they claimed for the nation at large." As a matter of
fact this statement is only true with large limitations. The
villains, who formed the majority of the population, got very
little from it; in fact the only clauses which protect them do so
because they are property — the property of their lords — and
therefore valuable. They get neither political nor civil rights
under Magna Carta. The traders, too, get little, while preferen-
tial treatment is meted out to the clergy and the barons. Its
benefits are confined to freemen, and of the benefits the lion's
share fell to the larger landholders; the smaller landholders
getting, it is true, some crumbs from the table. It did not
establish freedom from arbitrary arrest, or the right of the
representatives of the people to control taxation, or trial by jury,
or other conceptions of a later generation.

The story of Magna Carta after the death of John is soon told.
On the izth of November 1216 the regent William Marshal, earl
of Pembroke, reissued the charter in the name of the young king
Henry III. But important alterations were made. War was
being waged against Louis of France, and the executive must not
be hampered in the work of raising money; moreover the
personal equation had disappeared, the barons did not need to
protect themselves against John. Consequently the chapter
limiting the power of the crown to raise scutages and aids without
the consent of the council vanished, and with it the complemen-
tary one which determined the method of calling a council.
Other provisions, the object of which had been to restrain John
from demanding more money from various classes of his subjects,

3*8

MAGNA GRAECIA

were also deleted, and the same fate befell such chapters as dealt
with mere temporary matters. The most important of these
was Chapter LXI., which provided for the appointment of 25
executors to compel John to observe the charter. The next
year peace was made at Lambeth (Sept. n, 1217) between
Henry III. and Louis and another reissue of the charter was
promised. This promise was carried out, but two charters
appeared, one being a revised issue of Magna Carta proper, and
the other a separate charter dealing with the forests, all references
to which were omitted from the more important document.
The date of this issue appears to have been the 6th of November
1217. The issue of a separate forest charter at this time led
subsequently to some confusion. Roger of Wendover asserts
that John issued a separate charter of this kind when Magna
Carta appeared. This statement was believed by subsequent
writers until the time of Blackstone, who was the first to discover
the mistake.

As issued in 1217 Magna Carta consists of 47 chapters only.
It declares that henceforward scutages shall be taken according
to the precedents of Henry II. 's reign. New provisions were
introduced for the preservation of the peace — unlawful castles
were to be destroyed — while others were directed towards
making the administration of justice by the visiting justices less
burdensome. With regard to the land and the services due
therefrom a beginning was made of the policy which culminated
in the statutes of Mortmain and of Quia Emptores. The sheriffs
were ordered to publish the revised charter on the 22nd of Feb-
ruary 1218. Then in February 1225 Henry III. again issued the
two charters with only two slight alterations, and this is the final
form taken by Magna Carta, this text being the one referred to
by Coke and the other early commentators. Subsequently the
charters were confirmed several times by Henry III. and by
Edward I., the most important occasion being their confirmation
by Edward at Ghent in November 1297. On this occasion some
supplementary articles were added to the charter; these were
intended to limit the taxing power of the crown.

There are at present in existence four copies of Magna Carta,
sealed with the great seal of King John, and several unsealed copies.
Of the four two are in the British Museum. Both came into the
possession of the Museum with the valuable collection of papers
which had belonged to Sir Robert Cotton, who had obtained posses-
sion of both. One was found in Dover castle about 1630. This was
damaged by fire in 1731 ; the other is undamaged. The two other
sealed copies belong to the cathedrals of Lincoln and of Salisbury.
Both were written evidently in a less hurried fashion than those
in the British Museum, and the one at Lincoln was regarded as the
most perfect by the commissioners who were responsible for the
appearance of the Statutes of the Realm in 1810. The British Museum
also contains the original parchment of the Articles of the Barons.
Magna Carta was first printed by Richard Pynson in 1499. This,
however, was not the original text, which was neglected until the time
of Blackstone, who printed the various issues of the charter in his
book The Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest (1759). The
earliest commentator of note was Sir Edward Coke, who published
his Second Institute, which deals with Magna Carta, by order of
the Long Parliament in 1642. Modern commentators, who also
print the various texts of the charter, are Richard Thomson, An
Historical Essay on the Magna Carta of King John (1829) ; C. Bemont,
in his Charles des libertes anglaises (1892); and W. Stubbs in his
Select Charters (1895). A more recent book and one embodying the
results of the latest research is W. S. McKechnie, Magna Carla (1905).
The text of Magna Carta is also printed in the Statutes of the Realm
(1810-1828), and in T. Rymer's Foedera (1816-1869). In addition to
Blackstone, Coke and these later writers, the following works may also
be consulted: John Reeves, History of English Law (1783-1784);
L. O. Pike, A Constitutional History of the House of Lords (1894);
W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (1897); Sir F. Pollock
and F. W. Maitland, The History of English Law (1895); W. S.
Holdsworth, A History of English Law (1903), and Kate Norgate,
John Lackland (1902). (A. W. H.*)

MAGNA GRAECIA (TI jue-ydXij 'EXXds), the name given (first,
apparently, in the 6th century B.C.) to the group of Greek
•cities along the coast of the " toe " of South Italy (or more strictly
those only from Tarentum to Locri, along the east coast), while
the people were called Italiotes ('iTaXuorai). The interior,
which the Greeks never subdued, continued to be in the hands of
the Bruttii, the native mountaineers, from whom the district
was named in Roman times (Bperrta also in Greek writers).

The Greek colonies were established first as trading stations,
which grew into independent cities. At an early time a trade in
copper was carried on between Greece and Temesa (Homer, Od.
i. iSi).1 The trade for a long time was chiefly in the hands of the
Euboeans; and Cyme (Cumae) in Campania was founded in the
8th century B.C., when the Euboean Cyme was still a great city.
After this the energy of Chalcis went onward to Sicily, and the
states of the Corinthian Gulf carried out the colonization of Italy,
Rhegium having been founded, it is true, by Chalcis, but after
Messana (Zancle), and at the request of the inhabitants of the
latter. Sybaris (721) and Crotona (703) were Achaean settle-
ments; Locri Epizephyrii (about 710) was settled by Ozolian
Locrians, so that, had it not been for the Dorian colony of Taren-
tum, the southern coast of Italy would have been entirely occupied
by a group of Achaean cities. Tarentum (whether or no founded
by pre-Dorian Greeks — its founders bore the unexplained name
of Partheniae) became a Laconian colony at some unknown date,
whence a legend grew up connecting the Partheniae with Sparta,
and 707 B.C. was assigned as its traditional date. Tarentum is
remarkable as the only foreign settlement made by the Spartans.
It was industrial, depending largely on the purple and pottery
trade. Ionian Greeks fleeing from foreign invasion founded Siris
about 650 B.C., and, much later, Elea (540).

The Italian colonies were planted among friendly, almost
kindred, races, and grew much more rapidly than the Sicilian
Greek states, which had to contend against the power of Carthage.
After the Achaean cities had combined to destroy the Ionic Siris,
and had founded Metapontum as a counterpoise to the Dorian
Tarentum, there seems to have been little strife among the
Italiotes. An amphictyonic league, meeting in common rites at
the temple of Hera on the Lacinian promontory, fostered a feeling
of unity among them. The Pythagorean and Eleatic systems of
philosophy had their chief seat in Magna Graecia. Other depart-
ments of literature do not seem to have been so much cultivated
among them. The poet Ibycus, though a native of Rhegium, led
a very wandering life. They sent competitors to the Olympic
games (among them the famous Milo of Croton) ; and the physi-
cians of Croton early in the 6th century (especially in the person of
Democedes) were reputed the best in Greece; but politically they
appear to have generally kept themselves separate. One ship of
Croton, however, fought at Salamis, though it is not recorded that
Greece asked the Italiotes for help when it sent ambassadors to
Gelon of Syracuse. Mutual discord first sapped the prosperity of
Magna Graecia. In 510 Croton, having defeated the Sybarites in a
great battle, totally destroyed their city. Croton maintained alone
the leading position which had belonged jointly to the Achaean
cities (Diod. xiv. 103) ; but from that time Magna Graecia steadily
declined. In the war between Athens and Syracuse Magna
Graecia took comparatively little part; Locri was strongly anti-
Athenian, but Rhegium, though it was the headquarters of the
Athenians in 427, remained neutral in 415. Foreign enemies
pressed heavily on it. The Lucanians and Bruttians on the north
captured one town after another. Dionysius of Syracuse
attacked them from the south; and after he defeated the Croton-
iate league and destroyed Caulonia (389 B.C.), Tarentum remained
the only powerful city. Henceforth the history of Magna Graecia
is only a record of the vicissitudes of Tarentum (q.v.). Repeated
expeditions from Sparta and Epirus tried in vain to prop up the
decaying Greek states against the Lucanians and Bruttians; and
when in 282 the Romans appeared in the Tarentine Gulf the end
was close at hand. The aid which Pyrrhus brought did little
good to the Tarentines, and his final departure in 274 left them
defenceless. During these constant wars the Greek cities had
been steadily decaying; and in the second Punic war, when most
of them seized the opportunity of revolting from Rome, their very
existence was in some cases annihilated. Malaria increased in
strength as the population diminished. We are told by Cicero
(De am. 4), Magna Graecia nunc quidem deleta est. Many of the
cities completely disappeared, and hardly any of them were of
great importance under the Roman empire; some, like Tarentum,

1 This passage should perhaps be referred to the 8th century B.C.
It is the first mention of an Italian place in a literary record.

MAGNATE— MAGNESIUM

3*9

maintained their existence into modern times, and in these only
(except at Locri) have archaeological investigations of any
importance been carried on; so that there still remains a consider-
able field for investigation. (T. As.)

MAGNATE (Late Lat. magnas, a great man), a noble, a man
in high position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. The term
is specifically applied to the members of the Upper House in
Hungary, the Forcndihaz or House of Magnates (see HUNGARY).

M AGNES (c. 460 B.C.), Athenian writer of the Old Comedy, a
native of the deme of Icaria in Attica. His death is alluded to by
Aristophanes (Equites, 518-523, which was brought out in 424
B.C.), who states that in his old age Magncs had lost the popularity
which he had formerly enjoyed. The few titles of his plays that
remain, such as the Frogs, the Birds, the Gall-flies, indicate that
he anticipated Aristophanes in introducing grotesque costumes
for the chorus.

See T. Kpck, Comicorum atticorum fragmenla, i. (1880); G. H.
Bode, Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst, iii. pt. 2 (1840).

MAGNESIA, in ancient geography the name of two cities in
Asia Minor and of a district in eastern Thessaly, lying between
the Vale of Tempe and the Pagasaean Gulf.

(1) MAGNESIA AD MAEANDRUH, a city of Ionia, situated on a
small stream flowing into the Maeander, 15 Roman miles from
Miletus and rather less from Ephesus. According to tradition,
reinforced by the similarity of names, it was founded by colonists
from the Thessalian tribe of the Magnetes, with whom were
associated, according to Strabo, some Cretan settlers (Magnesia
retained a connexion with Crete, as inscriptions found there
attest). It was thus not properly an Ionic city, and for this
reason, apparently, was not included in the Ionian league, though
superior in wealth and prosperity to most of the members except
Ephesus and Miletus. It was destroyed by the Cimmerii in
their irruption into Asia Minor, but was soon after rebuilt, and
gradually recovered its former prosperity. It was one of the
towns assigned by Artaxerxes to Themistocles for support in his
exile, and there the latter ended his days. His statue stood in its
market-place. Thibron, the Spartan, persuaded the Magnesians
to leave their indefensible and mutinous city in 399 B.C. and build
afresh at Leucophrys, an hour distant, noted for its temple of
Artemis Leucophryne, which, according to Strabo, surpassed
that at Ephesus in the beauty of its architecture, though inferior
in size and wealth. Its ruins were excavated by Dr K. Humann
for the Constantinople Museum in 1891-1893; but most of the
frieze of the temple of Artemis Leucophryne, representing an
Amazon battle, had already been carried off by Texier (1843) to
the Louvre. It was an octostyle, pseudo-dipteral temple of
highly ornate Ionic order, built on older foundations by Hermo-
genes of Alabanda at the end of the 3rd century B.C. The plat-
form has been greatly overgrown since the excavation, but many
bases, capitals, and other architectural members are visible. In
front of the west facade stood a great altar. An immense
peribolus wall is still standing (20 ft. high) , but its Doric colonnade
has vanished. The railway runs right through the precinct, and
much of Magnesia has gone into its bridges and embankments.
South and west of the temple are many other remains of the
Roman city, including a fairly perfect theatre excavated by
Hiller von Gartringen, and the shell of a large gymnasium.
Part of the Agora was laid open to Humann, but his trenches
have fallen in. The site is so unhealthy that even the' Circas-
sians who settled there twenty years ago have almost all died
off or emigrated. Magnesia continued under the kings of
Pergamum to be one of the most flourishing cities in this part
of Asia; it resisted Mithradates in 87 B.C., and was rewarded
with civic freedom by Sulla; but it appears to have greatly
declined under the Roman empire, and its name disappears
from history, though on coins of the time of Gordian it still
claimed to be the seventh city of Asia.

See K. Haumann, Magnesia am Maeander (1904).

(2) MAGNESIA AD SIPYLUM (mod. Manisa, q.v.), a city of
Lydia about 40 m. N.E. of Smyrna on the river Hermus at the foot
of Mt Sipylus. No mention of the town is found till 190 B.C.,
when Antiochus the Great was defeated under its walls by the

Roman consul L. Scipio Asiaticus. It became a city of impor-
tance under the Roman dominion and, though nearly destroyed
by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, was restored by that
emperor and flourished through the Roman empire. It was one
of the few towns in this part of Asia Minor which remained pros-
perous under the Turkish rule. The most famous relic of antiquity
is the " Niobe of Sipylus " (Suratlu Task) on the lowest slopes of
the mountain about 4 m. east of the town. This is a colossal
seated image cut in a niche of the rock, of " Hittite " origin, and
perhaps that called by'Pausanias the " very ancient statue of the
Mother of the Gods," carved by Broteas, son of Tantalus, and
sung by Homer. Near it lie many remains of a primitive city,
and about half a mile east is the rock-seat conjecturally identified
with Pausanias' " Throne of Pelops." There are also hot springs
and a sacred grotto of Apollo. The whole site seems to be that of
the early " Tantalus " city. (D. G. H.)

MAGNESITE, a mineral consisting of magnesium carbonate,
MgCO3, and belonging to the calcite group of rhombohedral
carbonates. It is rarely found in crystals or crystalline masses,
being usually compact or earthy and intermixed with more or
less hydrous magnesium silicate (meerschaum). The compact
material has the appearance of unglazed porcelain, and the
earthy that of chalk. In colour it is usually dead white, some-
times yellowish. The hardness of the crystallized mineral is
4; sp. gr. 3-1. The name magnesite as originally applied by
J. C. Delametherie in 1797 included several minerals contain-
ing magnesium, and at the present day it is used by French
writers for meerschaum. The mineral has also been called
baudisserite from the locality Baudissero near Ivrea in Pied-
mont. Breunnerite is a ferriferous variety.

Magnesite is a product of alteration of magnesium silicates, and
occurs as veins and patches in serpentine, talc-schist or dolomite-
rock. It is extensively mined in the island of Euboea in the Grecian
Archipelago, near Salem in Madras, and in California, U.S.A.
It is principally used for the manufacture of highly refractory fire-
bricks for lining steel furnaces and electric furnaces; also for making
plaster, tiles and artificial stone; for the preparation of magnesium
salts (Epsom salts, &c.) ; for whitening paper-pulp and wool ; and as
a paint.

MAGNESIUM [symbol Mg, atomic weight 24-32 (0 = 16)],
a metallic chemical element. The sulphate or " Epsom salts "
(q.v.) was isolated in 1695 by N. Grew, while in 1707 M. B.
Valentin prepared magnesia alba from the mother liquors
obtained in the manufacture of nitre. Magnesia was con-
founded with lime until 1755, when J. Black showed that the
two substances were entirely different; and in 1808 Davy
pointed out that it was the oxide of a metal, which, however,
he was not able to isolate. Magnesium is found widely dis-
tributed in nature, chiefly in the forms of silicate, carbonate
and chloride, and occurring in the minerals olivine, hornblende,
talc, asbestos, meerschaum, augite, dolomite, magnesite, car-
nallite, kieserite and kainite. The metal was prepared (in a
state approximating to purity) by A. A. B. Bussy (Jour, de
pharm. 1829, 15, p. 30; 1830, 16, p. 142), who fused the an-
hydrous chloride with potassium; H. Sainte Claire Deville's
process, which used to be employed commercially, was essentially
the same, except that sodium was substituted for potassium
(Complex rendus, 1857, 44, p. 394), the product being further
purified by redistillation. It may also be prepared by heating
a mixture of carbon, oxide of iron and magnesite to bright
redness; and by heating a mixture of magnesium ferrocyanide
and sodium carbonate, the double cyanide formed being then
decomposed by heating it with metallic zinc. Electrolytic
methods have entirely superseded the older methods. The
problem of magnesium reduction is in many respects similar
to that of aluminium extraction, but the lightness of the metal
as compared, bulk for bulk, with its fused salts, and the
readiness with which it burns when exposed to air at high
temperatures, render the problem somewhat more difficult.

Moissan found that the oxide resisted reduction by carbon in the
electric furnace, so that electrolysis of a fusible salt of the metal must
be resorted to. Bunsen, in 1852, electrolysed fused magnesium
chloride in a porcelain crucible. In later processes, carnallite (a.

320

MAGNESIUM

natural double chloride of magnesium and potassium) has commonly,
after careful dehydration, been substituted for the single chloride.
Graetzel's process, which was at one time employed, consisted in
electrolysing the chloride in a metal crucible heated externally, the
crucible itself forming the cathode, and the magnesium being de-
posited upon its inner surface. W. Borchers also used an externally
heated metal vessel as the cathode; it is provided with a supporting
collar or flange a little below the top, so that the upper part of the
vessel is exposed to the cooling influence of the air, in order that a
crust of solidified salt may there be formed, and so prevent the
creeping of the electrolyte over the top. The carbon anode passes
through the cover of a porcelain cylinder, open at the bottom, and
provided with a side-tube at the top to remove the chlorine formed
during electrolysis. The operation is conducted at a dull red heat
(about 760° C. or 1400° F.), the current density being about 0-64
amperes per sq. in. of cathode surface, and the pressure about
7 volts. The fusing-point of the metal is about 730° C. (1350° F.),
and the magnesium is therefore reduced in the form of melted
globules which gradually accumulate. At intervals the current is
interrupted, the cover removed, and the temperature of the vessel
raised considerably above the melting-point of magnesium. The
metal is then removed from the walls with the aid of an iron
scraper, and the whole mass poured into a sheet-iron tray, where
it solidifies. The solidified chloride is then broken up, the shots
and fused masses of magnesium are picked out, run together in
a plumbago crucible without flux, and poured into a suitable
mould. Smaller pieces are thrown into a bath of melted carnallite
and pressed together with an iron rod, the bath being then heated
until the globules of metal float to the top, when they may be
removed in perforated iron ladles, through the holes in which the
fused chloride can drain away, but through which the melted magnes-
ium cannot pass by reason of its high surface tension. The globules
are then re-melted. F. Oettel (Zeit. f. Elektrochem., 1895, 2, p. 394)
recommends the electrolytic preparation from carnallite; the mineral
should be freed from water and sulphates.

Magnesium is a silvery white metal possessing a high lustre.
It is malleable and ductile. Sp. gr. 1-75. It preserves its
lustre in dry air, but in moist air it becomes tarnished by the
formation of a film of oxide. It melts at 632-7° C. (C. T. Hey-
cock and F. H. Neville), and boils at about noo°C. Magnesium
and its salts are diamagnetic. It burns brilliantly when heated
in air or oxygen, or even in carbon dioxide, emitting a brilliant
white light and leaving a residue of magnesia, MgO. The
light is rich in the violet and ultra-violet rays, and consequently
is employed in photography. The metal is also used in pyro-
techny. It also burns when heated in a current of steam, which
it decomposes with the liberation of hydrogen and the formation
of magnesia. At high temperatures it acts as a reducing agent,
reducing silica to silicon, boric acid to boron, &c. (H. Moissan,
Comptes rendus, 1892, 114, p. 392). It combines directly with
nitrogen, when heated in the gas, to form the nitride MgaN2 (see
ARGON). It is rapidly dissolved by dilute acids, with the evolu-
tion of hydrogen and the formation of magnesium salts. It
precipitates many metals from solutions of their salts.

Magnesium Oxide, magnesia, MgO, occurs native as the mineral
periclase, and is formed when magnesium burns in air; it may also
be prepared by the gentle ignition of the hydroxide or carbonate.
It is a non-volatile and almost infusible white powder, which slowly
absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from air, and is readily
soluble in dilute acids. On account of its refractory nature, it is
employed in the manufacture of crucibles, furnace linings, &c. It
is also used in making hydraulic cements. A crystalline form was
obtained by M. Houdard (Abst. J. C. S., 1907, ii. p. 621) by fusing
the oxide and sulphide in the electric furnace. Magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2, occurs native as the minerals brucite and n<5malite, and
is prepared by precipitating solutions of magnesium salts by means
of caustic soda or potash. An artificial brucite was prepared by
A. de Schulten (Comptes rendus, 1885, 101, p. 72) by boiling magnes-
ium chloride with caustic potash and allowing the solution to cool.
Magnesium hydroxide is a white amorphous solid which is only
slightly soluble in water; the solubility is, however, greatly in-
creased by ammonium salts. It possesses an alkaline reaction and
absorbs carbon dioxide. It is employed in the manufacture of
cements.

When magnesium is heated in fluorine or chlorine or in the vapour
of bromine or iodine there is a violent reaction, and the corresponding
halide compounds are formed. With the exception of the fluoride,
these substances are readily soluble in water and are deliquescent.
The fluoride is found native as sellaite, and the bromide and iodide
occur in sea water and in many mineral springs. The most im-
portant of the halide salts is the chloride which, in the hydrated form,
has the formula MgCU-6HjO. It may be prepared by dissolving
the metal, its oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate in dilute hydrochloric
acid, or by mixing concentrated solutions of magnesium sulphate and
common salt, and cooling the mixture rapidly, when the less soluble

sodium sulphate separates first. It is also formed as a by-product
in the manufacture of potassium chloride from carnallite. The
hydrated salt loses water on heating, and partially decomposes into
hydrochloric acid and magnesium oxychlorides. To obtain the
anhydrous salt, the double magnesium ammonium chloride, MgClj-
NH4Q-6H2O, is prepared by adding ammonium chloride to a solution
of magnesium chloride. The solution is evaporated, and the residue
strongly heated, when water and ammonium chloride are expelled,
and anhydrous magnesium chloride remains. Magnesium chloride
readily forms double salts with the alkaline chlorides. A strong
solution of the chloride made into a thick paste with calcined mag-
nesia sets in a few hours to a hard, stone-like mass, which contains an
oxychloride of varying composition. Magnesium oxychloride when
heated to redness in a current of air evolves a mixture of hydro-
chloric acid and chlorine and leaves a residue of magnesia, a reaction
which is employed in the Weldon-Pechiney and Mond processes for
the manufacture of chlorine.

Magnesium Carbonate, MgCOs. — The normal salt is found native
as the mineral magnesite, and in combination with calcium carbonate
as dolomite, whilst hydromagnesite is a basic carbonate. It is not
possible to prepare the normal carbonate by precipitating magnesium
salts with sodium carbonate. C. Marignac has prepared it by
the action of calcium carbonate on magnesium chloride. A salt
MgCO3-3H2O or Mg(Cp3H)(OH)-2H2O may be prepared from the
carbonate by dissolving it in water charged with carbon dioxide, and
then reducing the pressure (W. A. Davis, Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1906,
25, p. 788). The carbonate is not easily soluble in dilute acids, but
is readily soluble in water containing carbon dioxide. Magnesia
alba, a white bulky precipitate obtained by adding sodium carbonate
to Epsx>msalts,isa mixture of Mg(CO3H)(OH)-2H2O,Mg(CO3H)(OH)
and Mg(OH)2. It is almost insoluble in water, but readily dissolves
in ammonium salts.

Magnesium Phosphates. — By adding sodium phosphate to mag-
nesium sulphate and allowing the mixture to stand, hexagonal
needles of MgHPO«-7H2O are deposited. The normal phosphate,
Mg3P2O8, is found in some guanos, and as the mineral wagnerite.
It may be prepared by adding normal sodium phosphate to a mag-
nesium salt and boiling the precipitate with a solution of magnesium
sulphate. It is a white amorphous powder, readily soluble in acids.
Magnesium ammonium phosphate, MgNH4PO4-6H2O, is found as the
mineral struvite and in some guanos; it occurs also in urinary calculi
and is formed in the putrefaction of urine. It is prepared by adding
sodium phosphate to magnesium sulphate in the presence of ammonia
and ammonium chloride. When heated to 100° C., it loses five
molecules of water of crystallization, and at a higher temperature
loses the remainder of the water and also ammonia, leaving a residue
of magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg2P2O?. Magnesium Nitrate,
Mg(NO3)2-6H2O, is a colourless, deliquescent, crystalline solid ob-
tained by dissolving magnesium or its carbonate in nitric acid, and
concentrating the solution. The crystals melt at 90° C. Magnesium
Nitride, Mg3N2, is obtained as a greenish-yellow amorphous mass by
passing a current of nitrogen or ammonia over heated magnesium
(F. Briegleb and A. Geuther, Ann., 1862, 123, p. 228; see also W.
Eidmann and L. Moeser, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 390). When heated in
dry oxygen it becomes incandescent, forming magnesia. Water
decomposes it with liberation of ammonia and formation of mag-
nesium hydroxide. The chlorides of nickel, cobalt, chromium, iron
and mercury are converted into nitrides when heated with it, whilst
the chlorides of copper and platinum are reduced to the metals (A.
Smits, Rec. Pays Bas, 1896, 15, p. 135). Magnesium sulphide,
MgS, may be obtained, mixed with some unaltered metal and some
magnesia, as a hard brown mass by heating magnesia, in sulphur
vapour. It slowly decomposes in moist air. Magnesium sulphate,
MgSO4, occurs (with IH2O) as Kieserite. A hexahydrate is also
known. The salt may be obtained from Kieserite: formerly it
was prepared by treating magnesite or dolomite with sulphuric
acid.

Organic Compounds. — By heating magnesium filings with methyl
and ethyl iodides A. Cahours (Ann. chim. phys., 1860, 58, pp. 5, 19)
obtained magnesium methyl, Mg(CHj)2, and magnesium ethyl,
Mg(C2Hs)2, as colourless, strongly smelling, mobile liquids, which are
spontaneously inflammable and are readily decomposed by water.
The compounds formed by the action of magnesium on alkyl iodides
in the cold have been largely used in synthetic organic o,jg7iarrf
chemistry since V. Grignard (Comptes rendus, 1900 et peagettt,
seq.) observed that magnesium and alkyl or aryl halides
combined together in presence of anhydrous ether at ordinary
temperatures (with the appearance of brisk boiling) to form com-
pounds of the type RMgX(R = an alkyl or aryl group and X = halo-
gen). These compounds are insoluble in ether, are non-inflammable
and exceedingly reactive. A. V. Baeyer (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 1201)
regards them as oxonium salts containing tetravalent oxygen
(C.H6)2:O:(MgR) (X), whilst W. Tschelinzeff (Ber., 1906, 39, p. 7?3>
considers that they contain two molecules of ether. In preparing
the Grignard reagent the commencement of the reaction is acceler-
ated by a trace of iodine. W. Tschelinzeff (Ber., 1904, 37, p. 4534)
showed that the ether may be replaced by benzene containing a
small quantity of ether or anisole, or a few drops of a tertiary amine.
With unsaturated alkyl halides the products are only slightly soluble
in ether, and two molecules of the alkyl compound are brought into

MAGNETISM

321

the reaction. They are very unstable, and do not react in the
normal manner. (V. Grignard and L. Tissier, Comptes rendus, 1901 ,

'32. P- SS^)'

The products formed by the action of the Grignard reagent with
the various types of organic compounds are usually thrown out of
solution in the form of crystalline precipitates or as thick oils, and
are then decomposed by ice-cold dilute sulphuric or acetic acids, the
magnesium being removed as a basic halide salt.

Applications. — For the formation of primary and secondary alcohols
see ALDEHYDES and KETONES. Formaldehyde behaves abnormally
with magnesium benzyl bromide (M. Tiffeneau, Comptes rendus,
i<)"V 137. P- 573)p forming ortho-tolylcarbinol, CHs-CurU-CHjOH,
and not benzylcarbinol, CeHiCHj-CHuOH (cf. the reaction of form-
aldehyde on phenols : O. Manasse, Ber. 1894, 27, p. 2904). Acid
s yield carbinols, many of which are unstable and readily pass
over into unsaturated compounds, especially when warmed with
acetic anhydride: R-CO2R'(R")2-R!C-OMgX-»(R>RlC-OH.

Formic ester yields a secondary alcohol under similar conditions.
Acid chlorides behave in an analogous manner to esters (Grignard
and Tissier, Comptes rendus, 1901, 132, p. 685). Nitriles yield
krtoncs (the nitrogen being eliminated as ammonia), the best yields
given by the aromatic nitriles (E. Blaise, ibid., 1901, 133, p.
1217): R-CN->RR':C:NMgI->R-CO-R'. Acid amides also react
to form ketones (C. B&S, ibid., 1903, 137, 575):

R-CONH2-»RR':C(OMgX)-NHMgX+R'H->R-CO-R';
the yield increases with the complexity of the organic residue of the
,imide. On passing a current of dry carbon dioxide over the
nt, the gas is absorbed and the resulting compound, when
nposed by dilute acids, yields an organic acid, and similarly
with carbon oxysulphide a thio-acid is obtained :
RMgX->R-CO2MgX->R-CO2H;COS->CS(OMgX)-R^.R-CSOH.

A Klages (Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 2633 et seq.)'has shown that if one uses
an excess of magnesium and of an alkyl halide with a ketone, an
ethylenc derivative is formed. The reaction appears to be per-
fectly general unless the ketone contains two ortho-substituent
groups. Organo-metallic compounds can also be prepared, for
example

For a summary see A. McKenzie, B. A. Rep. 1907.

Detection. — The magnesium salts may be detected by the white
precipitate formed by adding sodium phosphate (in the presence of
ammonia and ammonium chloride) to their solutions. The same
reaction is made use of in the quantitative determination of magnes-
ium, the white precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate being
converted by ignition into magnesium pyrophosphate and weighed
as such. The atomic weight of magnesium has been determined
by many observers. J. Berzelius (Ann. Mm. phys., 1820, 14, p.
375). Dy converting the oxide into the sulphate, obtained the value
12-62 for the equivalent. R. F. Marchand and T. Scheerer (Jour.
prakt. Chsm., 1850, 50, p. 358), by ignition of the carbonate, obtained
the value 24-00 for the atomic weight, whilst C. Marignac, by con-
vert ing the oxide into the sulphate, obtained the value 24-37. T.
W. Richards and H. G. Parker (Zeit.anorg. Chem., 1897, 13, p. 81)
have obtained the value 24-365 (O = 16).

Medicine. — These salts of magnesium may be regarded as the
typical saline purgatives. Their aperient action is dependent
upon the minimum of irritation of the bowel, and is exercised
by their abstraction from the blood of water, which passes
into the bowel to act as a diluent of the salt. The stronger
the solution administered, the greater is the quantity of water
that passes into the bowel, a fact to be borne in mind when
the salt is administered for the purpose of draining superfluous
fluid from the system, as in dropsy. The oxide and carbonate
of magnesium are also invaluable as antidotes, since they
form insoluble compounds with oxalic acid and salts of mercury,
arsenic, and copper. The result is to prevent the local corrosive
action of the poison and to prevent absorption of the metals.
As alkaloids are insoluble in alkaline solutions, the oxide and
carbonate — especially the former — may be given in alkaloidal
poisoning. The compounds of magnesium are not absorbed
into the blood in any appreciable quantity, and therefore exert
no remote actions upon other functions. This is fortunate, as
the result of injecting a solution of a magnesium salt into a
vein is rapid poisoning. Hence it is of the utmost importance
to avoid the use of salts of this metal whenever it is necessary —
as in diabetic coma — to increase the alkalinity of the blood
rapidly. The usual doses of the oxide and carbonate of mag-
nesium are from half a drachm to a drachm.

MAGNETISM. The present article is a digest, mainly from
an experimental standpoint, of the leading facts and principles
of magnetic science. It is divided into the following sections:

XVII. II

1. General Phenomena.

2. Terminology and Elementary Principles.

3. Magnetic Measurements.

4. Magnetization in Strong Fields.

5. Magnetization in Weak Fields.

6. Changes of Dimensions attending Magnetization.

7. Effects of Mechanical Stress on Magnetization.

8. Effects of Temperature on Magnetism.

9. Magnetic Properties of Alloys and Compounds of Iron.

10. Miscellaneous Effects of Magnetization: —

Electric Conductivity — Hall Effect — Electro-Thermal Rela-
tions— Thermoelectric Quality — Elasticity — Chemical and
Voltaic Effects.

1 1 . Feebly Susceptible Substances.

12. Molecular Theory of Magnetism.

13. Historical and Chronological Notes.

Of these thirteen sections, the first contains a simple descrip-
tion of the more prominent phenomena, without mathematical
symbols or numerical data. The second includes definitions of
technical terms in common use, together with so much of the
elementary theory as is necessary for understanding the experi-
mental work described in subsequent portions of the article; a
number of formulae and results are given for purposes of refer-
ence, but the mathematical reasoning by which they are obtained
is not generally detailed, authorities being cited whenever the
demonstrations are not likely to be found in ordinary textbooks.
The subjects discussed in the remaining sections are sufficiently
indicated by their respective headings. (See also ELECTRO-
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, MAGNETO-OPTICS and
UNITS.)

i. GENERAL PHENOMENA

Pieces of a certain highly esteemed iron ore, which consists
mainly of the oxide FesO^ are sometimes found to possess
the power of attracting small fragments of iron or steel. Ore
endowed with this curious property was well known to the ancient
Greeks and Romans, who, because it occurred plentifully
in the district of Magnesia near the Aegean coast, gave it
the name of magnes, or the Magnesian stone. In English-
speaking countries the ore is commonly known as magnetite,
and pieces which exhibit attraction as magnets; the cause to
which the attractive property is attributed is called magnetism,
a name also applied to the important branch of science which
has been evolved from the study of phenomena associated with
the magnet.

If a magnet is dipped into a mass of iron filings and with-
drawn, filings cling to certain parts of the stone in moss-like
tufts, other parts remaining bare. There are generally two
regions where the tufts are thickest, and the attraction therefore
greatest, and between them is a zone in which no attraction is
evidenced. The regions of greatest attraction have received
the name of poles, and the line joining them is called the axis
of the magnet; the space around a magnet in which magnetic
effects are exhibited is called the field of magnetic force, or the
magnetic field.

Up to the end of the i$th century only two magnetic phe-
nomena of importance, besides that of attraction, had been
observed. Upon one of these is based the principle of the
mariner's compass, which is said to have been known to the
Chinese as early as noo B.C., though it was not introduced
into Europe until more than 2000 years later; a magnet
supported so that its axis is free to turn in a horizontal plane
will come to rest with its poles pointing approximately north
and south. The other phenomenon is mentioned by Greek
and Roman writers of the ist century: a piece of iron, when
brought into contact with a magnet, or even held near one,
itself becomes " inductively " magnetized, and acquires the
power of lifting iron. If the iron is soft and fairly pure, it loses
its attractive property when removed from the neighbourhood
of the magnet; if it is hard, some of the induced magnetism
is permanently retained, and the piece becomes an artificial
magnet. Steel is much more retentive of magnetism than any
ordinary iron, and some form of steel is now always used for
making artificial magnets. Magnetism may be imparted to a
bar of hardened steel by stroking it several times from end to

322

MAGNETISM

[GENERAL PHENOMENA

ENA

end, always in the same direction, with one of the poles of a
magnet. Until 1820 all the artificial magnets in practical use
derived their virtue, directly or indirectly, from the natural
magnets found in the earth: it is now recognized that the
source of all magnetism, not excepting that of the magnetic
ore itself, is electricity, and it is usual to have direct recourse
to electricity for producing magnetization, without the inter-
mediary of the magnetic ore. A wire carrying an electric
current is surrounded by a magnetic field, and if the wire is
bent into the form of an elongated coil or spiral, a field having
certain very useful qualities is generated in the interior. A bar
of soft iron introduced into the coil is at once magnetized, the
magnetism, however, disappearing almost completely as soon
as the current ceases to flow. Such a combination constitutes
an electromagnet, a valuable device by means of which a magnet
can be instantly made and unmade at will. With suitable
arrangements of iron and coil and a sufficiently strong current,
the intensity of the temporary magnetization may be very high,
and electromagnets capable of lifting weights of several tons
are in daily use in engineering works (see ELECTROMAGNETISM).
If the bar inserted into the coil is of hardened steel instead of
iron, the magnetism will be less intense, but a larger proportion
of it will be retained after the current has been cut off. Steel
magnets of great strength and of any convenient form may be
prepared either in this manner or by treatment with an electro-
magnet; hence the natural magnet, or lodestone as it is commonly
called, is no longer of any interest except as a scientific
curiosity.

Some of the principal phenomena of magnetism may be
demonstrated with very little apparatus; much may be done
with a small bar-magnet, a pocket compass and a few ounces
of irbn filings. Steel articles, such as knitting or sewing needles
and pieces of flat spring, may be readily magnetized by stroking
them with the bar-magnet; after having produced magnetism
in any number of other bodies, the magnet will have lost nothing
of its own virtue. The compass needle is a little steel magnet
balanced upon a pivot; one end of the needle, which always
bears a distinguishing mark, points approximately, but not in
general exactly, to the north,1 the vertical plane through the
direction of the needle being termed the magnetic meridian.
The bar-magnet, if suspended horizontally in a paper stirrup
by a thread of unspun silk, will also come to rest in the magnetic
meridian with its marked end pointing northwards. The
north-seeking end of a magnet is in English-speaking countries
called the north pole and the other end the south pole; in France
the names are interchanged. If one pole of the bar-magnet
is brought near the compass, it will attract the opposite pole
of the compass-needle; and the magnetic action will not be
sensibly affected by the interposition between the bar and the
compass of any substance whatever except iron or other mag-
netizable metal. The poles of a piece of magnetized steel may
be at once distinguished if the two ends are successively pre-
sented to the compass; that end which attracts the south pole
of the compass needle (and is therefore north) may be marked
for easy identification.

Similar magnetic poles are not merely indifferent to each
other, but exhibit actual repulsion. This can be more easily
shown if the compass is replaced by a magnetized knitting
needle, supported horizontally by a thread. The north pole
of the bar-magnet will repel the north pole of the suspended
needle, and there will likewise be repulsion between the two
south poles. Such experiments as these demonstrate the
fundamental law that like poles repel each other; unlike poles
attract. It follows that between two neighbouring magnets,
the poles of which are regarded as centres of force, there must
always be four forces in action. Denoting the two pairs of
magnetic poles by N, S and N', S', there is attraction between
N and S', and between S and N'; repulsion between N and N',
and between S and S'. Hence it is not very easy to determine
experimentally the law of magnetic force between poles. The

1 In London in 1910 the needle pointed about 16° W. of the
geographical north. (See TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.)

difficulty was overcome by C. A. Coulomb, who by using very
long and thin magnets, so arranged that the action of their
distant poles was negligible, succeeded in establishing the law.
which has since been confirmed by more accurate methods,
that the force of attraction or repulsion exerted between two magnetic
poles varies inversely as the square of the distance between them.
Since the poles of different magnets differ in strength, it is
important to agree upon a definite unit or standard of reference
in terms of which the strength of a pole may be numerically
specified. According to the recognized convention, the unit
pole is that which acts upon an equal pole at unit distance
with unit force: a north pole is reckoned as positive (+) and
a south pole as negative ( — ). Other conditions remaining
unchanged, the force between two poles is proportional to the
product of their strengths; it is repulsive or attractive according
as the signs of the poles are like or unlike.

If a wire of soft iron is substituted for the suspended magnetic
needle, either pole of the bar-magnet will attract either end of
the wire indifferently. The wire will in fact become temporarily
magnetized by induction, that end of it which is nearest to the
pole of the magnet acquiring opposite polarity, and behaving
as if it were the pole of a permanent magnet. Even a permanent
magnet is susceptible of induction, its polarity becoming thereby
strengthened, weakened, or possibly reversed. If one pole of a
strong magnet is presented to the like pole of a weaker one,
there will be repulsion so long as the two are separated by a
certain minimum distance. At shorter distances the magnetism
induced in the weaker magnet will be stronger than its permanent
magnetism, and there will be attraction; two magnets with
their like poles in actual contact will always cling together unless
the like poles are of exactly equal strength. Induction is an
effect of the field of force associated with a magnet. Magnetic
force has not merely the property of acting upon magnetic
poles, it has the additional property of producing a phenomenon
known as magnetic induction, or magnetic flux, a physical con-
dition which is of the nature of a flow continuously circulating
through the magnet and the space outside it. Inside the magnet
the course of the flow is from the south pole to the north pole;
thence it diverges through the surrounding space, and again
converging, re-enters the magnet at the south pole. When the
magnetic induction flows through a piece of iron or other mag-
netizable substance placed near the magnet, a south pole is
developed where the flux enters and a north pole where it
leaves the substance. Outside the magnet the direction of the
magnetic induction is generally the same as that of the magnetic
force. A map indicating the direction of the force in different
parts of the field due to a magnet may be constructed in a
very simple manner. A sheet of cardboard is placed above the
magnet, and some iron filings are sifted thinly and evenly over
the surface: if the cardboard is gently tapped, the filings will
arrange themselves in a series of curves, as shown in fig. i.
This experiment suggested to
Faraday the conception of
" lines of force," of which the
curves formed by the filings
afford a rough indication;
Faraday's lines are however
not confined to the plane of
the cardboard, but occur in
the whole of the space around
the magnet. A line of force
may be defined as an imaginary
line so drawn that its direction
at every point of its course
coincides with the direction of FIG. I.

the magnetic force at that

point. Through any point in the field one such line can be
drawn, but not more than one, for the force obviously cannot
have more than one direction; the lines therefore never
intersect. A line of force is regarded as proceeding from the
north pole towards the south pole of the magnet, its direction
being that in which an isolated north pole would be urged along

GENERAL PHENOMENA]

MAGNETISM

323

it. A south pole would be urged oppositely to the conventional
" direction " of the line; hence it follows that a very small
magnetic needle, if placed in the field, would tend to set itself
along or tangentially to the line of force passing through its
centre, as may be approximately verified if the compass be
J among the filings on the cardboard. In the internal
field of a long coil of wire carrying an electric current, the lines
of force are, except near the ends, parallel to the axis of the
coil, and it is chiefly for this reason that the field due to a coil
is particularly well adapted for inductively magnetizing iron
-teel. The older operation of magnetizing a steel bar by
drawing a magnetic pole along it merely consists in exposing
successive portions of the bar to the action of the strong field
near the pole.

Faraday's lines not only show the direction of the magnetic
force, but also serve to indicate its magnitude or strength in
different parts of the field. Where the lines are crowded to-
gether, as in the neighbourhood of the poles, the force is greater
(or the field is stronger) than where they are more widely
separated; hence the strength of a field at any point can be
accurately specified by reference to the concentration of the
lines. The lines presented to the eye by the scattered filings
are too vague and ill-defined to give a satisfactory indication
of the field-strength (see Faraday, Experimental Researches,
§ 3237) though they show its direction clearly enough. It is
however easy to demonstrate by means of the compass that the
force is much greater in some parts of the field than in others.
Lay the compass upon the cardboard, and observe the rate
at which its needle vibrates after being displaced from its
position of equilibrium; this will vary greatly in different
regions. When the compass is far from the magnet, the vibra-
tions will be comparatively slow; when it is near a pole, they
will be exceedingly rapid, the frequency of the vibrations
varying as the square root of the magnetic force at the spot.
In a refined form this method is often employed for measuring
the intensity of a magnetic field at a given place, just as the
intensity of gravity at different parts of the earth is deduced
from observations of the rate at which a pendulum of known
length vibrates.

It is to the non-uniformity of the field surrounding a magnet
that the apparent attraction between a magnet and a magnetiz-
able body such as iron is ultimately due. This was pointed out
by W. Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin) in 1847, as the result
of a mathematical investigation undertaken to explain Faraday's
experimental observations. If. the inductively magnetized body
lios in a part of the field which happens to be uniform there will
be no resulting force tending to move the body, and it will not
be " attracted." If however there is a small variation of the
force in the space occupied by the body, it can be shown that
the body will be urged, not necessarily towards a magnetic
pole, but towards places of stronger magnetic force. It will not
in general move along a line of force, as would an isolated pole,
but will follow the direction in which the magnetic force increases
most rapidly, and in so doing it may cross the lines of force
obliquely or even at right angles.

If a magnetized needle were supported so that it could move
freely rabout its centre of gravity it would not generally settle
with its axis in a horizontal position, but would come to rest
with its north-seeking pole either higher or lower than its centre.
For the practical observation of this phenomenon it is usual to
employ a needle which can turn freely in the plane of the magnetic
meridian upon a horizontal axis passing through the centre
of gravity of the needle. The angle which the magnetic axis
makes with the plane of the horizon is called the inclination or
dip. Along an irregular line encircling the earth in the neigh-
bourhood of the geographical equator the needle takes up a
horizontal position, and the dip is zero. At places north of this
line, which is called the magnetic equator, the north end of the
needle points downwards, the inclination generally becoming
greater with increased distance from the equator. Within a
certain small area in the Arctic Circle (about 97° W. long., 70° N.
lat.) the north pole of the needle points vertically downwards,

the dip being 90°. South of the magnetic equator the south
end of the needle is always inclined downwards, and there is a
spot within the Antarctic Circle (148° E. long., 74° S. lat.) where
the needle again stands vertically, but with its north end directed
upwards. All these observations may be accounted for by the
fact first recognized by W. Gilbert in 1600, that the earth itself
is a great magnet, having its poles at the two places where the
dipping needle is vertical. To be consistent with the terminology
adopted in Britain, it is necessary to regard the pole which is
geographically north as being the south pole of the terrestrial
magnet, and that which is geographically south as the north
pole; in practice however the names assigned to the terrestrial
magnetic poles correspond with their geographical situations.
Within a limited space, such as that contained in a room, ^he
field due to the earth's magnetism is sensibly uniform, the lines
of force being parallel straight lines inclined to the horizon at the
angle of dip, which at Greenwich in 1910 was about 67°. It is
by the horizontal component of the earth's total force that the
compass-needle is directed.

The magnets hitherto considered have been assumed to have
each two poles, the one north and the other south. It is possible
that there may be more than two. If, for example, a knitting
needle is stroked with the south pole of a magnet, the strokes
being directed from the middle of the needle towards the two
extremities alternately, the needle will acquire a north pole at
each end and a south pole in the middle. By suitably modifying
the manipulation a further number of consequent poles, as they
are called, may be developed. It is also possible that a magnet
may have no poles at all. Let a magnetic pole be drawn
several times around a uniform steel ring, so that every part
of the ring may be successively subjected to the magnetic force.
If the operation has been skilfully performed the ring will have
no poles and will not attract iron filings. Yet it will be mag-
netized; for if it is cut through and the cut ends are drawn
apart, each end will be found to exhibit polarity. Again, a
steel wire through which an electric current has been passed
will be magnetized, but so long as it is free from stress it will
give no evidence of magnetization; if, however, the wire is
twisted, poles will be developed at the two ends, for reasons
which will be explained later. A wire or rod in this condition
is said to be circularly magnetized; it may be regarded as con-
sisting of an indefinite number of elementary ring-magnets,
having their axes coincident with the axis of the wire and their
planes at right angles to it. But no magnet can have a single
pole; if there is one, there must also be at least a second, of
the opposite sign and of exactly equal strength. Let a mag-
netized knitting needle, having north and south poles at the
two ends respectively, be broken in the middle; each half
will be found to possess a north and a south pole, the appropriate
supplementary poles appearing at the broken ends. One of
the fragments may again be broken, and again two bipolar
magnets will be produced; and the operation may be repeated,
at least in imagination, till we arrive at molecular magnitudes
and can go no farther. This experiment proves that the con-
dition of magnetization is not confined to those parts where polar
phenomena are exhibited, but exists throughout the whole
body of the magnet; it also suggests the idea of molecular
magnetism, upon which the accepted theory of magnetization
is based. According to this theory the molecules of any mag-
netizable substance are little permanent magnets the axes of
which are, under ordinary conditions, disposed in all possible
directions indifferently. The process of magnetization consists
in turning round the molecules by the application of magnetic
force, so that their north poles may all point more or less ap-
proximately in the direction of the force; thus the body as a
whole becomes a magnet which is merely the resultant of an
immense number of molecular magnets.

In every magnet the strength of the south pole is exactly
equal to that of the north pole, the action of the same magnetic
force upon the two poles being equal and oppositely directed.
This may be shown by means of the uniform field of force due
to the earth's magnetism. A magnet attached to a cork and

324

MAGNETISM

[TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES

floated upon water will set itself with its axis in the magnetic
meridian, but it will be drawn neither northward nor southward;
the forces acting upon the two poles have therefore no horizontal
resultant. And again if a piece of steel is weighed in a delicate
balance before and after magnetization, no change whatever in
its weight can be detected; there is consequently no upward or
downward resultant force due to magnetization; the contrary
parallel forces acting upon the poles of the magnet are equal,
constituting a couple, which may tend to turn the body, but not
to propel it.

Iron and its alloys, including the various kinds of steel, though
exhibiting magnetic phenomena in a pre-eminent degree, are
not the only substances capable of magnetization. Nickel and
cobalt are also strongly magnetic, and in 1903 the interesting
discovery was made by F. Heusler that an alloy consisting of
copper, aluminium and manganese (Heusler's alloy), possesses
magnetic qualities comparable with those of iron. Practically
the metals iron, nickel and cobalt, and some of their alloys and
compounds constitute a class by themselves arid are called
ferromagnetic substances. But it was discovered by Faraday
in 1845 that all substances, including even gases, are either
attracted or repelled by a sufficiently powerful magnetic pole.
Those substances which are attracted, or rather which tend, like
iron, to move from weaker to stronger parts of the magnetic
field, are termed paramagnetic; those which are repelled, or tend
to move from stronger to weaker parts of the field, are termed
diamagnetic. Between the ferromagnetics and the para-
magnetics there is an enormous gap. The maximum magnetic
susceptibility of iron is half a million times greater than that of
liquid oxygen, one of the strongest paramagnetic substances
known. Bismuth, the strongest of the diamagnetics, has a
negative susceptibility which is numerically 20 times less than
that of liquid oxygen.

Many of the physical properties of a metal are affected by
magnetization. The dimensions of a piece of iron, for example,
its elasticity, its thermo-electric power and its electric conduc-
tivity are all changed under the influence of magnetism. On the
other hand, the magnetic properties of a substance are affected
by such causes as mechanical stress and changes of temperature.
An account of some of these effects will be found in another
section.1

2. TERMINOLOGY AND ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

In what follows the C.G.S. electromagnetic system of units
will be generally adopted, and, unless otherwise stated, magnetic
substances will be assumed to be isotropic, or to have the same
physical properties in all directions.

Vectors. — Physical quantities such as magnetic force, magnetic
induction and magnetization, which have direction as well as magni-
tude, are termed vectors; they are compounded and resolved in the
same manner as mechanical force, which is itself a vector. When
the direction of any vector quantity denoted by a symbol is to be
attended to, it is usual to employ for the symbol either a block
letter, as H, I, B, or a German capital, as §, 3. SB.2

Magnetic Poles and Magnetic Axis. — A unit magnetic pole is that
which acts on an equal pole at a distance of one centimetre with a
force of one dyne. A pole which points north is reckoned positive,
one which points south negative. The action between any two
magnetic poles is mutual. If nti and mt are the strengths of two
poles, a the distance between them expressed in centimetres, and /
the force in dynes,

f=mim1/d? (l)

The force is one of attraction or repulsion, according as the sign of
the product m\mt is negative or positive. The poles at the ends of
an infinitely thin uniform magnet, or magnetic filament, would act
as definite centres of force. An actual magnet may generally be
regarded as a bundle of magnetic filaments, and those portions of
the surface of the magnet where the filaments terminate, and so-
called " free magnetism " appears, may be conveniently called poles
or polar regions. A more precise definition is the following: When
the magnet is placed in a uniform field, the parallel forces acting on
the positive poles of the constituent filaments, whether the filaments

1 For the relations between magnetism and light see MAGNETO-
OPTICS.

* Clerk Maxwell employed German capitals to denote vector
quantities. J. A. Fleming first recommended the use of blockletters
as being more convenient both to printers and readers.

terminate outside the magnet or inside, have a resultant, equal to
the sum of the forces and parallel to their direction, acting at a
certain point N. The point N, which is the centre of the parallel
forces, is called the north or positive pole of the magnet. Similarly,
the forces acting in the opposite direction on the negative poles of
the filaments have a resultant at another point S, which is called the
south or negative pole. The opposite and parallel forces acting on
the poles are always equal, a fact which is sometimes expressed by
the statement that the total magnetism of a magnet is zero. The
line joining the two poles is called the axis of the magnet.

Magnetic Field.— Any space at every point of which there is a
finite magnetic force is called a field of magnetic force, or a magnetic
field. The strength or intensity of a magnetic field at any point is
measured by the force in dynes which a unit pole will experience
when placed at that point, the direction of the field being the direction
in which a positive pole is urged. The field-strength at any point
is also called the magnetic force at that point; it is denoted by H,or,
when it is desired to draw attention to the fact that it is a vector
quantity, by the block letter H, or the German character §. Mag-
netic force is sometimes, and perhaps more suitably, termed magnetic
intensity; it corresponds to the intensity of gravity g in the theory
of heavy bodies (see Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, § 12 and
§ 68, footnote). A line of force is a line drawn through a magnetic
field in the direction of the force at each point through which it
passes. A uniform magnetic field is one in which H has everywhere
the same value and the same direction, the lines of force being,
therefore, straight and parallel. A magnetic field is generally due
either to a conductor carrying an electric current or to the poles of
a magnet. The magnetic field due to a long straight wire in which
a current of electricity is flowing is at every point at right angles to
the plane passing through it and through the wire ; its strength at
any point distant r centimetres from the wire is

H=2i/r, (2)

i being the current in C.G.S. units.8 The lines of force are evidently
circles concentric with the wire and at right angles to it ; their direc-
tion is related to that of the current in the same manner as the
rotation of a corkscrew is related to its thrust. The field at the
centre of a circular conductor of radius r through which current is
passing is

H=2«/r, (3)

the direction of the force being along the axis and related to the
direction of the current as the thrust of a corkscrew to its rotation.
The field strength in the interior of a long uniformly wound coil
containing n turns of wire and having a length of / centimetres is
(except near the ends)

In the middle portion of the coil the strength of the field is
nearly uniform, but towards the end it diminishes, and at the e,.,
is reduced to one-half. The direction of the force is parallel to the
axis of the coil, and related to the direction of the current as the
thrust of a corkscrew to its rotation. If the coil has the form of a
ring of mean radius r, the length will be 2jrr, and the field inside the
coil may be expressed as

H=2ni/r. (5)

The uniformity of the field is not in this case disturbed by the in-
fluence of ends, but its strength at any point varies inversely as the
distance from the axis of the ring. When therefore sensible uni-
formity is desired, the radius of the ring should be large in relation
to that of the convolutions, or the ring should have the form of a
short cylinder with thin walls. The strongest magnetic fields em-
ployed for experimental purposes are obtained by the use of electro-
magnets. For many experiments the field due to the earth's
magnetism is sufficient; this is practically quite uniform throughout
considerable spaces, but its total intensity is less than half a unit.

Magnetic Moment and Magnetization. — The moment, M, M or 2K,
of a uniformly and longitudinally magnetized bar-magnet is the
product of its length into the strength of one of its poles; it is the
moment of the couple acting on the magnet when placed in a field
of unit intensity with its axis perpendicular to the direction of the
field. If / is the length of the magnet, M = ml. The action of a
magnet at a distance which is great compared with the length of the
magnet depends solely upon its moment; so also does the action
which the magnet experiences when placed in a uniform field. The
moment of a small magnet may be resolved like a force. The in-
tensity of magnetization, or, more shortly, the magnetization of a
uniformly magnetized body is defined as the magnetic moment per
unit of volume, and is denoted by I, I, or Q. Hence

I = M/v = mljv = m/a,

v being the volume and a the sectional area. If the magnet is not uni-
form, the magnetization at any point is the ratio of the moment of an
element of volume at that point to the volume itself, or I = m.ds/dv.
where ds is the length of the element. The direction of the magnetiza-
tion is that of the magnetic axisof the element ;'in isotropic substances
it coincides with the direction of the magnetic force at the point.
If the direction of the magnetization at the surface of a magnet makes

ery
nds

8 The C.G.S. unit of current = 10 amperes.

TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES]

MAGNETISM

325

an angle « with the normal, the normal component of the magnetiza-
tion, I cos «, is called the surface density of the magnetism, and is
generally denoted by a.

Potential and Magnetic Force. — The magnetic potential at any point
in a magnetic field is the work which would be done against the
magnetic forces in bringing a unit pole to that point from the boundary
(it i lie field. The line through the given point along which the poten-
tial dim-uses most rapidly is the direction of the resultant magnetic
font-, and the rate of decrease of the potential in any direction is
1 to the component of the force in that direction. If V denote
tin- potential, /-"the resultant force, X, Y, Z, its components parallel
to the co-ordinate axes and n the line along which the force is directed,

_«y=F_«Y.

«» r< 6x

X,-

SV
ty'

"-S-

Z.

(6)

Surfaces for which the potential is constant are called equipotential
surfaces. The resultant magnetic force at every point of such a
surface is in the direction of the normal (n) to the surface; every line
of force therefore cuts the equipotential surfaces at right angles.
The potential due to a single pole of strength m at the distance r
from the pole is

V = m/r, (7)

the equipotential surfaces being spheres of which the pole is the
centre and the lines of force radii. The potential due to a thin
magnet ut a point whose distance from the two poles respectively
IN r and r' is

V=m(//r=//r'). (8)

When V is constant, this equation represents an equipotential
surface.

The equipotential surfaces are two series of ovoids surrounding
the two poles respectively, and separated by a plane at zero potential
ing perpendicularly through the middle of the axis. If r and r'
make angles 6 and 9' with the axis, it is easily shown that the equa-
tion to a line of force is

cos 6— cos 6' = constant. (9)

At the point where a line of force intersects the perpendicular bisector
of the axis r = r' = r0, say, and cos 0— cos 6' obviously =l/r0,l being

FIG. 2. FIG. 3.

the distance between the poles; l/r^ is therefore the value of the
constant in (9) for the line in question. Fig. 2 shows the lines of
force and the plane sections of the equipotential surfaces for a thin
magnet with poles concentrated at its ends. The potential due to a
small magnet of moment M, at a point whose distance from the
cen're of the magnet is r , is

V = Mcosfi/r», (10)

where 0 is the angle between r and the axis of the magnet. Denoting
the force at P (see fig. 3) by F, and its components parallel to the
co-ordinate axes by X and Y, we have

If Fr is the force along r and F, that along I at right angles to r,

M

^2 cos 9, (12)

M

F, = -X sin 0+ Y cos 8=^ sine.

(13)

For the resultant force at P,

(14)

The direction of F is given by the following construction: Trisect
OP at C, so that OC = OP/3 ; draw CD at right anglee to OP, to cut
the axis produced in D ; then DP will be the direction of the force
at P- *F°r a P0'"1 in the axis OX' e =0 '• therefore cos 9 = i , and the
point D coincides with C ; the magnitude of the force is, from (14),

F, = 2M/r«, (,5)

its direction being along the axis OX. For a point in the line OY

bisecting the magnet perpendicularly, 8 = jr/2 therefore cos« = O, and
the point D is at an infinite distance. The magnitude of the force
is in this case

F, = M/r», (16)

and its direction is parallel to the axis of the magnet. Although
the above useful formulae, (10) to (15), are true only for an infinitely
small magnet, they may be practically applied whenever the dis-
tance r is considerable compared with the length of the magnet.

Couples and Forces between Magnets. — If a small magnet of moment
M is placed in the sensibly uniform field H due to a distant magnet,
the couple tending to turn the small magnet

upon an axis at right angles to the magnet w*

and to the force is

MHsinfl, (17)

where 8 is the angle between the axis of the
magnet and the direction of the force. In

FIG. 4.

fig. 4 S'N' is a small magnet of moment M', s

and SN a distant fixed magnet of moment

M ; the axes of SN and S'N make angles of

6 and <£ respectively with the line through their middle points. It

can be deduced from (17), (12) and (13) that the couple on S'N' due

to SN, and tending to increase <t>, is

MM' (sin 6 cos <t>-2 sin <f> cos 0)/r'. (18)

This vanishes if sin 0 cos <£f=2 sin <t> cos 8, i.e. if tan <£ = J tan 9,
S'N' being then along a line of force, a result which explains the
construction given above for finding the direction of the force F in
(14). If the axis of SN produced passes through the centre of S'N',
8=O, and the couple becomes

2MM'sin0/rs, (19)

tending to diminish 0; this is called the " end on " position. If the
centre of S'N' is on the perpendicular bisector of SN, 8 = Jn-, and
the couple will be

MM'cos0/rs, (20)

tending to increase </>; this is the " broadside on " position. These
two positions are sometimes called the first and second (or A and B)
principal positions of Gauss. The components X, Y, parallel and
perpendicular to r, of the force between the two magnets SN and
S'N' are

X=3MM'(sin 8 sin 0 — 2 cos 8 cos ^/r4, (21)

y=3MM'(sin 8 cos 0+sin 0 cos 0)/r*. (22)

It will be seen that, whereas the couple varies inversely as the cube
of the distance, the force varies inversely as the fourth power.
_ Distributions of ^Magnetism. — A magnet may be regarded as con-
sisting of an infinite number of elementary magnets, each having a
pair of poles and a definite magnetic moment. If a series of such
elements, all _ equally and longitudinally magnetized, were placed
end to end with their unlike poles in contact, the external action of
the filament thus formed would be reduced to that of the two extreme
poles. The same would be the case if the magnetization of the fila-
ment varied inversely as the area of its cross-section a in different
parts. Such a filament is called a simple magnetic solenoid, and the
product ol is called the strength of the solenoid. A magnet which
consists entirely of such solenoids, having their ends either upon the
surface or closed upon themselves, is called a solenoidal magnet, and
the magnetism is said to be distributed solenoidally ; there is no free
magnetism in its interior. If the constituent solenoids are parallel
and of equal strength, the magnet is also uniformly magnetized. A
thin sheet of magnetic matter magnetized normally to its surface in
such a manner that the magnetization at any place is inversely
proportional to the thickness h of the sheet at that place is called
a magnetic shell; the constant product hi is the strength of the shell
and is generally denoted by * or <t>. The potential at any point
due to a magnetic shell is the product of its strength into the solid
angle u> subtended by its edge at the given point, or V = »o>. For
a given strength, therefore, the potential depends solely upon the
boundary of the shell, and the potential outside a closed shell is
everywhere zero. A magnet which can be divided into simple
magnetic shells, either closed or having their edges on the surface
of the magnet, is called a lamellar magnet, and the magnetism is said
to be distributed lamellarly. A magnet consisting of a series of
plane shells of equal strength arranged at right angles to the direction
of magnetization will be uniformly magnetized.

It can be shown that uniform magnetization is possible only when
the form of the body is ellipsoidal. (Maxwell, Electricity and
Magnetism, II., § 437). The cases of greatest practical importance
are those of a sphere (which is an ellipsoid with three equal axes) and
an_ovoid or prolate ellipsoid of revolution. The potential due to a
uniformly magnetized sphere of radius o for an external point at a
distance r from the centre is

0 being the inclination of r to the magnetic axis. Since Jro'I is
the moment of the sphere (= volume X magnetization), it appears
from (10) that the magnetized sphere produces the same external
effect as a very small magnet of equal moment placed at its centre
and magnetized in the same direction ; the resultant force therefore
is the same as in (14). The force in the interior is uniform, opposite

326

MAGNETISM

[TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES

to the direction of magnetization, and equal to fa-I. When it is
desired to have a uniform magnet with definitely situated poles, ii
it usual to employ one having the form of an ovoid, or elongatec
ellipsoid of revolution, instead of a rectangular or cylindrical bar
If the magnetization is parallel to the major axis, and the lengths
of the major and minor axes are 20, and 2c, the poles are situated ai
a distance equal to fa from the centre, and the magnet will behave
externally like a simple solenoid of length fa. The internal force
F is opposite to the direction of the magnetization, and equal to
Nl, where N is a coefficient depending only on the ratio of the axes
The moment = firoc2! = - firac2FN.

The distribution of magnetism and the position of the poles in
magnets of other shapes, such as cylindrical or rectangular bars
cannot be specified by any general statement, though approximate
determinations may be obtained experimentally in individual cases.1
According to F. W. G. Kohlrausch* the distance between the poles
of a cylindrical magnet the length of which is from 10 to 30 times the
diameter, is sensibly equal to five-sixths of the length of the bar.
This statement, however, is only approximately correct, the distance
between the poles depending upon the intensity of the magnetiza-
tion.3 In general, the greater the ratio of length to section, the
more nearly will the poles approach the end of the bar, and the more
nearly uniform will be the magnetization. For most practical
purpose a knowledge of the exact position of the poles is of no im-
portance; the magnetic moment, and therefore the mean magnetiza-
tion, can always be determined with accuracy.

Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux. — When magnetic force acts
on any medium, whether magnetic, diamagnetic or neutral, it pro-
duces within it a phenomenon of the nature of a flux or flow called
magnetic induction (Maxwell, loc. cit., § 428). Magnetic induction,
like other fluxes such as electrical, thermal or fluid currents, is defined
with reference to an area ; it satisfies the same conditions of continuity
as the electric current does, and in isotropic media it depends on the
magnetic force just as the electric current depends on the electro-
motive force. The magnitude of the flux produced by a given
magnetic force differs in different media. In a uniform magnetic
field of unit intensity formed in empty space the induction or magnetic
flux across an area of I square centimetre normal to the direction of
the field is arbitrarily taken as the unit of induction. ' Hence if the
induction per square centimetre at any point is denoted by B, then
in empty space B is numerically equal to H ; moreover in isotropic
media both have the same direction, and for these reasons it is often
said that in empty space (and practically in air and other non-
magnetic substances) B and H are identical. Inside a magnetized
body, B is the force that would be exerted on a unit pole if placed
in a narrow crevasse cut in the body, the walls of the crevasse being
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetization (Maxwell, § 1
399, 604) ; and its numerical value, being partly due to the free
magnetism on the walls, is generally very different from that of H.
In the case of a straight uniformly magnetized bar the direction of
the magnetic force due to the poles of the magnet is from the north
to the south pole outside the magnet, and from the south to the north
inside. The magnetic flux per square centimetre at any point
(B, B, or SB) is briefly called the induction, or, especially by electrical
engineers, the flux-density. The direction of magnetic induction
may be indicated by lines of induction; a line of induction is
always a closed curve, though it may possibly extend to and return
from infinity. Lines of induction drawn through every point in the
contour of a small surface form a re-entrant tube bounded by lines
of induction ; such a tube is called a tube of induction. The cross-
section of a tube of induction may vary in different parts, but the
total induction across any section is everywhere the same. A special
meaning has been assigned to the term " lines of induction." Sup-
pose the whole space in which induction exists to be divided up into
unit tubes, such that the surface integral of the induction over any
cross-section of a tube is equal to unity, and along the axis of each
tube let a line of induction be drawn. These axial lines constitute
the system of lines of induction which are so often referred to in the
specification of a field. Where the induction is high the lines will
be crowded together; where it is weak they will be widely separated,
the number per square centimetre crossing a normal surface at any
point being always equal to the numerical value of B. The induction
may therefore be specified as B lines per square centimetre. The
direction of the induction is also of course indicated by the direction
of the lines, which thus serve to map out space in a convenient
manner. Lines of induction are frequently but inaccurately spoken
of as lines of force.

When induction or magnetic flux takes place in a ferromagnetic
metal, the metal becomes magnetized, but the magnetization at
any point is proportional not to B, but to B— H. The factor of
proportionality will be 1-43-, so that

1 The principal theoretical investigations are summarized in
Mascart and Joubert's Electricity and Magnetism, i. 391-398 and
11. 646-657. The case of a long iron bar has been experi-
mentally studied with great care by C. G. Lamb, Proc. Phys. Soc.,
1899- 16, 509-

* Wied. Ann., 1884, 22, 411.

3 See C. G. Lamb, loc. cit. p. 518.

(B-H)/4,r,
H+4irI.

(24)
(25)

Unless the path of the induction is entirely inside the metal, free
magnetic poles are developed at those parts of the metal where
induction enters and leaves, the polarity being south at the entry
and north at the exit of the flux. These free poles produce a magnetic
field which is superposed upon that arising from other sources. The
resultant magnetic field, therefore, is compounded of two fields, the
one being due to the poles, and the other to the external causes which
would be operative in the absence of the magnetized metal. The
intensity (at any point) of the field due to the magnetization may b
denoted by H,, that of the external field by H0, and that of the re-
sultant field by H. In certain cases, as, for instance, in an iron ring
wrapped uniformly round with a coil of wire through which a current
is passing, the induction is entirely within the metal; there are,
consequently, no free poles, and the ring, though magnetized, con-
stitutes a poleless magnet. Magnetization is usually regarded as
the direct effect of the resultant magnetic force, which is therefore
often termed the magnetizing force.

Permeability and Susceptibility.— The ratio B/H is called the
permeability of the medium in which the induction is taking place,
and is denoted by /»• The ratio I/H is called the susceptibility of the
magnetized substance, and is denoted by K. Hence

(26)

(27)

Also
and

B=,zHand I=«H.
B

"IT~~lr
' 4»

(28)

Since in empty space B has been assumed to be numerically equal
to H, it follows that the permeability of a vacuum is equal to I.
The permeability of most material substances differs very slightly
from unity, being a little greater than I in paramagnetic and a
little less in diamagnetic substances. In the case of the ferromagnetic
metals and some of their alloys and compounds, the permeability has
generally a much higher value. Moreover, it is not constant, being
an apparently arbitrary function of H or of B ; in the same specimen
its value may, under different conditions, vary from less than 2 to
upwards of 5000. The magnetic susceptibility K expresses the
numerical relation of the magnetization to the magnetizing force.
From the equation K = (p — l)/4x, it follows that the magnetic
susceptibility of a vacuum (where /i = l) is o, that of a diamagnetic
substance (where n < I ) has a negative value, while the susceptibility
of paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances (for which n > i ) is
positive. No substance has yet been discovered having a negative
susceptibility sufficiently great to render the permeability ( = i +4*-*)
negative.

Magnetic Circuit. — The circulation of magnetic induction or flux
through magnetic and non-magnetic substances, such as iron and
air, is in many respects analogous to that of an electric current
through good and bad conductors. Just as the lines of flow of an
electric current all pass in closed curves through the battery or other
generator, so do all the lines of induction pass in closed curves through
the magnet or magnetizing coil. The total magnetic induction or
flux corresponds to the current of electricity (practically measured
in amperes) ; the induction or flux density B to the density of the
current (number of amperes to the square centimetre of section);
the magnetic permeability to the specific electric conductivity; and
the line integral of the magnetic force, sometimes called the magneto-
motive force, to the electro-motive force in the circuit. The princi-
pal points of difference are that (i) the magnetic permeability,
unlike the electric conductivity, which is independent of the strength
of the current, is not in general constant; (2) there is no perfect
insulator for magnetic induction, which will pass more or less freely
through all known substances. Nevertheless, many important
problems relating to the distribution of magnetic induction may be
solved by methods similar to those employed for the solution of
analogous problems in electricity. For the elementary theory of
the magnetic circuit see ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.

Hysteresis, Coercive Force, Retentiveness. — It is found that when
a piece of ferromagnetic metal, such as.iron, is subjected toa magnetic
field of changing intensity, the changes which take place in the in-
duced magnetization of the iron exhibit a tendency to lag behind those
which occur in the intensity of the field — a phenomenon to which
J. A. Ewing (Phil. Trans, clxxvi. 524) has given the name of hysteresis
(Gr. i<7Tcpko, to lag behind). Thus it happens that there is no definite
•elation between the magnetization of a piece of metal which has
Deen previously magnetized and the strength of the field in which
t is placed. Much depends upon its antecedent magnetic condition,
and indeed upon its whole magnetic history. A well-known example
>f hysteresis is presented by the case of permanent magnets. If a
>ar of hard steel is placed in a strong magnetic field, a certain in-
:ensity of magnetization is induced in the bar; but when the strength
of the field is afterwards reduced to zero, the magnetization does not
entirely disappear. That portion which is permanently retained,
and which may amount to considerably more than one-half, is called
:he residual magnetization. The ratio of the residual magnetization
to its previous maximum value measures the retentiveness, or

TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES]

MAGNETISM

327

retentivity, of the metal.1 Steel, which is well suited for the construc-

,( permanent magnets, is said to possess great " coercive force."
To tlii1* term, which had long been used in a loose and indefinite
manner, J. Hopkinson supplied a precise meaning (Phil. Trans.
iKxvi. 460). The coercive force, or coercivity, of a material is that

^.'.d magnetic force which, while it is acting, just suffices to
reduce the residual induction to nothing after the material has been
temporarily submitted to any great magnetizing force. A metal
which has great retentiveness may at the same time have small

ive force, and it is the latter quality which is of chief im-
portance in permanent magnets.

Demagnetizing Force. — It has already been mentioned that when
a ferromagnetic body is placed in a magnetic field, the resultant

u'tic force H, at a point within the body, is compounded of
the force H0, due to the external field, and of another force, Hj,
arising from the induced magnetization of the body. Since HI
generally tends to oppose the external force, thus making H less
than H0, it may be called the demagnetizing force. Except in the
few special cases when a uniform external field produces uniform
magnetization, the value of the demagnetizing force cannot be calcu-

, and an exact determination of the actual magnetic force within
the body is therefore impossible. An important instance in which
the calculation can be made is that of an elongated ellipsoid of
revolution placed in a uniform field H0, with its axis of revolution
iwrallel to the lines of force. The magnetization at any point inside
the ellipsoid will then be

,

=

(29)

e being the eccentricity
I =*H, we have

(see Maxwell's Treatise, § 438). Since

<H+«NI=«HO, (30)

H=HO-NI,

NI being the demagnetizing force H(. N may be called, after H.
du Bois (Magnetic Circuit, p. 33), the demagnetizing factor, and the
ratio of the length of the ellipsoid 2C to its equatorial diameter 2a
(=c/a), the dimensional ratio, denoted by the symbol m.

e="\l-7* = \ l~l&'
the above expression for N may be written

from which the value of N for a given dimensional ratio can be
calculated. When the ellipsoid is so much elongated that I is
negligible in relation to m2, the expression approximates to the
simpler form

(32)
(33)
(34)

In the case of a sphere, e = O and N = Jir; therefore from (29)
•Ho

I=«H =

Whence
and

Equations (33) and (34) show that when, as is generally the case with
ferromagnetic substances, the value of M is considerable, the resultant
magnetic force is only a small fraction of the external force, while
the numerical value of the induction is approximately three times
that of the external force, and nearly independent of the permeability.
The demagnetizing force inside a cylindrical rod placed longitudinally
in a uniform field Ho is not uniform, being greatest at the ends and
least in the middle part. Denoting its mean value by Hi, and that
of the demagnetizing factor by N, we have

H=H0-n.=Ho-NI. (35)

Du Bois has shown that _when the dimensional ratio m ( = length/
diameter) exceeds 100, Nm2 = constant =45, and hence for lone
thin rods

N=45/m».

(36)

From an analysis of a number of experiments made with rods of
Iifferent dimensions H. du Bois has deduced the corresponding mean
demagnetizing factors. These, together with values of m'N for
cylindrical rods, and of N and mlN for ellipsoids of revolution, are
given in the following useful table (loc. cit. p. 41): —

1 Hopkinson specified the retentiveness by the numerical value of
the " residual induction " ( = 4»-I).

Demagnetizing Factors.

m.

Cylinder.

Ellipsoid.

N.

m'N.

N.

m'N.

0

12-5664

0

12-5664

o

o-5

—

—

6-5864

—

i

—

—

4-1888

—

5

—

—

0-7015

—

10

0-2160

21-6

0-2549

25-5

15

0-1206

27-1

0-1350

30-5

20

0-0775

31-0

0-0848

34-o

25

0-0533

33-4

0-0579

36-2

30

0-0393

35-4

0-0432

38-8

40

0-0238

38-7

0-0266

42-5

5«

0-0162

40-5

0-0181

45'3

60

0-0118

42-4

0-0132

47-5

70

0-0089

43-7

O-OIOI

49'5

80

0-0069

44'4

0-0080

5'-2

90

0-0055

44-8

0-0065

52-5

100

0-0045

45-o

0-0054

54-o

150

O-OO2O

45-o

0-0026

58-3

200

O-OOII

45-0

0.0016

64-0

300

O-00050

45-o

0-00075

67-5

40O

0-OO028

45-o

0-00045

72-0

500

O-OOOlS

45-»

0-00030

75-o

IOOO

0-00005

45-o

0-00008

80-0

In the middle part of a rod which has a length of 400 or 500 dia-
meters the effect of the ends is insensible; but for many experiments
the condition of endlessness may be best secured by giving the metal
the shape of a ring of uniform section, the magnetic field being pro-
duced by an electric current through a coil of wire evenly wound
round the ring. In such cases Hi =o and H =H0.

The residual magnetization I, retained by a bar of ferromagnetic
metal after it has been removed from the influence of an external
field produces a demagnetizing force NIr, which is greater the smaller
the dimensional ratio. Hence the difficulty of imparting any con-
siderable permanent magnetization to a short thick bar not possessed
of great coercive force. The magnetization retained by a long thin
rod, even when its coercive force is small, is sometimes little less than
that which was produced by the direct action of the field.

Demagnetization by Reversals. — In the course of an experiment it
is often desired to eliminate the effects of previous magnetization,
and, as far as possible, wipe out the magnetic history of a specimen.
In order to attain this result it was formerly the practice to raise the
metal to a bright red heat, and allow it to cool while carefully guarded
from magnetic influence. This operation, besides being very trouble-
some, was open to the objection that it was almost sure to produce
a material but uncertain change in the physical constitution of the
metal, so that, in fact, the results of experiments made before and
after the treatment were not comparable. Ewing introduced the
method (Phil. Trans, clxxvi. 539) of demagnetizing a specimen by
subjecting it to a succession of magnetic forces which alternated in
direction and gradually diminished in strength from a high value to
zero. By means of a simple arrangement, which will be described
farther on, this process can be carried out in a few seconds, and the
metal can be brought as often as desired to a definite condition,
which, if not quite identical with the virgin state, at least closely
approximates to it.

Forces acting on a Small Body in the Magnetic Field. — If a small
magnet of length ds and pole-strength m is brought into a magnetic
field such that the values of the magnetic potential at the negative
and positive poles respectively are Vi and Vj, the work done upon
the magnet, and therefore its potential energy, will be

W=m(V,-V,)=m</V,
which may be written

w=

= - MH» = -

where M is the moment of the magnet, r the volume, I the magnetiza-
tion, and Ho the magnetic force along ds. The small magnet may
be a sphere rigidly magnetized in the direction of H0; if this is
replaced by an isotropic sphere inductively magnetized by the field,
then, for a displacement so small that the magnetization of the
sphere may be regarded as unchanged, we shall have

dW = -

whence

W--1

-H'o

C37)

The mechanical force acting on the sphere in the direction of dis-
placement x is

<AV * dH\

(38)

328

MAGNETISM

[MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS

If Ho is constant, the force will be zero; if H0 is variable, the sphere
will tend to move in the direction in which H0 varies most rapidly.
The coefficient K/(i+Jire) is positive for ferromagnetic and para-
magnetic substances, which will therefore tend to move from weaker
to stronger parts of the field ; for all known diamagnetic substances
it is negative, and these will tend to move from stronger to weaker
parts. For small bodies other than spheres the coefficient will -be
different, but its sign will always be negative for diamagnetic sub-
stances and positive for others;1 hence the forces acting on any
small body will be in the same directions as in the case of a sphere.8

Directing Couple acting on an Elongated Body. — In a non-uniform
field every volume-element of the body tends to move towards regions
of greater or less force according as the substance is paramagnetic
or diamagnetic, and the behaviour of the whole mass will be deter-
mined chiefly by the tendency of its constituent elements. For this
reason a thin bar suspended at its centre of gravity between a pair
of magnetic poles will, if paramagnetic, set itself along the line
joining the poles, where the field is strongest, and if diamagnetic,
transversely to the line. These are the " axial " and " equatorial "
positions of Faraday. It can be shown * that in a uniform field an
elongated piece of any non-crystalline material is in stable equi-
librium only when its length is parallel to the lines of force; for
diamagnetic substances, however, the directing couple is exceedingly
small, and it would hardly be possible to obtain a uniform field of
sufficient strength to show the effect experimentally.

Relative Magnetization. — A substance of which the real suscepti-
bility is K will, when surrounded by a medium having the sus-
ceptibility k', behave towards a magnet as if its susceptibility were
<fa = Oc-*'!)/(i+4jnc'). Since 1+41*' can never be negative,
the apparent susceptibility xa will be positive or negative according
as K is greater or less than K'. Thus, for example, a tube containing
a weak solution of an iron salt will appear to be diamagnetic if it is
immersed in a stronger solution of iron, though in air it is para-
magnetic.4

Circular Magnetization. — An electric current i flowing uniformly
through a cylindrical wire whose radius is a produces inside the wire
a magnetic field of which the lines of force are concentric circles
around the axis of the wire. At a point whose distance from the
axis of the wire is r the tangential magnetic force is

H=2z>/a2 (39)

it therefore varies directly as the distance from the axis, where it is
zero.6 If the wire consists of a ferromagnetic metal, it will become
" circularly " magnetized by the field, the lines of magnetization
being, like the lines of force, concentric circles. So long as the wire
(supposed isotropic) is free from torsional stress, there will be no
external evidence of magnetism.

Magnetic Shielding. — The action of a hollow magnetized shell on
a point inside it is always opposed to that of the external magnetizing
force,6 the resultant interior field being therefore weaker than the
field outside. Hence any apparatus, such as a galvanometer, may
be partially shielded from extraneous magnetic action by enclosing
it in an iron case. If a hollow sphere ' of which the outer radius is
R and the inner radius r is placed in a uniform field Ho, the field
inside will also be uniform and in the same direction as HO, and its
value will be approximately

"-= -J**— (40)

For a cylinder placed with its axis at right angles to the lines of force,

(41)

These expressions show that the thicker the screen and the greater
its permeability n, the more effectual will be the shielding action.
Since n can never be infinite, complete shielding is not possible.

Magneto-Crystallic Phenomenon. — In anisotropic bodies, such as
crystals, the direction of the magnetization does not in general
coincide with that of the magnetic force. There are, however, always
three principal axes at right angles to one another along which the
magnetization and the force have the same direction. If each of
these axes successively is placed parallel to the lines of force in a
uniform field H, we shall have

I,=K1H, IS=«H, I,=K,H,

the three susceptibilities ic being in general unequal, though in some
cases two of them may have the same value. For crystalline bodies
the value of K (+ or — ) is nearly always small and constant, the
magnetization being therefore independent of the form of the body
and proportional to the force. Hence, whatever the position of the
body, if the field be resolved into three components parallel to the

1 For all except ferromagnetic substances the coefficient is sensibly
equal to K.

* See W. Thomson's Reprint, §§ 615, 634-651.

* Ibid. §§ 646, 684.

4 Faraday, Exp. Res. xxi.

* J. J. Thomson, Electricity and Magnetism, § 205.

6 Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, § 431.

7 H. du Bois, Electrtcian, 1898, 40, 317.

principal axes of the crystal, the actual magnetization will be the
resultant of the three magnetizations along the axes. The body
(or each element of it) will tend to set itself with its axis of greatest
susceptibility parallel to the lines of force, while, if the field is not
uniform, each volume-element will also tend to move towards places
of greater or smaller force (according as the substance is para-
magnetic or diamagnetic), the tendency being a maximum when the
axis of greatest susceptibility is parallel to the field, and a minimum
when it is perpendicular to it. The phenomena may therefore be
exceedingly complicated.8

3. MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS

Magnetic Moment. — The moment M of a magnet may
determined in many ways,9 the most accurate being that of C. F.
Gauss, which gives the value not only of M, but also that of
H, the horizontal component of the earth's force. The product
MH is first determined by suspending the magnet horizontally,
and causing it to vibrate in small arcs. If A is the moment of
inertia of the magnet, and t the time of a complete vibration,
MH = 47T2A//2 (torsion being neglected). The ratio M/H is
then found by one of the magnetometric methods which in their
simplest forms are described below. Equation (44) shows that
as a first approximation.

M/H = (<?-?) tan
where / is half the length of the magnet, which is placed in the
" broadside-on " position as regards a small suspended magnetic
needle, d the distance between the centre of the magnet and the
needle, and 0 the angle through which the needle is deflected by
the magnet. We get therefore

(42)
(43)

When a high degree of accuracy is required, the experiments and
calculations are less simple, and various corrections are applied.
The moment of a magnet may also be deduced from a measure-
ment of the couple exerted on the magnet by a uniform field H.
Thus if the magnet is suspended horizontally by a fine wire,
which, when the magnetic axis points north and south, is free from
torsion, and if 0 is the angle through which the upper end of the
wire must be twisted to make the magnet point east and west,
then MH = C0, or M = C0/H, where C is the torsional couple for
i°. A bifilar suspension is sometimes used instead of a single
wire. If P is the weight of the magnet, I the length of each of
the two threads, 20 the distance between their upper points of
attachment, and 2b that between the lower points, then, approxi-
mately, MH=P(a6//) sin d. It is often sufficient to find the
ratio of the moment of one magnet to that of another. If two
magnets having moments M, M' are arranged at right angles to
each other upon a horizontal support which is free to rotate, their
resultant R will set itself in the magnetic meridian. Let 6 be
the angle which the standard magnet M makes with the meridian,
then M'/R= sin0, and M/R=cos 0, whence M' = M tan 0.

A convenient and rapid method of estimating a magnetic
moment has been devised by H. Armagnat.10 The magnet
is laid on a table with its north pole pointing northwards,
A compass having a very short needle is placed on the line which
bisects the axis of the magnet at right angles, and is moved until
a neutral point is found where the force
due to the earth's field H is balanced by
that due to the magnet. If 2/ is the
distance between the poles m and —m,d
the distance from either pole to a point P
on the line AB (fig. 5), we have for the*
resultant force at P

R= -2cos0Xm/d? = -2lm[d> = -M/<P.

When P is the neutral point, H is equal and
opposite to R; therefore M = Hrf3, or the
moment is numerically equal to the cube of
the distance from the neutral point to a pole, multiplied by the

8 M. Faraday, E'*p. Res. xxii., xxiii. ; W. Thomson, Reprint, §604;
J. C. Maxwell, Treatise, § 435; E. Mascart: and J. Joubert, Electricity
and Magnetism, §§ 384, 396, 1226; A. Winkelmann, Physik, v. 287.

9 See A. Winkelmann, Physik, v. 69-94; Mascart and Joubert.
Electricity and Magnetism, ii. 617.

10 Sci. Abs. A, 1906, 9, 225.

FIG. 5.

MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS]

MAGNETISM

329

horizontal intensity of the earth's force. The distance between
the poles may with sufficient accuracy for a rough determination
be assumed to be equal to five-sixths of the length of the magnet.

Measurement of Magnetization and Induction. — The magnetic
condition assumed by a piece of ferromagnetic metal in different
circumstances is determinable by various modes of experiment
which may be classed as magnetometric, ballistic, and traction
methods. When either the magnetization I or the induction B
corresponding to a given magnetizing force H is known, the other
may be found by means of the formula B = 4irl + H.

Magnetometric Methods. — Intensity of magnetization is most
directly measured by observing the action which a magnetized
body, generally a long straight rod, exerts upon a small magnetic
nci-dle placed near it. The magnetic needle may be cemented
horizontally across the back of a little plane or concave mirror,
about J or | in. in diameter, which is suspended by a single fibre
of unspun silk; this arrangement, when enclosed in a case with
a glazed front to protect it from currents of air, constitutes a
simple but efficient magnetometer. Deflections of the suspended
needle are indicated by the movement of a narrow beam of light
which the mirror reflects from a lamp and focusses upon a gradu-
ated cardboard scale placed at a distance of a few feet; the angu-
lar deflection of the beam of light is, of course, twice that of the
needle. The suspended needle is, in the absence of disturbing
causes, directed solely by the horizontal component of the earth's
field of magnetic force HK, and therefore sets itself approximately
north and south. The magnetized body which is to be tested
should be placed in such a position that the force HP due to its
poles may, at the spot occupied by the suspended needle, act in
a direction at right angles to that due to the earth — that is, east
and west. The direction of the resultant field of force will then
make, with that of HH, an angle 6, such that HP/HK= tan 0, and
the suspended needle will be deflected through the same angle.
We have therefore

Hp = HK tan 9.

The angle 9 is indicated by the position of the spot of light upon
the scale, and the horizontal intensity of the earth's field HB is
known; thus we can at once determine the value of H,, from
which the magnetization I of the body under test may be
calculated.

In order to fulfil the requirement that the field which a mag-
netized rod produces at the magnetometer shall be at right angles
to that of the earth, the rod may be conveniently placed in any
one of three different positions with regard to the suspended needle.

(i) The rod is set in a horizontal position level with the suspended
needle, its axis being in a line which is perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian, and which passes
through the centre of suspen- n N

sion of the needle. This is ~i . i

called the " end-on " position,

and is indicated in fig. 6. AB pIG_ ^

is the rod and C the middle

point of its axis; NS is the magnetometer needle; AM bisects the

undeflected needle NS at right angles. Let 2/ = the length of

the rod (or, more accurately, the distance between its poles), » =

its volume, m and — m the strength of its poles, and let d= the

distance CM. For most ordinary purposes the length of the needle

may be assumed to be negligible in comparison with the distance

between the needle and the rod. We then have approximately for

the field at M due to the rod

Therefore 2ml = M
And

(44)
(45)

whence we can find the values of I which correspond to different
angles of deflection.

(2) The rod may be placed horizontally east and west in such a posi-
tion that the direction of the undeflected suspended needle bisects it at
right angles. This is known as the " broadside-on " position, and is
represented in fig. 7. Let the distance of each pole of the rod AB
from the centre of the magnetometer needle = d. Then, since HP,

the force at M due to m and -m, is the resultant of gjand-jp.
we have

the direction being parallel to AB.
And l=^!Mf=^

— tan 9.

(46)

(3) In the third position the test rod is placed vertically with one
of its poles at the level of the magnetometer needle, and in the line

FIG. 7.

FIG. 8.

drawn perpendicularly to the undeflected needle from its centre
of suspension. The arrangement is shown in fig. 8, where AB is
the vertical rod and M indicates the position of the magnetometer
needle, which is supposed to be perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. Denoting the distance AM by dt, BM by </», and AB by I,
we have for the force at M due to the magnetism of the rod

HP=-TJ— horizontal component of ^

/i rf,\

'U»-j?;-

Therefore
and

a? -3? '-(s)

tan 9.

t _ WH.

•I-©'!

(47)

This last method of arrangement is called by Ewing the " one-pole "
method, because the magnetometer deflection is mainly caused by
the upper pole of the rod (Magnetic Induction, p. 40). For experi-
ments with long thin rods or wires it has an advantage over the
other arrangements in that the position of the poles need not be
known with great accuracy, a small upward or downward displace-
ment having little effect upon the magnetometer deflection. On
the other hand, a vertically placed rod is subject to the inconveni-
ence that it is influenced by the earth's magnetic field, which is not
the case when the rod is horizontal and at right angles to the mag-
netic meridian. This extraneous influence may, however, be elimi-
nated by surrounding the rod with a coil of wire carrying a current
such as will produce in the interior a magnetic field equal and
opposite to the vertical component of the earth's field.

If the cardboard scale upon which the beam of light is reflected
by the magnetometer mirror is a flat one, the deflections as indicated
by the movement of the spot of light are related to the actual deflec-
tions of the needle in the ratio of tan 28 to 9. Since 9 is always small,
sufficiently accurate results may generally be obtained if we assume
that tan 28 = 2 tan 9. If the distance of the mirror from the scale
is equal to n scale divisions, and if a deflection 6 of the needle causes
the reflected spot of light to move over i scale divisions, we shall have

s/n = tan 28 exactly,
s/2» = tan 9 approximately.

We may therefore generally substitute s/2n for tan 0 in the various
expressions which have been given for I.

Of the three methods which have been described, the first two
are generaljy the most suitable for determining the moment or the
magnetization of a permanent magnet, and the last for studying
the changes which occur in the magnetization of a long rod or wire
when subjected to various external magnetic forces, or, in other
words, for determining the relation of I to H. A plan of the apparatus
as arranged by Ewing for the latter purpose is shown diagrammatic-
ally in fig. 9. The cardboard scale SS is placed above a wooden
screen, having in it a narrow vertical slit which permits a beam of
light from the lamp L to reach the mirror of the magnetometer M,
whence it is reflected upon the scale. A is the upper end of a glass tube,
half a metre or so in length, which is clamped in a vertical position
behind the magnetometer. The tube is wound over its whole length
with two separate coils of insulated wire, the one being outside the
other. The inner coil is supplied, through the intervening appar-
atus, with current from the battery of secondary cells Bi ; this
produces the desired magnetic field inside the tube. The outer
coil derives current, through an adjustable resistance R, from a

330

MAGNETISM

[MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS

L
ft

constant cell Bj ; its object is to produce inside the tube a magnetic
field equal and opposite to that due to the earth's magnetism. C is a
" compensating coil " consisting of a few turns of wire through which
the magnetizing current passes; it serves to neutralize the effect
produced upon the magnetometer by the magnetizing coil, and its

distance from the mag-
netometer is so adjusted
that when the circuit is
closed, no ferromagnetic
metal being inside the
magnetizing coil, the
1 magnetometer needle
undergoes no deflection.
K is a commutator for
reversing the direction
of the magnetizing cur-
rent, and G a galvano-
meter for measuring it.
The strength of the magnetizing current is regulated by adjusting
the position of the sliding contact E upon the resistance D F. The
current increases to a maximum as E approaches F, and diminishes
to almost nothing when E is brought up to D; it can be completely
interrupted by means of the switch H.

The specimen upon which an experiment is to be made generally
consists of a wire having a " dimensional ratio " of at least 300 or
400; its length should be rather less than that of the magnetizing
coil, in order that the field Ho, to which it is subjected, may be
approximately uniform from end to end. The wire is supported
inside the glass tube A with its upper pole at the same height as the
magnetometer needle. Various currents are then passed through
the magnetizing coil, the galvanometer readings and the simultane-
ous magnetometer deflections being noted. From the former we
deduce Ho, and from the latter the corresponding value of I, using
the formulae H0 =

FIG. 9.

I

I"®1!

X s,

(48)

where s is the deflection in scale-divisions, n the distance in scale-
divisions between the scale and the mirror, and r the radius of the
wire.

The curve, fig. 10, shows the result of a typical experiment made
upon a piece of soft iron (Ewing, Phil. Trans, vol. clxxvi. Plate 59), the
magnetizing field H0 being first gradually increased and then dimin-
ished to zero. When the length of the wire exceeds 400 diameters,
or thereabouts, Ho may generally be considered as equivalent to H,
i

» is to,

Xignetu fifld Htf

FIG. 10.

the actual strength of the field as modified by the magnetization. of
the wire; but if greater accuracy is desired, the value of Hi ( = NI)
may be found by the help of du Bois'sjtable and subtracted from
HO. For a dimensional ratio of 400, N =0-00028, and therefore
H = Ho — 0-00028 I. This correction may be indicated in the diagram
by a straight line drawn from o through the point at which the line
of I = looo intersects that of H = 0-28 (Rayleigh, Phil. Mag. xxii.
175), the true value of H for any point on the curve being that
measured from the sloping line instead of from the vertical axis.
The effect of the ends of the wire is, as Ewing remarks, to shear the
diagram in the horizontal direction through the angle which the
sloping line makes with the vertical.

Since the induction B is equal to H + 4irl, it is easy from the
results of experiments such as that just described to deduce the
relation between B and H ; a curve indicating such relation is called
a curve of induction. The general character of curves of magnetiza-
tion and of induction will be discussed later. A notable feature in
both classes of curves is that, owing to hysteresis, the ascending and
descending limbs do not coincide, but follow very different courses.
If it is desired to annihilate the hysteretic effects of previous mag-
netization and restore the metal to its original condition, it may be
demagnetized by reversals. This is effected by slowly moving the
sliding contact E (fig. 9) from F to D, while at the same time the
commutator K is rapidly worked, a series of alternating currents
of gradually diminishing strength being thus caused to pass through
the magnetizing coil.

The magnetometric method, except when employed in con-
nexion with ellipsoids, for which the demagnetizing factors are

accurately known, is generally less satisfactory for the exact
determination of induction or magnetization than the ballistic
method. But for much important experimental work it is
better adapted than any other, and is indeed sometimes
only method possible.1

Ballistic Methods.— The so-called " ballistic " method of
measuring induction is based upon the fact that a change of the
induction through a closed linear conductor sets up in the con-
ductor an electromotive force which is proportional to the rate
of change. If the conductor consists of a coil of wire the ends
of which are connected with a suitable galvanometer, the integral
electromotive force due to a sudden increase or decrease of the
induction through the coil displaces in the circuit a quantity
of electricity Q=5Bns R, where 5B is the increment or decrement
of induction per square centimetre, s is the area of the coil, n
the number of turns of wire, and R the resistance of the circuit.
Under the influence of the transient current, the galvanometer
needle undergoes a momentary deflection, or " throw," which is
proportional to Q, and therefore to 5B, and thus, if we know the
deflection produced by the discharge through the galvanometer
of a given quantity of electricity, we have the means of determin-
ing the value of 5B.

The galvanometer which is used for ballistic observations should
have a somewhat heavy needle with a period of vibration of not less
than five seconds, so that the transient current may have ceased
before the swing has well begun; an instrument of the d'Arsonval
form is recommended, not only because it is unaffected by outside
magnetic influence, but also because the moving part can be in-
stantly brought to rest by means of a short-circuit key, thus effecting
a great saving of time when a series of observations is being made.
In practice it is usual to standardize or " calibrate " the galvano-
meter by causing a known change of induction to take place within
a standard coil connected with it, and noting the corresponding
deflection on the galvanometer scale. Let j be the area of a single
turn of the standard coil, n the number of its turns, and r the resist-
ance of the circuit of which the coil forms part; and let S, N and R
be the corresponding constants for a coil which is to be used in an
experiment. Then if a known change of induction 8Ba inside the
standard coil is found to cause a throw of d scale-divisions, any
change of induction 6B through the experimental coil will be numeri-
cally equal to the corresponding throw D multiplied by jnRB»/SNrd.
For a series of experiments made with the same coil this fraction is
constant, and we may write &B = kD. Rowland and others have used
an earth coil for calibrating the galvanometer, a known change of
induction through the coil being produced by turning it over in the
earth's magnetic field, but for several reasons it is preferable to
employ an electric current as the source of a known induction. A
primary coil of length /, having « turns, is wound upon a cylinder
made of non-conducting and non-magnetic material, and upon the
middle of the primary a secondary or induction coil is closely fitted.
When a current of strength i is suddenly interrupted in the primary,
the increment of induction through the secondary is sensibly equal
to 4«'n// units. All the data required for standardizing the galvano-
meter can in this way be determined with accuracy.

The ballistic method is largely employed for determining the
relation of induction to magnetizing force in samples of the
iron and steel used in the manufacture of electrical machinery,
and especially for the observation of hysteresis effects. The
sample may have the form of a closed ring, upon which are
wound the induction coil and another coil for taking the mag-
netizing current; or it may consist of a long straight rod or wire
which can be slipped into a magnetizing coil such as is used in
magnetometric experiments, the induction coil being wound
upon the middle of the wire. With these arrangements there is
no demagnetizing force to be considered, for the ring has not
any ends to produce one, and the force due to the ends of a
rod 400 or 500 diameters in length is quite insensible at the middle
portion; H therefore is equal to HQ.

E. Grassot has devised a galvanometer, or " fluxmeter," which
greatly alleviates the tedious operation of taking ballistic readings.1
The instrument is of the d'Arsonval type; its coil turns in a strong
uniform field, and is suspended in such a manner that torsion is
practically negligible, the swings of the coil being limited by damping
influences, chiefly electromagnetic. The index therefore remains
almost stationary at the limit of its deflection, and the deflection
is approximately the same whether the change of induction occurs
suddenly or gradually.

1 See C. G. Lamb, Proc. Phys. Soc., 1899, 16, 517.
s Soc. Franc. Phys. Seances, 1904, i, 27.

MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS]

MAGNETISM

FIG. ii.

FIG. 13.

Induction and Hysteresis Curves. — Some typical induction
curves, copied from a paper by Ewing (Proc. Insl. C.E. vol.
cxxvi.), are given in figs, n, 12 and 13. Fig. n shows the rela-
m of B to H in a specimen which has never before been mag-
itized. The experiment may be made in two different ways:
i) the magnetizing current is increased by a series of sudden
:eps, each of which produces a ballistic throw, the value of B
:r any one throw being proportional to the sum of that and

all the previous throws;
(2) the magnetizing
current having been
brought to any desired
value, is suddenly re-
versed, and the observed
throw taken as measur-
ing twice the actual in-
duction. Fig. 12 shows
the nature of the course
taken by the curve when
the magnetizing current, after having been raised to the value
corresponding to the point a, is diminished by steps until it is
nothing, and then gradually increased in the reverse direction.
The downward course of the curve is, owing to hysteresis, strik-
ingly different from its upward course, and when the magnetizing
force has been reduced to zero, there is still remaining an induc-
tion of 7500 units. If the operation is again reversed, the up-
ward course will be nearly, but not exactly, of the form shown
by the line d e a, fig. 13. After a. few repetitions of the reversal,
the process becomes strictly cyclic, the upward and downward
curves always following with precision the paths indicated in the
figure. In order to establish the cyclic condition, it is sufficient
to apply alternately the greatest positive and negative forces
employed in the test (greatest H = about ±5 C.G.S. units in the
case illustrated in the figure), an operation which is performed
by simply reversing the direction of the maximum magnetizing
current a few times.

The closed figure a c d e a is variously called a hysteresis curve
or diagram or loop. The area J~KUB enclosed by it represents
the work done in carrying a cubic centimetre of the iron through
the corresponding magnetic cycle; expressed in ergs this work is

— I HUB.1 To quote an example given by J. A. Fleming, it

requires about 18 foot-pounds of work 'to make a complete mag-
netic cycle in a cubic foot of wrought iron, strongly magnetized
first one way and then the other, the work so expended taking
the form of heat in the mass.

Fig. 14 shows diagrammatically a convenient arrangement de-
scribed by Ewing (see Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. cxxvi., and Phil. Trans.,
I893A, p. 987) for carrying out ballistic tests by which either the
simple B-H curve (fig. n) or the hysteresis curve (figs. 12 and 13)
can be determined. The sample under test is prepared in the form
of a ring A, upon which are wound the induction and the magnetizing
coils; the latter should be wound evenly over the whole ring, though
for the sake of clearness only part of the winding is indicated in the
diagram. The magnetizing current, which is derived from the stor-
age battery B, is regulated by the adjustable resistance R and
measured by the galvanometer G. The current passes through the
rocking key K, which, when thrown over to the right, places a in
contact with c and b with d,and when thrown over to the left, places
a. in contact with e and b with /. When the switch S is closed, K
acts simply as a commutator or current-reverser, but if K is thrown
over from right to left while S is opened, not only is the current
reversed, but its strength is at the same time diminished by the
interposition of the adjustable resistance Rj. The induction coil
wound upon the ring is connected to the ballistic galvanometer G»
in series with a large permanent resistance Ri. In the same circuit
is also included the induction coil E, which is used for standardizing
the galvanometer; this secondary coil is represented in the diagram
by three turns of wire wound over a much longer primary coil. The
short-circuit key F is kept closed except when an observation is about
to be made ; its object is to arrest the swing of the d'Arsonval galvano-

1 E. G. Warburg, Wied. Ann. 1881, 13, 141; Ewing, Phil. Trans.,
1885, 176, 549; Hopkinson, Phil. Trans. 1885, 176, 466. For a
simple proof, see Ewing, Magnetic Induction (1900), p. 99. Hopkin-
son pointed out that the greatest dissipation of energy which can
be caused by a to-and-fro reversal is approximately represented by
Coercive force X maximum induction \*.

meter Gz. By means of the three-way switch C the battery current
may be sent either into the primary of E, for the purpose of calibrat-
ing the galvanometer, or into the magnetizing coil of the ring under
test. When it is desired to obtain a simple curve of induction,
such as that in fig. 1 1, S is kept permanently closed, and correspond-
ing values of H and B are determined by one of the two methods
already described, the strength of the battery-current being varied
by means of the adjustable resistance R. When a hysteresis curve
is to be obtained, the procedure is as follows: The current is first
adjusted by means of R to such a strength as will fit it to produce
the greatest + and — values of the magnetizing force which it is
intended to apply in the course of the cycle ; then it is reversed several
times, and when the range of the galvanometer throws has become
constant, half the extent of an excursion indicates the induction
corresponding to the extreme
value of H, and gives the point a
in the curve fig. 12. The revers-
ing key K having been put over
to the left side, the short-circuit
key S is suddenly opened; this
inserts the resistance Tl, which
has been suitably adjusted before-
hand, and thus reduces the current
and therefore the magnetizing
force to a known value. The gal-
vanometer throw which results
from the change of current mea-
sures the amount by which the
induction is reduced, and thus a
second point on the curve is found.
In a similar manner, by giving
different values to the resistance
R, any desired number of points
between a and c in the curve can
be determined. To continue the
process, the key K is turned over to the right-hand side, and then,
while S is open, is turned back, thereby not only reversing the direc-
tion of the current, but diminishing its strength by an amount
depending upon the previous adjustment of Rj. In this way points
can be found lying anywhere between c and d of fig. 12, and the
determination of the downward limb of the curve is therefore com-
pleted. As the return curve, shown in fig. 13, is merely an inverted
copy of the other, no separate determination of it is necessary.

In fig. 15 (J. A. Fleming, Magnets and Electric Currents, p. 193)
are shown three very different types of hysteresis curves, charac-
teristic of the special qualities of the metals from which they were
respectively obtained. The distinguishing feature of the first
is the steepness of its outlines; this indicates that the induction
increases rapidly in relation
to the magnetic force, and
hence the metal is well suited
for the construction of dy-
namo magnets. The second
has a very small area, show-
ing that the work done
in reversing the magnetiza- I J
tion is small; the metal is
therefore adapted for use in
alternating current trans-
formers. On the other hand, the form of the third curve,
its large intercepts on the axes of H and B, denotes that the
specimen to which it relates possesses both retentiveness and
coercive force in a high degree; such a metal would be chosen
for making good permanent magnets.

Several arrangements have been devised for determining hysteresis
more easily and expeditiously than is possible by the ballistic
method. The best known is J. A. Ewing's hysteresis-tester,1 which
is specially intended for testing the sheet iron used in transformers.
The sample, arranged as a bundle of rectangular strips, is caused to
rotate about a central horizontal axis between the poles of an up-
right C-shaped magnet, which is supported near its middle upon
knife-edges in such a manner that it can oscillate about an axis in a
line with that about which the specimen rotates; the lower side of
the magnet is weighted, to give it some stability. When the speci-
men rotates, the magnet is deflected from its upright position by
an amount which depends upon the work done in a single complete
rotation, and therefore upon the hysteresis. The deflection is indi-
cated by a pointer upon a graduated scale, the readings being
interpreted by comparison with two standard specimens supplied
with the instrument. G. F. Searle and T. G. Bedford* nave

pIG

' Magnetic Induction, 1900, 378.
1 Phu. Trans., 1902, 198, 33.

332

MAGNETISM

[MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS

introduced the method of measuring hysteresis by means of an elec-
tro-dynamometer used ballistically. The fixed and suspended coils of
the dynamometer are respectively connected in series with the
magnetizing solenoid and with a secondary wound upon the speci-
men. When the magnetizing current is twice reversed, so as to
complete a cycle, the sum of the two deflections, multiplied by a fac-
toi depending upon the sectional area of the specimen and upon the
constants of the apparatus, gives the hysteresis for a complete cycle
in ergs per cubic centimetre. _For specimens of large sectional area
it is necessary to apply corrections in respect of the energy dissipated
by eddy currents and in heating the secondary circuit. The method
has been employed by the authors themselves in studying the effects
of tension, torsion and circular magnetization, while R. L. Wills 1
has made successful use of it in a research on the effects of tempera-
ture, a matter of great industrial importance.

C.P. Steinmetz (Electrician, 1891,26, p. 261 ; 1892, 28, pp. 384,408,
425) has .called attention to a simple relation which appears to exist
between the amount of energ_y dissipated in carrying a piece of
jron or steel through a magnetic cycle and the limiting value of the
induction reached in the cycle. Denoting by W the work in ergs
done upon a cubic centimetre of the metal

( =— I HdB or I HdlJ , he finds W = >jB1'6 approximately, where i]

is a number, called the hysteretic constant, depending upon the
metal, and B is the maximum induction. The value of the constant
17 ranges in different metals from about o-ooi to 0-04; in soft iron
and steel it is said to be generally not far from 0-002. Steinmetz's
formula may be tested by taking a series of hysteresis curves between
different limits of B, measuring their areas by a planimeter, and
plotting the logarithms of these divided by 4ir as ordinates against
logarithms of the corresponding maximum values of B as abscissae.
The curve thus constructed should be a straight line inclined to the
horizontal axis at an angle 6, the tangent of which is 1-6. Ewing
and H. G. Klaassen (Phil. Trans., 1893, '^4' IOI7) nave m this
manner examined how nearly and within what range a formula of
the type W=ijB« may be taken to represent the facts. The results
of an example which they quote in detail may be briefly summarized
as follows: —

Limits of B.

Hysteretic
Constant.
•n

Index.
«( = tan6)

Degrees.

e

200 to 500
500 to 1,000
1,000 to 2,000
2,000 to 8,000
8,000 to 14,000

O.OI

0-00134

la

•55
•475
•70

62-25
59-25

57-25
55-75
59-50

It is remarked by the experimenters that the value of the index
c is by no means constant, but changes in correspondence with the
successive well-marked stages in the process of magnetization.
But though a formula of this type has no physical significance, and
cannot be accepted as an equation to the actual curve of W and B,
it is, nevertheless, the case that by making the index « = i-6,
and assigning a suitable value to ij, a formula may be obtained
giving an approximation to the truth which is sufficiently close for
the ordinary purposes of electrical engineers, especially when the
limiting value of B is neither very great nor very small. Alex-
ander Siemens (Journ. Inst. Eng., 1894, 23> 229) states
that in the hundreds of comparisons of test pieces which have
been made at the works of his firm, Steinmetz's law has been
found to be practically correct.2 An interesting collection of W-B
curves embodying the results of actual experiments by Ewing and
Klaassen on different specimens of metal is given in fig. 16. It has
been shown by Kennelly (Electrician, 1892, 28, 666) that Stein-
metz's formula gives approximately correct results in the case of
nickel. Working with two different specimens, he found that the
hysteresis loss in ergs per cubic centimetre (W) was fairly represented
by O-OOI25B1'6 and o-ooioiB1'6 respectively, the maximum induction
ranging from about 300 to 3000. The applicability of the law to
cobalt has been investigated by Fleming (Phil. Mag., 1899, 4^, 271),
who used a ring of cast cobalt containing about 96% of the pure
metal. The jogarithmic curves which accompany his paper demon-
strate that within wide ranges of maximum induction W = o-oiB1-6 =
O-527I1'62 very nearly. Fleming rightly regards it as not a little
curious that for materials differing so much as this cast cobalt and
soft annealed iron the hysteretic exponent should in both cases be
so near to 1-6. After pointing out that, since the magnetization
of the metal is the quantity really concerned, W is more appropriately
expressed in terms of I, the magnetic moment per unit of volume,
than of_ B, he suggests an experiment to determine whether the
mechanical work required to effect the complete magnetic reversal

1 Phil. Mag., 1903, 5, 117.

1 Some experiments by F. G. Baily showed that hysteresis ceased
to increase when B was carried beyond 23,000. This value of B
corresponds to 1 = 1640, the saturation point for soft iron. — Brit.
Assoc. Rep., 1895, p. 636.

of a crowd of small compass needles (representative of magnetic
molecules) is proportional to the I -6th power of the aggregate maxi-
mum magnetic moment before or after completion of the cycle.

10000

tzpoo

B000

4.000

ISOOO

a, Fine steel wire 0-257 mm- diam.

b, Fine iron wire 0-34 mm. diam.

c, Fine iron wire 0-2475 mm. diam.

d, Thin sheet iron 0-47 mm. thick.

e, Iron wire 0-602 mm. diam.
/, Iron wire 0-975 mm- diam.
g, Sheet iron 1-95 mm. thick.

h, Thin sheet iron 0-367 mm. thick.

*', Very soft iron wire.
The experiments of K. Honda and S. Shimizu ' indicate that
Steinmetz s formula holds for nickel and annealed cobalt up to
B =3000, for cast cobalt and tungsten steel up to B =8000, and for
Swedish iron up to B = 18,000, the range being in all cases extended
at the temperature of liquid air.

The diagram, fig. 17, contains examples of ascending induction
curves characteristic of wrought iron, cast iron, cobalt and nickel.

-1.000

10,000

1,000-

so

ri

-7SO

-500

FIG. 17.

These are to be regarded merely as typical specimens, for the
details of a curve depend largely upon the physical condition
and purity of the material; but they show at a glance how far
the several metals differ from and resemble one another as
regards their magnetic properties. Curves of magnetization
(which express the relation of I to H) have a close resemblance
to those of induction; and, indeed, since B = H+4irI, and 471"!
(except in extreme fields) greatly exceeds H in numerical value,
we may generally, without serious error, put I = B/4ir, and trans-
form curves of induction into curves of magnetization by merely
altering the scale to which the ordinates are referred. A scale for
the approximate transformation for the curves in fig. 1 2 is given
8 Tokyo Phys.-Math. Soc., 1904, 2, No. 14.

MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS]

MAGNETISM

333

at the right-hand side of the diagram, the greatest error intro-
duced by neglecting H/4ir not exceeding 0-6%. A study of such
curves as these reveals the fact that there are three distinct
stages in the process of magnetization. During the first stage,
when the magnetizing force is small, the magnetization (or the
induction) increases rather slowly with increasing force; this is
well shown by the nickel curve in the diagram, but the effect
would be no less conspicuous in the iron curve if the abscissae
were plotted to a larger scale. During the second stage small
increments of magnetizing force are attended by relatively
large increments of magnetization, as is indicated by the steep
ascent of the curve. Then the curve bends over, forming what is
often called a " knee," and a third stage is entered upon, during
which a considerable increase of magnetizing force has little
further effect upon the magnetization. When in this condition
the metal is popularly said to be " saturated." Under increasing
magnetizing forces, greatly exceeding those comprised within
the limits of the diagram, the magnetization does practically
reach a limit, the maximum value being attained with a magnet-
izing force of less than 2000 for wrought iron and nickel, and less
than 4000 for cast iron and cobalt. The induction, however,
continues to increase indefinitely, though very slowly. These
observations have an important bearing upon the molecular
theory of magnetism, which will be referred to later.

The magnetic quality of a sample of iron depends very largely
upon the purity and physical condition of the metal. The
presence of ordinary impurities usually tends to diminish the
permeability, though, as will appear later, the addition of small
quantities of certain other substances is sometimes advantageous.
A very pure form of iron, which from the method of its manufac-
ture is called " steel," is now extensively used for the construc-
tion of dynamo magnets; this metal sometimes contains not more
than 0-3 % of foreign substances, including carbon, and is mag-
netically superior to the best commercial wrought iron. The
results of some comparative tests published by Ewing (Proc.
Inst. C.E., 1896) are given in the accompanying table. Those
in the second column are quoted from a paper by F. Lydall and
A. VV. Pocklington (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1892, 52, 228) and relate
to an exceptional specimen containing nearly 99-9% of the pure
metal.

Magnetic

Magnetic Induction.

Force.

Pure

Low Moor

Steel

Steel

Iron.

Iron.

Forging.

Casting.

5

12,700

10,900

12,300

9,600

10

14,980

13,120

14,920

13,050

15

15,800

14,010

15,800

14,600

20

16,300

14,580

16,280

I5.3IO

30

16,950

15.280

Id, .SKI

16,000

40

« 7.350

15.760

17,190

16,510

50

16,060

17.500

16,900

60

16,340

17.750

17,180

70

16,580

17,970

17,400

So

16,800

18,180

17,^20

90

17,000

18,390

17.830

IOO

17,200

18,600

18,030

To secure the highest possible permeability it is essential that
the iron should be softened by careful annealing. When it is
mechanically hardened by hammering, rolling or wire-drawing
its permeability may be greatly diminished, especially under a
moderate magnetizing force. An experiment by Ewing showed
that by the operation of stretching an annealed iron wire beyond
the limits of elasticity the permeability under a magnetizing
force of about 3 units was reduced by as much as 75%.
Ewing has also studied the effect of vibration in conferring
upon iron an apparent or spurious permeability of high value;
this effort also is most conspicuous when the magnetizing force
is weak. The permeability of a soft iron wire, which was tapped
while subjected to a very small magnetizing force, rose to the
enormous value of about 80,000 (Magnetic Induction, § 85). It
follows that in testing iron for magnetic quality the greatest
care must be exercised to guard the specimen against any
accidental vibration.

Low hysteresis is the chief requisite for iron which is to be
used for transformer cores, and it does not necessarily accom-
pany high permeability. In response to the demand, manufac-
turers have succeeded in producing transformer plate in which
the loss of energy due to hysteresis is exceedingly small. Tests
of a sample supplied by Messrs. Sankey were found by Ewing
to give the following results, which, however, are regarded as
being unusually favourable. In a valuable collection of magnetic

Limits of
Induction.

Ergs per c.cm.
per cycle.

Watts per Ib.
Frequency, 100.

2000

220

0-129

3000

410

0-242

4O-JO

640

0-376

5fxx>

910

0-535

fooo

1200

0-710

7000

1520

0-890

8000

1900

I«I20

9000

2310

1-360

data (Proc. Inst. C.E., cxxvi.) H. F. Parshall quotes tests of six
samples of iron, described as of good quality, which showed an
average hysteresis loss of 3070 ergs per c.cm. per cycle at an
induction of 8000, being 1-6 times the loss shown by Ewing's
specimen at the same induction.

The standard induction in reference to determinations of
hysteresis is generally taken as 2500, while the loss is expressed
in watts per ll> at a frequency of 100 double reversals, or cycles,
per second. In many experiments, however, different inductions
and frequencies are employed, and the hysteresis-loss is often
expressed as ergs per cubic centimetre per cycle and sometimes
as horse-power per ton. In order to save arithmetical labour
it is convenient to be provided with conversion factors for reduc-
ing variously expressed results to the standard form. The rate
at which energy is lost being proportional to the frequency, it
is obvious that the loss at frequency 100 may be deduced
from that at any other frequency n by simply multiplying
by 100 n. Taking the density of iron to be 7-7, the factor for
reducing the loss in ergs per c.cm. to watts per Ib with a frequency
of too is 0-000589 (Ewing). Since i horse-power =746 watts,
and i ton = 2240 Ib, the factor for reducing horse-power per ton
to watts per Ib is 746/2240, or just 1/3. The loss for any induc-
tion B within the range for which Steinmetz's law holds may be
converted into that for the standard induction 2500 by dividing
it by B1'6/2soo1'6. The values of this ratio for different values
of B, as given by Fleming (Phil. Mag., 1897), are contained in
the second column of the annexed table. The third column
shows the relative amount of hysteresis deduced by Ewing as a
general mean from actual tests of many samples (Journ. Inst.
Elec. Eng., 1895). Incidentally, these two columns furnish an
undesigned test of the accuracy of Steinmetz's law: the greatest
difference is little more than i %.

Induction
B.

B''«

Observed relative
Hysteresis.

2500' "•'

2OOO

0-700

0-702

2500

I-OOO

I-OOO

3000

1-338

1-340

4OOO

2-118

2-128

5000

3-031

3-000

6000

4-058

4-022

7000

5-193

5-129

8OOO

6-430

6-384

Curves of Permeability and Susceptibility. — The relations of
H ( = B/H) to B, and of K ( = I/H) to I may be instructively
exhibited by means of curves, a method first employed by H. A.
Rowland.1 The dotted curve for (i and B in fig. 18 is copied
from Rowland's paper. The actual experiment to which it
relates was carried only as the point marked X, corresponding
to a magnetizing force of 65, and an induction of nearly 17,000.
Rowland, believing that the curve would continue to fall in a
straight line meeting the horizontal axis, inferred that the induc-
tion corresponding to the point B — about 1 7,500 — was the highest
1 Phil. Mag., 1873, 46, 140.

334

MAGNETISM

[MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS

that could be produced by any magnetizing force, however great.
It has, however, been shown that, if the magnetizing force is
carried far enough, the curve always becomes convex to the axis
instead of meeting it. The full line shows the result of an experi-
ment in which the magnetizing force was carried up to 585,'

2.000

1000

1000

topoo

0,000

FIG. 1 8.

but though the force was thus increased ninefold, the induction
only reached 19,800, and the ultimate value of the permeability
was still as much as 33-9.

Ballistic Method with Yoke. — J. Hopkinson (Phil. Trans.,
1885, 176, 455) introduced a modification of the usual ballistic
arrangement which presents the following advantages: (i)
very considerable magnetizing forces can be applied with ordi-
nary means; (2) the samples to be tested, having the form of
cylindrical bars, are more easily prepared than rings or wires;
(3) the actual induction at any time can be measured, and not

only changes of in-
duction. On the
other hand, a very
high degree of ac-
curacy is not claimed
for the results. Fig.
19 shows the appa-
ratus by which the

FlG- J9- ends of the bar are

prevented from

exerting any material demagnetizing force, while the permeance
of the magnetic circuit is at the same time increased. A A,
called the " yoke," is a block of annealed wrought iron
about 18 in. long, 6^ in. wide and 2 in. thick, through
which is cut a rectangular opening to receive the two
magnetizing coils B B. The test bar C C, which slides
through holes bored in the yoke, is divided near the
middle into two parts, the ends which come into contact
being faced true and square. Between the magnetizing coils
is a small induction coil D, which is connected with a ballistic
galvanometer. The induction coil is carried upon the end of
one portion of the test bar, and when this portion is suddenly
drawn back the coil slips off and is pulled out of the field by
an india-rubber spring. This causes a ballistic throw propor-
tional to the induction through the bar at the moment when the
two portions were separated. With such an arrangement it is
possible to submit the sample to any series of magnetic forces,
and to measure its magnetic state at the end. The uncertainty
with which the results are affected depends chiefly upon the im-
perfect contact between the bar and the yoke and also between
the ends of the divided bar. It is probable that Hopkinson did
not attach sufficient importance to the demagnetizing action of
the cut (cf. Ewing, Phil. Mag., Sept. 1888, p. 274), and that the
values which he assigned to H are consequently somewhat too
high. He applied his method with good effect, however, in
testing a large number of commercial specimens of iron and steel,
the magnetic constants of which are given in a table accompany-
ing his paper. When it is not required to determine the residual
magnetization there is no necessity to divide the sample bar,
and ballistic tests may be made in the ordinary way — by steps
1 S. Bidwell, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1886, 40, 495.

or by reversals — the source of error due to the transverse cut
thus being avoided. Ewing (Magnetic Induction, § 194) has de-
vised an arrangement in which two similar test bars are placed
side by side; each bar is surrounded by a magnetizing coil, the
two coils being connected to give opposite directions of magneti-
zation, and each pair of ends is connected by a short massive
block of soft iron having holes bored through it to fit the bars,
which are clamped in position by set-screws. Induction coils
are wound on the middle parts of both bars, and are connected
in series. With this arrangement it is possible to find the actual
value of the magnetizing force, corrected for the effects of joints
and other sources of error. Two sets of observations are taken,
one when the blocks are fixed at the ends of the bars, and another
when they are nearer together, the clear length of the bars
between them and of the magnetizing coils being reduced to

one-half. If HI and Hz be the values of qirin/l and qni'— / — for the

2/ 2

same induction B, it can be shown that the true magnetizing
force is H = HI — (H2 — HI). The method, though tedious
in operation, is very accurate, and is largely employed for
determining the magnetic quality of bars intended to serve as
standards.

Traction Methods. — The induction of the magnetization may
be measured by observing the force required to draw apart the
two portions of a divided rod or ring when held together by their
mutual attraction. If a transverse cut is made through a bar
whose magnetization is I and the two ends are placed in contact,
it can be shown that this force is 2ir I2 dynes per unit of area
(Mascart and Joubert, Electricity and Magnetism, § 322; and if
the magnetization of the bar is due to an external field H produced
by a magnetizing coil or otherwise, there is an additional force
equal to HI. Thus the whole force, when the two portions of
the bar are surrounded by a loosely-fitting magnetizing coil, is

expressed as dynes per square centimetre. If each portion of
the bar has an independent magnetizing coil wound tightly
upon it, we have further to take into account the force due to
the mutual action of the two magnetizing coils, which assists
the forces already considered. This is equal to H2 8w per unit
of sectional area. In the case supposed therefore the total force
per square centimetre is

(4*-I+H)2
Sw

= 8T

The equation F = B2/87r is often said to express " Maxwell's
law of magnetic traction " (Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism,
§§ 642-646). It is, of course, true for permanent magnets, where
H = o, since then F = 2xP; but if the magnetization is due t»
electric currents, the formula is only applicable in the special
case when the mutual action of the two magnets upon one
another is supplemented by the electromagnetic attraction
between separate magnetizing coils rigidly attached to them.2

The traction method was first employed by S. Bidwell (Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1886, 40, 486), who in 1886 published an account of
some experiments in which the relation of magnetization t»
magnetic field was deduced from observations of the force in
grammes weight which just sufficed to tear asunder the two
halves of a divided ring electro-magnet when known currents
were passing through the coils. He made use of the expression

where W is the weight in grammes per square centimetre of
sectional area, and g is the intensity of gravity which was taken as
981. The term for the attraction between the coils was omitted
as negligibly small (see Phil. Mag., 1890, 29, 440). The values
assigned to H were calculated from H=2ni/r, and ranged
from 3-9 to 585, but inasmuch as no account was taken of any
* Since in most practicable experiments H2 is negligible in com-
parison with B2, the force may be taken as B2/8?r without scnsit
error.

MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS)

MAGNETISM

335

demagnetizing action which might be due to the two transverse
cuts, it is probable that they are somewhat too high. The results,
nevertheless, agree very well with those for annealed wrought
iron obtained by other methods. Below is given a selection from
Bidwell's tables, showing corresponding values of magnetizing
force, weight supported, magnetization, induction, susceptibility
and permeability: —

cr

n

X

w

V

:a
to
a
th

H.

W.

I.

B.

K.

M-

bi

s

di

th

th
B

w

III

a
*1
b;

al

3-9
5-7
10-3

22-2
40

"5
208
362
465

5«5

2,210
3.460
5400
8,440
9,680
12,170
13,810
H.740
15,275
15.905

587
735
918

"47
1226
1370
1452
1489
1508
1530

7.390
9,240
",550
14.450
15460
17,330
18,470
19,080
19,420
19,820

I5I-0
128-9
89-I
51-7
30-7

n-9
7-0

4-1
3-2

2-6

1889-1
1621-3
1121-4

650-9
386-4
150-7

88-8

52-7
41-8

33-9

A few months later R. H. M. Bosanquet (Phil. Mag., 1886,
22, 535) experimented on the relation of tractive force to
magnetic induction. Instead of a divided ring he
employed a divided straight bar, each half of which
was provided with a magnetizing coil. The joint
was surrounded by an induction coil connected
with a ballistic galvanometer, an arrangement
which enabled him to make an independent
measurement of the induction at the moment
when the two portions of the bar were separated.
He showed that there was, on the whole, a fair
agreement between the values determined ballistic-
ally and those given by the formula B = "^8TrF.
The greatest weight supported in the experiments
was 14,600 grammes per square cm., and the cor-
responding induction 18,500 units. Taylor Jones
subsequently found a good agreement between the
theoretical and the observed values of the tractive
force in fields ranging up to very high intensities

2O<

(Phil. Mag., 1895, 39, 254, and 1896, 41, 153).

Permeameters. — Several instruments in which the traction method
is applied have been devised for the rapid measurement of induction
or of magnetization in commercial samples of iron and steel. The
earliest of these is S. P. Thompson's permeameter (Journ. Sci. Arts,
1890, 38, 885), which consists of a rectangular block of iron shaped
like Hopkinson's yoke, and slotted out in the same way to receive
a magnetizing coil (fig. 20) ; the block is bored through at the upper
end only, and its inner face opposite the hole is made quite flat and
smooth. The sample has the form of a thin rod, one end of which
is faced true; it is slipped into the magnetizing coil from above, and
when the current is turned on its smooth end adheres tightly to the
surface of the yoke. The force required to detach it is measured by
a registering spring balance, which is clamped to the upper end of the
rod, and thence the induction or the magnetization is deduced by
applying the formula

where P is the pull in grammes weight, S the sectional area of
the rod in square cm., and g = 98l. If the pull is measured in
pounds and the area in square inches, the formula may be written
B = i3i7xVP7S+H. The instrument exhibited by Thompson
would, without undue heating, take a current of 30 amperes, which
was sufficient to produce a magnetizing force of 1000 units. A
testing apparatus of a similar type devised by Gisbert Kapp (Journ
Inst. Elec. Eng. xxiii. 199) differs only in a few details from
Thompson's permeameter. Ewing has described an arrangement
in which the test bar has a soft-iron pole piece clamped to each
of its ends; the pole pieces are joined by a long well-fitting block
of iron, which is placed upon them (like the " keeper ' of a
magnet), and the induction is measured by the force required tc
detach the block. In all such measurements a correction shoulc
be made in respect of the demagnetizing force due to the joint
and unless the fit is very accurate the demagnetizing action wil
be variable. In the magnetic balance of du Bois (Magnetic Circuit
p. 346) the uncertainty arising from the presence of a joint is
avoided, the force measured being that exerted between two pieces o
iron separated from each other by a narrow air-gap of known width
The instrument is represented diagrammatically in fig. 21. Th(
test-piece A, surrounded by a magnetizing coil, is clamped between
two soft-iron blocks B, B'. Y Y' is a soft iron yoke, which rocks
upon knife-edges K and constitutes the beam of the balance. The
yoke has two projecting pieces C, C' at unequal distances from the

Y

V"

r

•fi

JLl

LJ

-^A?.

. . t

°5>L

B

A

« J

FIG. 21.

cnife-edges, and separated from the blocks B, B' by narrow air-gaps.

The play of the beam is limited by a stop S and a screw R, the latter
>eing so adjusted that when the end Y of the beam is held down the
air-gaps are of equal

width. W is a weight |-D-,W

capable of sliding from end
end of the yoke along
graduated scale. When
here is no magnetization, R
:he yoke is in equilibrium;
jut as soon as the current
turned on the block C is

drawn downwards as far as

the screw R will allow, for,

:hough the attractive forces F between B and C and between
B' and C' are equal, the former has a greater moment. The

weight W is moved along the scale until the yoke just tilts over

upon the stop S; the distance of W from its zero position is then, as

can easily be shown, proportional to F, and therefore to B!, and

approximately to I1. The scale is graduated in such a manner that
ay multiplying the reading by a simple factor (generally 10 or 2) the

absolute value of the magnetization is obtained. The actual
magnetizing force H is of course less than that due to the coil ; the

corrections required are effected automatically by the use of a set of

demagnetization lines drawn on a sheet of celluloid which is supplied
with the instrument. The celluloid sheet is laid upon the squared
paper, and in plotting a curve horizontal distances are reckoned
from the proper demagnetization line instead of from the vertical

axis. An improved but somewhat more complex form of the instru-
ment is described in Ann. d. Phys., 1900, 2, 317.

the'

magnetizing 1 .

men, which has the form of a turned rod, 4 in. long and \ in. in dia-
meter, is laid across the poles of a horseshoe electromagnet, excited
by a current of such strength as to produce in the rod a magnetizing
force H =20. One pole has a V-shaped notch for the rod to rest in;
the surface of the other is slightly rounded, forming a portion of a
cylinder, the axis of which is perpendicular to the direction of the
length of the rod. The rod touches this pole at a single point, and
is pulled away from it by the action of a lever, the long arm of
which is graduated and carries a sliding weight. The position of the
weight at the moment when contact is broken indicates the induc-
tion in the rod. The standard force H=2O was selected as being
sufficiently low to distinguish between good and bad specimens, and
at the same time sufficiently high to make the order of merit the
same as it would be under stronger forces.

Permeability Bridges. — Several pieces of apparatus have been
invented for comparing the magnetic quality of a sample with that
of a standard iron rod by a zero method, such as is employed in the
comparison of electrical resistances by the Wheatstone bridge. An
excellent instrument of the class is Ewing's permeability bridge.
The standard rod and the test specimen, which must be of the same
dimensions, are placed side by side within two magnetizing coils,
and each pair of adjacent ends is joined by a short rectangular block
or " yoke " of soft iron. An iron bar shaped like an inverted I
projects upwards from each of the yokes, the horizontal portions of
the bars being parallel to the rods, and nearly meeting at a height
of about 8 in. above them (thus J~ ~|). A compass needle placed .
in the gap serves to detect any flow of induction that may exist
between the bent bars. For simplicity of calculation, the clear length
of each rod between the yokes is made 12-56 (=4«r) centimetres,
while the coil surrounding the standard bar contains loo turns;
hence the magnetizing force due to a current of n amperes will be
ion C.G.S. units. The effective number of turns in the coil sur-
rounding the test rod can be varied by means of three dial switches
(for hundreds, tens and units), which also introduce compensating
resistances as the number of effective turns in the coil is reduced,
thus keeping the total resistance of the circuit constant. The two
coils are connected in series, the same current passing through both.
Suppose the switches to be adjusted so that the effective number of
turns in the variable coil is 100; the magnetizing forces in the two
coils will then be equal, and if the test rod is of the same quality as
the standard, the flow of induction will be confined entirely to the
iron circuit, the two yokes will be at the same magnetic potential,
and the compass needle will not be affected. If, however, the per-
meability of the test rod differs from that of the standard, the number
of lines of induction flowing in opposite directions through the two
rods will differ, and the excess will flow from one yoke to the other,
partly through the air, and partly along the path provided by the
bent bars, deflecting the compass needle. But a balance may still
be obtained by altering the effective number of turns in the test coil,
and thus increasing or decreasing the magnetizing force acting on the
test rod, till the induction in the two rods is the same, a condition
which is fulfilled when reversal of the current has no effect on the
compass needle. Let m be the number of turns in use, and Hi and
Hi the magnetizing forces which produce the same induction B in
the test and the standard rods respectively; then Hi =HjXwi/ioo.
The value of B which corresponds to Hjm/ioo can be found from the

MAGNETISM

[MAGNETIZATION: STRONG FIELDS

(B, H) curve for the standard, which is assumed to have been deter-
mined; and this same value corresponds to the force H in the case
of the test bar. Thus any desired number of corresponding values
of H and B can be easily and quickly found.

Measurement of Field Strength. Exploring Coil. — Since
in air B = H, the ballistic method of measuring induction
described above is also available for determining the strength
of a magnetic field, and is more often employed than any
other. A small coil of fine wire, connected in series with a
ballistic galvanometer, is placed in the field, with its windings
perpendicular to the lines of force, and then suddenly reversed
or withdrawn from the field, the integral electromotive force
being twice as great in the first case as in the second. The
strength of the field is proportional to the swing of the galvano-
meter-needle, and, when the galvanometer is calibrated, can
be expressed in C.G.S. units. Convenient arrangements have
been introduced whereby the coil is reversed or withdrawn from
the field by the action of a spring.

Bismuth Resistance. — The fact, which will be referred to
later, that the electrical resistance of bismuth is very greatly
affected by a magnetic field has been applied in the construction
of apparatus for measuring field intensity. A little instrument,
supplied by Hartmann and Braun, contains a short length of
fine bismuth wire wound into a flat double spiral, half an inch
or thereabouts in diameter, and attached to a long ebonite
handle. Unfortunately the effects of magnetization upon
the specific resistance of bismuth vary enormously with changes
of temperature; it is therefore necessary to take two readings
of the resistance, one when the spiral is in the magnetic field,
the other when it is outside.

Electric Circuit. — If a coil of insulated wire is suspended
so that it is in stable equilibrium when its plane is parallel
to the direction of a magnetic field, the transmission of a known
electric current through the coil will cause it to be deflected
through an angle which is a function of the field intensity.

One of the neatest applications of this principle is that described
by Edser and Stansfield (Phil. Mag., 1893, 34, 186), and used by them
to test the stray fields of dynamos. An oblong coil about an inch
in length is suspended from each end by thin strips of rolled German
silver wire, one of which is connected with a spiral spring for regulat-
ing the tension, the other being attached to a torsion-head. Inside
the torsion-head is a commutator for automatically reversing the
current, so that readings may be taken on each side of zero, and the
arrangement is such that when the torsion-head is exactly at zero
the current is interrupted. To take a reading the torsion-head is
turned until an aluminium pointer attached to the coil is brought
to the zero position on a small scale ; the strength of the field is then
proportional to the angular torsion. The small current required
is supplied to the coil from a single dry cell. The advantages of
portability, very considerable range (from H = l upwards), and fair
. accuracy are claimed for the instrument.

Polarized Light. — The intensity of a field may be measured
by the rotation of the plane of polarization of light passing
in the direction of the magnetic force through a transparent
substance. If the field is uniform, H=0/axf, where 0 is the
rotation, d the thickness of the substance arranged as a plate
at right angles to the direction of the field, and w Verdet's
constant for the substance.

For the practical measurement of field intensity du Bois has used
plates of the densest Jena flint glass. These are preferably made
slightly wedge-shape, to avoid the inconvenience resulting from
multiple internal reflections, and they must necessarily be rather
thin, so that double refractions due to internal strain may not exert
a disturbing influence. Since Verdet's constant is somewhat un-
certain for different batches of glass even of the same quality, each
plate should be standardized in a field of known intensity. As the
source of monochromatic light a bright sodium burner is used, and
the rotation, which is exactly proportional to H, is measured by an
accurate polarimeter. Such a plate about I mm. in thickness is said
to be adapted for measuring fields of the order of 1000 units. A
part of one surface of the plate may be silvered, so that the polarized
ray, after haying once traversed the glass, is reflected back again;
the rotation is thus doubled, and moreover, the arrangement is, for
certain experiments, more convenient than the other.

4. MAGNETIZATION IN STRONG FIELDS

Fields due to Coils. — The most generally convenient arrange-
ment for producing such magnetic fields as are required for

FIG. 22.

experimental purposes is undoubtedly a coil of wire through
which an electric current can be caused to flow. The field
due to a coil can be made as nearly uniform as we please through-
out a considerable space; its intensity, when the constants
of the coil are known, can be calculated with ease and certainty
and may be varied at will through wide ranges, while the appara-
tus required is of the simplest character and can be readily
constructed to suit special purposes. But when exceptionally
strong fields are desired, the use of a coil is limited by the heat-
ing effect of the magnetizing current, the quantity of heat
generated per unit of time in a coil of given dimensions increasing
as the square of the magnetic field produced in its interior.
In experiments on magnetic strains carried out by H. Nagaoka
and K. Honda (Phil. Mag., 1900, 49, 329) the intensity of
the highest field reached in the interior of a coil was 2200
units; this is probably the strongest field produced by a coil
which has hitherto been employed in experimental work.
In 1890 some experiments in which a coil was used were made
by du Bois (Phil. Mag., 1890, 29, 253, 293) on the magnetiza-
tion of iron, nickel, and i
cobalt under forces «»
ranging from about 100
to 1250 units. Since the w
demagnetizing factor
was 0-052, the strongest
field due to the coil was "°
about 1340; but though
arrangements were pro- «»§
vided for cooling the
apparatus by means of
ice, great difficulty was
experienced owing to
heating. Du Bois's results, which, as given in his papers, show
the relation of H to the magnetic moment per unit of mass,
have been reduced by Ewing to the usual form, and are indi-
cated in fig. 22, the earlier portions of the curves being
sketched in from other data.

Fields due to Electromagnets. — The problem of determining
the magnetization of iron and other metals in the strong fields
formed between the poles of an electromagnet was first attacked
by J. A. Ewing and W. Low. An account of their preliminary
experiments by what they call the isthmus method was pub-
lished in 1887 (Proc. Roy. Soc. 42, 200), and in the following
year they described a more complete and perfect series (Phil.
Trans., 1889, 180, 221).

The sample to be inserted between the magnet poles was prepared
in the form of a bobbin resembling an ordinary cotton reel, with a
short narrow neck (constituting the " isthmus ") and conical ends.
Upon the central neck was wound a coil consisting of one or two
layers of very fine wire, which was connected with a ballistic galvano-
meter for measuring the induction in the iron; outside this coil, and
separated from it by a small and accurately determined distance, a
second coil was wound, serving to measure the induction in the iron,
together with that in a small space surrounding it. The difference
of the ballastic throws taken with the two coils measured the inten-
sity of the field in the space around the iron, and it also enabled a
correction to be made for the non-
ferrous space between the iron neck
and the centre of the thickness of^the
inner coil. The pole pieces of the
electromagnet (see fig. 23) were fur-
nished with a pair of truncated cones
b b, of soft iron forming an extension of
the conical ends of the bobbin c. The
most suitable form for the pole faces
is investigated in the paper, and the
conclusion arrived at is that to pro-
duce the greatest concentration of
force upon the central neck, the cones
should have a common vertex in the

FIG. 23.

middle of the neck with a semi-vertical angle of 54° 44', while the con-
dition for a uniform field is satisfied when the cones have a semi-
vertical angle of 39° 14'; in the latter case the magnetic force in the
air just outside is sensibly equal to that within the neck. A pair of
cones having a semi-vertical angle of 45° were considered to combine
high concentrative power with a sufficient approximation to uni-
formity of field. In most of the experiments the measurements
were made by suddenly withdrawing the bobbin from its place

MAGNETIZATION: WEAK FIELDS]

MAGNETISM

337

between the pole pieces. Two groups of observations were recorded,
one giving the induction in the inner coil and the other that in the
outer coil. The value of the residual induction which persisted
when the bobbin was drawn out was added to that of the induction
measured, and thus the total induction in the iron was determined.
The highest induction reached in these experiments was 45,35O units,
more than twice the value of any previously recorded. The cor-
responding intensity of the outside field was 24,500, but, owing to
the wide angle of the cones used (about 2X63°), this was probably
greater than the value of the magnetic force within the metal. The
Following table shows some results of other experiments in which
H was believed to have sensibly the same value inside as outside the
metal. Values of I are derived from (B — H)/4ir and of p from B/H.

Metal.

H

B

I

M

t|(

KiSl

" I

1,490
6,070
8,600

19.45°
19,880

22,650
27.130
30,270
40,820
41,140

1680
1680
1720
1700
1700

15-20

4-47
3-52

2-10
2-07

3l(

4-56o
13,460
16,200
16,900

20,070
28,710
30,920
31,760

1230

I2IO
I17O

1180

4.40
2-13
I-9I

1-88

TS f

j|

t\

6,210
9,970
12,170
14,660
15.530

25,480
29,650
31,620
34,550
35,820

1530
1570
1550
1580
1610

4-10

2-97
2-60
2-36
2-31

•a "53

J-.M 1

ii|

2,220
4,440
7,940
14,660
16,000

7,100
9,210
12,970
19,640
21,070

390
380
400
400
400

3-20
2-09
1-63
J-34
1-32

Cobalt

1.350
4,040
8,930
14,990

16,000
18,870
23,890
30,210

1260
1280
1290
1310

12-73
4-98
2-82

2-10

These results are of extreme interest, for they show that
under sufficiently strong magnetizing forces the intensity of
magnetization I reaches a maximum value, as required by
W. E. Weber's theory of molecular magnetism. There appears
to be no definite limit to the value to which the induction B
may be raised, but the magnetization I attains a true saturation
value under magnetizing forces which are in most cases com-
paratively moderate. Thus the magnetization which the
sample of Swedish iron received in a field of 1490 was not
increased (beyond the limits of experimental error) when the
intensity of the field was multiplied more than thirteen-fold,
though the induction was nearly doubled. When the saturation
value of I has been reached, the relation of magnetic induction
to magnetic force may be expressed by

B = H -{-constant.

The annexed table gives the saturation values of I for the par-
ticular metals examined by Ewing and Low: —

Saturation
Value of I

Wrought iron 1,700

Cast iron 1,240

Nickel (0-75% iron) 515

.. (0-56% „ ) 400

Cobalt (1-66% .. ) 1,300

It is shown in the paper that the greatest possible force which the
isthmus method can apply at a point in the axis of the bobbin is

F = 11-137 I. logic b/a,

I. being the saturation value of the magnet pofes, a the radius of the
neck on which the cones converge, and 6 the radius of the bases of
the cones.

Some experiments made by H. du Bois (Phil. Mag., 1890, 29, 293)
'ith an electromagnet specially designed for the production of
strong fields, confirm Ewing's results for iron, nickel and cobalt.
I he method employed did not admit of the production of such high
magnetizing forces, but was of special interest in that both B and I
were measured optically — B by means of the rotation of a polarized
ray inside a glass plate, as before described, and I by the rotation
of a polarized ray reflected from the polished surface of the magnet-

ized metal (see " Kerr's constant," MAGNETO-OPTICS). H( = B— 4*-!)
was calculated from corresponding values of I and B. Taylor Jones
(Wied. Ann., 1896,57, 258, and Phil. Mag., 1896,41, 153), working
with du Bois's electromagnet and using a modification of the isthmus
method, succeeded in pushing the induction B up to 74,200 with
H=5i,6oo, the corresponding value of I being 1798, and of ji only
1-44. The diameter of the isthmus was 0-241 mm., and the electro-
magnet was excited by a current of 40 amperes.

Tractive Force of a Magnet. — Closely connected with the
results just discussed is the question what is the greatest tractive
force that can be exerted by a magnet. In the year 1852
J. P. Joule (Phil. Mag., 1852, 3, 32) expressed the opinion
that no " force of current could give an attraction equal to
200 Ib per sq. in.," or 14,000 grms. per square centimetre,
and a similar view prevailed among high authorities more
than twenty years later. For the greatest possible " lifting
power " of permanent magnets this estimate is probably not
very far from the truth, but it is now clearly understood that
the force which can be exerted by an electromagnet, or by
a pair of electromagnets with opposite poles in contact, is
only limited by the greatest value to which it is practically
possible to raise the magnetizing force H. This is at once
evident when the tractive force due to magnetization is ex-
pressed as 27rP+HI. For fields of moderate intensity the
first term of the expression is the more important, but when
the value of H exceeds 12,000 or thereabouts, the second pre-
ponderates, and with the highest values that have been actually
obtained, HI is several times greater than 2irP. If H could
be increased without limit, so also could the tractive force.
The following table shows the greatest " lifting powers " experi-
mentally reached at the dates mentioned: —

Observer.

Kilos per
sq. cm.

R) per
sq. in.

Date.

Joule
Bidwell .
Wilde
T. Jones .

12-3

15-9
26-8
114-9

'75
226

38i
1634

1852
1886
1891
1896

5. MAGNETIZATION IN VERY WEAK FIELDS

Some interesting observations have been made of the
effects produced by very small magnetic forces. It was first
pointed out by C. Baur (Wied. Ann., 1880, n, 399) that in weak
fields the relation of the magnetization I to the magnetizing
force H is approximately expressed by an equation of the
form

or

I=aH+6H«,
= I/H=o+6H,

whence it appears that within the limits of Baur's experiments
the magnetization curve is a parabola, and the susceptibility
curve an inclined straight line, <c being therefore a known
function of H. If these equations could be assumed to hold
when H is indefinitely small, it would follow that K has a finite
initial value, from which there would be no appreciable deviation
in fields so weak that 6H was negligibly small in comparison
with a. Such an assumption could not, however, without
dangerous extrapolation, be founded upon the results of Baur's
experiments, which did not go far enough to justify it. In
some experiments carried out in 1887, Lord Rayleigh (Phil.
Mag., 1887, 23, 225) approached very much more nearly than
Baur to the zero of magnetic force. Using an unannealed
Swedish iron wire, he found that when H was gradually dimin-
ished from 0-04 to 0-00004 C.G.S. unit, the ratio of magnet-
ization to magnetizing force remained sensibly constant at
6-4, wihch may therefore with great probability be assumed
to represent the initial value of K for the specimen in question.
Experiments with annealed iron gave less satisfactory results,
on account of the slowness with which the metal settled down
into a new magnetic state, thus causing a " drift " of the magnet-
ometer needle, which sometimes persisted for several seconds.
Apart from this complication, it appeared that I was pro-
portional to H when the value of H was less than 0-02.

338

MAGNETISM

[DIMENSIONS AND MAGNETIZATION

The observations of Baur and Rayleigh have been confirmed and
discussed by (amongst others) W. Schmidt (Wied. Ann., 1895, 54,655),
who found the limiting values of K to be 7-5 to 9-5 for iron, and 11-2
to 13-5 for steel, remaining constant up to H = -06 ; by P. Culmann
(Elekt. Zeit., 1893, 14, 345; Wied. Ann., 1895, 56, 602); and by L.
Holborn (Berl. Ber., 1897, p. 95, and Wied. Ann., 1897, 61, 281).
The latter gives values of the constants a and b for different samples
of iron and steel, some of which are shown in the following table: —

a

8-90
2-23
8-66
8-30
11-28

3' 16
16-6

5-88

b

0-264
0-032
0-384
0-400
1-92
o-2if>
18-6
1-76

Metal.

English tungsten steel .

Tungsten steel, hardened

Silver steel

Tool steel .

Refined steel

Cast iron .

Soft iron .

Hard drawn iron

For most samples of steel the straight-line law was found to
hold approximately up to H=3; in the case of iron and of soft
steel the approximation was less close.

The behaviour of nickel in weak fields has been observed
by Ewing (Phil. Trans., 1888, I79A, 325), who found that the
initial value of K was 1-7, and that it remained sensibly constant
until H had reached a value of about five units. While there-
fore the initial susceptibility of nickel is less than that of iron
and steel, the range of magnetic force within which it is approxi-
mately constant is about one hundred times greater. Ewing
has also made a careful study (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1889, 46, 269)
of " magnetic viscosity " under small forces — the cause of
the magnetometer " drift " referred to by Rayleigh. On the
application of a small magnetizing force to a bar of soft annealed
iron, a certain intensity of magnetization is instantly produced;
this, however, does not remain constant, but slowly increases
for some seconds or even minutes, and may ultimately attain
a value nearly twice as great as that observed immediately
after the force was applied.1 When the magnetizing current
is broken, the magnetization at once undergoes considerable
diminution, then gradually falls to zero, and a similar sudden
change followed by a slow one is observed when a feeble current
b reversed. Ewing draws attention to a curious consequence
of this time-lag. By the alternate application and withdrawal
of a small magnetizing force a cyclic condition may be estab-
lished in an iron rod. If now the alternations are performed so
rapidly that time is not allowed for more than the first sudden
change in the magnetization, there will be no hysteresis loss,
the magnetization exactly following the magnetizing force.
Further, if the alternations take place so slowly that the full
maximum and minimum values of the magnetization are
reached in the intervals between the reversals, there will again
be no dissipation of energy. But at any intermediate fre-
quency the ascending and descending curves of magnetization
will enclose a space, and energy will be dissipated. It is
remarkable that the phenomena of magnetic viscosity are
much more evident in a thick rod than in a thin wire, or even
in a large bundle of thin wires. In hardened iron and steel
the effect can scarcely be detected, and in weak fields these
metals exhibit no magnetic hysteresis of any kind.

6. CHANGES or DIMENSIONS ATTENDING MAGNETIZATION

It is well known that the form of a piece of ferromagnetic
metal is in general slightly changed by magnetization. The
phenomenon was first noticed by J. P. Joule, who in 1842 and
1847 described some experiments which he had made upon
bars of iron and steel. His observations were for the most
part confirmed by a number of subsequent workers, notably
by A. M. Mayer; but with the single exception of the discovery
by W. F. Barrett in 1882 that a nickel bar contracts when
magnetized, nothing of importance was added by Joule's results
for nearly forty years. Later researches have however thrown
much new light upon a class of phenomena which cannot fail
to have an important bearing upon the complete theory of

1 The same phenomenon is exhibited in a less marked degree when
soft iron is magnetized in stronger fields (Ewing, Phil. Trans., 1885,
176,

molecular magnetism.2 According to Joule's observations,
the length of a bar of iron or soft steel was increased by magnet-
ization, the elongation being proportional up to a certain
point to the square of the intensity of magnetization; but
when the " saturation point " was approached the elongation
was less than this law would require, and a stage was finally
reached at which further increase of the magnetizing force
produced little or no effect upon the length. From data
contained in Joule's paper it may be calculated that the strongest
external field HO produced by his coil was about 126 C.G.S.
units, but since the dimensional ratio of his bars was com-
paratively small, the actual magnetizing force H must have
been materially below that value. In 1885 it was shown
by Bidwell, in the first of a series of papers on the subject,
that if the magnetizing force is pushed beyond the point at
which Joule discontinued his experiments, the extension of
the bar does not remain unchanged, but becomes gradually
less and less, until the bar, after first returning to its original
length, ultimately becomes actually shorter than when in the
unmagnetized condition. The elongation is generally found
to reach a maximum under a magnetizing force of 50 to 120
units, and to vanish under a force of 200 to 400, retraction
occurring when still higher forces are applied. In order to
meet the objection that the phenomenon might be due to
electromagnetic action between the coil and the rod, Bidwell
made some experiments with iron rings, and found that the
length of their diameters varied under magnetization in pre-
cisely the same manner as the length of a straight rod. Experi-
ments were afterwards made with rods of iron, nickel, and
cobalt, the external field
being carried up to the

high value of 1500 units. I
The results are indicated |
in Fig. 24. It appears **
that the contraction -*»
which followed the initial
extension of the iron
reached a limit in fields
of toco or i ico. Nickel
exhibited retraction

FIG. 24.

from the very beginning (as observed by Barrett), its greatest
change of length considerably exceeding that undergone by
iron; in a field of 800 the original length was diminished by
as much as 1/40,000 part, but stronger forces failed to
produce any further effect. The curve for cobalt is a very
remarkable one. Little or no change of length was observed
until the strength of the field H0 reached about 50; then
the rod began to contract, and after passing a minimum at
Ho=4co, recovered its original length at H0=7So; beyond
this point there was extension, the amount of which was still
increasing fast when the experiment was stopped at H0=i4OO.
Similar results were obtained with three different samples
of the metal. Roughly speaking, therefore, cobalt behaves
oppositely to iron.

1 Principal publications: J. P. Joule, Scientific Papers, pp. 46,
235; A. M. Meyer, Phil. Mag., 1873, 46, 177; W. F. Barrett, Nature,
1882, 26, 585; S. Bidwell, Phil. Trans., 1888, I79A, 205; Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1886, 40, 109 and 257; 1888, 43, 406; 1890, 47, 469; 1892, 51,
495; 1894,55,228; 1894,56,94; 1904,74,60; Nature, 1899, 60,222;
M. Cantone, Mem. d. Ace. d. Lincei, 1889, 6, 487; Rend. d. Ace. d.
Lincei, 1890, 6, 252; A. Berget, C.R., 1892, 115, 722; S. J. Lochner,
Phil. Mag., 1893, 36, 498; H. Nagaoka, Phil. Mag., 1894, 37, 131;
Wied. Ann., 1894, 53, 487; C. G. Knott, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1891,
18, 315; Phil. Mag., 1894, 37, 141; Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1896, 38,
527; 1898, 39, 457; C. G. Knott and A. Shand, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed.,
1892, 19, 85 and 249; 1894,20,295; L.T. More, Phil. Mag., 1895, 40,
-145; G. Klingenberg, Rostock Univ. Thesis, Berlin, 1897; E. T.
Jones, Phil. Trans., 1897, iSgA, 189; B. B. Brackett, Phys. Rev.,

1897, 5, 257; H. Nagaoka and K. Honda, Phil. Mag., 1898, 46, 261 ;
1900, 49, 329; Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1900, 13, 57; 1903, 19, art.
ii ; J. S. Stevens, Phys. Rev., 1898, 7, 19; E. Rhoads, Phys. Rev.,

1898, 7, 5; Phil. Mag., 1901, 2, 463; G. A. Shakespear, Phil. Mag.,

1899, 17, 539; K. Honda, Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1900, 13, 77!
L W. Austin, Phys. Rev., 1900, 10, 180; Deutsch. Phys. Cesell. Verh.,

1904, 6, 4, 211 ; K. Honda and S. Shimizu, Phil. Mag., 1902, 4, 338;

1905. 10. 548.

DIMENSIONS AND MAGNETIZATION]

MAGNETISM

339

Joule and others experimented with hardened steel, but
failed to find a key to the results they obtained, which are
rather complex, and have been thought to be inconsistent.
The truth appears to be that a hardened steel rod generally
behaves like one of iron or soft steel in first undergoing extension
under increasing magnetizing force, and recovering its original
length when the force has reached a certain critical value,
beyond which there is contraction. But this " critical value "
of the force is found to depend in an unexpected manner upon
the hardness of the steel; the critical value diminishes as the
hardness becomes greater up to a certain point, corresponding
to a yellow temper, after which it increases and with the hardest
steel becomes very high. For steel which has been made red-
hot, suddenly cooled, and then let down to a yellow temper,
the critical value of the magnetizing force is smaller than for
steel which is either softer or harder; it is indeed so small that
the metal contracts like nickel even under weak magnetizing
forces, without undergoing any preliminary extension that
can be detected.

Joule also made experiments upon iron wires under tension,
and drew the erroneous inference (which has been often quoted
as if it were a demonstrated fact) that under a certain critical
tension (differing for different specimens of iron but independent

of the magnetizing
force) magnetization
would produce no
effect whatever upon
the dimensions of the
wire. What actually
happens when an iron
wire is loaded with
various weights is
dearly shown in Fig.
25. Increased tension
FlG- 25- merely has the effect

of diminishing the maximum elongation and hastening the
contraction; with the two greatest loads used in the experiment
there was indeed no preliminary extension at all.1 The effects
of tension upon the behaviour of a nickel wire are of a less
simple character. In weak fields the magnetic contraction is
always diminished by pulling stress; in strong fields the con-
traction increases under a small load and diminishes under a
heavy one. Cobalt, curiously enough, was found to be quite
unaffected by tensile stress.

Certain experiments by C. G. Knott on magnetic twist,
which will be referred to later, led him to form the conclusion
that in an iron wire carrying an electric current the magnetic
elongation would be increased. This forecast was shown by
Bidwell to be well founded. The effect produced by a current
is exactly opposite to that of tension, raising the elongation
curve instead of depressing it. In the case of a wire 0-75 mm.
in diameter the maximum elongation was nearly doubled when
a current of two amperes was passing through the iron, while
the " critical value " of the field was increased from 130 to
200. Yet notwithstanding this enormous effect in iron, the
action of a current upon nickel and cobalt turned out to be
almost inappreciable.

Some experiments were next undertaken with the view
of ascertaining how far magnetic changes of length in iron
were dependent upon the hardness of the metal, and the un-
expected result was arrived at that softening produces the
same effect as tensile stress; it depresses the elongation curve,
diminishing the maximum extension, and reducing the " critical
value " of "the magnetizing force. A thoroughly well annealed
ring of soft iron indeed showed no extension at all, beginning
to contract, like nickel, under the smallest magnetizing forces.
The experiments were not sufficiently numerous to indicate
whether, as is possible, there is a critical degree of hardness
for which the height of the elongation curve is a maximum.
Finally, experiments were made to ascertain the effect of

The loads were successively applied in decreasing order of magni-
tude. They are indicated in fig. 25 as kilos per sq. cm.

magnetization upon the dimensions of iron rings in directions
perpendicular to the magnetization, and upon the volume of
the rings.2 It was found that the curve showing the relation
of transverse, changes of dimensions to magnetizing force was
similar in general character to the familiar elongation curves,
but the signs were reversed; the curve was inverted, indicating
at first retraction, which, after passing a maximum and vanish-
ing in a critical field, was succeeded by elongation. The curve
showing the circumferential (or longitudinal) changes was
also plotted, and from the two curves thus obtained it was
easy, on the assumption that the metal was isotropic in direc-
tions at right angles to the magnetization, to calculate changes
of volume; for if circumferential elongation be denoted by
/i, and transverse elongation by k, then the cubical dilatation
(+ or-)=/i + 2/2 approximately. If /t were exactly equal to
- 2/2 for all values of the magnetizing force, it is clear that the
volume of the ring would be unaffected by magnetization.
In the case of the ring in question, the circumferential changes
were in weak fields less than twice as great as the transverse
ones, while in strong fields they were more than twice as great ;
under increasing magnetic force therefore the volume of the
ring was first diminished, then it regained its original value
(for H = 9o), and ultimately increased. It was also shown
that annealing, which has such a large effect upon circum-
ferential (or longitudinal) changes, has almost none upon
transverse ones. Hence the changes of volume undergone by
a given sample of wrought iron under increasing magnetization
must depend largely upon the state of the metal as regards
hardness; there may be always contraction, or always expan-
sion, or first one and then the other.

Most of the experiments described above have been repeated
and the results confirmed by other workers, some of whom
have added fresh observations. The complicated hysteresis
effects which attend magnetic elongation and retraction have
been studied by H. Nagaoka, who also, in conjunction with
K. Honda, measured the changes of length of various metals
shaped in the form of ovoids instead of cylindrical rods, and
determined the magnetization curves for the same specimens;
a higher degree of accuracy was thus attained, and satis-
factory data were provided for testing theories. Among
other things, it was found that the behaviour of cast cobalt
was entirely changed by annealing; the sinuous curve shown
in Fig. 24 was converted into an almost perfectly straight
line passing through the origin, and lying below the horizontal
axis; while the permeability of the metal was greatly dimin-
ished by the operation. They also tested several varieties
of nickel-steel in the form of both ovoids and wires. With a
sample containing 25% of nickel no appreciable change was
detected; others containing larger percentages, and tested in
fields up to 2000, all exhibited elongation, which tended to
an asymptotic value as the field was increased. The influence
of temperature varying between wide limits has formed the
subject of a research by K. Honda and S. Shimizu. For soft
iron, tungsten-steel and nickel little difference appeared to
result from lowering the temperature down to - 186° C. (the
temperature of liquid air); at sufficiently high temperatures,
600° to 1000° or more, it was remarked that the changes of
length in iron, steel and cobalt tended in every case to become
proportional to the magnetic force, the curves being nearly
straight lines entirely above the axis. The retraction of nickel
was diminished by rising temperature, and at 400° had almost
vanished. The influence of high temperature on cobalt was
very remarkable, completely altering the character of the
change of length: the curves for annealed cobalt show that
at 450° this metal behaves just like iron at ordinary tempera-
tures, lengthening in fields up to about 300 and contracting
in stronger ones. The same physicists have made some addi-
tional experiments upon the effect of tension on magnetic
change of length. Bidwell's results for iron and nickel were
confirmed, and it was further shown that the elongation of
nickel-steel was very greatly diminished by tension; when
J Joule believed that the volume was unchanged.

340

MAGNETISM

[STRESS AND MAGNETIZATION

magnetized under very heavy loads, the wire was indeed found
to undergo slight contraction. Honda subjected tubes of
iron, steel and nickel to the simultaneous action of circular
and longitudinal fields, and observed the changes of length
when one of the fields was varied while the other remained
constant at different successive values from zero upwards.
The experimental results agreed in sign though not in magnitude
with those calculated from the changes produced by simple
longitudinal magnetization, discrepancies being partly accounted
for by the fact that the metals employed were not actually
isotropic. Heusler's alloy has been tested for change of length
by L. Austin, who found continuous elongation with increasing
fields, the curves obtained bearing some resemblance to curves
of magnetization.

As regards the effect of magnetization upon volume there
are some discrepancies. Nagaoka and Honda, who employed
a fluid dilatometer, found that the volume of several specimens
of iron, steel and nickel was always slightly increased, no
diminution being indicated in low fields; cobalt, on the other
hand, was diminished in volume, and the amount of the change,
though still very small, was greater than that shown by the
other metals. Various nickel-steels all expanded under magnet-
ization, the increase being generally considerable and propor-
tional to the field; in the case of an alloy containing 29% of
nickel the change was nearly 40 times greater than in soft iron.
C. G. Knott, who made an exhaustive series of experiments
upon various metals in the form of tubes, concluded that in
iron there was always a slight increase of volume, and in nickel
and cobalt a slight decrease. It is uncertain how far these
various results are dependent upon the physical condition of
the metals.

Attempts have been made to explain magnetic deformation by
various theories of magnetic stress,1 notably that elaborated by
G. R. Kirchhoff (Wied. Ann., 1885, 24, 52, and 1885, 25, 601), but
so far with imperfect success. E. Taylor Jones showed in 1897 that
only a small proportion of the contraction exhibited by a nickel
wire when magnetized could be accounted for on Kirchhoff's
theory from the observed effects of pulling stress upon magnetiza-
tion; and in a more extended series of observations Nagaoka and
Honda found wide quantitative divergences between the results
of experiment and calculation, though in nearly all cases there was
agreement as to quality. .They consider, however, that Kirchhoff's
theory, which assumes change of magnetization to be simply pro-
portional to strain, is still in its infancy, the present stage of its
evolution being perhaps comparable with that reached by the theory
of magnetization at the time when the ratio I/H was supposed to be
constant. In the light of future researches further development
may reasonably be expected.

It has been suggested2 that an iron rod under magnetization may
be in the same condition as if under a mechanically applied .longitu-
dinal stress tending to shorten the iron. If a long magnetized rod
is divided transversely and the cut ends placed nearly in contact,
the magnetic force inside the narrow air gap will be B = H+4irI.
The force acting on the magnetism of one of the faces, and urging
this face towards the other, will be less than B by 2irl, the part of
the total force due to the first face itself; hence the force per unit
of area with which the faces would press against each other if in
contact is

The width of the gap may be diminished until it is no greater than
the distance between two neighbouring molecules, when it will
cease to be distinguishable, but, assuming the molecular theory of
magnetism to be true, the above statement will still hold good for
the intermolecular gap. The same pressure P will be exerted across
any imaginary section of a magnetized rod, the stress being sustained
by the intermolecular springs, whatever their physical nature may
be, to which the elasticity of the metal is due. The whole of the rod
will therefore be subject to a compressive longitudinal stress P,
the associated contraction R, expressed as a fraction of the original
length, being

R = p/M = (B'-H')/8)rM,

where M is Young's modulus. This was found to be insufficient to
account for the whole of the retraction exhibited by iron in strong
fields, but it was pointed out by L. T. More3 that R ought to be

1 For a discussion of theories of magnetic stress, with copious
references, see Nagaoka, Rap. du Congres International de Physique
(Paris, 1900), ii. 545. Also Nagaoka and Jones, Phil. Mag., 1896, 41,

454-

SS. Bidwell, Phil. Trans., 1888, 1793, 321.
' Phil. Mag., 1895, 40, 345.

regarded as a " correction " to be applied to the results of experi-
ments on magnetic change of length, the magnetic stress being no
less an extraneous effect than a stress applied mechanically. Those
who support this view generally speak of the stress as " Maxwell's
stress," and assume its value to be B2/8ir. The stress in question
seems, however, to be quite unconnected with the " stress in the
medium " contemplated by Maxwell, and its value is not exactly
B2/8?r except in the particular case of a permanent ring magnet,
when H =O. Further, Maxwell's stress is a tension along the lines
of force, and is equal to B2/8jr only when B = H, and there is no
magnetization.4 Some writers have indeed contended that the
stress in magnetized iron is not compressive, but tensile, even when,
as in the case of a ring-magnet, there are no free ends. The point
at issue has an important bearing upon the possible correlation of
magnetic phenomena, but, though it has given rise to much dis-
cussion, no accepted conclusion has yet been reached.6

7. EFFECTS OF MECHANICAL STRESS UPON MAGNETIZATION

The effects of traction, compression and torsion in relation
to magnetism have formed the subject of much patient investi-
gation, especially at the hands of J. A. Ewing, C. G. Knott
and the indefatigable physicists of Tokyo University. The
results of their experiments embrace a multiplicity of details
of which it is impossible to give an adequate summary. Only
a few of the most important can be mentioned here; the reader
who wishes for fuller information should consult the original
papers.6

It was first discovered by E. Villari in 1868 that the magnetic
susceptibility of an iron wire was increased by stretching when
the magnetization was below a certain value, but diminished
when that value was exceeded; this phenomenon has been
termed by Lord Kelvin, who discovered it independently,
the " Villari reversal," the value of the magnetization for
which stretching by a given load produces no effect being
known as the " Villari critical point " for that load. The
Villari critical point for a given sample of iron is reached with
a smaller magnetizing force when the stretching load is great
than when it is small; the reversal also occurs with smaller
loads and with weaker fields when the iron is soft than when
it is hard. The following table shows the values of I and H
corresponding to the Villari critical point in some of Ewing's
experiments: —

Soft Iron.

Hard Iron.

Kilos per sq. mm.

I.

H.

Kilos per sq. mm.

I.

H.

2-15

ft

12-9

1 220
1040
840
690

7-3
4'3
3-4
3-05

27-6
32-2
37-3
42-5

1180
1150
mo
1 020

34
32
29

25

The effects of pulling stress may be observed either when
the wire is stretched by a constant load while the magnetizing
force is varied, or when the magnetizing force is kept constant
while the load is varied. In the latter case the first appli-
cation of stress is always attended by an increase — often a
very great one — of the magnetization, whether the field is
weak or strong, but after a load has been put on and taken
off several times the changes of magnetization become cyclic.
From experiments of both classes it appears that for a given
field there is a certain value of the load for which the magnet-
ization is a maximum, the maximum occuring at a smaller
load the stronger the field. In very strong fields the maximum
may even disappear altogether, the effect of the smallest stress

4 J. C. Maxwell, Treatise, § 643.

6 See correspondence in Nature, 1896, 53, pp. 269, 316, 365, 462,533 ;
1906, 74, pp. 317, 539; B. B. Brackett, loc. cit., quotes the opinion
of H. A. Rowland in support of compressive stress.

' J. A. Ewing, Phil. Trans., 1885, 176, 580; 1888, 179, 333; Mag-
netic Induction, 1900, ch. ix. ; J. A. Ewing and G. C. Cowan, Phil.
Trans., 1888, 1793, 325 ; C. G. Knott, Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1882-1883,
32, 193; 1889, 35, 377; 1891, 36, 485; Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1899,
586; H. Nagaoka, Phil. Mag., 1889, 27, 117; 1890, 29, 123 ;H. Nagaoka
and K. Honda, Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1900, 13, 263; 1902, 16, art.
8 ; Phil. Mag., 1898, 46, 261 ; 1902, 4, 45 ; K. Honda and S. Shimizu,
Ann. d. Phys., 1904, 14, 791; Tokyo Physico-Math. Soc. Rep., 1904,
2, No. 13 ; K. Honda and T. Terada, Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1906, 21,
art. 4.

STRESS AND MAGNETIZATION]

MAGNETISM

being to diminish the magnetization; on the other hand, with
very weak fields the maximum may not have been reached
with the greatest load that the wire can support without per-
manent deformation. When the load on a hardened wire
is gradually increased, the maximum value of I is found to
correspond with a greater stress than when the load is gradually
diminished, this being an effect of hysteresis. Analogous changes
are observed in the residual magnetization which remains after
the wire has been subjected to fields of different strength. The
effects of longitudinal pressure are opposite to those of traction;
when the cyclic condition has been reached, pressure reduces the
magnetization of iron in weak fields and increases it in strong
fields (Ewing, Magnetic Induction, 1900, 223).

The influence of traction in diminishing the susceptibility
of nickel was first noticed by Kelvin (W. Thomson), and was
subsequently investigated by Ewing and Cowan. The latter
found the effect to be enormous, not only upon the induced
magnetization, but in a still greater degree upon the residual.
Even under so " moderate " a load as 33 kilogrammes per
square mm., the induced magnetization of a hard-drawn nickel
wire in a field of 60 fell from 386 to 72 units, while the residual
was reduced from about 280 to 10. Ewing has also examined
the effects produced by longitudinal compression upon the
susceptibility and retentiveness of nickel, and found, as was
to be expected, that both were greatly increased by pressure.
The maximum susceptibility of one of his bars rose from 5-6
to 29 under a stress of 19-8 kilos per square mm. There were
reasons for believing that no Villari reversal would be found
in nickel. Ewing and Cowan looked carefully for it, especially
in weak fields, but failed to discover anything of the kind.1
Some experiments by A. Heydweiller,2 which appeared to
indicate a reversal in weak fields (corresponding to 1=5, or
thereabouts), have been shown by Honda and Shimizu to be
vitiated by the fact that his specimen was not initially in a
magnetically neutral state; they found that when the applied
field had the same direction as that of the permanent magnet-
ization, Heydweiller's fallacious results were easily obtained;
but if the field were applied in the direction opposite to that
of the permanent magnetization, or if, as should rightly be
the case, there were no permanent magnetization at all, then
there was no indication of any Villari reversal. Thus a very
important question, which has given rise to some controversy,
appears to be now definitely settled.

The effects of longitudinal pressure upon the magnetization
of cast cobalt have been examined by C. Chree,3 and also
by J. A. Ewing.4 Chree's experiments were undertaken at
the suggestion of J. J. Thomson, who, from the results of
Bidwell's observations on the magnetic deformation of cobalt,
was led to expect that that metal would exhibit a reversal
opposite in character to the effect observed in iron. The
anticipated reversal was duly found by Chree, the critical point
corresponding, under the moderate stress employed, to a field
of about 1 20 units. Ewing's independent experiments showed
that the magnetization curve for a cobalt rod under a load of
16-2 kilogrammes per square mm. crossed the curve for the
same rod when not loaded at £[ = 53. Both observers noticed
analogous effects in the residual magnetization. The effect
of tension was subsequently studied by Nagaoka and Honda,
who in 1902 confirmed, mutatis mutandis, the results obtained
by Chree and Ewing for cast cobalt, while for annealed cobalt
it turned out that tension always caused diminution of magnet-
ization, the diminution increasing with increasing fields. They
also investigated the magnetic behaviour of various nickel-
steels under tension, and found that there was always increase
of magnetization. Thus it has been proved that in annealed
cobalt and in nickel-steel there is no Villari reversal.

1 H. Tomlinson found a critical point in the " temporary magnet-
ization " of nickel (Proc. Phys. Soc., 1890, 10, 367, 445), but this
does not correspond to a Villari reversal. Its nature is made clear
by Ewing and Cowan's curves (Phil. Trans., 1888, 179, plates 15, 16).
Wied. Ann., 1894, 52, 462; Electrician, 1894, 34, 143.

5 Phil. Trans., 1890, 131, 329.

4 Magnetic Induction, 1900, 222.

It has been pointed out by J. J. Thomson (Applications of
Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry, 47) that on dynamical
principles there must be a reciprocal relation between the
changes of dimensions produced by magnetization and the
changes of magnetization attending mechanical strain. Since,
for example, stretching diminishes the magnetization of nickel,
it follows from theory that the length of a nickel rod should be
diminished by magnetization and conversely. So, too, the
Villari reversals in iron and cobalt might have been predicted
— as indeed that in cobalt actually was — from a knowledge
of the changes of length which those metals exhibit when
magnetized.

The complete reciprocity of the effects of magnetization
upon length and of stretching upon magnetization is shown by
the following parallel statements: —

Iron.

Magnetization produces in- Tension produces increase of
crease of length in weak fields, magnetization in weak fields,
decrease in strong fields. decrease in strong fields.

Cast Cobalt.

Magnetization produces de- Tension produces decrease of
crease of length in weak fields, magnetization in weak fields,
increase in strong fields. increase in strong fields.

Nickel and Annealed Cobalt.

Magnetization produces de- Tension produces decrease of
crease of length in all fields. magnetization in all fields.

Nickel-Steel.

Magnetization produces in- Tension produces increase of
crease of length in all fields. magnetization in all fields.

Nagaoka and Honda (Phil. Mag., 1898, 46, 261) have investigated
the effects of hydrostatic pressure upon magnetization, using the
same pieces of iron and nickel as were employed in their experiments
upon magnetic change of volume. In the iron cylinder and ovoid,
which expanded when magnetized, compression caused a diminution
of magnetization; in the nickel rod, which contracted when magnet-
ized, pressure was attended by an increase of magnetization. The
amount of the change was in both cases exceedingly small, that in
iron being less than o-i C.G.S. unit with a pressure of 250 atmo-
spheres and H = 54. It would hardly be safe to generalize from these
observations; the effects may possibly be dependent upon the
physical condition of the metals. In the same paper Nagaoka and
Honda describe an important experiment on the effect of transverse
stress. An iron tube, having its ends closed by brass caps, was placed
inside a compressing vessel into which water was forced until the
pressure upon the outer surface of the tube reached 250 atmospheres.
The experiment was the reverse of one made by Kelvin with a gun-
barrel subjected to internal hydrostatic pressure (Phil. Trans., 1878,
152, 64), and the results were also the reverse. Under increasing
magnetizing force the magnetization first increased, reached a maxi-
mum, and then diminished until its value ultimately became less
than when the iron was in the unstrained condition. Experiments
on the effect of external hydrostatic pressure upon the magnetization
of iron rings have also been made by F. Frisbie,6 who found that for
the magnetizing forces used by Nagaoka and Honda pressure pro-
duced a small increase of magnetization, a result which appears to
be in accord with theory.

The relations of torsion to magnetization were first carefully
studied by G. Wiedemann, whose researches are described in
his Elektricital, iii. 671. The most interesting of his dis-
coveries, now generally known as the " Wiedemann effect," is
the following: If we magnetize longitudinally a straight wire
which is fixed at one end and free at the other, and then pass
an electric current through the wire (or first pass the current
and then magnetize), the free end of the wire will twist in a
certain direction depending upon circumstances: if the wire is
of iron, and is magnetized (with a moderate force) so that its
free end has north polarity, while the current through it passes
from the fixed to the free end, then the free end as seen from
the fixed end will twist in the direction of the hands of a watch;
if either the magnetization or the current is reversed, the direc-
tion of the twist will be reversed. To this mechanical pheno-
menon there is a magnetic reciprocal. If we twist the free end
of a ferromagnetic wire while a current is passing through it,
the wire becomes longitudinally magnetized, the direction of
the magnetization depending upon circumstances: if the wire
is of iron and is twisted so that its free end as seen from the
fixed end turns in the direction of the hands of a watch, while
1 Phys. Rev., 1904, 18, 432.

342

MAGNETISM [TEMPERATURE AND MAGNETIZATION

the current passes from the fixed to the free end, then the direc-
tion of the resulting magnetization will be such as to make the
free end a north pole. The twist effect exhibited by iron under
moderate longitudinal magnetization has been called by Knott
a positive Wiedemann effect; if the twist were reversed, the other
conditions remaining the same, the sign of the Wiedemann effect
would be negative. An explanation of the twist has been given
by Maxwell (Electricity and Magnetism, § 448). The wire is
subject to two superposed magnetizations, the one longitudinal,
the other circular, due to the current traversing the wire; the
resultant magnetization is consequently in the direction of a
screw or spiral round the wire, which will be right-handed or
left-handed according as the relation between the two magnet-
izations is right-handed or left-handed; the magnetic expansion
or contraction of the metal along the spiral lines of magnetization
produces the Wiedemann twist. Iron (moderately magnetized)
expands along the lines of magnetization, and therefore for a
right-handed spiral exhibits a right-handed twist. This explana-
tion was not accepted by Wiedemann,1 who thought that the
effect was accounted for by molecular friction. Now nickel
contracts instead of lengthening when it is magnetized, and an
experiment by Knott showed, as he expected, that caeteris
paribus a nickel wire twists in a sense opposite to that in which
iron twists. The Wiedemann effect being positive for iron is
negative for nickel. Further, although iron lengthens in fields
of moderate strength, it contracts in strong ones; and if the wire
is stretched, contraction occurs with smaller magnetizing forces
than if it is unstretched. Bidwell2 accordingly found upon trial
that the Wiedemann twist of an iron wire vanished when the
magnetizing force reached a certain high value, and was
reversed when that value was exceeded; he also found that the
vanishing point was reached with lower values of the magnet-
izing force when the wire was stretched by a weight. These
observations have been verified and extended by Knott, whose
researches have brought to light a large number of additional
facts, all of which are in perfect harmony with Maxwell's
explanation of the twist.

Maxwell has also given an explanation of the converse effect,
namely, the production of longitudinal magnetization by twisting
a wire when circularly magnetized by a current passing through
it. When the wire is free from twist, the magnetization at any
point P is in the tangential direction PB (see fig. 26).
Suppose the wire to be fixed at the top and twisted
at the bottom in the direction of the arrow-head T;
then the element of the wire at P will be stretched
in the direction Pe and compressed in the direction
Pr. But tension and compression produce opposite
changes in the magnetic susceptibility; if the metal
is iron and its magnetization is below the Villari
critical point, its susceptibility will be greater along
Pe than along Pr; the direction of the magnetiza-
FIG. 26. ti°n therefore tends to approach Pe and to recede
from Pr, changing, in consequence of the twist,
from PB to some such direction as PB', which has a vertical
component downwards; hence the lower and upper ends will
respectively acquire north and south polarity, which will dis-
appear when the wire is untwisted. This effect has never been
actually reversed in iron, probably, as suggested by Ewing,
because the strongest practicable circular fields fail to raise the
components of the magnetization along Pe and Pr up to the
Villari critical value. Nagaoka and Honda have approached
very closely to a reversal, and consider that it would occur if
a sufficiently strong current could be applied without undue
heating.

One other effect of torsion remains to be noticed. If a longi-
tudinally magnetized wire is twisted, circular magnetization is
developed; this is evidenced by the transient electromotive force
induced in the iron, generating a current which will deflect a
galvanometer connected with the two ends of the wire. The
explanation given of the last described phenomenon will with
the necessary modification apply also to this; it is a consequence
1 Phil. Mag., 1886, 22, 50. * Ibid. 251.

of the aeolotropy produced by the twist. There are then three
remarkable effects of torsion:

A. A wire magnetized longitudinally and circularly becomes

twisted.

B. Twisting a circularly magnetized wire produces longi-

tudinal magnetization.

C. Twisting a longitudinally magnetized wire produces circu-

lar magnetization.
And it has been shown earlier that —

D. Magnetization produces change of length.

E. Longitudinal stress produces change of magnetization.
Each of these five effects may occur in two opposite senses.
Thus in A the twist may be right-handed or left-handed; in B
the polarity of a given end may become north or south; in C the
circular magnetization may be clockwise or counter-clockwise;
in D the length may be increased or diminished ; in E the mag-
netization may become stronger or weaker. And, other condi-
tions remaining unchanged, the " sense " of any effect depends
upon the nature of the metal under test, and (sometimes) upon
the intensity of its magnetization. Let each of the effects
A, B, C, D and E be called positive when it is such as is exhibited
by moderately magnetized iron, and negative when its sense is
opposite. Then the results of a large number of investigations
may be briefly summarized as follows:

(W) = weakly magnetized.

Metal.
Iron(W) ....
Unannealed Cobalt (S)
Nickel-Steel (W) .
Nickel ....
Annealed Cobalt .
Iron(S) . . .

Unannealed Cobalt

Effects.

A, B, C, D, E
A,
A,
A, B, C,

(S) = strongly magnetized.
Sign.

A,
A,

D, E
D, E
D, E
D.E
D, E
D, E

Several gaps remain to be filled, but the results so far recorded
can leave no doubt that the five effects, varied as they may at
first sight appear, are intimately connected with one another.
For each of the metals tabulated in the first column all the effects
hitherto observed have the same sign; there is no single instance
in which some are positive and others negative. Until the
mysteries of molecular constitution have been more fully ex-
plored, perhaps D may be most properly regarded as the funda-
mental phenomenon from which the others follow. Nagaoka
and Honda have succeeded in showing that the observed
relations between twist and magnetization are in qualitative
agreement with an extension of Kirchhoff's theory of magneto-
striction.

The effects of magnetization upon the torsion of a previously
twisted wire, which were first noticed by Wiedemann, have been
further studied by F. J. Smith3 and by G. Moreau.4 Nagaoka6 has
described the remarkable influence of combined torsion and tension
upon the magnetic susceptibility of nickel, and has made the extra-
ordinary observation that, under certain conditions of stress, the
magnetization of a nickel wire may have a direction opposite to that
of the magnetizing force.

8. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE UPON MAGNETISM

High Temperature. — It has long been known that iron, when
raised to a certain " critical temperature " corresponding to dull
red heat, loses its susceptibility and becomes magnetically
indifferent, or, more accurately, is transformed from a ferro-
magnetic into a paramagnetic body. Recent researches have
shown that other imporant changes in its properties occur at
the same critical temperature. Abrupt alterations take place
in its density, specific heat, thermo-electric quality, electrical
conductivity, temperature-coefficient of electrical resistance, and
in some at least of its mechanical properties. Ordinary magnet-
izable iron is in many respects an essentially different substance
from the non-magnetizable metal into which it is transformed
when its temperature is raised above a certain point (see Brit.
Assoc. Report, 1890, 145). The first exact experiments demon-
strating the changes which occur in the permeability of iron,

•Phil. Mag., 1891,32,383.

4 C.R., 1896, 122, 1192; 1898, 126, 463.

• Phil. Mag., 1889, 27, 117.

TEMPERATURE AND MAGNETIZATION] MAGNETISM

343

steel and nickel when heated up to high temperatures were
those of J. Hopkinson (Phil. Trans., 1889, 180, 443; Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1888, 44, 317). The metal to be tested was prepared
in the form of a ring, upon which were wound primary and
secondary coils of copper wire insulated with asbestos. The
primary coil carried the magnetizing current; the secondary,
which was wound inside the other, could be connected either with
a ballistic galvanometer for determining the induction, or with
a Wheatstone's bridge for measuring the resistance, whence the
temperature was calculated. The ring thus prepared was placed
in a cast-iron box and heated in a gas furnace. The following
are the chief results of Hopkinson's experiments: For small
magnetizing forces the magnetization of iron steadily increases
with rise of temperature till the critical temperature is ap-
proached, when the rate of increase becomes very high, the
permeability in some cases attaining a value of about 11,000;
the magnetization then with remarkable suddenness almost
entirely disappears, the permeability falling to about 1-14. For
strong magnetizing forces (which in these experiments did not
exceed H = 48-9) the permeability remains almost constant at its
initial value (about 400), until the temperature is within nearly
100° of the critical point; then the permeability diminishes more
and more rapidly until the critical point is reached and the
magnetization vanishes. Steel behaves in a similar manner,
but the maximum permeability is not so high as in iron, and
the fall, when the critical point is approached, is less abrupt.
The critical temperature for various samples of iron arid steel
ranges from 690° C. to 870° C.; it is the temperature at which
Barrett's " recalescence " occurs. The critical temperature for
the specimen of nickel examined (which contained nearly 5%
of impurities) was 310° C. F. Lydall and A. W. Pocklington
found that the critical temperature of nearly pure iroa was
874° C. (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1893, 52, 228).

An exhaustive research into the effects of heating on the
magnetic properties of iron has been carried out by D. K. Morris
(Proc. Phys. Soc., 1897, 15, 134; and Phil. Mag., 1897, 44, 213),
the results being embodied in a paper containing twelve pages
of tables and upwards of 120 curves. As in Hopkinson's experi-
ments, ring magnets were employed; these were wound with pri-
mary and secondary coils of insulated platinum wire, which would
bear a much higher temperature than copper without oxidation
or fusion. A third platinum coil, wound non-inductively between
the primary and the secondary, served to carry the current by
which the ring was heated; a current of 4-6 amperes, with 16
volts across the terminals, was found sufficient to maintain the
ring at a temperature of 1 1 50° C. In the ring itself was embedded
a platinum-thermometer wire, from the resistance of which the
temperature was determined. The whole was wrapped in several
coverings of asbestos and placed in a glass vessel from which
the air was partially exhausted, additional precautions being
taken to guard against oxidation of the iron.

Some preliminary experiments showed the striking difference in
the effects of annealing at a red heat (840° C.) and at a low white

heat (H50°C.). After
one of the rings had
been annealed at 840°,
its maximum permea-
bility at ordinary tem-
peratures was 4000 for
H = 1-84; when it had
been subsequently an-
nealed at 1150°, the
maximum permea-
bility rose to .3.680 for
H = i-48, while the
hysteresis loss for
B= ±4000 was under
500 ergs per c.cm. As
regards the effects of

pIG 2- temperature, Morris's

results are in general

agreement with those of Hopkinson, though no doubt they indicate
details with greater clearness and accuracy. Specimens of curves show-
ing the relation of induction to magnetic field at various temperatures,
and of permeability to temperature with fields of different intensities,
are given in figs. 27 and 28. The most striking feature presented
by these is the enormous value, 12,660, which, with H =0-153, >s

attained by the permeability at 765° C., followed by a drop so pre-
cipitous that when the temperature is only 15° higher, the value
of the permeability has become quite insignificant. The critical
temperatures for three different specimens of iron were 795°,
780 , and 770° respectively. Above these temperatures the little
permeability that remained was found to be independent of the
magnetizing force, but it ^
appeared to vary a little HPOO<-
with the temperature,
one specimen showing a
permeability of 100 at uf<x>
820°, 2-3 at 950°, and
17 at 1050°. These last
observations are, how-
ever, regarded as uncer-
tain. The effects of tem-
perature upon hysteresis
were also carefully
studied, and many
hysteresis loops were
plotted. The results of
a typical experiment are
given in the annexed
table, which shows how
greatly the hysteresis
loss is diminished as the
critical temperature is
approached. The coer-
cive force at 764°-5 is
stated to have been little
more than o-l C.G.S.

apoo

o'C

FIG. 28.

unit ; above the critical temperature no evidence of hysteresis could
be obtained.

Hysteresis Loss in Ergs per c.cm. Max. H. = ±6-83.

Temp. C.°

764-
748

73°
695
634
554

Ergs.

120

328
426

797
1010

1345

Temp. C.°
457
352
249

137-5
24

Ergs
2025
2565

3500
3660

A paper by H. Nagaoka and S. Kusakabe ' generally confirms
Morris's results for iron, and gives some additional observations for
steel, nickel and cobalt. The magnetometric method was employed,
and the metals, in the form of ovoids, were heated by a specially
designed burner, fed with gas and air under pressure, which directed
90 fine jets of flame upon the asbestos covering the ovoid. The
temperature was determined by a platinum-rhodium and platinum
thermo-j unction in contact with the metal. Experiments were made
at several constant temperatures with varying magnetic fields, and
also at constant fields with rising and falling temperatures. For
ordinary steel the critical temperature, at which magnetization
practically disappeared, was found to be about 830°, and the curious
fact was revealed that, on cooling, magnetization did not begin to
reappear until the temperature had fallen 40° below the critical
value. This retardation was still more pronounced in the case of
tungsten-steel, which lost its magnetism at 910° and remained non-
magnetic till it was cooled to 570°, a difference of 240°. For nearly
pure nickel the corresponding temperature-difference was about
100°. This phenomenon is of the same nature as that first dis-
covered by J. Hopkinson for nickel-steel. The paper contains tables
and curves showing details of the magnetic changes, sometimes very
complex, at different temperatures and with different fields. The
behaviour of cobalt is particularly noticeable; its permeability
increased with rising temperature up to a maximum at 500°, when it
was about twice as great as at ordinary temperatures, while at 1600°,
corresponding to white heat, there was still some magnetization
remaining.

Further contributions to the subject have been made by K. Honda
and S. Shimizu,1 who experimented at temperatures ranging from
— 186° to 1200°. As regards the higher temperatures, the chief point
of interest is the observation that the curve of magnetization for
annealed cobalt shows a small depression at about 450 , the tempera-
ture at which they had found the sign of the length-change to be
reversed for all fields. In the case pfall the metals tested a small
but measurable trace of magnetization remained after the so-called
critical temperature had been exceeded ; this decreased very slightly
up to the highest temperature reached (1200°) without undergoing
any such variation as had been suspected by Morris. When the
curve after its steep descent has almost reached the axis, it bends
aside sharply and becomes a nearly horizontal straight line; the
authors suggest that the critical temperature should be defined as
that corresponding to the point of maximum curvature. As thus
defined the critical temperatures for iron, nickel and cobalt were

1 Journ. Coll. Set. Tokyo, 1904, 19, art. 9.

'Phil. Uag., 1905, 10, 548; Tokyo Phys.-Math. Soc. Rep., 1904,
2, No. 14; Journ. Coll. Set. Tokyo, 1905, 20, art. 6.

344

MAGNETISM [TEMPERATURE AND MAGNETIZATION

found to be 780°, 360° and 1090° respectively, but these values are
not quite independent of the magnetizing force.

Experiments on the effect of high temperatures have also been
made by M. P. Ledeboer,1 H. Tomlinson,2 P. Curie,3 and W. Kunz,4
R. L. Wills,6 J. R. Ashworth6 and E. P. Harrison.'

Low Temperature. — J. A. Fleming and J. Dewar (Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1896, 60, 81) were the first to experiment on the permeability
and hysteresis of iron at low temperatures down to that of liquid
air (-186° C.). Induction curves of an annealed soft-iron ring
were taken first at a temperature of 15° C., and afterwards when
the ring was immersed in liquid air, the magnetizing force
ranging from about o'8 to 22. After this operation had been
repeated a few times the iron was found to have acquired
a stable condition, and the curves corresponding to the two
temperatures became perfectly definite. They showed that
the permeability of this sample of iron was considerably dimin-
ished at the lower temperature. The maximum permeability
(for H =2) was 3400 at 15° and only 2700 at -186°, a reduction
of more than 20%; but the percentage reduction became less
as the magnetizing force departed from the value corresponding
to maximum permeability. Observations were also made of
the changes of permeability which took place as the temperature
of the sample slowly rose from -186° to 15°, the magnetizing
force being kept constant throughout an experiment. The
values of the permeability corresponding to the highest and
lowest temperatures are given in the following table. Most
of the permeability-temperature curves were more or less convex

Sample of Iron.

H.

V- at 15°.

Mat— 1 86°.

Annealed Swedish

1-77

2835

2332

Unannealed „

1-78

917

1272

II II

979

1210

1293

Hardened „

2-66

56

132

,, i)

4-92

106-5

502

ii ,,

11-16

447-5

823

n a

127-7

109

124

Steel wire .

7-50

86

64-5

„ . .

20-39

36i

144

towards the axis of temperature, and in all the experiments,
except those with annealed iron and steel wire, the permeability
was greatest at the lowest temperature.8 The hysteresis of
the soft annealed iron turned out to be sensibly the same for
equal values of the induction at -186° as at 15°, the loss in ergs
per c.cm. per cycle being approximately represented by -0-002 B1'66
when the maximum limits of B were + 9000. Experiments
with the sample of unannealed iron failed to give satisfactory
results, owing to the fact that no constant magnetic condition
could be obtained.

Honda and Shimizu have made similar experiments at the tempera-
ture of liquid air, employing a much wider range of magnetizing
forces (up to about 700 C.G.S.) and testing a greater variety of metals.
They found that the permeability of Swedish iron, tungsten-steel
and nickel, when the metals were cooled to —186°, was diminished
in weak fields but increased in strong ones, the field in which the
effect of cooling changed its sign being 115 for iron and steel and
580 for nickel. The permeability of cobalt, both annealed and
unannealed, was always diminished at the low temperature. The
hysteresis-loss in Swedish iron was decreased for inductions below
about 9000 and increased for higher inductions; in tungsten-steel,
nickel and cobalt the hysteresis-loss was always increased by cooling.
The range of + B within which Steinmetz's formula is applicable
becomes notably increased at low temperature. It may be remarked
that, whereas Fleming and Dewar employed the ballistic method,
their specimens having the form of rings, Honda and Shimizu
worked magnetometrically with metals shaped as ovoids.

Permanent Magnets. — Fleming and Dewar (loc. cit. p. 57)
also investigated the changes which occurred in permanently

1 C.R., 1888, 106, 129.

'Proc. Phys. Soc., 1888, 9, 181.

3 C.R., 1892, 115, 805; 1894, 118, 796 and 859.

'Elekt. Zeits., 1894, 15, 194.

6 Phil. Mag., 1900, 50, i.

'Phil. Trans., 1903, 201, I.

''Phil. Mag., 1904, 8, 179.

• A. M. Thiessen (Phys., 1899, 8, 65) and G. Claude (C. R., 1899,
129, 409) found that for considerable inductions (8 = 15,000) the
permeability and hysteresis-loss remained nearly constant down to
— i 86°; for weak inductions both notably diminished with tempera-
ture.

magnetized metals when cooled to the temperature of liquid air.
The metals, which were prepared in the form of small rods, were
magnetized between the poles of an electromagnet and tested
with a magnetometer at temperatures of -186° and 15°. The
first immersion into liquid air generally produced a permanent
decrease of magnetic moment, and there was sometimes a
further decrease when the metal was warmed up again; but
after a few alternations of temperature the changes of moment
became definite and cyclic. When the permanent magnetic
condition had been thus established, it was found that in the
case of all the metals, except the two alloys containing large
percentages of nickel, the magnetic moment was temporarily
increased by cooling to -186°. The following table shows the
principal results. It is suggested that a permanent magnet
might conveniently be " aged " (or brought into a constant
condition) by dipping it several times into liquid air.

Metal.

Percentage Gain or Loss
of Moment at — 1 86° C.

First Effect.

Cyclic Effect.

Carbon steel, hard
,, „ medium
„ „ annealed
Chromium steels (four samples) .
Aluminium steels (three samples)
Nickel steels, up to 7-65 % ...

., 19-64% • • •
29% ....
Pure nickel

-6
Decrease

i ~33
Increase

— 2
Small
-50
— 20
Decrease

None
Decrease

i,

+ 12

+ 22

+33

+ 12
+ 10
+ 10

-25

— IO

+3

±4
+2-5

+ 10

+6

+ 10

+ 12

Silicon steel, 2-67%
Iron, soft

,, hard.

Tungsten steel, 15% .

-- - 7-5%
i%

Other experiments relating to the effect of temperature upon
permanent magnets have been carried out by J. R. Ashworth,'
who showed that the temperature coefficient of permanent magnets
might be reduced to zero (for moderate ranges of temperature)
by suitable adjustment of temper and dimension ratio; also by R.
Pictet,10 A. Durward11 and J. Trowbridge."

Alloys of Nickel and Iron. — A most remarkable effect of tem-
perature was discovered by Hopkinson (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 47,
23; 1891, 48, i) in 1889. An alloy containing about 3 parts of
iron and i of nickel — both strongly magnetic metals — is under
ordinary conditions practically non-magnetizable (n = i '4 for
any value of H). If, however, this non-magnetic substance is
cooled to a temperature a few degrees below freezing-point, it
becomes as strongly magnetic as average cast-iron ((1=62 for
H = 4o), and retains its magnetic properties indefinitely at ordi-
nary temperatures. But if the alloy is heated up to 580° C. it loses
its susceptibility — rather suddenly when H is weak, more gradu-
ally when H is strong — and remains non-magnetizable till it is
once more cooled down below the freezing-point. This material
can therefore exist in either of two perfectly stable conditions, in
one of which it is magnetizable, while in the other it is not. When
magnetizable it is a hard steel, having a specific electrical
resistance of 0-000052; when non-magnetizable it is an extremely
soft, mild steel, and its specific resistance is 0-000072. Alloys
containing different proportions of nickel were found to exhibit
the phenomenon, but the two critical temperatures were less
widely separated. The following approximate figures for small
magnetizing forces are deduced from Hopkinson's curves: —
Percentage of Susceptibility lost Susceptibility gained
Nickel. at temp. C. at temp. C.

0-97 890

4-7 820 660

4-7 780 600

24-5 680 -10

30-0 140 125

33-o 207 193

73-0 202 202

9 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1898, 62, 210.

" C.R., 1895, 120, 263.

11 Amer. Journ. Set., 1898, 5, 245.

a Phys. Rev., 1901, 14, 181.

ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS OF IRON]

MAGNETISM

345

Honda and Shimizu (loc. cit.) have determined the two critical tem-
peratures for eleven nickel-steel ovoids, containing from 24-04 to
70-32 % of nickel, under a magnetizing force of 400, and illustrated
by an interesting series of curves, the gradual transformation of
the magnetic properties as the percentage of nickel was decreased.
They found that the hysteresis-loss, which at ordinary temperatures
is very small, was increased in liquid air, the increase for the alloys
containing less than 30% of nickel being enormous. Steinmetz's
formula applies only for very weak inductions when the alloys are
at the ordinary temperature, but at the temperature of liquid air
it becomes applicable through a wide range of inductions. Accord-
ing to C. E. Guillaume1 the temperature at which the magnetic
susceptibility of nickel-steel is recovered is lowered by the presence
of chromium ; a certain alloy containing chromium was not rendered
magnetic even by immersion in liquid air. Experiments on the
subject have also been made by E. Dumont* and F. Osmond."

9. ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS or IRON

In 1885 Hopkinson (Phil. Trans., 1885, 176, 455) employed
his yoke method to test the magnetic properties of thirty-five
samples of iron and steel, among which were steels containing
substantial proportions of manganese, silicon, chromium and
tungsten. The results, together with the chemical analysis of
each sample, are given in a table contained in this paper, some
of them being also represented graphically. The most striking
phenomenon which they bring into prominence is the effect
of any considerable quantity of manganese in annihilating the
magnetic property of iron. A sample of Hadfield's manufacture,
containing 12-36% of manganese, differed hardly at all from
a non-magnetic substance, its permeability being only 1-27.
According to Hopkinson's calculation, this sample behaved as
if 91% of the iron contained in it had completely lost its mag-
netic property.4 Another point to which attention is directed
is the exceptionally great effect which hardening has upon the
magnetic properties of chrome steel; one specimen had a coercive
force of 9 when annealed, and of no less than 38 when oil-
hardened. The effect of the addition of tungsten in increasing
the coercive force is very clearly shown; in two specimens
containing respectively 3-44 and 2-35% of tungsten the coercive
force was 64-5 and 70-7. These high values render hardened
tungsten-steel particularly suitable for the manufacture of per-
manent magnets. Hopkinson (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 48, i) also
noticed some peculiarities of an unexpected nature in the
magnetic properties of the nickel-steel alloys already referred
to. The permeability of the alloys containing from i to 4-7%
of nickel, though less than that of good soft iron for magnetizing
forces up to about 20 or 30, was greater for higher forces, the
induction reached in a field of 240 being nearly 21,700. The
induction for considerable forces was found to be greater in a
steel containing 73% of nickel than in one with only 33%,
though the permeability of pure nickel is much less than that
of iron.

The magnetic qualities of various alloys of iron have been
submitted to a very complete examination by W. F. Barrett,
W. Brown and R. A. Hadfield (Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc., 1900, 7,
67; Journ. Inst. EJ.ec. Eng., 1902, 31, 674)." More than fifty
different specimens were tested, most of which contained a
known proportion of manganese, nickel, tungsten, aluminium,
chromium, copper or silicon; in some samples two of the sub-
stances named were present. Of the very numerous results
published, a few of the most characteristic are collected in the
following table. The first column contains the symbols of the
various elements which were added to the iron, and the second
the percentage proportion in which each element was present;
the sample containing 0-03% of carbon was a specimen of the
best commercial iron, the values obtained for it being given for
comparison. All the metals were annealed.

A few among several interesting points should be specially noticed.
The addition of 15-2% of manganese produced an enormous effect

J C.R., 1897, 124, 176 and 1515; 1897, 125, 235; 1898, 126, 738.

1 Ibid., 1898, 126, 741.

* Ibid., 1890, 128, 304 and 1395.

4 See also J. Hopkinson, Journ. Inst. Elect. Eng., 1890, 19, 20,
and J. A. Ewmg, Phil. Trans., 1889, 180, 239.

1 Many of the figures which, through an error, were inaccurately
stated in the first paper are corrected in the second.

upon the magnetism of iron, while the presence of only 2-25% was
comparatively unimportant. When nickel was added to the iron in
increasing quantities the coercive force increased until the proportion
of nickel reached 20%; then it diminished, and when the propor-
tion of nickel was 32 % the coercive force had fallen to the exceed-
ingly low value of 0-5. In the case of iron containing 7-5 % of tungsten

Element.

Per cent.

B
for H=45.

B
residual.

for H =8.

Coercive
Force.

C

0-03

16800

9770

1625

1-66

Cu

2-5

14300

10410

5-4

Mn

2-25

14720

10460

1080

6-0

Mn

15-2

o

Ni

3-82

16190

9320

1375

276

Ni

19-64

777°

4770

90

2O-O

Ni

3i-4

4460

1720

357

o-5

W

7-5

15230

13280

500

9-02

Al

2-25

16900

10500

1700

I-O

Cr

3-25

12-25

Si

2-5

16420

4080

1680

0-9

Si

5-5

15980

3430

1630

0-85

(W), the residual induction had a remarkably high value ; the coercive
force, however, was not very great. The addition of silicon in small
quantities considerably diminished permeability and increased coer-
cive force; but when the proportion amounted to 2-5 % the maximum
permeability (^ = 5100 for H =2) was greater than that of the nearly
pure iron used for comparison, while the coercive force was only
0-9.' A small percentage of aluminium produced still higher per-
meability (jt =6000 for H =2), the induction in fields up to 60 being
greater than in any other known substance, and the hysteresis-loss
for moderate limits of B far less than in the purest commercial iron.
Certain non-magnetizable alloys of nickel, chromium-nickel and
chromium-manganese were rendered magnetizable by annealing.

Later papers' give the results of a more minute examination of
those specimens which were remarkable for very low and very high
permeabilities, and were therefore likely to be of commercial im-
portance. The following table gives the exact composition of some
alloys which were found to be non-magnetizable, or nearly so, in
a field of 320.

An. = Annealed. Un. = Unannealed.

State.

Percentage Composition.

I, for H=32O.

Un.
An.
An.
Un.
Un.
An.

Fe, 85-77; C, 1-23; Mn, 13.
Fe, 84-64; C, 0-15; Mn, 15-2
Fe, 80-16; C,o-8;Mn, 5-04; Ni, 14-55.
Ditto
Fe. 75-36; C, 0-6; Mn, 5-04; Ni, 19.
Fe, 86-61 ;C, i-o8;Mn, 10-2; W, 2-11.

0

o
3

0

3

5

A very small difference in the constitution often produces a remark-
able effect upon the magnetic quality, and it unfortunately happeas
that those alloys which are hardest magnetically are generally also
hardest mechanically and extremely difficult to work; they might
however be used rolled or as castings. The specimens distinguished
by unusually high permeability were constituted as follows: —

Silicon-iron. — Fe, 97-3; C, 0-2; Si, 2-5.

Aluminium-iron. — Fe, 97-33; C, 0-18; Al, 2-25.
The silicon-iron had, in fields up to about 10, a greater permeability
than a sample of the best Swedish charcoal-iron, and its hysteresis-
loss for max. B =9000, at a frequency of 100 per second, was only
0-254 watt per pound, as compared with 0-382 for the Swedish iron.
The aluminium-iron attained its greatest permeability in a field
of 0-5, about that of the earth's force, when its value was 9000, this
being more than twice the maximum permeability of the Swedish
iron. Its hysteresis-loss for B =9000 was 0-236 per pound. It was,
however, found that the behaviour of this alloy was in part due to a
layer of pure iron (" ferrke ") averaging o-l mm. in thickness, which
occurred on the outside of the specimen, and the exceptional magnetic
quality which has been claimed for aluminium-iron cannot yet be
regarded as established.

A number of iron alloys have been examined by Mme. Curie
(Bull. Soc. d" Encouragement, 1898, pp. 36-76), chiefly with the
object of determining their suitability for the construction of
permanent magnets. Her tests appear to show that molybdenum
is even more effective than tungsten in augmenting the coercive
force, the highest values observed being 70 to 74 for tungsten-
steel, and 80 to 85 for steel containing 3-5 to 4% of molybdenum.
For additional information regarding the composition and
qualities of permanent magnet steels reference may be made

6 The marked effect of silicon in increasing the permeability of
cast iron has also been noticed by F. C. Caldwell, Elect. World, 1898,
32, 619.

7 Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc., 1902-4, 8, I and 123.

346

MAGNETISM [MAGNETIZATION: MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS

to the publications cited below.1 Useful instructions have
been furnished by Carl Barus (Terrestrial Magnetism, 1897,
2, n) for the preparation of magnets calculated to withstand
the effects of time, percussion and ordinary temperature varia-
tions. The metal, having first been uniformly tempered glass-
hard, should be annealed in steam at 100° C. for twenty or thirty
hours; it should then be magnetized to saturation, and finally
" aged " by a second immersion in steam for about five hours.

Magnetic Alloys of Non-Magnetic Metals. — The interesting
discovery was made by F. Heusler2 in 1903 that certain alloys
of the non-magnetic metal manganese with other non-magnetic
substances were strongly magnetizable, their susceptibility
being in some cases equal to that of cast iron. The metals
used in different combinations included tin, aluminium, arsenic,
antimony, bismuth and boron; each of these, when united in
certain proportions with manganese, together with a larger
quantity of copper (which appears to serve merely as a men-
struum), constituted a magnetizable alloy. So far, the best
results have been attained with aluminium, and the permeability
was greatest when the percentages of manganese and aluminium
were approximately proportional to the atomic weights of
the two metals. Thus in an alloy containing 26-5% of
manganese and 14-6% of aluminium, the rest being copper,
the induction for H=2O was 4500, and for H=iso, 5550.
When the proportion of aluminium to manganese was made
a little greater or smaller, the permeability was diminished.
Next to aluminium, tin was found to be the most effective of the
metals enumerated above. In all such magnetizable alloys the
presence of manganese appears to be essential, and there can
be little doubt that the magnetic quality of the mixtures is
derived solely from this component. Manganese, though belong-
ing (with chromium) to the iron group of metals, is commonly
classed as a paramagnetic, its susceptibility being very small in
comparison with that of the recognized ferromagnetics; but it
is remarkable that its atomic susceptibility in solutions of its
salts is even greater than that of iron. Now iron, nickel and
cobalt all lose their magnetic quality when heated above certain
critical temperatures which vary greatly for the three metals, and
it was suspected by Faraday3 as early as 1845 that manganese
might really be a ferromagnetic metal having a critical tempera-
ture much below the ordinary temperature of the air. He
therefore cooled a piece of the metal to — 105° C., the lowest
temperature then attainable, but failed to produce any change
in its magnetic quality. The critical temperature (if there is
one) was not reached in Faraday's experiment; possibly even the
temperature of -250° C., which by the use of liquid hydrogen
has now become accessible, might still be too high.4 But it
has been shown that the critical temperatures of iron and nickel
may be changed by the addition of certain other substances.
Generally they are lowered, sometimes, however, they are raised5;
and C. E. Guillaume6 explains the ferromagnetism of Heusler's
alloy by supposing that the naturally low critical temperature of
the manganese contained in it is greatly raised by the admixture
of another appropriate metal, such as aluminium or tin; thus
the alloy as a whole becomes magnetizable at the ordinary
temperature. If this view is correct, it may also be possible to
prepare magnetic alloys of chromium, the only other para-
magnetic metals of the iron group.

J. A. Fleming and R. A. Hadfield 7 have made very careful experi-
ments on an alloy containing 22-42% of manganese, 11-65% of

1 J. Trowbridge and S. Sheldon, Phil. Mag., 1890, 29, 136; W. H.
Preece, Journ. Insl. Elec. Eng., 1890, 19, 62; Electrician, 1890, 25,
546; I. Klemengig, Wien. Ber., 1896, 105, Ha, 635; B. O. Peirce,
Am. Journ. Sci., 1896, 2, 347; A. Abt, Wied. Ann., 1898, 66, 116;
F. Osmond, C. R., 1899, 128, 1513.

1 Deutsch. phys. Gesell. Verh., 1903, 5, 220 and 224.

* Exp. Res., lii. 440.

4 No record can be found of experiments with manganese at the
temperature of liquid air or hydrogen; probably, however, negative
results would not be published.

• The critical temperature of iron, for instance, is raised more than
IOO° by the addition of a little carbon and tungsten.

$ Bull. Soc. Int. des Electriciens, 1906, 6, 301.
7 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1905, 76A, 271.

aluminium and 60-49% of copper. The magnetization curve was
found to be of the same general form as that of a paramagnetic
metal, and gave indications that with a sufficient force magnetic
saturation would probably be attained. There was considerable
hysteresis, the energy-loss per cycle being fairly represented by
W=o-ooo5495B2'238. The hysteretic exponent is therefore much
higher than in the case of iron, nickel and cobalt, for which its
value is approximately 1-6.

10. MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS OF MAGNETIZATION
Electrical Conductivity. — The specific resistance of many
electric conductors is known to be temporarily changed by the
action of a magnetic field, but except in the case of bismuth
the effect is very small.

A. Gray and E. Taylor Jones (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1900, 67, 208) found
that the resistance of a soft iron wire was increased by about 1/700
in a field of 320 C.G.S. units. The effect appeared to be closely
connected with the intensity of magnetization, being approximately
proportional to I. G. Barlow (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1903, 71, 30), experi-
menting with wires of iron, steel and nickel, showed that in weak fields
the change of resistance was proportional to a function oI2+6I4-|-cI6,
where a, b and care constants for each specimen. W. E. Williams (Phil.
Mag., 1902, 4, 430) found that for nickel the curves showing changes
of resistance in relation to magnetizing force were strikingly similar
in form to those showing changes of length. H. Tomlinson (Phil.
Trans., 1883, Part I., 153) discovered in 1881 that the resistance of a
bismuth rod was slightly increased when the rod was subjected to
longitudinal magnetic force, and a year or two later A. Righi (Atti
R. A. Lincei, 1883-1884, 19, 545) showed that a more considerable
alteration was produced when the magnetic force was applied trans-
versely to the bismuth conductor; he also noticed that the effect
was largely dependent upon temperature (see also P. Lenard, Wied.
Ann., 1890, 39, 619). Among the most important experiments on
the influence of magnetic force at different temperatures are those
of J. B. Henderson and of Dewar and Fleming. Henderson (Phil.
Mag., 1894, 38> 488) used a l'ttle sP'ral °f tne Pure electrolytic
bismuth wire prepared by Hartmann and Braun; this was placed
between the pole-pieces of an electromagnet and subjected to fields
of various strengths up to nearly 39,000 units. At constant tempera-
ture the resistance increased with the field ; the changes in the resist-
ance of the spiral when the temperature was 18° C. are indicated in
the annexed table, from which it will be seen that in the strongest

H.

o

6310
12500
20450

R.

I-OOO

1-253
1-630
2-160

H.

27450
32730
38900

R.

2-540
2-846

3-334

transverse field reached the resistance was increased more than
threefold. Other experiments showed the relation of resistance
to temperature (from o° to about 90°) in different constant fields.
It appears that as the temperature rises the resistance decreases to
a minimum and then increases, the minimum point occurring at
a higher temperature the stronger the field. For H = 11,500 the
temperature of minimum resistance was about 50°; for much lower
or higher values of H the actual minimum did not occur within the
range of temperature dealt with. Dewar and Fleming (Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1897, 60, 425) worked with a similar specimen of bismuth,
and their results for a constant temperature of 19° agree well with
those of Henderson. They also experimented with constant tem-
peratures of —79°, —185° and —203°, and found that at these low
temperatures the effect of magnetization was enormously increased.
The following table gives some of their results, the specific resistance
of the bismuth being expressed in C.G.S. units.

Field
Strength.

Temp. 19° C.

Temp.-i85° C.

Spec. Res.

Comp. Res.

Spec. Res.

Comp. Res.

o

1375
2750
8800
14150
21800

116200
118200
123000
149200
186200
257000

•000

•017

•059
•284
•602

2-212

41000
103300
191500
738000
1730000
6190000

I-OO

2-52
4-67
18-0
42-2
151

At the temperature of liquid air ( — 185°) the application of a field
of 21,800 multiplied the resistance of the bismuth no less than ISO-
times. Fig. 29 shows the variations of resistance in relation to
temperature for fields of different constant values. It will be seen
that for H=2450 and H=5soo the minimum resistance occurs at
temperatures of about —80 and —7° respectively.

Hall Efect. — If an electric current is passed along a strip
of thin metal, and the two points at opposite ends of an equi-
potential line are connected with a galvanometer, its needle will
of course not be deflected. But the application of a magnetic
field at right angles to the plane of the metal causes the equi-
potential lines to rotate through a small angle, and the points at

MAGNETIZATION: MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS] MAGNETISM

347

which the galvanometer is connected being no longer at* the
ne potential, a current is indicated by the galvanometer.1

Change of Resjstivity wi

[Tempera1 ure of Electrolytic ~

when ransversely magne

rotational coefficient of tellurium is more than fifty times greater
than that of bismuth, its sign being positive. Several experi-
menters have endeavoured to find a Hall effect in liquids, but
such results as have been hitherto obtained are by no means
free from doubt. E. A. Marx (Ann. d. Phys., 1900, 2, 798)
observed a well-defined Hall effect in incandescent gases. A
large effect, proportional to the field, has been found by H. A.
Wilson (Cam. Phil. Soc. Proc., 1902, n, pp. 249, 391) in oxygen,
hydrogen and air at low pressures, and by C. D. Child (Phys.
Rev., 1904, 18, 370) in the electric arc.

Electro-Thermal Relations. — The Hall electromotive force is
only one of several so-called " galvano-magnetic effects " which
are observed when a magnetic field acts normally upon a thin
plate of metal traversed by an electric current. It is remarkable
that if a flow of heat be substituted for a current of electricity
a closely allied group of " thermo-magnetic effects " is presented.
The two classes of phenomena have been collated by M. G. Lloyd
(Am. Journ. Sci., 1901, 12, 57), as follows: —

Galvano- Magnetic Effects. Thermo- Magnetic Effects.

I. A transverse difference of i. A transverse difference of
electric potential (Hall^ effect). electric potential (Nernst effect).

2. A transverse difference of
temperature(Ettinghausen effect).

3. Longitudinal change of
electric conductivity.

4. Longitudinal difference of
temperature.

of

n. A transverse difference
temperature (Leduc effect).

iii. Longitudinal change
thermal conductivity.

iv. Longitudinal difference of
electric potential.*

of

If in the annexed diagram ABCD represents the metallic plate
through which the current of electricity or heat flows in the

1E. H. Hall, Phil. Mag., 1880, 9, 225; 1880, 10, 301; 1881, 12,
IS?: 1883, 15, 341; 1885, 19, 419.

The large Hall effect in bismuth was discovered by Riehi, Journ

de Phys., 1884, 3, 127.

1 REFERENCES.— (2) A. von Ettinghausen, Wied. Ann., 1887, 31,
737-— (4) H. W. Nernst, ibid., 784.— (i.) and (iv.); A. von Etting-
hausen and H. W. Nernst, Wied. Ann., 1886, 29, 343.— (ii.) and
<ui.); A. Righi. Rend. Ace. Line., 1887, 3 II, 6 and I, 481; and A
Leduc, Journ.de Phys., 1887,6,78. Additional authorities are quotec
by Lloyd, loc. cit.

D

FIG.
The tranverse electromotive fore
is the current, H the strength of
metal, and K a constant which
power or rotational coefficient.
1880, 10, 430). The following \
are given by E. H. Hall, the p<
electromotive force is in the sai
force acting upon the conduct<
Metal. KXio16
Antimony + 1 1 4000
Steel +12060
Iron +7850
Cobalt +2460
Zinc +820
W. Nernst (Wien. Ber., 1886,

29.
e is equal to KCH/D, where C
the field, D the thickness of the
has been termed the rotatory
(See Hopkinson, Phil. Mag.,
values of K for different metals
Dsitive sign indicating that the
ne direction as the mechanical
)r. A. von Ettinghausen and
Metal. KXio15
Copper —520
Gold -660
Nickel — 14740
Bismuth2 -8580000

94, 560) have found that the

direction AB, then effects (i), (2), (i.) and (ii.) are exhibited at
C and D, effects (4) and (iv.) at A and
B, and effects (3) and (iii.) along AB.
The transverse effects are reversed in
direction when either the magnetic
ield or the primary current (electric or
thermal) is reversed, but the longitudinal effects are inde-
pendent of the direction of the field. It has been shown by
G. Moreau (C. R., 1900, 130, pp. 122, 412, 562) that if K is the
coefficient of the Hall effect (i) and K' the analogous coefficient
of the Nernst effect (i.) (which is constant for small values of H),
then K' = Kff/p, a being the coefficient of the Thomson effect
tor the metal and p its specific resistance. He considers that
Hall's is the fundamental phenomenon, and that the Nernst
effect is essentially identical with it, the primary electromotive
Force in the case of the latter being that of the Thomson effect
in the unequally heated metal, while in the Hall experiment it
is derived from an external source.

Attempts have been made to explain these various effects by
the electron theory.4

Thermo-electric Quality. — The earliest observations of the
effect of magnetization upon thermo-electric power were those
of W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), who in. 1856 announced that
magnetization rendered iron and steel positive to the unmagnet-
ized metals.6 It has been found by Chassagny,6 L. Houllevigue7
and others that when the magnetizing force is increased, this
effect passes a maximum, while J. A. Ewing8 has shown that
it is diminished and may even be reversed by tensile stress.
Nickel was believed by Thomson to behave oppositely to iron,
becoming negative when magnetized; but though his conclusion
was accepted for nearly fifty years, it has recently been shown
to be an erroneous one, based, no doubt, upon the result of an
experiment with an impure specimen. Nickel when magnetized
is always positive to the unmagnetized metal. So also is
cobalt, as was found by H. Tomlinson.9 The curves given by
Houllevigue for the relation of thermo-electric force to magnetic
field are of the same general form as those showing the relation of
change of length to field. E. Rhoads I0 obtained a cyclic curve
for iron which indicated thermo-electric hysteresis of the kind
exhibited by Nagaoka's curves for magnetic strain. He also
experimented with nickel and again found a resemblance to
the strain curve. The subject was further investigated by
S. Bidwell,11 who, adopting special precautions against sources
of error by which former work was probably affected, measured
the changes of thermo-electric force for iron, steel, nickel and
cobalt produced by magnetic fields up to 1500 units. In the
case of iron and nickel it was found that, when correction was
made for mechanical stress due to magnetization, magnetic
change of thermo-electric force was, within the limits of experi-
mental error, proportional to magnetic change of length.
Further, it was shown that the thermo-electric curves were
modified both by tensile stress and by annealing in the same
manner as were the change-of-length curves, the modification
being sometimes of a complex nature. Thus a close connexion
between the two sets of phenomena seems to be established.
In the case of cobalt no such relation could be traced ; it appeared
that the thermo-electric power of the unmagnetized with respect
to the magnetized cobalt was proportional to the square of the
magnetic induction or of the magnetization. Of nickel six

4 P. Drude, Ann. d. Phys., 1900, i, 566; 1000, 3, 369; 1902, 7, 687.
See also E. van Everdingen, Arch. Nierlandaises, 1901, 4, 371;
G. Barlow, Ann. d. Phys., 1903, 12, 897; H. Zahn, ibid. 1904, 14, 886;
1905, 16, 148.

1 Phil. Trans., 1856, p. 722. According to the nomenclature adopted
by the best modern authorities, a metal A is said to be thermo-elec-
trically positive to another metal B_ when the thermo-current passes
from A to B through the cold junction, and from B to A through the
hot (see THERMO-ELECTRICITY).

'C.R., 1893, 116,997.

7 Journ. de Phys., 1896, 5, 53.

8 Phil. Trans., 1887, 177, 373.

» Proc. Roy. Soc., 1885, 39, 513.

10 Phys. Rev., 1902, 15, 321. The sign of the thermo-electric
effect for nickel, as given by Rhoads, is incorrect.
u Proc. Roy. Soc., 1904, 73, 413.

348

MAGNETISM

[FEEBLY SUSCEPTIBLE SUBSTANCES

different specimens were tested, all of which became, like iron,
thermo-electrically positive to the unmagnetized metals.

As to what effect, if any, is produced upon the thermo-electric
quality of bismuth by a magnetic field there is still some doubt.
E. van Aubel l believes that in pure bismuth the thermo-electric
force is increased by the field; impurities may neutralize this effect,
and in sufficient quantities reverse it.

Elasticity.— The results of experiments as to the effect of
magnetization were for long discordant and inconclusive,
sufficient care not having been taken to avoid sources of error,
while the effects of hysteresis were altogether disregarded.
The subject, which is of importance in connexion with theories
of magnetostriction, has been investigated by K. Honda and
T. Terada in a research remarkable for its completeness and the
ingenuity of the experimental methods employed.2 The results
are too numerous to discuss in detail; some of those to which
special attention is directed are the following: In Swedish
iron and tungsten-steel the change of elastic constants (Young's
modulus and rigidity) is generally positive, but its amount
is less than 0-5%; changes of Young's modulus and of
rigidity are almost identical. In nickel the maximum change
of the elastic constants is remarkably large, amounting to
about 15% for Young's modulus and 7 % for rigidity;
with increasing fields the elastic constants first decrease and
then increase. In nickel-steels containing about 50 and
70 % of nickel the maximum increase of the constants is
as much as 7 or 8%. In a 29% nickel-steel, magnetization
increases the constants by a small amount. Changes of elas-
ticity are in all cases dependent, not only upon the field, but
also upon the tension applied; and, owing to hysteresis, the
results are not in general the same when the magnetization
follows as when it precedes the application of stress; the latter
is held to be the right order.

Chemical and Voltaic Effects. — If two iron plates, one of
which is magnetized, are immersed in an electrolyte, a current
will generally be indicated by a galvanometer connected with
the plates.

As to whether the magnetized plate becomes positive or negative
to the other, different experimenters are not in agreement. It has,
however, been shown by Dragomir Hurmuzescu (Rap. du Congres
Int. de Phys., Paris, 1900, p. 561) that the true effect of magnetization
is liable to be disguised by secondary or parasitic phenomena, arising
chiefly from polarization of the electrodes and from local variations
in the concentration and magnetic condition of the electrolyte;
these may be avoided by working with weak solutions, exposing
only a small surface in a non-polar region of the metal, and sub-
stituting a capillary electrometer for the galvanometer generally
used. When such precautions are adopted it is found that the
" electromotive force of magnetization is, for a given specimen,
perfectly definite both in direction and in magnitude; it is indepen-
dent of the nature of the corrosive solution, and is a function of the
field-strength alone, the curves showing the relation of electromotive
force to field-intensity bearing a rough resemblance to the familiar
I-H curves. The value of the E.M.F. when H =2000 is of the order
of i/ioo volt for iron, i/iooo volt for nickej and 1/10,000 for bismuth.
When the two electrodes are ferro-magnetic, the direction of the cur-
rent through the liquid is from the unmagnetized to the magnetized
electrode, the latter being least attacked; with diamagnetic elec-
trodes the reverse is the case. Hurmuzescu shows that these results
are in accord with theory. Applying the principle of the conserva-
tion of internal energy, he demonstrates that for iron in a field of
looo units and upwards the E.M.F. of magnetization is

E = j • — approximately,

/ being the electrochemical equivalent and S the density of the metal.
Owing to the difficulty of determining the magnetization I and the
susceptibility K with accuracy, it has not yet been possible to submit
this formula to a quantitative test, but it is said to afford an indica-
tion of the results given by actual experiment. 1 1 has been discovered
by E. L. Nichols and W. S. Franklin (Am. Journ. Sci., 1887, 34, 419;
1888, 35, 290) that the transition from the " passive " to the active
state of iron immersed in strong nitric acid is facilitated by magnetiz-
ation, the temperature of transition being lowered. This is attri-
buted to the action of local currents set up between unequally
magnetized portions of the iron. Similar results have been obtained
by T. Andrews (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 48, 116).

1 C.R., 1903, 136, 1131.

* Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1906, 21, art. 4. The paper contains
40 tables and 85 figures.

ii. FEEBLY SUSCEPTIBLE SUBSTANCES
Water. — The following are recent determinations
magnetic susceptibility of water: —

of the

Observer.
G. Quincke

H. du Bois

P. Curie

J. Townsend

*XIO«. Publication.

-0-797 at 18° C. Wied. Ann., 1885,

-0-837 (l -0-0025 <- 15 °)Wied.

-0-790 at 4° C.
-0-77

Ann.,

24,
1888, 35,

J: A. Fleming

and J. Dewar
G. Jager and

S. Meyer
J. Koenigsberger —0-781 at 22

-0-74

—0-689 (i— o-ooi6/)
C.

C.R., 1893, "6, 136.
Phil. Trans., 1896, 187,

544-
Proc. Roy. Soc., 1898,

63, 3"-
Wied. Ann., 1899, 67,

707.
Ann. d. Phys., 1901, 6,

506.

Phys. Rev., 1903, 16, I.
Phys. Rev., 1905,20, 188.

H. D. Stearns —0-733 at 22° C.
A. P. Wills -0-720 at 18° C.

Wills found that the suceptibility was constant in fields
ranging from 4200 to 1 5,000.

Oxygen and Air. — The best modern determinations of the
value of K for gaseous oxygen agree very fairly well with that
given by Faraday in 1853 (Exp. Res. Ill, 502). Assuming
that for water K= - o-8XicT*, his value of K for oxygen at
15° C. reduces to o-isXicr6. Important experiments on the
susceptibility of oxygen at different pressures and temperatures
were carried out by P. Curie (C.R. 1892, 115, 805; 1893, 116, 136).
Journ. de Phys., 1895, 4, 204. He found that the susceptibility
for unit of mass, K, was independent of both pressure and mag-
netizing force, but varied inversely as the absolute temperature,
0, so that io6K = 337oo/0. Since the mass of i cub. cm. of
oxygen at o° C. and 760 mm. pressure is o'ooi4i grm., the mass at,
any absolute temperature 6 is by Charles's law 0-00141X2736=
0-3849/0 grm.; hence the susceptibility per unit of volume at
760 mm. will be

K = io-« Xo-3849 X33700/91
= io~6Xi297o/02.

At 15° C. 0 = 273 + 15 = 288, and therefore K = 0-156 X lo"6,
nearly the same as the value found by Faraday. At o° C.,
K=o-i74Xio~*. For air Curie calculated that the sus-
ceptibility per unit mass was io'K = 7830/0; or, taking the
mass of i c.c. of air at o° C. and 760 mm. as 0-001291
grm., K = io~6 X 2760/0" for air at standard atmospheric
pressure. It is pointed out that this formula may be used as a tem-
perature correction in magnetic determinations carried out in air.
Fleming and Dewar determined the susceptibility of liquid
oxygen (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1896, 60, 283; 1898, 63, 311) by two
different methods. In the first experiments it was calculated from
observations of the mutual induction of two conducting circuits
in air and in the liquid; the results for oxygen at — 182° C. were

H = 1-00287, K = 228 X IO-".

In the second series, to which greater importance is attached,
measurements were made of the force exerted in a divergent
field upon small balls of copper, silver and other substances,
first when the balls were in air and afterwards when they were
immersed in liquid oxygen. If V is the volume of a ball, H the
strength of the field at its centre, and K' its apparent suscepti-
bility, the force in the direction x is /= x'VH X dH/dx; and if «'„
and K'° are the apparent susceptibilities of the same ball in air
and in liquid oxygen, «'„—*£'„ is equal to the difference between
the susceptibilities of the two media. The susceptibility of air
being known — practically it was negligible in these experiments
— that of liquid oxygen can at once be found. The mean of 36
experiments with 7 balls gave

IJL = 1-00407, K = 324 X 10-".

A small but decided tendency to a decrease of susceptibility
in very strong fields was observed. It appears, therefore,
that liquid oxygen is by far the most strongly paramagnetic
liquid known, its susceptibility being more than four times
greater than that of a saturated solution of ferric chloride.
On the other hand, its susceptibility is about fifty times less
than that of Hadfield's 12% manganese steel, which is
commonly spoken of as non-magnetizable.

FEEBLY SUSCEPTIBLE SUBSTANCES]

MAGNETISM

349

Bismuth. — Bismuth is of special interest, as being the most
strongly diamagnetic substance known, the mean value of the
best determinations of its susceptibility being about — 14X10"'
(see G. Meslin, C. R., 1905, 140, 449). The magnetic properties
of the metal at different temperatures and in fields up to 1350
units have been studied by P. Curie (loc. «/.), who found that
its " specific susceptibility " (K) was independent of the strength
of the field, but decreased with rise of temperature up to the
melting-point, 273° C. His results appear to show the relation

-KXio» = 1-381 -0-OOI55/0.

Assuming the density of Bi to be 9-8, and neglecting corrections
for heat dilatation, his value for the susceptibility at 20° C.
is equivalent to K= — i3-23Xio~6. As the temperature was
raised up to 273°, K gradually fell to— 9'38Xio~6, rising
suddenly when fusion occurred to — o-37Xio~6, at which
value it remained constant when the "fluid metal was further
heated. Fleming and Dewar give for the susceptibility the
values— 13-7 Xio~6 at 15° C. and — is-gXio"4 at —182°, the
latter being approximately equivalent to KXio6=— 1-62.
Putting t°=— 182 in the equation given above for Curie's
results, we get KXio6=— 1-66, a value sufficiently near that
obtained by Fleming and Dewar to suggest the probability that
the diamagnetic susceptibility varies inversely as the tempera-
ture between— 182° and the melting-point.

Other Diamagnelics. — The following table gives Curie's
determinations (Journ. de Phys., 1895, 4> 2°4) °f tne specific
susceptibility K of other diamagnetic substances at different
temperatures. It should be noted that K. = K/density.

Substance. Temp. °C. -KXio".

Water 15-189

Rnck salt 16 — 455

Potassium chloride 18—465

,, sulphate 17—460

„ nitrate (fusion 350°) . . . 18 — 420

Quartz 18 — 430

Sulphur, solid or fused 18 — 225

Selenium, solid or fused .... 20—200

„ fused 240—415

Tellurium 20 — 305

Element. «Xio'.

Element. *Xio*.

Copper

-0-82

Tellurium .

— 2'IO

Silver

-i'5«

Graphite .

+ 2

Gold

—3*07

Aluminium

-1- i -80

Zinc

—0-96

Platinum .

+22

Tin

+0-46

Palladium .

+50 to 60

Lead

— no

Tungsten .

+ 14

Thallium
Sulphur

— 4'6i
-0-86

Magnesium
Sodium

+ 4

+ 2-2

Selenium (red)

-0-50

Potassium.

+ 3'6

Bromine
Iodine, solid or fused
Phosphorus, solid or fused
,, amorphous .

Antimony, electrolytic .

20

18-164

19-71

20-275

20

540
2O

273
273-405

0790
0-580
0-550
0-430
0-330
0-441
0-510
0-320
0-307
0-311
0-410

0-385
0-920
0-730
0'68o
0-470
i '350
0-957
0-038

Bismuth, solid

,, fused ......

For all diamagnetic substances, except antimony and bismuth,
the value of K was found to be independent of the temperature.
Paramagnetic Substances. — Experiments by J. S. Townsend
(PhU. Trans., 1896, 187, 533) show that the susceptibility of
solutions of salts of iron is independent of the magnetizing
force, and depends only on the quantity of iron contained in
unit volume of the liquid. If W is the weight of iron present
per c.c. at about 10° C., then for ferric salts

io6<c=266W— 077
and for ferrous salts

io'ic=2o6W— 077,

the quantity —0-77 arising from the diamagnetism of the water
of solution. Annexed are values of IO'K for the different salts
examined, w being the weight of the salt per c.c. of the solution.

Salt.

.

Fei(SO4),
Fe,(NO,),

io6K+o77
9i'6«i
74-510

Salt.

Fed,

FeSO4

90-870

Susceptibility was found to diminish greatly with rise of tempera-
ture. According to G. Jager and S. Meyer (Wien. Akdd. Sitz.,
1897, 106, II.o, p. 623, and 1898, 107, Il.a, p. 5) the atomic
susceptibilities k of the metals nickel, chromium, iron, cobalt
and manganese in solutions of their salts are as follows: —
Metal. *Xio«. Metal.

Ni • 4-95 = 2-5X2 Co . .

Cr . . 6-25 = 2-5X2-5 Fe(2) .

Fe(i) . . 7-5 =2-5X3 Mn. .

10-0 = 2-5X4
12-5=2-5X5

Fe(i) is iron contained in FeCh and Fe(2) iron contained in
Fe2(N03),.

Curie has shown, for many paramagnetic bodies, that the
specific susceptibility K is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature 0. Du Bois believes this to be an important
general law, applicable to the case of every paramagnetic
substance, and suggests that the product KB should be known
as " Curie's constant " for the substance.

Elementary Bodies and Atomic Susceptibility. — Among a
large number of substances the susceptibilities of which have
been determined by J. Koenigsberger (Wied. Ann., 1898, 66,
698) are the following elements: —

In a table accompanying Koenigsberger's paper the elements
are arranged upon the periodic system and the atomic suscep-
tibility (product of specific susceptibility into atomic weight)
is given for each. It appears that the elements at about the
middle of each row are the most strongly paramagnetic; towards
the ends of a row the susceptibility decreases, and ultimately
becomes negative. Thus a relation between susceptibility and
atomic weight is clearly indicated. Tables similarly arranged,
but much more complete, have been published by S. Meyer
(Wied. Ann., 1899, 68, 325 and 1899, 69, 236), whose researches
have filled up many previously existing gaps. The values assigned
to the atomic susceptibilities of most of the known elements are
appended. According to the notation adopted by Meyer the
atomic susceptibility k = KX atomic- weight/ (density X 1000).

Meyer thinks that the susceptibilities of the metals praseodymium,
neodymium, ytterbium, samarium, gadolinium, and erbium, when
obtained in a pure form, will be found to equal or even exceed those
of the well-known ferromagnetic metals. Many of their compounds
are very strongly magnetic, erbium, for example, in EriO» being
four times as strong as iron in the familiar magnetite or lodestone,
FeaO«. The susceptibilities of some hundreds of inorganic compounds
have also been determined by the same investigator (loc. cit.).
Among other researches relating to atomic and molecular magnetism
are those of O. Liebknecht and A. P. Wills (Ann. d. Phys., 1900,
i, 178), H. du Bois and O. Liebknecht (ibid. p. 189), and Meyer
(ibid. p. 668). An excellent summary regarding the magnetic
properties of matter, with many tables and references, has been
compiled by du Bois (Report to the Congres Int. de Phys., Paris,
1900, ii. 460).

Element icfk

Element lo'jfe

Element i(Pk

Be
B
C

N
O
F

+0-72
+0-05
-0-05

f-O'Ol1

Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br

— 0-006

— O'OIO

-0-025
-0-033

Cs
Ba
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sa
Gd

- 0-03'

— O'O2*
+ I3-0
+34'0

+ |l

Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl

-0-005'
+0*014

+0-002
— O'007
—O'OI I
— 0'02'

Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag

ca

In
Sn
Sb
Te

I

— 0-021
— 0-021

—O-OI4

+o-49(?)
+0-024

+0-55

— 0-016
-0-015

— O'OI1

+0-004'
—0-069
-0-039
—0-040

Er

+41 -8(?)

Yb
Ta
W
Os
If
Pt
Au
Hg
TI
Pb
Bi

+ I'02<?)

+ o-i
+ 0-074

+ 0-227
- 0-031
— 0-030
- 0-93
— 0-025
- 0-023

K
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni

— O'OOI1
—O-003'

+0-09
+0-17

tlf
jjf

Th
U

+ i6-o(?)

+ 0-21

1

Calculated.

350

i2. MOLECULAR THEORY OF MAGNETISM
According to W. E. Weber's theory, the molecules of a ferro-
magnetic metal are small permanent magnets, the axes of
which under ordinary conditions are turned indifferently in
every direction, so that no magnetic polarity is exhibited
by the metal as a whole; a magnetic force acting upon the
metal tends to turn the axes of the little magnets in one direction,
and thus the entire piece acquires the properties of a magnet.
If, however, the molecules could turn with perfect freedom,
it is clear that the smallest magnetizing force would be sufficient
to develop the highest possible degree of magnetization, which
is of course not the case. Weber therefore supposed each
molecule to be acted on by a force tending to preserve it in its

original direction, the position actually assumed by the axis
being in the direction of the resultant of this hypothetical
force and the applied magnetizing force. Maxwell (Electricity
and Magnetism, § 444), recognizing that the theory in this
form gave no account of residual magnetization, made the
further assumption that if the deflection of the axis of the
molecule exceeded a certain angle, the axis would not return to
its original position when the deflecting force was removed, but
would retain a permanent set. Although the amended theory
as worked out by Maxwell is in rough agreement with certain
leading phenomena of magnetization, it fails to account for many
others, and is in some cases at variance with observed facts.

J. A. Ewing (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 48, 342) has demonstrated
that it is quite unnecessary to assume either the directive force
of Weber, the permanent set of Maxwell, or any kind of frictional
resistance, the forces by which the molecular magnets are con-
strained being simply those due to their own mutual attractions
and repulsions. The effect of these is beautifully illustrated
by a model consisting of a number of little compass needles
pivoted on sharp points and grouped near to one another upon
a board, which is placed inside a large magnetizing coil. When
no current is passing through the coil and the magnetic field
is of zero strength, the needles arrange themselves in positions
of stable equilibrium under their mutual forces, pointing in
many different directions, so that there is no resultant magnetic
moment. This represents the condition of the molecules in
unmagnetized iron. If now a gradually increasing magnetizing
force is applied, the needles at first undergo a stable deflection,
giving to the group a small resultant moment which increases
uniformly with the force; and if the current is interrupted while
the force is still weak, the needles merely return to their initial
positions. This illustrates the first stage in the process of
magnetization, when the moment is proportional to the field
and there is no hysteresis or residual magnetism (see ante).
A somewhat stronger field will deflect many of the needles
beyond the limits of stability, causing them to turn round and
form new stable combinations, in which the direction assumed
by most of them approximates to that of the field. The re-
arrangement is completed within a comparatively small range
of magnetizing force, a rapid increase of the resultant moment
being thus brought about. When the field is removed, many
of the newly formed combinations are but slightly disturbed,
and the group may consequently retain a considerable resultant
moment. This corresponds to the second stage of magnetiza-
tion, in which the susceptibility is large and permanent magneti-
zation is set up. A still stronger magnetizing force has little
effect except in causing the direction of the needles to approach
still more nearly to that of the field; if the force were infinite,
every member of the group would have exactly the same direction
and the greatest possible resultant moment would be reached;
this illustrates " magnetic saturation " — the condition approached
in the third stage of magnetization. When the strong magnetiz-
ing field is gradually diminished to zero and then reversed, the
needles pass from one stable position of rest to another through
a condition of instability; and if the field is once more reversed,
so that the cycle is completed, the needles again pass through a
condition of instability before a position of stable equilibrium
is regained. Now the unstable movements of the needles are
of a mechanically irreversible character; the energy expended

MAGNETISM [MOLECULAR THEORY

in dissociating the members of a combination and placing them
in unstable positions assumes the kinetic form when the needles
turn over, and is ultimately frittered down into heat. Hence
in performing a cycle there is a waste of energy corresponding
to what has been termed hysteresis-loss.

Supposing Ewing's hypothesis to be correct, it is clear that
if the magnetization of a piece of iron were reversed by a strong
rotating field instead of by a field alternating through zero, the
loss of energy by hysteresis should be little or nothing, for the
molecules would rotate with the field and no unstable movements
would be possible.1 Some experiments by F. G. Baily (Phil.
Trans., 1896, 187, 715) show that this is actually the case. With
small magnetizing forces the hysteresis was indeed somewhat

larger than that obtained in an alternating field, probably on
account of the molecular changes being forced to take place in
one direction only; but .at an induction of about 16,000 units
in soft iron and 15,000 in hard steel the hysteresis reached a
maximum and afterwards rapidly diminished. In one case the
hysteresis loss per cubic centimetre per cycle was 16,100 ergs
for 6 = 15,900, and only 1200 ergs for 6 = 20,200, the highest
induction obtained in the experiment; possibly it would have
vanished before B had reached 2i,ooo.2 These experiments
prove that actual friction must be almost entirely absent, and,
as Baily remarks, the agreement of the results with the pre-
viously suggested deduction affords a strong verification of
Ewing's form of the molecular theory. Ewing has himself
also shown how satisfactorily this theory accords with many
other obscure and complicated phenomena, such as those
presented by coercive force, differences of magnetic quality,
and the effects of vibration, temperature and stress; while as
regards simplicity and freedom from arbitrary assumptions it
leaves little to be desired.

The fact being established that magnetism is essentially a
molecular phenomenon, the next step is to inquire what is the
constitution of a magnetic molecule, and why it is that some
molecules are ferromagnetic, others paramagnetic, and others
again diamagnetic. The best known of the explanations that
have been proposed depend upon the magnetic action of an
electric current. It can be shown that if a current * circulates
in a small plane circuit of area S, the magnetic action of the
circuit for distant points is equivalent to that of a short magnet
whose axis is perpendicular to the plane of the circuit and whose
moment is t'S, the direction of the magnetization being related
to that of the circulating current as the thrust of a right-handed
screw to its rotation. Ferromagnetism was explained by Am-
pere on the hypothesis that the magnetization of the molecule
is due to an electric current constantly circulating within it.
The theory now most in favour is merely a development of
Ampere's hypothesis, and applies not only to ferromagnetics,
but to paramagnetics as well. To account for diamagnetism,
Weber supposed that there exist within the molecules of dia-
magnetic substances certain channels around which an electric
current can circulate without any resistance. The creation of
an external magnetic field H will, in accordance with Lenz's law,
induce in the molecule an electric current so directed that the
magnetization of the equivalent magnet is oppose?! to the
direction of the field. The strength of the induced current
is -HScos0/L, where 0 is the inclination of the axis of the
circuit to the direction of the field, and L the coefficient of
self-induction; the resolved part of the magnetic moment in
the direction of the field is equal to -HS2cos'0/L, and if there
are « molecules in a unit of volume, their axes being distributed
indifferently in all directions, the magnetization of the substance
will be-^«HS2/L, and its susceptibility -£S2/L (Maxwell,
Electricity and Magnetism, § 838). The susceptibility is there-
fore constant and independent of the field, while its negative
;ign indicates that the substance is diamagnetic. There being
no resistance, the induced current will continue to circulate

1 This deduction from Ewing's theory appears to have been first
suggested by J. Swinburne. See Industries, 1890, 289.

2 R. Beattie (Phil. Mag., 1901, i, 642) has found similar effects
in nickel and cobalt.

HISTORICAL]

MAGNETISM

35*

round the molecule until the field is withdrawn, when it will
be stopped by the action of an electro-motive force tending to
induce an exactly equal current in the opposite direction. The
principle of Weber's theory, with the modification necessitated
by lately acquired knowledge, is the basis of the best modern
explanation of diamagnetic phenomena.

There are strong reasons for believing that magnetism is a
phenomenon involving rotation, and as early as 1876 Rowland,
carrying out an experiment which had been proposed by Maxwell,
showed that a revolving electric charge produced the same
magnetic effects as a current. Since that date it has more than
once been suggested that the molecular currents producing
magnetism might be due to the revolution of one or more of the
charged atoms or " ions " constituting the molecule. None of
the detailed hypotheses which were based on this idea stood the
test of criticism, but towards the end of the igth century the
researches of J. j. Thomson and others once more brought the
conception of moving electric charges into prominence. Thomson
has demonstrated the existence under many different conditions
of particles more minute than anything previously known to
science. The mass of each is about y^^th part of that of a
hydrogen atom, and with each is indissolubly associated a charge
of negative electricity equal to about 3-1 XicT10 C.G.S. electro-
static unit. These particles, which were termed by their dis-
coverer corpuscles, are more commonly spoken of as electrons,1
the particle thus being identified with the charge which it carries.
An electrically neutral atom is believed to be constituted in part,
or perhaps entirely, of a definite number of electrons in rapid
motion within a " sphere of uniform positive electrification " not
yet explained. One or more of the electrons may be detached
from the system by a finite force, the number so detachable
depending on the valency of the atom; if the atom loses an
electron, it becomes positively electrified; if it receives additional
electrons, it is negatively electrified. The process of electric con-
duction in metals consists in the movement of detached electrons,
and many other phenomena, both electrical and thermal, can be
more or less completely explained by their agency. It has been
supposed that certain electrons revolve like satellites in orbits
around the atoms with which they are associated, a view which
receives strong support from the phenomena of the Zeeman effect,
and on this assumption a theory has been worked out by
P. Langevin,2 which accounts for many of the observed facts of
magnetism. As a consequence of the structure of the molecule,
which is an aggregation of atoms, the planes of the orbits around
the latter may be oriented in various positions, and the direction
of revolution may be right-handed or left-handed with respect
to the direction of any applied magnetic field. For those orbits
whose projection upon a plane perpendicular to the field is right-
handed, the period of revolution will be accelerated by the field
(since the electron current is negative) , and the magnetic moment
consequently increased; for those which are left-handed, the
period will be retarded and the moment diminished. The
effect of the field upon the speed of the revolving electrons, and
therefore upon the moments of the equivalent magnets, is
necessarily a very small one. If S is the area of the orbit
described in time r by an electron of charge e, the moment of
the equivalent magnet is M = eSr; and the change in the value
of M due to an external field H is shown to be AM= — Hc*S/4'irm,
m being the mass of the electron. Whence

AM= _HT e:
M 4*- m

1 The charge associated with a corpuscle is the same as that carried
by a hydrogen atom. G. J. Stoney in 1881 (Phil. Mag., 1881, 11,387)
pointed out that this latter constituted the indivisible " atom of
electricity " or natural unit charge. Later he proposed (Trans. Roy.
Dub. Soc., 1891, 4, 583) that such unit charge should be called an
" electron." The application of this term to Thomson's corpuscle
implies, rightly or wrongly, that notwithstanding its apparent mass,
the corpuscle is in fact nothing more than an atom of electricity.
The question whether a corpuscle actually has a material gravitating
nucleus is undecided, but there are strong reasons for believing that
its mass is entirely due to the electric charge.

1 Jour, de Phys., 1905, 4, 678; translated in Electrician, 1905, 56,
108 and 141.

According to the best determinations the value of e/m does not
exceed 1-8X10', and T is of the order of io~li second, the
period of luminous vibrations; hence AM/M must always be less
than icT'H, and therefore the strongest fields yet reached
experimentally, which fall considerably short of io6, could not
change the magnetic moment M by as much as a ten-thousandth
part. If the structure of the molecule is so perfectly symmetrical
that, in the absence of any external field, the resultant magnetic
moment of the circulating electrons is zero, then the application
of a field, by accelerating the right-handed (negative) revolutions,
and retarding those which are left-handed, will induce in the
substance a resultant magnetization opposite in direction to
the field itself; a body composed of such symmetrical molecules
is therefore diamagnetic. If however the structure of the mole-
cule is such that the electrons revolving around its atoms
do not exactly cancel one another's effects, the molecule
constitutes a little magnet, which under the influence of an
external field will tend to set itself with its axis parallel to the
field. Ordinarily a substance composed of asymmetrical mole-
cules is paramagnetic, but if the elementary magnets are so
conditioned by their strength and concentration that mutual
action between them is possible, then the substance is ferro-
magnetic. In all cases however it is the diamagnetic condition
that is initially set up — even iron is diamagnetic — though the
diamagnetism may be completely masked by the superposed
paramagnetic or ferromagnetic condition. Diamagnetism, in
short, is an atomic phenomenon; paramagnetism and ferro-
magnetism are molecular phenomena. Hence may be deduced
an explanation of the fact that, while the susceptibility of all
known diamagnetics (except bismuth and antimony) is inde-
pendent of the temperature, that of paramagnetics varies
inversely as the absolute temperature, in accordance with the
law of Curie.

13. HISTORICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL NOTES

The most conspicuous property of the lodestone, its attraction
for iron, appears to have been familiar to the Greeks at least as
early as 800 B.C., and is mentioned by Homer, Plato, Aristotle,
Theophrastus and others. A passage in De rerum nalura (vi.
910-915) by the Roman poet, Lucretius (96-55 B.C.), in which it
is stated that the stone can support a chain of little rings, each
adhering to the one above it, indicates that in his time the pheno-
menon of magnetization by induction had also been observed.
The property of orientation, in virtue of which a freely suspended
magnet points approximately to the geographical north and
south, is not referred to by any European writer before the I2th
century, though it is said to have been known to the Chinese at a
much earlier period. The application of this property to the
construction of the mariner's compass is obvious, and it is in
connexion with navigation that the first references to it occur
(see COMPASS). The needles of the primitive compasses, being
made of iron, would require frequent re-magnetization, and a
" stone " for the purpose of " touching the needle " was therefore
generally included in the navigator's outfit. With the constant
practice of this operation it is hardly possible that the repulsion
acting between like poles should have entirely escaped recogni-
tion ; but though it appears to have been noticed that the lode-
stone sometimes repelled iron instead of attracting it, no clear
statement of the fundamental law that unlike poles attract while
like poles repel was recorded before the publication in 1581 of the
New Attractive by Robert Norman, a pioneer in accurate magnetic
work. The same book contains an account of Norman's dis-
covery and correct measurement of the dip (1576). The down-
ward tendency of the north pole of a magnet pivoted in the usual
way had been observed by G. Hartmann of Nuremberg in 1544,
but his observation was not published till much later.

The foundations of the modern science of magnetism were laid
by William Gilbert (?.».). His De magnele magneticisque
corporibus et de magno magnele tellure physiologia nova (1600),
contains many references to the expositions of earlier writers from
Plato down to those of the author's own age. These show that
the very few facts known with certainty were freely supplemented

352

MAGNETISM

[HISTORICAL

by a number of ill-founded conjectures, and sometimes even
by " figments and falsehoods, which in the earliest times, no
less than nowadays, used to be put forth by raw smatterers
and copyists to be swallowed of men."1 Thus it was taught
that " if a lodestone be anointed with garlic, or if a diamond be
near, it does not attract iron," and that " if pickled in the salt
of a sucking fish, there is power to pick up gold which has
fallen into the deepest wells." There were said to be " various
kinds of magnets, some of which attract gold, others silver, brass,
lead; even some which attract flesh, water, fishes;" and stories
were told about " mountains in the north of such great powers of
attraction that ships are built with wooden pegs, lest the iron
nails should be drawn from the timber." Certain occult powers
were also attributed to the stone. It was " of use to thieves by its
fume and sheen, being a stone born, as it were, to aid theft," and
even opening bars and locks; it was effective as a love potion, and
possessed " the power to reconcile husbands to their wives, and
to recall brides to their husbands." And much more of the same
kind, which, as Gilbert says, had come down " even to [his] own
day through the writings of a host of men, who, to fill out their
volumes to a proper bulk, write and copy out pages upon pages
on this, that and the other subject, of which they know almost
nothing for certain of their own experience." Gilbert himself
absolutely disregarded authority, and accepted nothing at
second-hand. His title to be honoured as the " Father of
Magnetic Philosophy " is based even more largely upon the
scientific method which he was the first to inculcate and practise
than upon the importance of his actual discoveries. Careful
experiment and observation, not the inner consciousness, are,
he insists, the only foundations of true science. Nothing has
been set down in his book " which hath not been explored and
many times performed and repeated " by himself. " It is very
easy for men of acute intellect, apart from experiment and
practice, to slip and err." The greatest of Gilbert's discoveries
was that the globe of the earth was magnetic and a magnet;
the evidence by which he supported this view was derived chiefly
from ingenious experiments made with a spherical lodestone or
lerrella, as he termed it, and from his original observation that an
iron bar could be magnetized by the earth's force. He also carried
out some new experiments on the effects of heat, and of screen-
ing by magnetic substances, and investigated the influence of
shape upon the magnetization of iron. But the bulk of his
work consisted in imparting scientific definiteness to what was
already vaguely known, and in demolishing the errors of his
predecessors.

No material advance upon the knowledge recorded in Gilbert's
book was made until the establishment by Coulomb in 1785 of
the law of magnetic action. The difficulties attending the ex-
perimental investigation of the forces acting between magnetic
poles have already been referred to, and indeed a rigorously exact
determination of the mutual action could only be made under
conditions which are in practice unattainable. Coulomb,4 how-
ever, by using long and thin steel rods, symmetrically magnetized,
and so arranged that disturbing influences became negligibly
small, was enabled to deduce from his experiments with reason-
able certainty the law that the force of attraction or repulsion
between two poles varies inversely as the square of the distance
between them. Several previous attempts had been made to
discover the law of force, with various results, some of which
correctly indicated the inverse square; in particular the German
astronomer, J. Tobias Mayer (Gott. Anzeiger, 1760), and the
Alsatian mathematician, J. Heinrich Lambert (Hist, de I'Acad.
Roy. Berlin, 1766, p. 22), may fairly be credited with having
anticipated the law which was afterwards more satisfactorily
established by Coulomb. The accuracy of this law was in 1832
confirmed by Gauss,* who employed an indirect but more perfect
method than that of Coulomb, and also, as Maxwell remarks,

1 The quotations are from the translation published by the
Gilbert Club, London, 1900.

1 C. A. Coulomb, Mem. Acad. Roy. Paris, 1785, p. 578.

* Intensitas vis magneticae, § 21, C. F. Gauss's Werke, 5, 79.
See also J. J. Thomson, Electricity and Magnetism, § 132.

by all observers in magnetic observatories, who are every day
making measurements of magnetic quantities, and who obtain
results which would be inconsistent with each other if the law of
force had been erroneously assumed.

Coulomb's researches provided data for the development of a
mathematical theory of magnetism, which was indeed initiated
by himself, but was first treated in a complete form by Poisson
in a series of memoirs published in 1821 and later.4 Poisson
assumed the existence of two dissimilar magnetic fluids, any
element of which acted upon any other distant element in accord-
ance with Coulomb's law of the inverse square, like repelling and
unlike attracting one another. A magnetizable substance was
supposed to consist of an indefinite number of spherical particles,
each containing equivalent quantities of the two fluids, which
could move freely within a particle, but could never pass from
one particle to another. When the fluids inside a particle were
mixed together, the particle was neutral; when they were more
or less completely separated, the particle became magnetized to
an intensity depending upon the magnetic force applied; the
whole body therefore consisted of a number of little spheres
having north and south poles, each of which exerted an elementary
action at a distance. On this hypothesis Poisson investigated
the forces due to bodies magnetized in any manner, and also
originated the mathematical theory of magnetic induction. The
general confirmation by experiment of Poisson's theoretical
results created a tendency to regard his hypothetical magnetic
fluids as having a real existence; but it was pointed out by
W. Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin) in 1849 that while no
physical evidence could be adduced in support of the hypothesis,
certain discoveries, especially in electromagnetism, rendered
it extremely improbable (Reprint, p. 344). Regarding it as impor-
tant that all reasoning with reference to magnetism should be
conducted without any uncertain assumptions, he worked out a
mathematical theory upon the sole foundation of a few well-
known facts and principles. The results were substantially
the same as those given by Poisson's theory, so far as the latter
went, the principal additions including a fuller investigation of
magnetic distribution, and the theory of magnetic induction
in aeolotropic or crystalline substances. The mathematical
theory which was constructed by Poisson, and extended and
freed from doubtful hypotheses by Kelvin, has been elaborated
by other investigators, notably F. E. Neumann, G. R. Kirchhoff,
and Maxwell. The valuable work of Gauss on magnetic theory
and measurements, especially in relation to terrestrial magnetism,
was published in his Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris, 1833,
and in memoirs communicated to the Resultate aus den Beobacht-
ungen des magnetischen Vereins, 1838 and 1839, which, with
others, are contained in vol. 5 of the collected Werke. Weber's
molecular theory, which has already been referred to, appeared
in 1852.'

An event of the first importance was the discovery made in
1819 by H. C. Oersted 6 that a magnet placed near a wire carrying
an electric current tended to set itself at right angles to the wire,
a phenomenon which indicated that the current was surrounded
by a magnetic field. This discovery constituted the foundation
of electromagnetism, and its publication in 1820 was immediately
followed by A. M. Ampere's experimental and theoretical inves-
tigation of the mutual action of electric currents,7 and of the
equivalence of a closed circuit to a polar magnet, the latter
suggesting his celebrated hypothesis that molecular currents were
the cause of magnetism. In the same year D. F. Arago8 suc-
ceeded in magnetizing a piece of iron by the electric current, and
in 1825 W. Sturgeon 9 publicly exhibited an apparatus "acting

*S. D. Poisson, Mem. de I'lnstitut, 1821 and 1822, 5, 247, 488;
1823, 6, 441 ; 1838, 16, 479.

6 For outlines of the mathematical theory of magnetism and
references see H. du Bois, Magnetic Circuit, chs. iii. and iv.

6 Gilbert's Ann. d. phys., 1820, 6, 295.

7 Ann. de chim. et de phys., 1820, 15, 59, 170; Recueil d'observa-
tions electrodynamiques, 1822; Theories des phenomenes electro-
dynamiques, 1826.

8 Ann. de chim. et de phys., 1820, 15, 93.

9 Trans. Soc. Arts, 1825, 43, 38.

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

on the principle of powerful magnetism and feeble galvanism '
which is believed to have constituted the first actual electro
magnet. Michael Faraday's researches were begun in 1831 anc
continued for more than twenty years. Among the most splendie
of his achievements was the discovery of the phenomena and laws
of magneto-electric induction, the subject of two papers com-
municated to the Royal Society in 1831 and 1832. Another was
I the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarization of light, which
effected in 1845, and for the first time established a relation
between light and magnetism. This was followed at the close
of the same year by the discovery of the magnetic condition ol
all matter, a discovery which initiated a prolonged and fruitful
study of paramagnetic and diamagnetic phenomena, including
magnecrystallic action and " magnetic conducting power," now
known as permeability. -Throughout his researches Faraday
paid special regard to the medium as the true seat of magnetic
action, being to a large extent guided by his pregnant conception
of " lines of force," or of induction, which he considered to be
<^-d curves passing in one part of the course through the
magnet to which they belong, and in the other part through
space," always tending to shorten themselves, and repelling one
another when they were side by side (Exp. Res. §§ 3266-8,
3271). In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell published his classical
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, in which Faraday's ideas
were translated into a mathematical form. Maxwell explained
electric and magnetic forces, not by the action at a distance
lined by the earlier mathematicians, but by stresses in a
medium filling all space, and possessing qualities like those
attributed to the old luminiferous ether. In particular, he found
that the calculated velocity with which it transmitted electro-
magnetic disturbances was equal to the observed velocity of light ;
hence he was led to believe, not only that his medium and the
ether were one and the same, but, further, that light itself was an
electromagnetic phenomenon. Since the experimental confir-
mation of Maxwell's views by H. R. Hertz in 1888 (Weid. Ann.,
1888, 34, 155, 551, 609; and later vols.) they have commanded
universal assent, and his methods are adopted in all modern work
on electricity and magnetism.

The practice of measuring magnetic induction and perme-
ability with scientific accuracy was introduced in 1873 by H. A.
Rowland,1 whose careful experiments led to general recognition
of the fact previously ignored by nearly all investigators, that
magnetic susceptibility and permeability are by no means
constants (at least in the case of the ferromagnetic metals) but
functions of the magnetizing force. New light was thrown upon
many important details of magnetic science by J. A. Ewing's
ihnrntal Researches of 1885; throughout the whole of his
work special attention was directed to that curious lagging action
o which the author applied the now familiar term "hysteresis."2
well-known modification* of Weber's molecular theory,
published in 1800, presented for the first time a simple and suffi-
:ient explanation of hysteresis and many other complexities of
magnetic quality. The amazing discoveries made by J. J.
Thomson in 1897 and 1898 « resulted in the establishment of the
Ttr,.n theory, which has already effected developments of an
almost revolutionary character in more than one branch of
science. The application of the theory by P. Langevin to the
rase of molecular magnetism has been noticed above, and there
can be little doubt that in the near future it will contribute to
the solution of other problems which are still obscure.

See W. Gilbert, De magnete (London, 1600; trans, by P. F. Motte-
ay, New York, 1893, and for the Gilbert Club, London, 1900)- M
araday, Experimental Researches in Electricity, 3 vols. (London

1839,1844 and 1855) : W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), Reprint of Paper's

Electrostatics and Magnetism (London, 1884, containing papers

} magnetic theory originally published between 1844 and l8ss

•ith additions) ; T. C. Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism

1,3™ ,«*•• Oxford, 1892); E. Mascart and J. Joubert, Lecons sur
electricity et le magnetisme (and ed., Paris, 1896-1897 ; trans., not free

trom errors, by E. Atkinson, London, 1883); J. A. Ewing, Magnetic

|>AiV. Mag., 1873, 46, 140; 1874, 48, 321-
Phil. Trans., 1885, 176, 523; Magnetic Induction, 1900.
Proc Roy. Soc., 1890, 48, 342.
>htl. Mag., 1897, 44, 293; 1898, 46, 528.

xvn. 12

353

Induction in Iron and other Metals (yd ed., London, 1900); I. J.
Thomson, Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism (Oxford'
1893) ; Elements of Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism
3rd ed., Cambridge, 1904); H. du Bois, The Magnetic Circuit (trans
by E. Atkinson, London, 1896) ; A. Gray, Treatise on Magnetism and
Electricity, vol. i. (London, 1898) ; J. A. Fleming, Magnets and Electric
Currents (London, 1898); C. Maurain, Le magnetisme du fer (Paris,
1899; a lucid summary of the principal facts and laws, with special
regard to their practical application); Rapports presents au
Congres international de physique, vol. ii. (Paris, 1900); G. C.
Foster and A. W. Porter, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
(London, 1903) ; A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik, vol. v. part i.
(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1905 ; the most exhaustive compendium of magnetic
science yet published, containing references to all important works
and papers on every branch of the subject). (S. Bl.)

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL, the science which has for
its province the study of the magnetic phenomena of the
earth.

§ i. Terrestrial magnetism has a long history. Its early
growth was slow, and considerable uncertainty prevails as to its
earliest developments. The properties of the magnet HlstoHc,,
(see MAGNETISM) were to some small extent known to '
the Greeks and Romans before the Christian era, and compasses
(see COMPASS) of an elementary character seem to have been
employed in Europe at least as early as the i2th century. In
China and Japan compasses of a kind seem to have existed at a
much earlier date, and it is even claimed that the Chinese were
aware of the declination of the compass needle from the true
north before the end of the nth century. Early scientific know-
ledge was usually, however, a mixture of facts, very imperfectly
ascertained, with philosophical imaginings. When an early
writer makes a statement which to a modern reader suggests a
knowledge of the declination of the compass, he may have had
no such definite idea in his mind. So far as Western civilization
is concerned, Columbus is usually credited with the discovery —
in 1492 during his first voyage to America— that the pointing of
the compass needle to the true north represents an exceptional
state of matters, and that a declination in general exists, varying
from place to place. The credit of these discoveries is not, how-
ever, universally conceded to Columbus. G. Hellmann • * con-
siders it almost certain that the departure of the needle from the
true north was known in Europe before the time of Columbus.
There is indirect evidence that the declination of the compass
was not known in Europe in the early part of the isth century,
through the peculiarities shown by early maps believed to have
been drawn solely by regard to the compass. Whether Columbus
was the first to observe the declination or not, his date is at least
approximately that of its discovery.

The next fundamental discovery is usually ascribed to Robert
Norman, an English instrument maker. In The Newe Attractive
(1581) Norman describes his discovery made some years before
of the inclination or dip. The discovery was made more or less
by accident, through Norman's noticing that compass needles
which were truly balanced so as to be horizontal when unmagnet-
ized, ceased to be so after being stroked with a magnet. Norman
devised a form of dip-circle, and found a value for the inclination
in London which was at least not very wide of the mark.

Another fundamental discovery, that of the secular change of
the declination, was made in England by Henry Gellibrand,
srofessor of mathematics at Gresham College, who described it
n his Discourse Mathematical on the Variation of the Magneticail
Needle together with its Admirable Diminution lately discovered
(1635). The history of this discovery affords a curious example
of knowledge long delayed. William Borough, in his Discourse
on the Variation of the Compos or Magneticail Needle (1581),
gave for the declination at Limehouse in October 1380 the value
n°J E. approximately. Observations were repeated at Lime-
louse, Gellibrand tells us, in 1622 by his colleague Edmund
Gunter, professor of astronomy at Gresham College, who found
he much smaller value 6° 13'. The difference seems to have been
ascribed at first to error on Borough's part, and no suspicion of
he truth seems to have been felt until 1633, when some rough
observations gave a value still lower than that found by Gunter.

*For explanation of these numbers, see end of article.

354-

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

It was not until midsummer 1634 that Gellibrand felt sure of his
facts, and yet the change of declination since 1580 exceeded 7°.
The delay probably arose from the strength of the preconceived
idea, apparently universally held, that the declination was
absolutely fixed. This idea, it would appear, derived some of its
strength from the positive assertion made on the point by Gilbert
of Colchester in his De magnete (1600).

A third fundamental discovery, that of the diurnal change in
the declination, is usually credited to George Graham (1675-
1751), a London instrument maker. Previous observers, e.g.
Gellibrand, had obtained slightly different values for the de-
clination at different hours of the day, but it was natural to
assign them to instrumental uncertainties. In those days the
usual declination instrument was the compass with pivoted
needles, and Graham himself at first assigned the differences he
observed to friction. The observations on which he based his
conclusions were made in 1722; an account of them was com-
municated to the Royal Society and published in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1724.

The movements of the compass needle throughout the
average day represent partly a regular diurnal variation, and
partly irregular changes in the declination. The distinction,
however, was not at first very clearly realized. Between 1736
and 1759 J. Canton observed the declination-changes on some
600 days, and was thus able to deduce their general character.
He found that the most prominent part of the regular diurnal
change in England consisted of a westerly movement of the north-
pointing pole from 8 or 9 a.m. to i or 2 p.m., followed by a more
leisurely return movement to the east. He also found that the
amplitude of the movement was considerably larger in summer
than in winter. Canton further observed that in a few days the
movements were conspicuously irregular, and that aurora was
then visible. This associationof magnetic disturbance and aurora
had, however, been observed somewhat before this time, a de-
scription of one conspicuous instance being contributed to the
Royal Society in 1 7 50 by Pehr Vilhelm Wargentin (1717-1783), a
Swede.

Another landmark in the history of terrestrial magnetism was
the discovery towards the end of the i8th century that the inten-
sity of the resultant magnetic force varies at different parts of the
earth. The first observations clearly showing this seem to be
those of a Frenchman, Paul de Lamanon, who observed in 1785-
1787 at Teneriffe and Macao, but his results were not published
at the time. The first published observations seem to be those
made by the great traveller Humboldt in tropical America be-
tween 1798 and 1803. The delay in this discovery may again
be attributed to instrumental imperfections. The method first
devised for comparing the force at different places consisted in
taking the time of oscillation of the dipping needle, and even with
modern circles this is hardly a method of high precision. Another
discovery worth chronicling was made by Arago in 1827. From
observations made at Paris he found that the inclination of the
dipping needle and the intensity of the horizontal component of
the magnetic force both possessed a diurnal variation.

§ 2. Whilst Italy, England and France claim most of the
early observational discoveries, Germany deserves a large
share of credit for the great improvement in instruments and
methods during the first half of the igth century. Measure-
ments of the intensity of the magnetic force were somewhat
crude until Gauss showed how absolute results could be obtained,
and not merely relative data based on observations with some
particular needle. Gauss also devised the bifilar magnetometer,
which is still largely represented in instruments measuring
changes of the horizontal force; but much of the practical
success attending the application of his ideas to instruments
seems due to Johann von Lament (1805-1879), a Jesuit of
Scottish origin resident in Germany.

The institution of special observatories for magnetic work is
largely due to Humboldt and Gauss. The latter's observatory
at Gottingen, where regular observations began in 1834, was
the centre of the Magnetic Union founded by Gauss and Weber
for the carrying out of simultaneous magnetic observations

and it was long customary to employ Gottingen time in schemes
of international co-operation.

In the next decade, mainly through the influence of Sir Edward
Sabine (1788-1883), afterwards president of the Royal Society,
several magnetic observatories were established in the British
colonies, at St Helena, Cape of Good Hope, Hobarton (now
Hobart) and Toronto. These, with the exception of Toronto,
continued in full action for only a few years; but their records —
from their widely distributed positions — threw much fresh light
on the differences between magnetic phenomena in different
regions of the globe. The introduction of regular magnetic
observatories led ere long to the discovery that there are
notable differences between the amplitudes of the regular daily
changes and the frequency of magnetic disturbances in different
years. The discovery that magnetic phenomena have a period
closely similar to, if not absolutely identical with, the " eleven
year " period in sunspots, was made independently and nearly
simultaneously about the middle of the igth century by
Lament, Sabine and R. Wolf.

The last half of the igth century showed a large increase in
the number of observatories taking magnetic observations.
After 1890 there was an increased interest in magnetic work.
One of the contributory causes was the magnetic survey of the
British Isles made by Sir A. Riicker and Sir T. E. Thorpe, which
served as a stimulus to similar work elsewhere; another was the
institution by L. A. Bauer of a magazine, Terrestrial Magnetism,
specially devoted to the subject. This increased activity added
largely to the stock of information, sometimes in forms of
marked practical utility; it was also manifested in the publication
of a number of papers of a speculative character. For historical
details the writer is largely indebted to the works of E. Walker1
and L. A. Bauer.3

§ 3. All the more important magnetic observatories are provided
with instruments of two kinds. Those of the first kind give the
absolute value of the magnetic elements at the time of Observa-
observation. 'The unifilar magnetometer (q.v.), for tional
instance, givestheabsolute values of the declination and Methods and
horizontal force, whilst the inclinometer (q.v.) or dip Records.
circle gives the inclination of the dipping needle. Instruments of
the second kind, termed magnetographs (q.v.), are differential and
self-recording, and show the changes constantly taking place in the
magnetic elements. The ordinary form of magnetograph records
photographically. Light reflected from a fixed mirror gives a base
line answering to a constant value of the element in question; the
light is cut off every hour or second hour so that the base line also
serves to make the time. Light reflected from a mirror carried
by a magnet gives a curved line answering to the changes
in position of the magnet. The length of the ordinate or
perpendicular drawn from any point of the curved line on
to the base line is proportional to the extent of departure of
the magnet from a standard position. If then we know the
absolute value of the element which corresponds to the base
line, and the equivalent of I cm. of ordinate, we can deduce the
absolute value of the element answering to any given instant of time.
In the case of the declination the value of I cm. of ordinate is usually
dependent almost entirely on the distance of the mirror carried by
the magnet from the photographic paper, and so remains invariable
or very nearly so. In the case of the horizontal force and vertical
force magnetographs — these being the two force components usually
recorded — the value of I cm. of ordinate alters with the strength
of the magnet. It has thus to be determined from time to time by
observing the deflection shown on the photographic paper when an
auxiliary magnet of known moment, at a measured distance, deflects
the magnetograph magnet. Means are provided for altering the
sensitiveness, for instance, by changing the effective distance in
the bifilar suspension of the horizontal force magnet, and by all-
the height of a small weight carried by the vertical force ma
It is customary to aim at keeping the sensitiveness as constai
possible. A very common standard is to have I cm. of ordinate
corresponding to 10' of arc in the declination and to 5°T
(17 = 0-00001 C.G.S.) in the horizontal and vertical force magneto-
graphs.

As an example of how the curves are standardized, suppose tha
absolute observations of declination are taken four times a month,
and that in a given month the mean of the observed values is i6°34''6
W. The curves are measured at the places which correspond to
the times of the four observations, and the mean length of the four
ordinates is, let us say, 2-52 cms. If I cm. answers to 10', then 2'5^
cms. represents 25'-2, and thus the value of the base line — i.e. the
value which the declination would have if the curve came down to
the base line — is for the month in question 16° 34'-6 less 25' -2 or

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

355

•"*

i

16° 9' 4. If now we wish to know the declination at any instant in
this particular month all we have to do is to measure the correspond-
ing ordinate and add its value, at the rate of 10' per cm., to the base
1 6° ct'-.\ just found. Matters are a little more complicated in
of the horizontal and vertical force magnetographs. Both

::nents usually possess a sensible temperature coefficient, i.e.
Hi of the magnet is dependent to some extent on the
rature it happens to possess, and allowance has thus to be
for the difference from a standard temperature. In the case
of the vertical force an " observed " value is derived by combining
.^•rved value of the inclination with the simultaneous value
of the horizontal force derived from the horizontal force magneto-
graph after the base value of the latter has been determined.
In themselves the results of the absolute observations are of minor
interest. Their main importance is that they provide the means
of fixing the value of the base line in the curves. Unless they
are made carefully and sufficiently often the information de-
rivable from the curves suffers in accuracy, especially that relating
to the secular change. It is from the curves that informa-
tion is derived as to the regular diurnal variation and irregular
changes. In some observatories it is customary to publish a com-
plete record of the values of the magnetic elements at every hour

ich day of the year. A useful and not unusual addition to this

tatement of the absolutely largest and smallest values of each
element recorded during each day, with the precise times of their
<xTurrence. On days of large disturbance even hourly readings give
but a very imperfect idea of the phenomena, and it is customary at
some observatories, e.g. Greenwich, to reproduce the more disturbed
curves in the annual volume. In calculating the regular diurnal
variation it is usual to consider each month separately. So far as
is known at present, it is entirely or almost entirely a matter of
accident at what precise hours specially high or low values of an
element may present themselves during an individual highly dis-
turbed day; whilst the range of the element on such a day may be
5, 10 or even 20 times as large as on the average undisturbed day
of the month. It is thus customary when calculating diurnal in-
equalities to omit the days of largest disturbance, as their inclusion
would introduce too large an element of uncertainty. Highly
disturbed days are more than usually common in some years, and
in some months of the year, thus their omission may produce effects
other than that intended. Even on days of lesser disturbance
difficulties present themselves. There may be to and fro move-
ments of considerable amplitude occupying under an hour, and the
hour may come exactly at the crest or at the very lowest part of the
trough. Thus, if the reading represents in every case the ordinate
at the precise hour a considerable element of chance may be intro-
duced. If one is dealing with a mean from several hundred days
such " accidents " can be trusted to practically neutralize one
another, but this is much less fully the case when the period is as
short as a month. To meet this difficulty it is customary at some
observatories to derive hourly values from a freehand curve of
continuous curvature, drawn so as to smooth out the apparently

ilar movements. Instead of drawing a freehand curve it has
been proposed to use a planimeter, and to accept as the hourly value
of the ordinate the mean derived from a consideration of the area
included between the curve, the base line and ordinates at the thirty
minutes before and after each hour.

5 4. Partly on account of the uncertainties due to disturbances,
and partly with a view to economy of labour, it has been the practice
at some observatories to derive diurnal inequalities from a com-
paratively small number of undisturbed or quiet days. Beginning
with 1890, five days a month were selected at Greenwich by the
astronomer royal as conspicuously quiet. In the selection regard

• iid to the desirability that the arithmetic mean of the five dates
should answer to near the middle of the month. In some of the other
English observatories the routine measurement of the curves was
limited to these selected quiet days. At Greenwich itself diurnal
inequalities were derived regularly from the quiet days alone and also
from all the days of the month, excluding those of large disturbance.
If a quiet day differed from an ordinary day only in that the diurnal
variation in the latter was partly obscured by irregular disturbances,
then supposing enough days taken to smooth out irregularities, one
would get the same diurnal inequality from ordinary and from quiet
It was found, however, that this was hardly ever the case

§§ 29 and 30). The quiet day scheme thus failed to secure
: ly what was originally aimed at ; on the other hand, it led to the

very of a number of interesting results calculated to throw
valuable sidelights on the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism.
The idea of selecting quiet days seems due originally to H. Wild.
s selected quiet days for St Petersburg and Pavlovsk were
•cry few in number, in some months not even a single day
reaching his standard of freedom from disturbance. In later years
the International Magnetic Committee requested the authorities
Jf each observatory to arrange the days of each month in three
groups representing the quiet, the moderately disturbed and the
highly disturbed. The statistics are collected and published on
behalf of the committee, the first to undertake the duty being
M. Snellen. The days are in all cases counted from Greenwich mid-
night, so that the results are strictly synchronous. The results
promise to be of much interest.

Charts.

§ 5. The intensity and direction of the resultant magnetic force
at a spot — i.e. the force experienced by a unit magnetic pole — are
known if we know the three components of force parallel to any set
of orthogonal axes. It is usual to take for these axes the vertical
at the spot and two perpendicular axes in the horizontal plane; the
latter are usually taken in and perpendicular to the geographical
meridian. The usual notation in mathematical work is X to the
north, Y to the west or east, and Z vertically downwards. The
international magnetic committee have recommended that Y be
taken positive to the east, but the fact that the declination is westerly
over most of Europe has often led to the opposite procedure, and
writers are not always as careful as they should be in stating their
choice. Apart from mathematical calculations, the more usual
course is to define the force by its horizontal and vertical components
— usually termed Hand V — and by the declination or angle which the
horizontal component makes with the astronomical meridian. The
declination is sometimes counted from o° to 360°, o° answering to
the case when the so-called north pole (or north seeking pole) is
directed towards geographical north, 90° to the case when it is directed
to the east, and so on. It is more usual, however, to reckon declina-
tion only from o° to 180°, characterizing it as easterly or westerly
according as the north pole points to the east or to the west of the
geographical meridian. The force is also completely defined by H
or V, together with D the declination, and I the inclination to the
horizon of the dipping needle. Instead of H and D some writers
make use of N the northerly component, and W the westerly (or E
the easterly). The resultant force itself is denoted sometimes by R,
sometimes by T (total force). The following relationships exist
between the symbols

X=N, Y=W or E, Z=V, R=T,
H = V(X2+YZ), R = V(XJ+Y'+Z'),
tanD = Y/X, tanI=V/H.

The term magnetic element is applied to R or any of the components,
and even to the angles D and I.

§ 6. Declination is the element concerning which our know-
ledge is most complete and most reliable. With a good
unifilar magnetometer, at a fixed observatory distant
from the magnetic poles, having a fixed mark of
known azimuth, the observational uncertainty in a single
observation should not exceed o'-5 or at most i'-o. It cannot be
taken for granted that different unifilars, even by the best makers,
will give absolutely identical values for the declination, but as a
matter of fact the differences observed are usually very trifling.
The chief source of uncertainty in the observation lies in the
torsion of the suspension fibre, usually of silk or more rarely of
phosphor bronze or other metal. A very stout suspension must
be avoided at all cost, but the fibre must not be so thin as to have
a considerable risk of breaking even in skilled hands. Near a
magnetic pole the directive force on the declination magnet is
reduced, and the effects of torsion are correspondingly increased.
On the other hand, the regular and irregular changes of declina-
tion are much enhanced. If an observation consisting of four
readings of declination occupies twelve minutes, the chances are
that in this time the range at an English station will not exceed
i', whereas at an arctic or antarctic station it will frequently
exceed 10'. Much greater uncertainty thus attaches to declina-
tion results in the Arctic and Antarctic than to those in temperate
latitudes. In the case of secular change data one important
consideration is that the observations should be taken at an
absolutely fixed spot, free from any artificial source of disturb-
ance. In the case of many of the older observations of which
records exist, the precise spot cannot be very exactly fixed, and
not infrequently the site has become unsuitable through the
erection of buildings not free from iron. Apart from buildings,
much depends on whether the neighbourhood is free from basal-
tic and other magnetic rocks. If there are no local disturbances
of this sort, a few yards difference is usually without
appreciable influence, and even a few miles difference is of minor
importance when one is calculating the mean secular change
for a long period of years. When, however, local disturbances
exist, even a few feet difference in the site may be important, and
in the absence of positive knowledge to the contrary it is only
prudent to act as if the site were disturbed. Near a magnetic
pole the declination naturally changes very rapidly when one
travels in the direction perpendicular to the lines of equal
declination, so that the exact position of the site of observation
is there of special importance.

356

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

The usual method of conveying information as to the value of the
declination at different parts of the earth's surface is to draw curves
on a map — the so-called isogonals — such that at all points on any
one curve the declination at a given specified epoch has the same
value. The information being of special use to sailors, the pre-
paration of magnetic charts has been largely the work of naval
authorities — more especially of the hydrographic department of the
British admiralty. The object of the admiralty world charts — four
of which are reproduced here, on a reduced scale, by the kind per-
mission of the Hydrographer — is rather to show the general features
boldly than to indicate minute details. Apart from the immediate
necessities of the case, this is a counsel of prudence. The observa-
tions used have mostly been taken at dates considerably anterior
to that to which the chart is intended to apply. What the sailor
wants is the declination now or for the next few years, not what it
was five, ten or twenty years ago. Reliable secular change data, for
reasons already indicated, are mainly obtainable from fixed observ-
atories, and there are enormous areas outside of Europe where no such
observatories exist. Again, as we shall see presently, the rate of the
secular change sometimes alters greatly in the course of a compara-
tively few years. Thus, even when the observations themselves
are thoroughly reliable, the prognostication made for a future date
by even the most experienced of chart makers may be occasionally
somewhat wide of the mark. Fig. I is a reduced copy of the British
admiralty declination chart for the epoch 1907. It shows the iso-
gonals between 70° N. and 65° S. latitude. Beyond the limits of
this chart, the number of exact measurements of declination is

whose centre is the pole. At all points on the circle the positions
of the needle will be parallel ; but whereas the north pole of the magnet
will point exactly towards the centre of the circle at one of the points
where the straight line drawn on the ground cuts the circumference,
it will at the opposite end of the diameter point exactly away from
the centre. The former part is clearly on the isogonal where the
declination is o°, the latter on the isogonal where it is 180°. Iso-
gonals will thus radiate out from the north geographical pole (and
similarly of course from the south geographical pole) in all directions.
If we travel along an isogonal, starting from the north magnetic pole,
our course will generally take us, often very circuitpusly, to the north
geographical pole. If, for example, we select the isogonal of 10° E.,
we at first travel nearly south, but then more and more westerly,
then ncrth-westerly across the north-east of Asia; the direction then
gets less northerly, and makes a dip to the south before finally
making for the north geographical pole. It is possible, however,
according to the chart, to travel direct from the north magnetic to
the south geographical pole, provided we select an isogonal answering
to a small westerly or easterly declination (from about 19° W. to
7°E.).

Special interest attaches to the isogonals answering to declination
o°. These are termed agonic lines, but sailors often call them lines
of no variation, the term variation having at one time been in common
use in the sense of declination. If we start from the north magnetic
pole the agonic line takes us across Canada, the United States and
South America in a fairly straight course to the south geographical
pole. A curve continuous with this can be drawn from the south

E. lioE. 180 !6oW uoW

iooW. 8o*W. ' Uo'W. 4o'W.

a'E. 40 E. 6o*E. 80 E. ioo°E. I3O°E. i4o"E. ifioE

t*m • clMrt, by ptnrlwten of tb« JUwd* Owoiui.lloMn «f tl» AJmiridlJ Til* pardon or.r 111. Bnli.fa Ilia •

Eoitry Wmlket K.

"Fia. I. — Isogonals, or lines of equal magnetic declination.

somewhat limited, but the general nature of the phenomena is easily
inferred. The geographical and the magnetic poles — where the
dipping needle is vertical — are fundamental points. The north
magnetic pole is situated in North America near the edge of the
chart. We have no reason to suppose that the magnetic pole is
really a fixed point, but for our present purpose we may regard it
as such. Let us draw an imaginary circle round it, and let us travel
round the circle in the direction, west, north, east, south, starting
from a point where the north pole of a magnet (i.e. the pole which
in Europe or the United States points to the north) is directed exactly
towards the astronomical north. The point we start from is to the
geographical south of the magnetic pole. As we go round the circle
the needle keeps directed to the magnetic pole, and so points first
slightly to the east of geographical north, then more and more to
the east, then directly east, then to south of east, then to due south,
to west of south, to west, to north-west, and finally when we get
round to our original position due north once more. Thus, during
our course round the circle the needle will have pointed in all possible
directions. In other words, isogonals answering to all possible values
of the declination have their origin in the north magnetic pole. The
same remark applies of course to the south magnetic pole.

Now, suppose ourselves at the north geographical pole of the earth.
Neglecting as before diurnal variation and similar temporary changes,
and assuming no abnormal local disturbance, the compass needle
at and very close to this pole will occupy a fixed direction relative
to the ground underneath. Let us draw on the ground through the
pole a straight line parallel to the direction taken there by the com-
pass needle, and let us carry a compass needle round a small circle

geographical to the south magnetic pole at every point of which the
needle points in the geographical meridian; but here the north pole
of the needle is pointing south, not north, so that this portion of curve
is really an isogonal of 180°. In continuation of this there emanates
from the south magnetic pole a second isogonal of o°, or agonic line,
which traverses Australia, Arabia and Russia, and takes us to the
north geographical pole. Finally, we have an isogonal of 180°,
continuous with this second isogonal of o° which takes us to the north
magnetic pole, from which we started. Throughout the whole area
included within these isogonals of o° and 180° — excluding locally
disturbed areas — the declination is westerly; outside this area the
declination is in general easterly. There is, however, as shown in the
chart, an isogonal of o° enclosing an area in eastern Asia inside which
the declination is westerly though small.

§ 7. Fig. 2 is a reduced copy of the admiralty chart of inclina-
tion or dip for the epoch 1907. The places where the dip has the
same value lie on curves called isoclinals. The dip is northerly (north
pole dips) or southerly (south pole dips) according as the place is
north or south of the isoclinal of o°. At places actually on this
isoclinal the dipping needle is horizontal. The isoclinal of c
is nowhere very far from the geographical equator, but lies t(
the north of it in Asia and Africa, and to the south of it in South
America. As we travel north from the isoclinal of o° along the
meridian containing the magnetic pole the dipping needle's north
pole dips more and more, until when we reach the magnetic pole the
needle is vertical. Going still farther north, we have the dip dimin-
ishing. The northerly inclination is considerably less in Europe
than in the same latitudes of North America; and correspondingly

th,

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

357

. .ie southerly inclination is less in South America than in the same
latitudes of Africa.

Kiy. 3 is a reduced copy of the admiralty horizontal force chart
for 1907. The curves, called isomagnetics, connect the places where

force. The total force is least in equatorial regions, where values
slightly under 0-4 C.G.S. are encountered. In the northern hemis-
phere there are two distinct maxima of total force. One of these
so-called foci is in Canada, the other in the north-east of Siberia, the

***

nj i«> iff t&f itf if at

FIG. 2 — Isoclinals, or lines of equal magnetic dip.

the horizontal force has the same value; the force is expressed in
C.G.S. units. The horizontal force vanishes of course at the magnetic
poles. The chart shows a maximum value of between 0-39 and 0-40
in an oval including the south of Siam and the China Sea. The
horizontal force is smaller in North America than in corresponding
latitudes in Europe.

Charts are sometimes drawn for other magnetic elements, especi-
ally vertical force (fig. 4) and total force. The isomagnetic of zero
vertical force coincides necessarily with that of zero dip, and there
is in general considerable resemblance between the forms of lines of
equal vertical force and those of equal dip. The highest values of
the vertical force occur in areas surrounding the magnetic poles,
and are fully 50% larger than the largest values of the horizontal

former having the higher value of the force. There are, however,
higher values of the total force than at either of these foci throughout
a considerable area to the south of Australia. In the northern
hemisphere the lines of equal total force-|-called isodynamic lines —
form two sets more or less distinct, consisting of closed ovals, one
set surrounding the Canadian the other the Siberian focus.

§ 8. As already explained, magnetic charts for the world or for
large areas give only a general idea of the values of the elements.
If the region is undisturbed, very fairly approximate values are
derivable from the charts, but when the highest accuracy is necessary
the only thing to do is to observe at the precise spot. In disturbed
areas local values often depart somewhat widely from what one
would infer from the chart, and occasionally there are large differences

8o*W. 6cf\V.

x>*E. 4o°E. 6o'E. eo'E. i<x>E. tao'E. uo'E. tte'E. itb* ito'W.

ixfw. too'W. to'W.

icrr * ..K t

FIG. 3. — Isomagnetics, lines of equal horizontal force.

358

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

between places only a few miles apart. Magnetic observatories
usually publish the mean value for the year of their magnetic
elements. It has been customary for many years to
collect and publish these results in the annual report
of the Kew Observatory (Observatory Department
of the National Physical Laboratory). The data in
Tables I. and II. are mainly derived from this
source. The observatories are arranged in order of
latitude, and their geographical co-ordinates are given in Table
II., longitude being reckoned from Greenwich. Table I. gives
the mean values of the declination, inclination and horizontal
force for January I, 1901; they are in the main arithmetic means
of the mean annual values for the two years 1900 and 1901. The
mean annual secular changes given in this table are derived from a
short period of years — usually 1898 to 1903 — the centre of which fell

Magnetic
Elements
and their
Secular
Change.

east all over Europe, and the rate at which it is moving seems not
to vary much throughout the continent. The needle is also moving
to the east throughout the western parts of Asia, the north and east
of Africa, and the east of North America. It is moving to the west
in the west of North America, in South America, and in the south
and east of Asia, including Japan, south-east Siberia, eastern China
and most of India.

§ 9. The information in figs. I, 2, 3 and 4 and in Tables I. and
II. applies only to recent years. Owing to secular change, recent
charts differ widely from the earliest ones constructed. The first
charts believed to have been constructed were those of Edmund
Halley the astronomer. According to L. A. Bauer, 7 who has made
a special study of the subject, Halley issued two declination charts
for the epoch 1700; one, published in 1701, was practically confined
to the Atlantic Ocean, whilst the second, published in 1702, contained

*?-

W. 6o'W. 4o°W. ro°W. o' xTE. ffE. 6o*E. 8o°E. Foo'E. infE, i4o'E. F6o°E. Fte* iSo'W. F4O*W. jao'W. too'W. 8cfW.

FIG. 4. — Isomagnetics, lines of equal vertical force.

at the beginning of 1901. Table II. is similar to Table I., but in-
cludes vertical force results; it is more extensive and contains more
recent data. In it the number of years is specified from which the
mean secular change is derived ; in all cases the last year of the period
employed was that to which the absolute values assigned to the ele-
ment belong. The great majority of the stations have declination
west and inclination north; it has thus been convenient to attach
the + sign to increasing westerly (or decreasing easterly) declination
and to increasing northerly (or decreasing southerly) inclination. In
other words, in the case of the declination + means that the north
end of the needle is moving to the west, while in the case of the in-
clination + means that the north end (whether the dipping end
or not) is moving towards the nadir. In the case, however, of the
vertical force 4- means simply numerical increase, irrespective of
whether the north or the south pole dips. The unit employed in
the horizontal and vertical force secular changes is 17, i.e. o-ooooi
C.G.S. Even in the declination, at the very best observatories, it
is hardly safe to assume that the apparent change from one year to
the next is absolutely truthful to nature. This is especially the case
if there has been any change of instrument or observer, or if any
alteration has been made to buildings in the immediate vicinity.
A change of instrument is a much greater source of uncertainty in
the case of horizontal force or dip than in the case of declination,
and dip circles and needles are more liable to deterioration than
magnetometers. Thus, secular change data for. inclination and
vertical force are the least reliable. The uncertainties, of course, are
much less, from a purely mathematical standpoint, for secular
changes representing a mean from five or ten years than for those
derived from successive years' values of the elements. The longer,
however, the period of years, the greater is the chance that one of
the elements may in the course of it have passed through a maximum
or minimum value. This possibility should always be borne in
mind in cases where a mean secular change appears exceptionally
small.

As Tables I. and II. show, the declination needle is moving to the

also data for the Indian Ocean and part of the Pacific. These charts
showed the isogonic lines, but only over the ocean areas. Though
the charts for 1700 were the first published, there are others which
apply to earlier epochs. W. van Bemmelen8 has published charts
for the epochs 1500, 1550, 1600, 1650 and 1700, whilst H. Fritsche'
has more recently published charts of declination, inclination and
horizontal force for 1600, 1700, 1780, 1842 and 1915. A number
of early declination charts were given in Hansteen's Atlas and in
G. Hellmann's reprints, Die Altesten Karten der Isogonen, Isoklinen,
Isodynamen (Berlin, 1895). The data for the earlier epochs, especi-
ally those prior to 1700, are meagre, and in many cases probably of
indifferent accuracy, so that the reliability of the charts for these
epochs is somewhat open to doubt.

If we take either Hansteen's or Fritsche's declination chart for
1600 we notice a profound difference from fig. I. In 1600 the agonic
line starting from the north magnetic pole, after finding its way south
to the Gulf of Mexico, doubled back to the north-east, and passed
across or near Iceland. After getting well to the north of Iceland
it doubled again to the south, passing to the east of the Baltic,
second agonic line which now lies to the west of St Petersburg
appears in 1600 to have continued, after traversing Australia, in a
nearly northerly direction through the extreme east of China. The
nature of the changes in declination in western Europe will be under-
stood from Table III., the data from which, though derived from a
variety of places in the south-east of England,10 may be regarded as
approximately true of London. The earliest result is that obtained
by Borough at Limehouse. Those made in the i6th century
are due to Gunter, Gellibrand, Henry Bond and Halley. The
observations from 1787 to 1805 were due to George Gilpin, wh<
published particulars of his own and the earlier observations in the
Phil. Trans, for 1806. The data for 1817 and 1820 were obtained
by Col. Mark Beaufoy, at Bushey, Herts. They seem to come pre-
cisely at the time when the needle, which had been continuous!
moving to the west since the earliest observations, began to retrace
its steps. The data from 1860 onwards apply to Kew.

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

359

TABLE I. — Magnetic Elements and their Rate of Secular Change for
January I, 1901.

Place.

Absolute values.

Secular change.

D.

I.

H.

D.

I.

H.

0 /

0 /

/

/

y

Pavlovsk

o 39-8E

70 36-8N

•16553

- 4-1

-0-8

+ 7

ICkatarinburg .

10 6-3E

70 40-sN

•17783

- 4-6

+0-5

-13

Copenhagen

10 io-4\V

68 38-SN

•17525

Stonyhurst .

i 8 io-3\V

68 48-oN

•17330

- 4-0

+22

Wilhelmshaven.

12 26'OW

67 39-7N

•18108

- 4-1

— 2-1

+20

Potsdam

954-2W

66 24.5N

•18852

- 4-2

-1-6

+ 16

Irkutsk . .

2 l-oE

70 I5-8N

•2OI22

+ 0-5

+ 1-6

-14

de Bilt . . .

13 48-3W

66 55-sN

•18516

- 4.4

— 2-2

+ 14

Kew. . . .

1 6 50- 8 W

67 io-6N

•18440

- 4-2

— 2-2

+ 25

nwich .

l627-5\V

67 7-3N

•18465

- 4-0

—2-2

+23

Uccle . . .

14 n-oW

66 8-8N

•18954

- 4-2

— 2-1

+ 23

Falmouth .

18 27-3W

66 44-oN

•18705

- 3-8

-2-7

+ 26

Prague .

9 4'4W

•19956

- 4'4

+20

St Helier . .

1658-iW

65 44-iN

- 3'5

-2-7

Pare St Maur .
Val Joyeux.

14 43-4W
15 I3-7W

64 52-3N
65 o-oN

•19755}
•19670$

- 4-0

— 2-2

+23

Munich.

10 25-8W

63 i8-iN

•20629

- 4-8

-2-7

+21

OV.valla . .

7 26-iW

•21164

- 4-8

+ 13

Pola. . . .

9 22-7W

60 I4-5N

•22216

- 4-0

+23

Toulouse

14 i6-4\V

60 55-9N

•21945

- 3'9

-2-5

+25

Perpignan .

13 34-7W

59 57-6N

•22453

• di Monte.

9 8-oW

56 22-3N

- 5-2

-2-3

Madrid .

15 39-oW

Coimbra

17 i8-iW

59 22-oN

•22786

- 3'7

-4'3

+34

Lisbon .

17 I5-7W

57 53-oN

•23548

Athens .

5 38-2W

52 7-sN

•26076

San Fernando .

15 57-5W

55 8-8N

•24648

Tokyo . . .

4 34-9\V

49 o-3N

•29932

Zi-ka-wci .

2 23.5W

45 43-5N

•32875

+ i-5

-1-5

+37

IlrKvan .

3 39-7W

40 30-8N

•30136

- 7-0

-0-4

- 7

llony-Kong.
Kolaba .

o I7-5E

0 23-2E

31 22-8N
21 26-sN

•36753
•37436

+ 1-8

+ 2-2

-4'3
+7'0

+45
- 9

Manila .

0 52-2E

16 I3-5N

•38064

+ O-I

-5'3

+47

Bat ivia

i 7-3E

30 35-5S

•36724

+ 3-o

-7'3

— ii

Mauritius .

9 25-2W

54 9-4S

•23820

- 4-7

+4'6

-39

Rio de Janeiro.

8 2-9W

13 20- iS

•2501

+ 10-4

-2-3

Melbourne .

8 25-6E

67 24-6S

•23295

The rate of movement of the needle to the east at London — and
throughout Europe generally — fell off markedly subsequent to 1880.
The change of declination in fact between 1880 and 1895 was only
about 75% of that between 1865 and 1880, and the mean annual
change from 1895 to 1900 was less than 75% of the mean annual
change of the preceding fifteen years. Thus in 1902 it was at least
open to doubt whether a change in the sign of the secular change
\vi TI- not in immediate prospect. Subsequent, however, to that date
there was little further decline in the rate of secular change, and
since 1905 there has been very distinct acceleration. Thus, if we
derive a mean value from the eighteen European stations for which
declination secular changes are given in Tables I. and II.
we find

mean value from table I. -4-18
.. , II. -5-21

The epoch to which the data in Table II. refer is somewhat variable,
but is in all cases more recent than the epoch, January I, 1901, for
Table I., the mean difference being about 5 years.

§ 10. At Paris there seems to have been a maximum of easterly
declination (about 9°) about 1580; the needle pointed to true north
about 1662, and reached its extreme westerly position between 1812
and 1814. The phenomena at Rome resembled those at Paris and
London, but the extreme westerly position is believed to have been
attained earlier. The rate of change near the turning point seems
to have been very slow, and as no fixed observatories existed in those
days, the precise time of its occurrence is open to some doubt.
_ Perhaps the most complete observations extant as to the declina-
tion phenomena near a turning point relate to Kolaba observatory
at Bombay ; they were given originally by N. A. F. Moos,11 the director
of the observatory. Some of the more interesting details are given
in Table IV. ; nere W denotes movement to be west, and so answers
to a numerical diminution in the declination, which is easterly.

Prior to 1880 the secular change at Kolaba was unmistakably to
the east, and subsequent to 1883 it was clearly to the west; but be-
tween these dates opinions will probably differ as to what actually
happened. The fluctuations then apparent in the sign of the annual
change may be real, but it is at least conceivable that they are of
instrumental origin. From 1870 to 1875 the mean annual change
was - 1 -2 ; from 1885 to 1890 it was +l'-5, from 1890 to 1895 it was
•2 -o, while from 1895 to 1905 it was +2'-35, the + sign denoting
movement to the west. Thus, in this case the rate of secular change
has increased fairly steadily since the turning point was reached.

Table V. contains some data for St Helena and the Cape
of Good Hope," both places having a long magnetic history.
The remarkable feature at St Helena is the uniformity in
the rate of secular change. The figures for the Cape show
a reversal in the direction of the secular change about 1840,
but after a few years the arrested movement to the west
again became visible. According, however, to J. C. Beattie's
Magnetic Survey of South Africa the movement to the west
ceased shortly after 1870. A persistent movement to the
east then set in, the mean annual change increasing from
i'-8 between 1873 and 1890 to 3'-8 between 1890 and
1900.

§ II. Secular changes of declination have been par-
ticularly interesting in the United States, an area about
which information is unusually complete, thanks to the
labours and publications of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey." At present the agonic line passes in a
south-westerly direction from Lake Superior to South
Carolina. To the east of the agonic line the declination is
westerly, and to the west it is easterly. In 1905 the
declination varied from about 21° W. in the extreme north-
east to about 24° E. in the extreme north-west. At present
the motion of the agonic line seems to be towards the west,
but it is very slow. To the east of the agonic line westerly
declination is increasing, and to the west of the line, with
the exception of a narrow strip immediately adjacent to
it, easterly declination is increasing. The phenomena in
short suggest a motion southwards in the north magnetic
pole. Since 1750 declination has always been westerly in
the extreme east of the States, and always easterly in the
extreme west, but the position of the agonic line has
altered a good deal. It was to the west of Richmond,
Virginia, from 1750 to about 1772, then to the east of it
until about 1838 when it once more passed to the west;
since that time it has travelled farther to the west. Table VI.
is intended to show the nature of the secular change
throughout the whole country. As before, + denotes that
the north pole of the magnet is moving to the west,— that it
is moving to the east.

The data in Table VI. represent the mean change of
declination per annum, derived from the period (ten years,
except for 1900-1905) which ended in the year put at the
top of the column. The stations are arranged in four groups,
the first group representing the extreme eastern, the last
group the extreme western states, the other two groups
being intermediate. In each group the stations are arranged,
at least approximately, in order of latitude. The data are derived
from the values of the declination given in tne (jeoiu-uc survey's
Report for 1906, appendix 4, and Magnetic Tables and Magnetic Charts
by L. A. Bauer, 1908. The values seem, in most cases, based to some
extent on calculation, and very probably the secular change
was not in reality quite so regular as the figures suggest. For
the Western States the earliest data are comparatively recent,
but for some of the eastern states data earlier than any in the
table appear in the Report of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for
1902. These data indicate that the easterly movement of the
magnet, visible in all the earlier figures for the Eastern States in
Table VI., existed in all of them at least as far back as 1700. There
is not very much evidence as to the secular change between 1700
and 1650, the earliest date to which the Coast and Geodetic Survey's
figures refer. The figures show a maximum of westerly declination
about 1670 in New Jersey and about 1675 in Maryland. They
suggest that this maximum was experienced all along the Atlantic
border some time in the 17th century, but earlier in the extreme
north-east than in New York or Maryland.

Examination of Table VI. shows that the needle continued to
move to the east for some time after 1750 even in the Eastern
States. But the rate of movement was clearly diminishing, and
about 1765 the extreme easterly position was reached in Eastport,
Maine, the needle then beginning to retrace its steps to the west.
The phenomena visible at Maine are seen repeating themselves at
places more and more to the west, in Boston about 1785, in Albany
about 1800, in Washington, D.C., about 1805, in Columbus (Ohio)
about 1815, in Montgomery (Alabama) about 1825, in Bloomington
(111.) about 1830, in DesMoines (Iowa) about 1840, in Santa Rosa (New
Mexico) about 1860 and in Salt Lake about 1870. In 1885 the needle
was moving to the west over the whole United States with the
exception of a comparatively narrow strip along the Pacific coast.
Even an acute observer would have been tempted to prophesy in
1885 that at no distant date the secular change would be pronoun-
cedly westerly right up to the Pacific. But in a few years a complete
change took place. The movement to the east, which had become
exceedingly small, if existent, in the Pacific states, began to ac-
celerate; the movement to the west continued in the central, as in
the eastern states, but perceptibly slackened. In 1905 the area
throughout which the movement to the west still continued had
greatly contracted and lay to the east of a line drawn from the west
end of Lake Superior to the west of Georgia. If we take a station
like Little Rock (Arkansas), we have the secular change to the

36°

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

TABLE II. — Recent Values of the Magnetic Elements and their Rate of Secular Change.

Place.

Geographical position.

Absolute Values of Elements.

Secular change (mean per annum).

Latitude.

Longitude.

Year.

D.

i

I.

H.

V.

Interval
in years.

D.

I.

H.

V.

o /

o /

o /

o /

/

/

Pavlovsk

594IN

30 2gE

1906

i 4-2E

70 36-6N

•16528

•46963

5

-4'5

+0-1

- 6

-14

Sitka (Alaska) . .

57 3N

135 20W

1906

30 3-3E

744I-7N

•15502

•56646

4

-3-0

-1-6

+ 18

-38

Ekatarinburg .

5649N

60 38E

1906

10 31 -oE

70 49-sN

•17664

•50796

5

-4'5

+ 1-7

-23

+ 18

Rude Skov

(Copenhagen)

55 5'N

12 27E

1908

9 43-3W

684sN

•17406

•44759

Stonyhurst .

53 5iN

2 28W

1909

17 28-6W

68 42-8N

•17424

•44722

5

-5'9

— i-i

+ 6

-25

Hamburg

5333N

959E

1903

II IO-2W

67 23-5N

•18126

•43527

Wilhelmshaven .

5332N

8 gE

1909

.11 46-8W

•18129

5

-5-2

— 7

Potsdam.

5223N

13 4E

1909

9 io-6W

66 20-oN

•18834

•42971

5

-5'8

+0-1

- 9

-19

Irkutsk ....

52 i6N

104 i6E

1905

i 58-iE

70 25-oN

•2OOII

•56250

5

+0-6

+2-0

-24

+39

deBilt ....

52 5N

5 nE

1907

13 ig-oW

66 49-gN

•18559

•43368

5

-4'7

-0-6

+ 2

-16

Valencia.

Si 56N

10 isW

1909

20 50-3\V

68 is-iN

•17877

•44812

5

-5-0

— 1-2

+ 7

-25

Kew. ....

51 28N

o igW

1909

16 io-8W

66 59-7N

•18506

•43588

5

-5'4

— I-I

+ 2

-35

Greenwich .

51 28N

0 0

1909

15 47-6W

66 53-9N

•18526

•43432

5

-5-5

-0-7

+ I

— 20

Uccle ....

5048N

42iE

1908

13 36-7W

66 i-6N

•19061

•42867

4

-5'3

-0-8

~~ 3

-35

Fal mouth .

50 gN

5 5W

1909

17 48-4\V

66 30-6N

•18802

•43266

5

-4.7

-1-4

+ 9

-30

Prague ....

5° 5N

I425E

1908

8 ao-gW

5

-6-5

Cracow ....

50 4N

I958E

1909

5 35'iW

64 i8N

3

-7'3

St Helier . . .

49 I2N

2 5W

1907

16 27-4W

65 34-5N

5

-5'3

— 1-2

Val Joyeux .

48 49N

2 IE

1909

14 32-9W

64 43-gN

•19727

•41792

5

-5'4

-1-7

+ i

-5i

Vienna ....

48 I5N

16 2iE

1898

8 24-iW

Munich ....

48 gN

ii 37E

1906

9 59-5W

63 io-oN

•20657

•40835

5

-4-8

-i-3

+ 4

-31

O'Gyalla . . .

47 53N

18 I2E

1909

6 43-gW

•21094

5

-5-o

— 10

Odessa ....

46 26N

30 46E

1899

4 36-7W

62 I8-2N

•21869

•41660

Pola

44 52N

I55IE

1908

8 43-2W

60 6-8N

•222O7

•38640

5

-5-5

-0-6

- 4

-23

Agincourt (Toronto)

43 47 N

79 i6W

1906

5 45-3W

74 35-6N

•16397

•59502

4

+3'4

+0-9

-23

-24

Nice

43 43N

7 i6E

1899

12 4-oW

60 H-7N

•22390

•39087

Toulouse

43 37 N

i 28E

1905

13 56-3W

60 49-iN

•22025

•39439

5

-4'5

-i-5

+ 2

— 2

Perpignan .

42 42 N

253E

1907

13 4'4W

7

-4'7

Tiflfs. ....

41 43N

4448E

1905

2 4I-6E

56 2-8N

•25451

•37799

7

-5'2

+ i'7

-26

+ 2

Capo di Monte.

40 52 N

14 isE

1906

8 40- 3 W

56 I3-5N

5

-5-1

-i-5

Madrid ....

40 2sN

34oW

1901

I5'35'6W

Coimbra.

40 I2N

825W

1908

16 46-2W

58 57-3N

•22946

•38120

5

-4-6

-2-9

+ 17

-45

Baldwin (Kansas) .

3847N

95 loW

1906

830-iE

68 45- iN

•21807

•56081

4

-1-7

+ 1-8

-36

- 8

Cheltenham

(Maryland)

3844N

76 5oW

1906

5 22-oW

70 27-3N

•20035

•56436

4

+3-8

+ 1-2

-38

-45

Lisbon ....

3«43N

9 gW

1900

17 i8-oW

57 54-8N

•23516

•37484

Athens ....

3758N

21 23E

1908

4 52 -9\V

52 H-7N

•26197

•33613

5

-5-5

San Fernando .

36 28N

6 I2W

1908

15 25-6W

54 48-4N

•24829

•35206

5

-4-6

-2-8

+26

-24

Tokyo ....

354iN

139 45E

1901

436-iW

49 o-oN

•29954

•34459

Zi-ka-wei

31 I2N

121 26E

1906

2 32 -OW

45 35-3N

•33040

•33726

5

+i-5

-1-3

+30

+ 6

Dehra Dun .

30 igN

7» 3E

1907

2 38-3E

43 36- i N

•33324

•31736

4

+0-8

+5-5

-26

+77

Helwan ....

29 52 N

31 2iE

1909

2 49-2W

40 4O-4N

•30031

•25804

5

-5'7

+ 1-2

- 6

+ 13

Havana ....

23 8N

82 25W

1905

2 25-OE

52 57-4N

•3053I

•40452

Barrackpore

22 46N

8822E

1907

i 9-9E

30 30-2N

•37288

•21967

3

+4-2

+3'4

+21

+62

Hong- Kong .

22 I8N

114 loE

1908

o 3'9E

31 2-sN

•37047

•22292

5

+ 1-9

+43

— i

Honolulu

21 igN

158 4W

1906

9 2I-7E

40 I-8N

•2922O

•24545

4

-0-9

-3'2

-19

-62

Kolaba ....

I854N

72 49E

1905

o 14-oE

21 58-5N

•37382

•15084

5

+2-1

+7-2

— ii

+86

Alibagh ....

I839N

7252E

1909

i o-3E

23 29-oN

•36845

•16008

3

+ 1-7

+6-8

— IO

+82

Vieques (Porto Rice)

18 9N

65 26W

1906

i 33-2W

49 47-7N

•28927

•34224

2

+7-2

+6-8

-49

+66

Manila ....

H35N

120 sgE

1904

05I-4E

16 o-2N

•38215

• 10960

5

+0-1

-3'9

+47

-34

Kodaikanal .

10 I4N

7728E

1907

o 4O-7W

3 27-2N

•37431

•02259

4

+4'3

+5-5

+16

+61

Batavia ....

6 nS

106 49E

1906

054-iE

30 48-5S

•36708

•21889

4

+2-1

-7'7

— 2

+ 110

Dar es Salaam .

6498

39 i8E

1903

7 35-2W

Mauritius .

20 6S

57 33E

1908

9 I4-3W

53 44-9S

•23415

•31932

5

-0-3

+2-9

-53

-131

Rio de Janeiro .

2255S

43 "W

1906

8 55-3W

13 57-iS

•24772

•06164

5

+9-1

-6-8

-42

+44

Santiago (Chile)

33 278

70 42\V

1906

14 I8-7E

30 H-8S

3

+6-1

+9-9

Melbourne .

3750S

144 58E

1901

8 26-7E

67 25-08

•23305

•56024

Christchurch, N.Z.

43 32S

172 37E

1903

16 I8-4E

67 42-38

•22657

•55259

1

west lasting for about sixty years. Further west the period shortens.
At Pueblo (Colorado) it is about forty years, at Salt Lake under
thirty years, at Prescott (Arizona) about twenty years. Considering
how fast the area throughout which the secular change is easterly
has extended to the east since 1885, one would be tempted to infer
that at no distant date it will include the whole of the United
States. In the extreme north-east, however, the movement of the
needle to the west, which had slackened perceptibly after 1860 or
1870, is once more accelerating. Thus the auspices do not all
point one way, and the future is as uncertain as it is interesting.

§ 12. Table VII. gives particulars of the secular change of hori-
zontal force and northerly inclination at> London. Prior to the
middle of the igth century information as to the value of H is of
uncertain value. The earlier inclination data14 are due to Norman,
Gilbert, Bond, Graham, Heberden and Gilpin. The data from
1857 onwards, both for H and I, refer to Kew. " London " is
rather a vague term, but the differences between the values of H
and I at Kew and Greenwich — in the extreme west and east —
are almost nil. For some time after its discovery by Robert Norman
inclination at London increased. The earlier observations are not

sufficient to admit of the date of the maximum inclination or its
absolute value being determined with precision. Probably the date
was near 1723. This view is supported by the fact that at Paris
the inclination fell from 72° 15' in 1754 to 71° 48' in 1780. The

TABLE III. — Declination at London.

Date.

Declination.

Date.

Declination.

Date.

Declination.

o /

o /

0 /

1580

ii I5E

1773

21 9W

1860

21 38-9\V

1622

6 o

1787

23 19

1865

20 58-7

1634

4 6

1795

23 57

1870

20 18-3

1657

o o

1802

24 6

1875

19 35-6

1665

I 22W

1805

24 8

1880

18 52-1

1672

2 30

1817

24 36

1885

18 19-2

1692

6 0

1818

24 38

1890

17 50-6

1723

14 17

1819

24 36

1895

17 16-8

1748

17 40

1820

24 34

1900

16 52-7

1905

16 32-9 J

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

361

earlier observations in London were probably of no very high
accuracy, and the rates of secular change deducible from them are
correspondingly uncertain. It is not improbable that the average
annual change o'-8 derived from the thirteen years 1773-1786 is
ti*> Miiall, and the value 6'-2 derived from the fifteen years 1786-
1801 too large. There is, however, other evidence of unusually

TABLE IV. — Declination at Kolaba (Bombay).

Year.

Declina-
tion East.

Change since
previous year.

Year.

Declina-
tion East.

Change since
previous year.

1876
1877
1878
1879
1880

ait

o 55 58
56 39
57 6
57 30
57 9

/ *

037E
041 E
o 27 E
o 24 E

021 W

1881
1882
1883
1884
1885

O 1 »

o 57 12

o 56 50
57 2
55 39
55 3

/ V

o 3 E

022 W
0 12 E

i 23 W
036 W

rapid secular change of inclination towards the end of the l8th
century in western Europe; for observations in Paris show a fall
of 56' between 1780 and 1791, and of 90' between 1791 and 1806.
Between 1801 and 1901 inclination in London diminished by
3° 26'-5, or on the average by 2'-! per annum, while between 1857
and 1900 H increased on the average by 227 a year. These
values differ but little from the secular changes given in Table I.
as applying at Kew for the epoch Jan. i, 1901. Since the beginning,
however, of the 2Oth century a notable change has set in, which
seems shared by the whole of western Europe. This is shown in a
striking fashion by contrasting the data from European stations
in Tables I. and II. There are fifteen of these stations which give
secular change data for H in both tables, while thirteen give secular
data for I. The mean values of the secular changes derived from
these stations are as follows : —

I H

From Table I. -2'-35 +21-07

From Table II. -1-12 + 1-67

The difference in epoch between the two sets of results is only
about 5 years, and yet in that short time the mean rate of annual
increase in H fell to a thirteenth of its original value. During 1908-
1909 H diminished throughout all Europe except in the extreme
wi->t. Whether we have to do with merely a temporary phase, or
whether a general and persistent diminution in the value of H is
about to set in over Europe it is yet hardly possible to say.

§ 13. It is often convenient to obtain a formula to express the
mean annual change of an element during a given period throughout
an area of some size. The usual method is to assume that the
change at a place whose latitude is / and longitude X is given by

an expression of the type c+a(l— I0)+b(\— X0), where
a, b, c are constants, /„ and X0 denoting some fixed latitude and
longitude which it is convenient to take as point of departure.
Supposing observational data available from a series of stations
throughout the area, a, b and c can be determined by least squares.
As an example, we may take the following slightly modified formula
given by Ad. Schmidt 16 as applicable to Northern Europe for the
period 1890 to 1900. AD, AI and AH represent the mean annual
changes during this period in westerly declination, in inclination
and in horizontal force : —

t i t

AD = -5-24-o-07l(/-5o)+o-033(X — 10),
AI = — i-58+o-oio(/ — 5o)+o-036(X — 10),

AH = +23-5-0-59 (/-5o)-o-35 (X-io).

Longitude X is here counted positive to the east. The central
position assumed here (lat. 50°, long. 10° E.) falls in the north of

TABLE V. — Declination at St Helena and Cape of Good Hope.

St Helena.

Cape of Good Hope.

Date.

Declination.

Date.

Declination.

0 /

o /

1610

7 13 E

1605

o 30 E

1677

o 40

1609

0 12 W

1691

i o W

1675

8 14

1724

7 30

1691

II 0

1775

12 18

1775

21 14

1789
1796

15 30
15 48

1792
1818

24 31
26 31

1806

17 18

1839

29 9

1839

22 I?

1842

29 6

1840

22 53

1846

29 9

1846

23 II

1850

29 19

1890

23 57

1857

29 34

1874

30 4

1890

29 32

1903

28 44

Bavaria. In the case of the horizontal force unity represents
17. Schmidt found the above formulae to give results in very
close agreement with the data at the eight stations which he had
employed in determining the constants. These stations ranged
from Pavlovsk to Perpignan, and from Stonyhurst to Ekaterin-
burg in Siberia. Formulae involving the second as well as the
first powers of /— /„ and X— X_ have also been used, e.g., by
A. Tanakadate in the Magnetic Survey of Japan.

TABLE VI.— Secular Change of Declination in the United States (+ to the West).

Place.

spoch

1760

70

80

90

1800

10

20

3°

i 40

50

60

70

So

90

1900

50

/

/

/

t

/

t

/

/

f

/

/

/

/

/

i

/

'Eastport, Maine .

— 1-2

o-o

+ 1-2

+ 2-1

+3-2

+4-0

+4-5

+4'9

+5-o

+5-6

+4-5

+3-o

+2-1

+ 1-0

+ 1-8

+2-4

Boston, Mass. .

-2-7

-1-9

— I-O

o-o

+I-I

+ 1-9

+2-7

+3'5

+4-2

+4'4

+4-0

+3'3

+3-1

+3-o

+3-2

+3-4

Albany, New York.

-4-2

-3-6

-2-7

-1-6

-0-6

+0-6

+ 1-6

+2-7

+3-6

+4-6

+4-6

+3-9

+4-7

+2-3

+3-4

+3-6

Philadelphia, Penn.

-4-6

-4-2

-3-5

-2-3

-1-3

+0-1

+ 1-3

+2-5

+3-4

+4-3

+4-2

+4-6

+4-4

+3-4

+3-5

+3-4

Baltimore, Maryland .

-3-9

-3'4

-2-7

— 2-0

-0-9

o-o

+0-9

+2-0

+2-7

+3-4

+3-9

+4'0

+3-9

+3-6

+3-5

+3-2

Richmond, Virginia

-3-6

-3'2

-2-5

-1-8

-0-9

o-o

+0-9

+ 1-8

+2-5

+3'i

+3-6

+3-9

+3-8

+3-7

+3-4

+3-2

Columbia, S. Carolina .

-3'7

-3'4

-2-9

— 2-2

-1-3

-0-5

+0-5

+ 1-3

+2-2

+2-9

+3-4

+3-8

+3-8

+.3-8

+3-6

+ 1-8

Macon, Georgia .

-3'7

-3-6

-3'2

-2-5

-1-8

-0-9

o-o

+0-9

+ 1-8

+2-5

+3-2

+3-6

+3-9

+3-5

+3'i

+ 1-2

iTampa, Florida

-3-0

-2-5

— 2-O

— I'l

-0-4

+0-4

+I-I

+2-0

+2-5

+3-o

+3-2

+3-5

+3-7

+2-8

+2-9

+ 1-6

Marquette, Michigan .

o-o

+ 1-4

+2-6

+37

+4-7

+5-1

+4-9

+3-8

+2-4

Columbus, Ohio

-0-9

o-o

+0-9

+2-0

+2-9

+3-4

+3-6

+3-7

+3-9

+4-0

+2-4

Bloomington, Illinois .

-2-4

-i-5

-0-4

+0-4

+ 1-5

+2-4

+2-8

+4-2

+3-9

+2-9

+ 1-0

Lexington, Kentucky .

-0-9

o-o

+0-9

+ 1-8

+2-5

+3-2

+3-6

+3-8

+3-8

+3-4

+ 1-8

Chattanooga.Tennessee

-0-9

o-o

+0-9

+ 1-8

+2-5

+3-2

+3-6

+4-0

+3-5

+3-1

+ 1-6

Little Rock, Arkansas

-2-3

-1-5

-0-9

+0-1

+0-8

+ 1-7

+ 2-0

+3-6

+3-7

+2-3

— 1-2

Montgomery, Alabama

-3-6

-3'5

-3-1

-2-8

— 2-2

-i-5

-0-8

+0-1

+0-8

+ 1-6

+2-2

+2-8

+3-8

+3'9

+2-6

+0-2

Alexandria, Louisiana .

— 2-1

-1-6

-0-8

+0-1

+0-8

+ 1-6

+ 2-2

+3-6

+3'3

+2-0

-1-4

Northome, Minnesota .

-1-7

-0-6

+0-6

+ 1-7

+ 2-8

+4-2

+4'4

+3-5

o-o

Jamestown, N. Dakota

+ 1-0

+ 1-9

+3'«

+4-8

+ 1-9

— 2-2

DCS Moines, Iowa.

-i-5

-0-6

+0-6

+ 1-5

+2-5

+3-8

+4-5

+2-7

-0-6

Douglas, Wyoming

-0-8

o-o

+ 1-2

+2-3

+0-5

-1-6

IKmpnria, Kansas .

+0-6

+ 1-6

+2-7

+3-8

+ 1-7

-1-8

Purlilo, Colorado .

-0-3

+0-4

+ 1-5

+3-'

+0-7

—2-2

Okmulgee, Oklahoma .

+0-9

+ 1-5

+2-7

+3'9

+ 1-4

-2-4

Santa Rosa, New Mexico

-0-4

+0-4

+ 1-4

+2-6

+0-4

-2-4

San Antonio, Texas

— i-i

-0-5

-0-5

+ 1-1

+ 1-8

+2-7

+0-9

-2-4

1 Seattle, Washington .

-3'3

-3-5

-37

-37

-3-5

-3'3

-3-°

-2-6

— 2-1

-i-3

-1-9

— 2-O

-3'2

Wilson Creek.Washing

ton ....

-2-1

-i-5

-0-4

— I-O

- -6

-3-2

Detroit, Oregon

-3-8

-3'9

-3-9

-37

-3'4

-2-9

-2-5

-1-8

-0-8

- -8

-3-8

Salt Lake, Utah .

— I-I

—0-4

+ 1-0

+ 1-0

-0-8

-2-8

Prescott, Arizona .

-1-4

-0-7

+0-4

+0-4

— -2

-3-21

San Jos6, California

-2-6

-2-9

-2-9

-2-9

-2-7

-2-5

-2-3

—2:0

-'•5

-0-8

-0-4

- '9

-3-8

Los Angeles, ,,

-3-4

-3-4

-3-5

-3-2

-3-0

-2-7

— 2-1

-1-6

— !•!

-0-9

-0-3

- -6

-3-6

362

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

Formulae are also wanted to show how the value of an element,
or the rate of change of an element, at a particular place has
varied throughout a long period. For comparatively short periods
it is best to use formulae of the type E = a+bt+cP, where E
denotes the value of an ..element t years subsequent to some
convenient epoch; a, b, c are constants to be determined from
the observational data. For longer periods formulae of the type
E = o + 6 sin (mt+n), where a, b, m and n are constants, have
been used by Schott l6 and others with considerable success. The
following examples, due to G. W. Littlehales, " for the Cape of Good
Hope, will suffice for illustration :

Declination (West) = i4°-63+i5°-oo sin (o-6i(/-i85o)+77°-8)
Inclination (South) =49 °-i i + 8°-75 sin (0-8 (<-i85o)+34°-3J.
Here / denotes the date. It is perhaps hardly necessary to point
out that the extension of any of these empirical formulae — whether
to places outside the surveyed area, or to times not included in the
period of observation — is fraught with danger, which increases
rapidly the further the extra-polation is pushed.

Table VII. — Inclination (northerly) and Horizontal Force at London.

Date.

I.

Date.

I.

Date.

I.

H.

Date.

I.

H.

1576
1600
1676
1723
1773
1786

0 t

71 50
72 o

73 30
74 42
72 19

72 9

1801
1821
1830
1838
1854

O /

70 36-0

70 3-4
69 38-0

69 17-3
68 31-1

1857
i860
1865
1870
1874

O /

68 24-9
69 19-8
68 8-7
67 58-6
67 50-0

•17474
•17550
•17662
•17791
•17903

1891

1895
1900

1905
1908

0 /

67 33-2
67 25-4
67 n-8

67 3'8
67 0-9

•18193
•18278
•18428
•18510
•18515

Bauer has employed a convenient graphical method of illustrating
secular change. Radii are drawn from the centre of a sphere

parallel to the direction of
the freely dipping needle,
and are produced to in-
7°« tersect the tangent plane
drawn at the point which
answers to the mean posi-
tion of the needle during
the epoch under consider-
ation. The curve formed
by the points of intersec-
tion shows the character
of the secular change.
Fig. 5 (slightly modified

W

FIG. 5.

from Nature, vol. 57, p.
181) applies to London.
The curve is being

described in the clockwise direction. This, according to Bauer's"
own investigation, is the normal mode of description. Schott
and Littlehales have found, however, a considerable number
of cases where it is difficult to say whether the motion is clockwise
or not, while in some stations on both the east and west shores of
the Pacific it was clearly anti-clockwise. Fritsche u dealing with
the secular changes from 1600 to 1885 — as given by his calculated
values of the magnetic elements — at 204 points of intersection of
equidistant lines of latitude and longitude, found only sixty-three
cases in which the motion was unmistakably clockwise, while in
twenty-one cases it was clearly the opposite.

§ 14. All the magnetic elements at any ordinary station show a
regular variation in the solar day. To separate this from the
irregular changes, means of the hourly readings must be formed
making use of a number of days. ,The amplitude of .
the diurnal change usually varies considerably with the 7,
season of the year. Thus a diurnal inequality derived
from all the days of the year combined, or from a smaller
number of days selected equally from all the months -of the
year, can give only the average effect through-
out the year. Also unless the hours of
maxima and minima at a given station
are but slightly variable with the season,
the result obtained by combining data
from all the months of the year may be a
hybrid which does not very closely resemble
the phenomena in the majority of individual
months. This remark applies in particular
to the declination at places within the tropics.
One consequence is obviously to make the
range of a diurnal inequality which answers

to the year as a whole less than the arithmetic mean of the twelve
ranges obtained for the constituent months. At stations in tem-
perate latitudes, whilst minor differences of type do exist between
the diurnal inequalities for different months of the year, the difference
is mainly one of amplitude, and the mean diurnal inequality from
all the months of the year gives a very fair idea of the nature of the
phenomena in any individual month.

Tables VIII. to XI. give mean diurnal inequalities derived from
all the months of the year combined, the figures representing the
algebraic excess of the hourly value over the mean for the twenty-
four hours. The + sign denotes in Table VIII. that the north
end of the needle is to the west of its mean position for the day;
in Tables IX. to XI. it denotes that the element — the dip being the
north or south as indicated — is numerically in excess of the twenty-
four hour mean. The letter " a " denotes that all days have been
included except, as a rule, those characterized by specially large
disturbances. The letter " q " denotes that the results are derived
from a limited number of days selected as being specially quiet,

Table VIII. — Diurnal Inequality of Declination, mean from whole year (+ to West).

Station.

Jan Mayen.

St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk.

Greenwich.

Kew.

Pare
St Maur.

Tiflis.

Kolaba.

Batavia.

Mauritius.

South Vic-
toria Land.

Latitude.

71° o' N.

59°4i'N.

5i°28'N.

5i°28'N.

48° 49' N.

4i°43'N.

1 8° 54' N.

6° n'S.

20° 6'S.

77° 5i'S.

Longitude.

8° 28' W.

30° 29' E.

0° 0'.

o° ig'W.

2° 29' E.

44°48'E.

72° 49' E.

106° 49'E.

57° 33' E.

166° 45 E.

Period.

1882-1883.

1873-1885.

1890-1900.

1890-1900.

1883-1897.

1888-1898.

1894-1901.

1883-1894.

1876-1890.

1902-1903.

a.

q-

a.

q-

a.

a.

q-

a.

a.

q-

a.

a.

a.

q-

Hour.

i

/

i

t

/

t

/

i

t

/

/

/

/

i

I

-6-6

-4-2

- '3

-0-7

- .4

-i-5

-0-9

- '4

—0-7

— O-2

+0-1

+0-1

+2-O

+0-9

2

-10-5

-6-4

— -2

-0-8

- -3

-1-4

-0-9

— -2

-0-6

— O-I

—O-I

+0-1

—2-1

-1-8

3

-15-2

-7-8

— -2

— I-O

- '3

-i-5

— I-O

— -2

-0-6

—O-I

— O-I

+0-1

-5-2

-4-5

4

— 16-9

-8-4

- '4

— 1-3

- -4

-1-7

— 1-3

— -2

-0-5

—O-I

o-o

+0-2

-9-4

-6-8

5

-17-0

-8-1

- -7

— 1-8

- -7

— 2-1

— 1-8

- -6

-0-7

—O-I

o-o

+0-3

— 12-2

-9-0

6

-13-7

-7-0

- '9

-2-3

— 2-1

-2-4

-2-3

- .9

— 1-2

-0-6

+0-1

+0-4

-15-3

-H-7

7

-5-i

— 2-2

-2-8

-2-4

-2-7

-2-8

-2-4

— 1-9

— I-O

+0-5

+0-6

-17-2

-15-0

8

-6-8

-3'2

-2-5

-3-2

-2-5

-2-8

-3-1

-2-7

-2-4

-1-2

+ i-3

+ 1-1

-21-5

-17-3

9

-3-7

-6-6

-2-3

-3-0

-1-9

— 2-1

-2-5

-2-3

-2-3

-0-7

+ 1-7

+ 1-8

-23-5

-18-1

to

—2-4

+2-1

— I-O

-1-7

—0-2

-0-3

-0-7

-0-5

-0-9

o-o

+ i-5

+ 1-9

— 21-2

-15-8

ii

-0-5

+4'6

+1-0

+0-4

+2-1

+2-2

+ 1-7

+2-0

+ 1-0

+0-9

+0-9

+ 1-3

-15-3

-9-2

Noon

+2-5

+6-5

+3'i

+2-7

+4-2

+4-3

+3-9

+4-2

+ 2-6

+ 1-4

+0-1

o-o

-9-8

-4-9

i

+3-7

+7-3

+4-6

+4-3

+5-1

+5-3

+4-8

+5-3

+3-3

+ 1-2

-0-6

— i-i

-3-2

— O-I

2

+6-4

+7-1

+4-9

+4-5

+4-7

+4'9

+4'4

+4'9

+3'i

+0-6

— i-i

— 2-0

+3-8

+5-9

3

+7-4

+5'9

+4-1

+3'6

+3-6

+3-7

+3-1

+3-7

+2-3

+0-1

-1-3

-2-3

+ U-I

+9-5

4

+8-5

+4-3

+2-7

+2-3

+2-2

+2-4

+ 1-8

+2-3

+ i-3

— O-2

— 1-2

-1-8

+ 16-6

+ 12-9

+ 10-6

+3'0

+ i-5

+ 1-3

+ I-I

-I-I-2

+0-7

+ I-I

+0-6

—O-I

-0-9

-0-9

+ 19-9

+ 14-6

6

+ 14-2

+2-3

+o-6

+0-7

+0-3

+0-4

+0-2

+O-2

+0-2

0-0

-0-6

— o-

+ 22-O

+ 15-5

7

+ 15-2

+2-2

o-o

+0-4

-0-3

— O-2

— O-I

-0-4

-f-O-I

+0-1

-0-4

+0-

+22-0

+ 15-9

8

+ 15-8

+2-6

-0-4

+O-2

-0-9

-0-6

-0-3

-0-9

—O-I

+0-2

— O-2

+0-

+ 19-9

+ 14-6

9

+ 13-2

+2-6

— I-O

o-o

— 1-2

— I-O

-0-.5

-1-3

-0-4

+0-1

0-0

+0-

+ 16-0

+ 10-6

10

+7'4

+2-O

-1-4

— O-2

-i-5

-1-3

-0-7

-1-5

-0-6

O-O

+0-1

+0-

-j-ii-6

+7-2

ii

+ 1-1

+0-5

-1-6

-0-4

-1-6

-1-4

-0-8

-1-6

-0-7

0-0

+0-1

+0-

+7-6

+4-2

12

-3'6

-i-5

-0-6

-1-6

-1-5

-0-9

-1-6

-0-8

—O-I

+0-1

+0-

+3'3

+ 1-9

Range

32-8

15-7

7-4

7-7

7-6

8-1

7-9

8-0

5'7

2-6

3-o

4'2

45-5

34-o

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL 363

TABLE IX. — Diurnal Inequality of Horizontal Force, mean from whole year (Unit IT = -OOOOI C.G.S.)

Station.

JanMayen.

St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk.

Greenwich.

Kew.

Pare
St Maur.

Tiflis.

Kolaba.

Batavia.

Mauritius.

S. Victoria
Land.

Period.

1882-1883.

1873-1885.

1890-1900.

1890-1900.

1883-1897.

1888-1898.

1894-1901.

1883-1894.

1883-1890.

1902-1903.

a.

q-

a.

q-

a.

q-

a.

a.

q-

a.

a.

a.

Hour.

I

-57

— 22

+ 4

+ 5

+ 4

+ 4

+ 5

+ 3

— 10

— II

- 3

— 12

2

-64

-24

+ 4

+ 4

+ 3

+ 4

+ 5

+ 3

- 9

— IO

— i

-13

3

-74

-25

+ 4

+ 4

+ 3

+ 4

+ 5

+ 3

- 9

— 8

+ i

-'4

4

-69

-24

+ 4

+ 4

+ 3

+ 4

+ 5

+ 4

- 9

- 7

+ 2

-!5

5

-60

— 22

+ 5

+ 4

+ 3

+ 4

+ 6

+ 4

- 9

- 5

+ 3

— 15

6

-37

-19

+ 4

+ 4

+ I

+ 2

+ 4

+ 4

- 7

— i

+ 4

— 12

7

-15

-15

+ 2

+ 2

~" 3

— I

+ i

+ 2

— i

+ 5

+ 7

- 9

8

— i

-'3

- 3

- 4

- 9

- 7

-'5

— 3

+ 8

+ H

+ 9

- 7

9

+ 8

— 12

— 10

— 10

-16

-13

— 12

— 8

+ 19

+24

+ 9

- 3

10

+ 17

— 12

-16

-16

-20

-18

-17

-10

+26

+31

+ 9

+ 3

II

+32

— 10

-19

-20

-19

-18

-16

- 7

+30

+35

+ 9

+ 7

Noon

+49

— 4

— 17

-18

-13

— 12

— 12

— i

+26

+31

+ 8

+ 12

i

+65

+ 8

— 12

-'3

- 7

- 7

- 7

+ 4

+ 19

+22

+ 7

+ 18

2

+78

+22

- 6

- 6

— i

— 2

- 4

+ 5

+ 10

+ 10

+ 2

+20

3

+89

+37

o

o

+ 2

+ I

— i

+ 3

+ 2

— i

— 2

+ 19

4

+83

+43

+ 3

+ 3

+ 5

+ 3

o

— i .

- 3

- 9

— 6

+ 18

5

+68

+49

+ 5

+ 5

+ 7

+ 5

+ 2

- 4

- 7

-13

- 7

+ «5

6

+37

+43

+ 6

+ 6

+ 9

+ 7

+ 4

- 6

- 8

-14

- 7

+ 11

7

+ 13

+30

+ 7

+ 7

+ 10

+ 8

+ 6

- 4

- 9

-15

— 7

+ 5

8

— ii

+ 15

+ 8

+ 8

+ 10

+ 8

+ 7

— i

— 10

-16

— 8

+ o

9

-33

+ I

+ 9

+ 9

+ 8

+ 7

+ 7

+ i

-11

-16

- 8

- 4

10

-36

— 10

+ 8

+ 9

+ 7

+ 6

+ 6

+ 2

— ii

-16

- 8

- 7

ii

-40

-16

+ 7

+ 8

+ 6

+ 6

+ 6

+ 3

— IO

-15

- 7

- 9

12

-51

— 20

+ 6

+ 6

+ 5

+ 5

+ 6

+ 3

— 10

-13

- 5

— ii

Range

163

74

28

29

30

26

24

IS

41

51

17

35

i.e. free from disturbance. In all cases the aperiodic or non-cyclic
element — indicated by a difference between the values found for
the first and second midnights of the day — has been eliminated in
the usual way, i.e. by treating it as accumulating at a uniform
rate throughout the twenty-four hours. The years from which
the data were derived are indicated. The algebraically greatest
and least of the hourly values are printed in heavy type; the range
thence derived is given at the foot of the tables.

When comparing results from different stations, it must be
remembered that the disturbing forces required to cause a change
of i' in declination and in dip vary directly, the former as the
horizontal force, the latter as the total force. Near a magnetic
pole the horizontal force is relatively very small, and this accounts,

at least partly, for the difference between the declination phenomena
at Jan Mayen and South Victoria Land on the one hand and at Kolaba,
Batavia and Mauritius on the1 other. There is, however, another
cause, already alluded to, viz. the variability in the type of the
diurnal inequality in tropical stations. With a view to illustrating
this point Table XII. gives diurnal inequalities of declination for
June and December for a number of stations lying between 45° N.
and45°S. latitude. Some of the results are represented graphically
in fig. 6, plus ordinates representing westerly deflection. At the
northmost station, Toronto, the difference between the two months
is mainly a matter of amplitude, the range being much larger at
midsummer than at midwinter. The conspicuous phenomenon at
both seasons is the rapid swing to the west from 8 or o a.m. to

TABLE X. — Diurnal Inequality of Vertical Force, mean from whole year (Unit 17).

Station.

JanMayen.

St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk.

Greenwich.

Kew.

Pare St
Maur.

Tiflis.

Kolaba.

Batavia.

Mauritius.

South Vic-
toria Land.

Period.

1882-1883.

1873-1885.

1890-1900.

1891-1900.

1883-1897.

1888-1898.

1894-1901.

1883-1894.

1884-1890.

1902-1903.

a.

q.

a.

q-

a.

q-

a.

a.

q-

a.

a.

a.

Hour

I

+65

+ 3

- 7

— i

- 3

+ i

O

+ 2

+ 4

+ 7

+ 2

+ 13

2

+65

+ 2

- 7

— i

- 4

+ i

o

+ 2

+ 4

+ 5

+ 2

+ 12

3

+56

— i

- 7

— i

- 4

0

— i

+ I

+ 3

+ 4

+ 2

+ 10

4

+37

- 5

- 6

o

3

o

0

+ I

+ 3

+ 3

+ 2

+ 8

5

+ 16

- 7

- 5

o

— 2

+ I

o

+ 2

+ 5

+ 2

+ 2

+ 3

6

- 7

- 8

- 4

o

— I

+ I

+ i

+ 3

+ 7

+ i

+ 2

0

7

-17

- 6

- 3

o

O

0

+ I

+ 3

+ 6

0

+ 3

0

8

-14

— 4

— 2

o

O

— I

0

+ 3

o

- 3

+ 4

— 2

9

- 9

0

- 3

— I

- 3

- 4

- 4

— i

- 8

— 1 1

+ 5

- 6

10

- 6

+ 5

— 2

— 2

- 6

- 8

- 8

- 7

-14

— 20

+ 3

-13

ii

- 6

+ 10

- 3

- 4

- 9

— II

— 12

— n

-15

-26

o

-17

Noon

— IO

+ 16

- 3

— 5

-10

-11

-12

-11

— 10

-27

- 4

-20

i

-«3

+21

— i

- 4

- 6

Q

- 9

- 9

- 3

— 21

- 7

— 20

2

-24

+23

+ 2

— i

o

~~ 3

- 3

— 5

+ I

-13

- 9

-16

3

-3«

+20

+ 8

+ 2

+ 5

+ 2

+ 2

— i

+ 4

- 4

- 8

— 12

4

-40

+ '3

+ 9

+ 3

+ 8

+ 5

+ 6

+ i

+ 3

+ 4

- 5

- 6

5

-48

+ 2

+ 10

+ 3

+ 9

+ 6

+ 7

+ 3

o

+ 10

- 3

— I

6

-53

— 9

+ 10

+ 3

+ 10

+ 7

+ 8

+ 4

o

+ 13

0

+ 3

7

-47

-18

+ 9

+ 3

+ 9

+ 6

+ 7

+ 3

0

+ 14

o

+ 6

8

-36

-20

+ 8

+ 3

+ 7

+ 5

+ 6

+ 3

+ I

+ 14

+ i

+ 9

9

- 7

-19

+ 6

+ 2

+ 5

+ 5

+ 5

+ 3

+ 2

+ 14

+ 2

+ 11

10

+ 18

-'3

+ 3

+ 2

+ 3

+ 4

+ 3

+ 3

+ 3

+ 13

+ 2

+ 12

ii

+42

- 5

— 2

o

0

+ 3

+ 2

+ 3

+ 3

+ n

+ 2

+ 12

12

+54

o

- 5

— I

— 2

+ 2

+ I

+ 2

+ 3

+ 9

+ 2

+ 13

Range

118

43

i?

8

2O

18

2O

15

22

41

14

33

364

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

TABLE XI. — Diurnal Inequality of Inclination mean from whole year.

Station.

Jan Mayen.

St. Petersburg
and Pavlovsk.

Greenwich.

Kew.

Pare
St Maur.

Tiflis.

Kolaba.

Batavia.

Mauritius.

1
South Vic-
toria Land.

End Dipping.

North.

North.

North.

North.

North.

North.

North.

South.

South.

South.

Period.

1882-1883.

1873-1885.

1890-1900.

1891-1900.

1883-1897.

1888-1898.

1894-1901.

1883-1894.

1884-1890.

1902-1903.

a.

q-

a.

q-

a.

q-

a.

a.

q-

a.

a.

a. |

Hour

/

/

/

/

i

/

/

r

/

i

/

/

I

+4-6

+ 1-5

-0-5

-0-3

-0-4

-0-3

-0-3

—O-I

+0-6

+0-9

+0-3

+0-6

2

+5-o

+ 1-6

-0-5

-0-3

-0-3

— 0-2

-0-3

—O-I

+0-6

+0-8

+0-2

+0-7

3

+5-6

+ 1-6

-0-5

-0-3

-0-3

— O-2

-0-3

—O-I

+0-5

+0-6

o-o

+0-7

4

+5-o

+ 1-5

-0-4

-0-3

-0-3

— O-2

-0-4

— O-2

+0-5

+0-5

0-0

+0-7

5

+4-2

+ 1-4

-0-5

-0-3

— O-2

— O-2

-0-4

— O-2

+0-7

+0-3

— O-I

+0-7

6

+2-4

+ 1-2

-0-4

-0-3

— O-I

—O-I

-0-3

—O-I

+0-8

+0-1

— 0-2

+0-5

7

+0-7

+0-9

— O-2

— O-I

+0-2

+0-1

o-o

O-O

+0-5

— O-2

-0-3

+0-4

8

— O-I

+0-8

+0-1

+0-3

+0-6

+0-4

+0-4

+0-3

— O-2

-0-8

-0-4

+0-3

9

-0-7

+0-8

+0-6

+0-6

+ 1-0

+0-8

+0-7

+0-5

— 1-2

-1-7

-0-4

+0-1

10

— 1-2

+0-9

+ 1-0

+ 1-0

+1-1

+ 1-0

+0-9

+0-3

-i-9

-2-7

-0-5

—0-2

ii

— 2-2

+0-8

+ 1-2

+ 1-2

+ 1-0

+0-9

+0-7

o-o

-2-1

-3-3

-0-6

-0-4

Noon

-3'4

+0-4

+ i-i

+ 1-1

+0-6

+0-6

+0-4

-0-5

-1-6

-3-1

-0-7

-0-7

I

-4-5

— O-2

+0-7

+0-7

+0-3

+0-2

+0-2

-0-6

-0-8

-2-4

-0-8

-0-9

2

-5-6

— 1-2

+0-4

+0-4

+0-1

+0-1

+0-2

-0-5

— O-2

-1-3

-0-6

-1-0

3

-6-3

— 2-2

+0-2

+0-1

o-o

o-o

+0-2

-0-3

+0-3

— 0-2

-0-3

— I-O

4

-6-1

-2-9

0-0

— O-I

—O-I

— O-I

+0-2

+0-1

+0-3

+0-7

+0-1

-0-9

5

-5-1

-3-2

— O-I

-0-3

— O-2

—0-2

+0-1

+0-4

+0-2

+ i-3

+0-4

-0-7

6

-3-1

-2-9

— 0-2

-0-3

-0-3

-0-3

0-0

+0-5

+0-2

+ i-5

+0-5

-0-5

7

-i-7

— 2-2

-0-3

-0-4

-0-4

-0-4

— O-2

+0-4

+0-3

+ 1-6

+0-5

— O-2

8

+0-3

-1-3

-0-3

-0-5

-0-4

-0-4

-0-3

+0-2

+•0-4

+ 1-6

+0-6

0-0

9

+2-0

-0-3

-0-4

-0-6

-0-4

-0-4

-0-3

+0-1

+0-5

+ 1-6

+0-6

+0-2

10

+2-5

+0-5

-0-5

-0-6

-0-4

-0-3

-0-3

o-o

+0-6

+ 1-5

+0-6

+0-4

ii

+3-o

+ 1-0

-0-5

-0-6

-0-4

-0-3

-0-3

o-o

+0-6

+ 1-4

+0-5

+0-5

12

+4-0

+ 1-3

-0-5

-0-4

-0-4

-0-3

-0-3

— O-I

+0-6

+ 1-2

+0-4

+0-6

Range

11-9

4-8

i-7

1-8

1-5

1-4

i-3

I-I

2-9

4-9

1-4

1-7

I or 2 p.m. At the extreme southern station, Hobart — at nearly
equal latitude — the rapid diurnal movement is to the east, and so
in the opposite direction to that in the northern hemisphere, but
it again takes place at nearly the same hours in June (midwinter)
as in December. If, however, we take a tropical station such as
Trivandrum or Kolaba, the phenomena in June and December are
widely different in type. At Trivandrum — situated near the
magnetic equator in India — we have in June the conspicuous
forenoon swing to the west seen at Toronto, occurring it is true
slightly earlier in the day; but in December at the corresponding
hours the needle is actually swinging to the east, just as it is
doing at Hobart. In June the diurnal inequality of declination
at tropical stations — whether to the north of the equator like
Trivandrum, or to the south of it like Batavia — is on the whole
of the general type characteristic of temperate regions in the northern

hemisphere; whereas in December the inequality at these stations
resembles that of temperate regions in the southern hemisphere.
Comparing the inequalities for June in Table XII. amongst them-
selves, and those for December amongst themselves, one can trace
a gradual transformation from the phenomena seen at Toronto to
those seen at Hobart. At a tropical station the change from the
June to the December type is probably in all cases more or less
gradual, but at some stations the transition seems pretty rapid.

§ 15. In the case of the horizontal force there are, as Table IX.
shows, two markedly different types of diurnal inequality. In the
one type, exemplified by Pavlovsk or Greenwich, the force is below
its mean value in the middle of the day; it has a principal minimum
about IO or II a.m., and morning and evening maxima, the latter
usually the largest. In the other type, exemplified by Kolaba or
Batavia, the horizontal force is above its mean in the middle of the

TABLE XII. — Diurnal Inequality of Declination (+ to West).

Station.

Toronto.

Kolaba.

Trivandrum.

Batavia.

St Helena.

Mauritius.

Cape.

Hobart.

Month.

June.

Dec.

June.

Dec.

June.

Dec.

June.

Dec.

June.

Dec.

June.

Dec.

June.

Dec.

June.

Dec.

Hour

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

'

/

/

/

/

/

I

-0-4

— O-I

-0-3

o-o

-0-3

—O-I

+0-1

+0-1

— O-I

-0-4

0-0

+0-1

-0-4

-0-7

+0-8

+ 1-1

2

— O-2

+0-4

-0-3

+0-1

-0-4

+0-1

— O-I

+0-1

— 0-2

— O-I

— O-2

+0-2

-0-5

-0-4

+0-3

+ 1-1

3

— 0-2

— O-I

-0-3

+0-1

-0-4

+0-3

— O-2

+0-2

— 0-2

+0-1

— O-2

+0-4

-0-7

— O-I

— O-I

+ 1-0

4

— 1-2

-0-4

-0-3

+0-3

-0-5

+0-5

-0-3

+0-3

-0-3

+0-3

— 0-2

+0-7

-0-6

+0-3

— O-I

+ 1-1

5

-2-9

-0-6

-0-7

+0-4

-0-7

+0-7

-0-3

+0-5

-0-5

+0-6

-0-3

+ 1-0

-0-7

+ !-0

0-0

+ i-7

6

-5'2

-0-6

-1-6

+0-5

-1-6

+ 1-1

-0-5

+ 1-2

— I-O

+o-9

-0-4

+ i-7

— I-O

+2-2

0-0

+2-7

7

-6-2

-0.9

-2-2

+0-7

-1-7

+ 1-4

-1-1

+2-O

-2-2

+ 1-9

— I-I

+2-6

-1-6

+3'3

—O-I

+4'4

8

-6-0

— 1-2

— 2-1

+0-2

— i-i

+0-9

-0-4

+2-3

-i-5

+2-2

— I-O

+2-4

-0-8

+3-6

+0-1

+5-6

9

-4-4

-1-8

— I-I

— O-I

— O-2

+0-5

+0-5

+2-0

-0-3

+ 1-3

+0-2

+ 2-0

+0-7

+3-i

+0-6

+5-6

10

-'•5

— i-i

O-O

— O-2

+0-6

+0-3

+0-9

+ 1-3

+0-3

+0-2

+ 1-2

+ I-I

+ 1-6

+ 1-6

+ 1-2

+3'6

ii

+2-1

+0-6

+ 1-2

O-O

+ 1-2

+0-1

+ 1-0

+0-4

+0-5

— I-O

+ 1-4

O-O

+ 1-5

+0-1

+ 1-0

+0-7

Noon

+4-8

+ 2-2

+2-1

O-O

+ 1-4

-0-4

+0-7

-0-6

+0-3

-1-4

+ 1-0

-1-4

+0-8

— I-O

—O-I

-2-6

i

+6-1

+ 3-2

+2-0

— O-2

+ I-I

-0-8

+0-3

- -4

+0-3

— 1-2

+0-1

— 2-2

+0-3

-1-8

-1-4

-5-1

2

+6-1

+3-2

+ 1-6

-0-3

+0-7

-0-9

— O-2

- -8

+0-2

-0-4

-0-9

-2-5

-0-3

-1-9

— 2-2

-6-2

3

+5-2

+2-4

+0-9

-0-3

+0-3

-0-9

-0-7

- -9

+0-2

+0-4

-1-5

— 2-2

-0-3

-1-4

-2-4

-5-8

4

+3-6

+ i-5

+0-2

-0-3

+0-1

-0-8

-0-8

- -6

+0-7

+0-6

-1-3

-1-6

+0-2

-0-8

-1-6

-4-8

5

+ 1-8

+0-5

0-0

— O-2

o-o

-0-4

-0-5

— -2

+ 1-1

+0-4

-0-3

— I-O

+0-5

-0-8

-0-7

-3-3

6

+0-7

—O-I

+0-1

— 0-2

+0-2

-0-4

— O-I

-0-7

+ 1-0

+0-1

+0-5

-0-5

+0-5

-0-6

-0-4

-1-9

7

0-0

-0-8

+0-3

— O-2

+0-5

-0-4

+0-1

-0-6

+0-6

-0-4

+0-7

-0-3

+0-4

-0-8

o-o

— I-O

8

0-0

— 1-2

+0-4

—O-I

+0-5

-0-3

+0-2

-0-5

+0-5

-0-7

+0-7

-0-3

+0-3

-0-9

+0-5

-0-3

9

-0-5

-1-4

+0-3

—O-I

+0-4

— O-2

+0-4

-0-3

+0-4

-0-9

+0-6

— O-2

+0-2

-0-9

+ 1-1

o-o

10

—0-5

— 1-7

-f-o-i

0-0

+0-2

— O-I

+0-4

—O-I

+0-2

— I-O

+0-4

— O-I

+0-1

— I-O

+ 1-3

+0-6

ii

—0-7

— i-i

—O-I

—O-I

o-o

—O-I

+0-3

o-o

+0-1

-0-8

+0-3

O-O

o-o

— I-O

+ 1-3

+0-9

12

-0-6

-0-7

— 0-2

—O-I

—0-2

— O-I

+0-2

+0-1

—O-I

-0-6

+0-1

+0-1

— O-2

— I-O

+ 1-1

+ 1-2

Range

12-3

5-o

4-3

I-O

3-1

2-3

2-1

4-2

3-3

3-6

2-9

5-1

3'2

5-5

3-7

11-8

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

365

day, and has a maximum about II a.m. The second type may be
regarded as the tropical type. At tropical stations, such as Kolaba,
Batavia, Manila and St Helena, the type is practically the same in
summer as in winter, and is the same whether the station is north
or south of the equator. Similarly, what we may call the temperate
typi- is seen — with comparatively slight modifications — both in
summer and winter at stations such as Greenwich or Pavlovsk. In
winter, it is true, the pronounced daily minimum is a little later
and the early morning maximum is relatively more important than
in .summer. There is not, as in the case of the declination, any
iiial difference between the phenomena at temperate stations
in the northern and southern hemispheres.

.JUNE

DECEMBER

+6

+4

+2

/

0

/

L

Toronto

1

o'

-2

A

1

^^*fc

N/

^

+2
0

+ 2

Q

/

\

Kolaba

-^

-\

o'

-2'

,/

J
/

\».

^*^

rS

•v

+2

^

j

s_x

-2'

0

r

— ^^ ^

Batavia

,x

\

o'

J

V y

-^ —

+•>'

^

-2'

0

r

^-^

Mauritius

^

^

o'

\j

V

\

>

^

-2'

+4

r\

+2

o'

^

^

r

-J

V

H

/

-z'

-4'
-6'

Midi 6 Moon 6 .Midi. Mult. .6 Noon 6 Midi.

FIG. 6.

With diminishing latitude, there is a gradual transition from the
temperate to the tropical type of horizontal force diurnal variation,
and at stations whose latitude is under 45° there is a very appreciable
variation in type with the season. The mean diurnal variation for
the year at Tiflis in Table IX. really represents a struggle between
the two types, in which on the whole the temperate type prevails.
If we take the diurnal variations at Tiflis for midsummer and mid-
winter, we find the former essentially of the temperate, the latter
essentially of the tropical type. A similar conflict may be seen in
the mean diurnal inequality for the year at the Cape of Good Hope,
but there the tropical type on the whole predominates, and it

KTvails more at midwinter than at midsummer. Toronto and
obart, though similar in latitude to Tiflis, show a closer approach
to the temperate type. Still at both stations the hours during
which the force is below its mean value tend to extend back towards
midnight, especially at midsummer. The amplitude of the hori-
zontal force range appears less at intermediate stations, such as

Tiflis, than at stations in either higher or lower latitudes. There is
a very great difference in this respect between the north and the
south of India.

§ 16. In the case of the vertical force in higher temperate latitudes
— at Pavlovsk for instance — the diurnal inequalities from " all "
and from " quiet " days differ somewhat widely in amplitude and
slightly even in type. In mean latitudes, e.g. at Tiflis, there is
often a well marked double period in the mean diurnal inequality
for the whole year; but even at Tiflis this is hardly, if at all, ap-
parent in the winter months. In the summer months the double
period is distinctly seen at Kew and Greenwich, though the evening
maximum is always pre-eminent. Speaking generally, the time of the
minimum, or principal minimum, varies much less with the season
than that of the maximum. At Kew, for instance, on quiet days
the minimum falls between 1 1 a.m. and noon in almost all the
months of the year, but the time of the maximum varies from about
4 p.m. in December to 7 p.m. in June. At Kolaba the time of the
minimum is nearly independent of the season ; but the changes from
positive to negative in the forenoon and from negative to positive
in the afternoon are some hours later in winter than in summer.
At Batavia the diurnal inequality varies very little in type with the
season, and there is little evidence of more than one maximum and
minimum in the day. At Batavia, as at Kolaba, negative values
occur near noon ; but it must be remembered that while at Kolaba
and more northern stations vertical force urges the north pole of a
magnet downwards, the reverse is true of Batavia, as the dip is
southerly. At St Helena vertical force is below its mean value
in the forenoon, but the change from — to + occurs at noon,
or but little later, both in winter and summer. At the Cape of
Good Hope the phenomena at midsummer are similar to those at
Kolaba, the force being below its mean value from about 9 a.m. to
3 p.m. and above it throughout the rest of the day; but at mid-
winter there is a conspicuous double period, the force being below
its mean from I a.m. to 7 a.m. as well as from n a.m. to 3 p.m.,
and thus resembling the all-day annual results at Greenwich. At
Hobart vertical force is below its mean value from I a.m. to 9 a.m.
at midsummer, and from 4 a.m. to noon at midwinter; while the
force is above its mean persistently throughout the afternoon both
in summer and winter, there is at midwinter a well marked secondary
minimum about 6 p.m., almost the same hour as that at which the
maximum for the day is observed in summer.

§ 17. Variations of inclination are connected with those of hori-
zontal and vertical force by the relation

61 = J sin 2l[V-' 5V-H-1 oH).

Thus in temperate latitudes where V is considerably in excess of H,
whilst diurnal changes in V are usually less than those in H, it is
the latter which chiefly dominate the diurnal changes in inclination.
When the H influence prevails, I has its highest values at hours
when H is least. This explains why the dip is above its mean value
near midday at stations in Table XI. from Pavlovsk to Pare St
Maur. Near the magnetic equator the vertical force has the greater
influence. This alone would tend to make a minimum dip in the
late forenoon, and this minimum is accentuated owing to the altered
type of the horizontal force diurnal variation, whose maximum now
coincides closely with the minimum in the vertical force. This
accounts for the prominence of the minimum in the diurnal varia-
tion of the inclination at Kolaba and Batavia, and the large ampli-
tude of the range. Tiflis shows an intermediate type of diurnal
variation; there is a minimum near noon, as in tropical stations,
but inclination is also below its mean for some hours near midnight.
The type really varies at Tiflis according to the season of the year.
In June — as in the mean equality from the whole year — there is a
well marked double period; there is a principal minimum at 2 p.m.
and a secondary one about 4 a.m.; a principal maximum about
9 a.m. and a secondary one about 6 p.m. In December, however,
only a single period is recognizable, with a minimum about 8 a.m.
and a maximum about 7 p.m. The type of diurnal inequality seen

TABLE XIII. — Range of the Diurnal Inequality of Declination.

Place.

Period.

Jan.

Feb.

March.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

/

/

/

/

i

/

/

t

/

/

,

/

Pavlovsk

1890-19003

4-93

6-15

8-58

10-93

12-18

12-27

11-82

11-38

8-70

6-87

5-54

4-63

Ekatarinburg

q
1890-19003

2-96
3-33

4-20
4-32

8-73
7-63

11-28
11-19

12-89
11-82

13-28
11-58

12-31
11-09

11-70
10-45

9-37
8-13

6-91
5-6o

3-95
3-73

2-66
3-I4

Greenwich

1865-18963

5-87

7-07

9.40

11-42

10-55

10-90

10-82

10-93

9-66

8-15

6-41

5-15

Kew ....

1890-19003

4-92

6-06

9-08

10-95

10-66

10-92

10-59

II-OI

9-49

7-73

' 5-37

4-46

Toronto
Manila
Trivandrum .
Batavia
St Helena . .
Mauritius

.. q
1842-18483
1890-19003
1853-18643
1884-18993
1842-18473
1876-18903

4-07
5-96
1-79
2-06
4-18
3-72
5-2

4-76
6-05
1-09
1-48
4-64

5-19
6-1

8-82
9-18

2-13
0-79

3-57
4-93
6-3

10-57

'(•'14
. 3-02

1-67

2-93
3-30
4'7

10-92
"•55
3-84
2-90
2-38
2-64
4-1

10-62
12-34
3-94
3-06
2-03

3-24
2-9

10-18

12-21

4-21
3-06
2-31
3-42
3*4

II-OI

13-14
4-89
3-64
3-16
3-59
4'9

9-76
10-76
4-53
3-31
3-8o
2-40
5-o

7-51
6-96
1-83
1-27
4-51
4-43
5'5

4-75
6-32
0-85
2-14
4-50
4-05
5-6

3-34
4-97
1-33
2-33
4-19

3-54
5-1

Cape ....
Hobart

1841-18463
1841-18483

5-14
11-66

8-21

11-80

7-27
9-50

5-00
7-26

3-91
4-56

3-21

3-70

3-54
4-61

4-98
5-89

4-33

5-24

5-96

II-OI

6-36
12-05

5-47
11-81

366

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

at the Cape of Good Hope does not differ much from that seen at
Batavia. Only a single period is clearly shown. The maximum
occurs about 8 or 9 p.m. throughout the year. The time of the
minimum is more variable; at midsummer it occurs about II a.m.,
but at midwinter three or four hours later. At Hpbart the type
varies considerably with the season. In June (midwinter) a double
period is visible. The principal minimum occurs about 8 a.m., as
at the Cape. But, corresponding to the evening maximum seen at
the Cape, there is now only a secondary maximum, the principal
maximum occurring about I p.m. At midsummer the principal
maximum is found — as at Kew or Greenwich — about 10 or II a.m.,
the principal minimum about 4 p.m.

§ 1 8. Even at tropical stations a considerable seasonal change
is usually seen in the amplitude of the diurnal inequality in at least
one of the magnetic elements. At stations in Europe, and generally
in temperate latitudes, the amplitude varies notably in all the
elements. Table XIII. gives particulars of the inequality range of
declination derived from hourly readings at selected stations,
arranged in order of latitude from north to south. The letters
" a " and " q " are used in the same sense as before. At temperate
stations in either hemisphere — e.g. Pavlovsk, Greenwich or Hobart
— the range is conspicuously larger in summer than in winter. In
northern temperate stations a decided minimum is usually apparent
in December. There is, on the other hand, comparatively little
variation in the range from April to August. Sometimes, as at Kew
and Greenwich, there is at least a suggestion of a secondary minimum
at midsummer. Manila and Trivandrum show a transition from
the December minimum, characteristic of the northern stations,
to the June minimum characteristic of the southern, there being two
conspicuous minima in February or March and in November or
October. At St Helena there are two similar minima in May and
September, while a third apparently exists in December. It will be
noticed that at both Pavlovsk and Kew the annual variation in the
range is specially prominent in the quiet day results.

Table XIV. gives a smaller number of data analogous to those of
Table XIII., comprising inequality ranges for horizontal force,
vertical force and inclination. In some cases the number of years
from which the data were derived seems hardly sufficient to give
a smooth annual variation. It should also be noticed that unless
the same group of years is employed the data from two stations are
not strictly comparable. The difference between the all and quiet
day vertical force data at Pavlovsk is remarkably pronounced.
The general tendency in all the elements is to show a reduced
range at midwinter; but in some cases there is also a distinct
reduction in the range at midsummer. This double annual period
is particularly well marked at Batavia.

| 19. When discussing diurnal inequalities it is sometimes con-
venient to consider the components of the horizontal force in and
perpendicular to the astronomical meridian, rather than the hori-
zontal force and declination. If N and W be the components of H
to astronomical north and west, and D the westerly declination,

N = H cos D, W = H sin D. Thus corresponding small variations
in N, W, H and D are connected by the relations: —

«N= cosD5H-H sinDSD, SW= sinD5H+H ccsDiD.

If SH and SD denote the departures of H and D at any hour of
the day from their mean values, then 8N and 3W represent
the corresponding departures of N and W from their mean values.
In this way diurnal inequalities may be calculated for N and W
when those for H and D are known. The formulae suppose 5D
to be expressed in absolute measure, i.e. i' of arc has to be replaced
by 0-0002909. If we take as an example a station at which H is
•185 then H8p = -oooo538(number of minutes in «D). In other
words, employing 17 as unit of force, one replaces H5D by 5'38SD,
where SD represents declination change expressed as usual in
minutes of arc. In calculating diurnal inequalities for N and VV,
one ought, strictly speaking, to assign to H and D the exact mean
values belonging to these elements for the month or the year being
dealt with. For practical purposes, however, a slight departure
from the true mean values is immaterial, and one can make use of a
constant value for several successive years without sensible error.
As an example, Table XV. gives the mean diurnal inequality for the
whole year in N and W at Falmouth, as calculated from the 12 years
1891 to 1902. The unit employed is l-y-

The data in Table XV. are closely similar to corresponding Kew
data, and are presumably fairly applicable to the whole south of
England for the epoch considered. At Falmouth there is com-
paratively little seasonal variation in the type of the diurnal varia-
tion in either N or W. The amplitude of the diurnal range varies,
however, largely with the season, as will appear from Table XVI.,
which is based on the same 12 years as Table XV.

Diurnal inequalities in N and W lend themselves readily to the
construction of what are known as vector diagrams. These are
curves showing the direction and intensity at each hour of the day
of the horizontal component of the disturbing force to which the
diurnal inequality may be regarded as due. Figs. 7 and 8, taken
from the Phil. Trans, vol. 2O4A, will serve as examples. They
refer to the mean diurnal inequalities for the months stated at
Kew (1890 to 1900) and Falmouth (1891 to 1902), thick lines relating
to Kew, thin to Falmouth. NS and EW represent the geographical
north-south and east- west directions; their intersection answers
to the origin (thick lines for Kew, thin for Falmouth). The line
from the origin to M represents the magnetic meridian. The line from
the origin to any cross — the number indicating the corresponding
hour counted from midnight as o — represents the magnitude and
direction at that hour of the horizontal component of the disturb-
ing force to which the diurnal inequality may be assigned. The
cross marks the point whose rectangular co-ordinates are the values
of 5N and 5VV derived from the diurnal inequalities of these
elements. In figs. 7 and 8 the distances of the points N, E, S, W
from their corresponding origin represents lo-y. The tendency
to form a loop near midnight, seen in the November and December

TABLE XIV. — Ranges in the Diurnal Inequalities.

Jan.

Feb.

March.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

H (unit 17)

Pavlovsk . . . 1890-1900 a

12

20

32

46

47

49

49

44

39

32

17

ii

...... „ q

12

17

31

42

45

45

42

40

37

31

17

10

Ekatannburg . . „ a

ii

15

29

37

40

40

39

36

33

27

13

9

Kew „ q

15

17

26

36

38

39

38

38

35

27

20

II

Toronto . . . 1843-1848 a

23

21

24

28

29

29

26

28

41

25

21

20

Batavia .... 1883-1898 a

49

47

54

60

51

48

50

53

58

52

43

40

St Helena . . . 1843-1847 a

43

41

48

53

46

40

40

45

41

40

40

32

Mauritius . . . 1883-1890 a

21

15

21

23

20

21

20

22

20

21

21

20

Cape of Good Hope 1841-1846 a

13

10

13

13

15

16

14

18

21

H

17

20

Hobart .... 1842-1848 a

42

43

34

28

19

17

22

23

23

35

39

42

V (unit I y)

Pavlovsk . . . 1890-1900 a

15

27

29

24

26

20

23

19

23

20

18

14

., q

4

5

9

13

13

12

13

10

9

7

5

4

Ekatarinburg . . „ a

10

IS

17

21

22

19

20

16

14

13

ii

9

Kew .... 1891-1900 q

7

10

20

25

31

27

28

23

20

15

9

6

Toronto . . . 1843-1848 a

12

14

17

23

26

H

27

32

34

25

19

18

Batavia .... 1883-1898 a

42

48

48

45

31

31

32

29

41

50

40

33

St Helena . . . 1843-1847 a

16

13

12

14

13

II

17

ii

i?

II

15

18

Mauritius . . . 1884-1890 a

12

16

18

15

H

13

15

21

20

1 6

13

ii

Cape of Good Hope 1841-1846 a

29

47

41

38

21

12

14

19

19

35

33

28

Hobart .... 1842-1848 a

25

27

22

23

24

21

22

28

26

22

23

27

Inclination

1

/

1

i

/

'

•

'

/

/

'

f

Pavlovsk . . . 1890-1900 a

0'97

1-24

2*07

279

272

2'88

2-85

2*64

2-52

2-18

I'2O

0-89

Ekatarinburg . . ,, a

079

0-94

1-70

2-08

2-25

2-19

2'l8

2-08

2'OO

1-70

0-88

0-69

Kew .... „ q

0-98

I '01

1-38

1-86

2-05

2'02

2-05

2-15

1-98

i-57

1-27

0-63

Toronto . . . 1843-1848 a

i'i5

0-94

1-19

1-23

i'3i

i '37

1*13

1-26

I-87

1-16

ro9

1-05

Batavia .... 1883-1898 a

4-88

5'22

5-56

5-62

4-21

4'05

4-24

4'I7

5'i3

5-58

4'5i

3-85

Cape of Good Hope 1842-1846 a

i '55

2'29

2-23

2-23

i "60

1-41

i-54

170

r86

2-03

i'55

2 '04

Hobart .... 1842-1848 a

i '95

2-16

172

1-62

1-23

1-16

1-28

1-42

i "39

i-75

2*04

2'10

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

367

Table XV. — Diurnal Inequalities in N. and W. at Falmouth (unit IT)-

Hour.

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

II

12

M Ja'm-

+ 6

+ 5

+ 5

+ 5

+ 6

+ 6

+ 5

+ I

- 6

-14

—20

— 2O

N'jp.m.

-17

— 12

- 6

+ 3

+ 6

+ 9

+ 9

+ 9

+ 8

+ 7

+ 7

w Ja.m.

— 2

— 2

- 3

- 4

- 6

- 9

-13

-17

-19

-13

- 3

+ n

W'jp.m.

+20

+ 22

+ 17

+ M

+ 6

+ 4

+ 2

+ i

0

— I

— 2

— 2

curves, is characteristic of the winter months at Kew and Falmouth.
The shape is less variable in summer than in winter; but even in
summer the portion answering to the hours 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. varies
a good deal. The object of presenting the Kew and Falmouth
curves side by side is to emphasize the close resemblance between
the magnetic phenomena at places in similar latitudes, though
over 200 miles apart and exhibiting widely different ranges for
their meteorological elements. With considerable change of lati-
tude however the shape of vector diagrams changes largely.

§ 20. Any diurnal inequality can be analysed into a series of
Fourier harmonic terms whose periods are 24 hours and sub-
multiples thereof. The series may be expressed in either
of the equivalent forms: —

Ji cos <+6i sin <+Oj cos 2t+bi sin 2/+ ... (i]

:, sin (/+oi)+c» sin (2t+at)+ (ii)

Table XVI. — Ranges in Diurnal Inequalities at Falmouth (unit 17).

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

N.
W.

21

20

23

24

30

46

39

54

39

55

37
55

37
54

39
56

36
51

32
39

24
24

15
15

In both forms t denotes time, counted usually from midnight, one
hour of time being interpreted as 15° of angle. Form (i) is that
utilized in actually calculating the constants a, b, . . . Once the a. 6, ...
constants are known, the c, a, . . . constants are at once derivable
from the formulae: —

tan a,=a,/bn; c» = on/sin o» = 6»/cos a.

The a, b, c, a constants are called sometimes Fourier, sometimes
Bessel coefficients.

By taking a sufficient number of terms a series can always be
obtained which will represent any set of diurnal inequality figures;
but unless one can obtain a close approach to the observational

June.

months of one year, or for all the Januarys of a series
of years, we have only to take their arithmetic means
to obtain the corresponding constants for the mean
diurnal inequality of the year, or for the diurnal in-
equality of the average January of the series of years.
This, however, is obviously not true of the c or a con-
stants, unless the phase angle is absolutely unchanged
throughout the contributory months or years. This is a
point requiring careful attention, because when giving
values of c and a for the whole year some authorities
give the arithmetic mean of the c's and o's calculated from the
diurnal inequalities of the individual months of the year, others
give the values obtained for c and a from the mean diurnal inequality
of the whole year. The former method inevitably supplies a
larger value for c than the latter, supposing o to vary with the
season. At some observatories, e.g. Greenwich and Batavia, it has
long been customary to publish every year values of the Fourier
coefficients for each month, and to include other elements besides
the declination. For a thoroughly satisfactory comparison of
different stations, it is necessary to have data from one and the same
epoch; and preferably that epoch should include at least one
ii-year period. There are, however, few stations which can supply
the data required for such a comparison and we have to make
the best of what is ayailable. Information is naturally most
copious for the declination. For this element E. Engelenburg *°
gives values of c\, it, ct, c<, and of <u, os, oj, u< for each month of
the year for about 50 stations, ranging from
Fort Rae (62° 6' N. lat.) to Cape Horn (55° 5' S.
lat.). From the results for individual sta-
tions, Engelenburg derives a series of means
which he regards as representative of 1 1 differ-
ent zones of latitude. His data for individual
stations refer to different epochs, and some
are based on only one year's observations.
The original observations also differ in reliability; thus the results
are of somewhat unequal value. The mean results for Engelenburg's
zones must naturally have some of the sources of uncertainty reduced ;
but then the fundamental idea represented by the arrangement in
zones is open to question. The majority of the data in Table XVII.
are taken from Engelenburg, but the phase angles have been altered
so as to apply to westerly declination. The stations are arranged in
order of latitude from north to south ; in a few instances results are
given for quiet days. The figures represent in all cases arithmetic
means derived from the 12 monthly values. In the table, so far as is
known, the local mean time of the observatory has been employed.
This is a point requiring attention, because most observatories

July.

(From Pkil. Trans.)

FIG. 7.

figures from the terms possessing the periods 24, 12, 8 and 6 hours
ic physical significance and general utility of the analysis is some-
what problematical. In the case of the magnetic elements, the 24
and 12 hour terms are usually much the more important; the
4-hour term is generally, but by no means always, the larger of
: two. The c constants give the amplitudes of the harmonic
terms or waves, the a constants the phase angles. An advance
f I hour in the time of occurrence of the first (and subsequent, if
any) maximum and minimum answers to an increase of 15° in on
D in aj, of 45° in a,, of 60° in a« and so on. In the case of
nagnetic elements the phase angles not infrequently possess a
somewhat large annual variation. It is thus essential for a minute
study of the phenomena at any station to carry out the analysis
• the different seasons of the year, and preferably for the individual
months. If the a and b constants are known for all the individual

employ Greenwich time, or time based on Greenwich or some other
national observatory, and any departure from local time enters into
the values of the constants. The data for Victoria Land refer to
the" Discovery's" 1902-1903 winter quarters, where the declination,
taken westerly, was about 2O7°-5.

As an example of the significance of the phase angles in Table
XVII., take the ordinary day data for Kew. The times of occur-
rence of the maxima are given by t +234° =450° for the 24-hour
term, 2/+39°-7=9O° or =450° for the 12-hour term, and so on,
taking an hour in t as equivalent to 15°.

Thus the times of the maxima are: —

24-hour term, 2 h. 24 m. p.m.; 1 2-hour term, I h. 41 m. a.m.
and p.m.

8-hour term, 4 h. 41 m. a.m., o h. 41 m. p.m., and 8 h. 41 m. p.m.

6-hour term, o h. 33 m. a.m. and p.m., and 6 h. 33 m. a.m. and p.m.

368

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

The minima, or extreme easterly positions in the waves, lie midway
between successive maxima. All four terms, it will be seen, have
maxima at some hour between oh. 3om. and 2h. 3om. p.m. They
thus reinforce one another strongly from I to 2 p.m., accounting
for the prominence of the maximum in the early afternoon.

November.
M\

December.
N

E W

(From Phil. Trans.)

FIG. 8.

The utility of a Fourier analysis depends largely on whether the
several terms have a definite physical significance. If the 24-hour
and 12-hour terms, for instance, represent the action of forces whose
distribution over the earth or whose seasonal variation is essen-
tially different, then the analysis helps to distinguish these forces,
and may assist in their being tracked to their ultimate source.

Suppose, for example, one had reason to think the magnetic diurnal
variation due to some meteorological phenomenon, e.g. heating of
the earth's atmosphere, then a comparison of Fourier coefficients,
if such existed, for the two sets of phenomena would be a powerful
method of investigation.

TABLE XVII. — Amplitudes and Phase Angles for Diurnal Inequality of

Declination.

midsummer, in addition to one near midwinter. On the other hand,
the phase angle phenomena vary much for the different elements.
The 24-hour term, for instance, has its maximum earlier in winter
than in summer in the case of the declination and vertical force,
but the exact reverse holds for the inclination and the horizontal
force.

TABLE XVIII. — Kew Declination: Amplitudes and Phase Angles
(local mean time).

Month.

4.

Cl.

Cs-

ct.

•l.

a2.

as-

04.

*

i

t

/

o

0

o

o

January .

1-79

0-86

0-41

0-27

25I-2

29-8

254

64

February

2-41

i-ii

o-57

0-30

242-0

27-7

235

39

March

3-05

1-98

I'll

o-45

233-2

36-1

223

49

April .

3-35

2-48

1-17

o-39

224-8

39-2

228

61

May .

3-57

2-38

0-87

0-17

221-3

50-8

245

89

June . . .

3-83

2-39

0-74

0-05

212-6

46-7

239

72

July . . .

3-72

2-30

0-77

O-II

214-6

48-1

233

8

August

3-64

2-43

1-05

0-18

228-2

57-2

244

51

September

3-35

2 -O2

1-04

o-35

236-9

55-3

245

70

October .

2-69

1-69

0-92

0-48

240-I

35-6

235

65

November

1-94

I -06

0-51

0-32

248-3

28-3

247

61

December

1-61

0-81

o-35

O-2O

255-1

22-0

243

56

§ 22. If secular change proceeded uniformly throughout the year,
the value En of any element at_the middle of the nth month of the
year would be connected with E, the mean value for the
whole year, by the formula £„ = E + (2«-i 3)5/24, <""
where i is the secular change per annum. For the pre-
sent purpose, difference in the lengths of the months may be neglected.
If one applies to En — E the correction — (2n— 13)5/24 one eliminates
a regularly progressive secular change; what remains is known as

Place.

Epoch.

Cl.

Cf

Cl.

ct.

Ol.

02-

03-

a*.

Fort Rae (all) . .

1882-1883

1

18-49

/

8-22

/

1-99

1

2-07

156-5

o
41-9

o
308

o

104

„ (quiet) .

M

9-09

4-51

1-32

o-73

166-5

37-5

225

35°

Ekatarinburg

1841-1862

2-57

•81

o-73

O-22

223-3

7-4

2O4

351

Potsdam

1890-1899

2-81

•90

0-83

0-31

239-9

32-6

237

49

Kew (ordinary)

1890-1900

2-91

•79

0-79

0-27

234-0

39-7

239

57

Kew (quiet)

2-37

•82

0-90

0-30

227-3

42-1

240

55

Falmouth (quiet) .

1891-1902

2-18

•82

0-91

O-29

226-2

4°-5

238

56

Pare St Maur .

1883-1899

2-70

•87

0-85

0-30

238-6

32-5

235

95

Toronto . .

1842-1848

2-65

2-34

I-OO

o-33

213-7

34-9

238

350

Washington

1840-1842

2-38

1-86

0-65

o-33

223-0

26-6

223

53

Manila . . . .

1890-1900

o-53

0-58

o-43

0-17

266-3

50-7

226

89

Trivandrum

1853-1864

o-54

0-46

0-29

O-IO

289-0

49-6

114

Batavia ....

1883-1899

0-80

0-88

o-43

0-13

332-0

163-2

5

236

St. Helena . . .

1842-1847

0-68

0-61

0-63

o-34

275-8

171-4

27

244

Mauritius .

1876-1890

0-86

I'll

0-76

0-22

21-6

172-7

350

161

C. of G. Hope . .

1841-1846

I-I5

I-I3

0-80

o-35

287-7

156-0

35i

193

Melbourne .

1858-1863

2-52

2-45

1-23

o-35

27-4

176-7

9

193

Hobart .

1841-1848

2-29

2-15

0-87

0-32

33-6

170-8

349

185

S. Georgia .

1882-1883

2-13

1-28

0-76

0-31

30-3

185-3

7

1 80

Victoria Land (all).

1902-1903

20-51

4-81

I-2I

1-32

I58-7

306-9

292

303

,, (quieter).

..

15-34

4-°5

1-24

1-18

163-8

312-9

261

§21. Fourier coefficients of course often vary much with the season
of the year. In the case of the declination this is especially true
of the phase angles at tropical stations. To enter on details for a
number of stations would unduly occupy space. A fair idea of the
variability in the case of declination in temperate latitudes may be
derived from Table XVIII., which gives monthly values for Kew
derived from ordinary days of an 1 1 -year period 1890^-1900.

Fourier analysis has been applied to the diurnal inequalities of
the other magnetic elements, but more sparingly. Such results are
illustrated by Table XIX., which contains data derived from quiet
days at Kew from 1890 to 1900. Winter includes November to
February, Summer May to August, and Equinox the remaining
four months. In this case the data are derived from mean diurnal
inequalities for the season specified. In the case of the c or ampli-
tude coefficients the unit is I ' for I (inclination), and 17 for H and V
(horizontal and vertical force). At Kew the seasonal variation in the
amplitude is fairly similar for all the elements. The 24-hour and
12-hour terms tend to be largest near midsummer, and least near
midwinter; but the 8-hour and 6-hour terms have two well-marked
maxima near the equinoxes, and a clearly marked minimum near

the annual inequality. If only a short period of years is dealt with,
irregularities in the secular change from year to year, or errors of
observation, may obviously simulate the effect of a real annual in-
equality. Even when a long series of years is included, there is
always a possibility of a spurious inequality arising from annual
variation in the instruments, or from annual change in
the conditions of observation. J. Liznar, 21 from a study
of data from a number of stations, arrived at certain mean
results for the annual inequalities in declination and incli-
nation in the northern and southern hemispheres, and
J. Hann K has more recently dealt with Liznar's and
newer results. Table XX. gives a variety of data, includ-
ing the mean results given by Liznar and Hann. In the
case of declination + denotes westerly position ; in the
case of inclination it denotes a larger dip (whether the
inclination be north or south). According to Liznar
declination in summer is to the west of the normal posi-
tion in both hemispheres. The phenomena, however, at
Pare St Maur are, it will be seen, the exact opposite of
what Liznar regards as normal ; and whilst the Potsdam
results resemble his mean in type, the range of the in-
equality there, as at Pare St Maur, is relatively small.
Of the three sets of data given for Kew the first two are
derived in a similar way to those for other stations; the
first set are based on quiet days only, the second on all
but highly disturbed days. Both these sets of results
are fairly similar in type to the Pare St Maur results,
but give larger ranges; they are thus even more opposed
to Liznar's normal type. The last set of data for Kew
is of a special kind. During the II years 1890 to 1900
the Kew declination magnetograph showed to within l'
the exact secular change as derived from the absolute
observations; also, if any annual variation existed
in the position of the base lines of the curves it was
exceedingly small. Thus the accumulation of the daily non-cyclic
changes shown by the curves should closely represent the combined

TABLE XIX. — Kew Diurnal Inequality: Amplitudes and Phase
Angles (local mean time).

Cl.

Cl.

c,.

ct.

«i-

02.

03.

at.

[Winter .
I •<. Equinox
[ Summer

0-240
0-601
0-801

0-222
O-29O
0-322

0-104
0-213
0-172

0-076
0-127
0-070

o

250-0
290-3
312-5

91-8
135-5
155-5

o

344
4
39

o

194

207

238

("Winter .
H*l Equinox
[ Summer

3-62
10-97
14-85

3-86

5-87
6-23

1-81
3-32
2-35

I-I3

1-84

o-95

82-9
109-6

130-3

277-3
303-5
3I6-5

154
167
199

6

16
41

["Winter .
V-^ Equinox
|_ Summer

2-46
6-15
8-63

1-67

4-70
6-45

0-86

2-51

2-24

0-42
0-94
o-55

153-9
117-2

I22-O

300-8

272-3
272-4

1 08
99

IOO

280
289

285

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

369

effects of secular change and annual inequality. Eliminating the
secular change, we arrive at an annual inequality, Abased on all days
of the year including the highly disturbed. It is this annual in-
equality which appears under the heading i. It is certainly very
unlike the annual inequality derived in the usual way. Whether the
ililTerence is to be wholly assigned to the fact that highly disturbed
clays contribute in the one case, but not in the other, is a question
for future research.

In the case of the inclination, Liznar found that in both hemispheres
the dip (north in the northern, south in the southern hemisphere)
was larger than the normal when the sun was in perihelion, correspond-
ing to an enhanced value of the horizontal force in summer in the
northern hemisphere.

In the case of annual inequalities, at least that of the declination,

also in the case of the horizontal force — at least in the case of the
annual term — both at Kew and Falmouth. The phenomena at the
two stations show a remarkably close parallelism. At both, and
this is true also of the absolute ranges, the maximum of the annual
term falls in all cases near midsummer, the minimum near mid-
winter. The maxima of the 6-month terms fall near the equinoxes.
§ 24. Allusion has already been made in § 14 to one point which
requires fuller discussion. If we take a European station such as
Kew, the general character of, say, the declination does Absolute
not vary very much with the season, but still it does Range
vary. The principal minimum of the day, fof instance,
occurs from one to two hours earlier in summer than in winter. Let us
suppose for a moment that all the days of a month are exactly alike,
the difference in type between successive months coming in per

TABLE XX. — Annual Inequality.

Declination.

Inclination.

Liznar,
N. Hemi-
sphere.

Potsdam,
1891-1906.

Pare St
Maur,
1888-1897.

Kew (1890-1900).

Batavia,
1883-1893.

Mauritius.

Liznar &
Hann's
mean.

Potsdam.

Pare St.
Maur.

Kew.

9-

0.

5.

i

i

/

/

f

/

/

/

/

/

t

f

January

-0-25

+0-04

+O-OI

+0-08

+0-03

+0-32

+0-23

+0-06

+0-49

+0-32

+0-44

-0-03

February

-0-54

— O-II

o-oo

+0-48

+0-25

— O-2O

+0-19

+0-29

+Q-39

+0-56

+0-29

—0-07

March

-0-27

+0-04

+0-17

+0-03

+0-05

— I -O2

— 0-12

+0-27

+O-2O

+0-38

+0-13

+0-53

April
May

-0-03
+0-19

-fO-IO

+0-07

+O-I2
—O-II

-0-31
-0-39

—0-14
-0-28

— 0-90
+0-29

— O-II
-0-30

+0-30
+0-08

—O-08

-0-43

— O-O2
—0-29

-0-13
-o-37

+0-1 8
-0-15

June

+0-46

+0-13

—O-I4

-0-47

-0-39

+0-78

-0-13

—0-19

—0-70

-0-77

-0-59

-o-35

uly

+0-48

+0-14

-0-17

-0-30

-0-13

+0-44

-0-08

-0-44

-0-72

—0-67

-0-27

-0-13

August

+0-47

+O-II

+0-01

+0-08

+0-05

+0-52

-0-18

-0-38

-0-47

-0-23

—0-05

—0-19

September

+0-31

+O-OI

o-oo

+0-29

+0-24

— 0-02

+0-06

—0-06

—0-06

+0-16

+O-OI

+0-2O

October

—0-07

— O-II

+0-09

+0-06

-fo-oi

—0-26

+0-03

—0-04

+0-31

-fo-27

+0-19

0-00

November

-0-30

-0-28

-0-05

+0-17

+O-II

— O-O2

+0-08

— O-OI

+0-51

+0-30

+0-43

+0-1 8

December

-0-36

—0-14

+0-05

+0-26

+0-23

+0-05

+0-35

+0-06

+0-55

+0-19

+0-24

—0-29

Range

i -02

0-42

o-34

o-95

0-64

I -80

0-65

0-74

1-27

1-33

1-03

0-88

it is a somewhat suggestive fact that the range seems to become less
as we pass from older to more recent results, or from shorter to longer
periods of years. Thus for Paris from 1821 to 1830 Arago deduced
a range of 2' 9". Quiet days at Kew from 1890 to 1894 gave a range
of i'-2, while at Potsdam Ludeling got a range 30% larger than that
in Table XX. when considering the shorter period 1891-1899. Up
to the present, few individual results, if any, can claim a very high
degree of certainty. With improved instruments and methods it
may be different in the future.

§ 23. The inequalities in Table XX. may be analysed — as has in
fact been done by Hann — in a series of Fourier terms, whose periods
are the year and its submultiples. Fourier series can
also be formed representing the annual variation in the

Annual

to" amplitudes of the regular diurnal inequality, and its
cffkkats.

"component 24-hour, 12-hour, &c. waves, or of the
amplitude of the absolute daily range (§ 24). To secure
the highest theoretical accuracy, it would be necessary in calculating
the Fourier coefficients to allow for the fact that the " months "
from which the observational data are derived are not of uniform
h. The mid-times, however, of most months of the year a*re
but slightly displaced from the position they would occupy if the
12 months were exactly equal, and these displacements are usually
neglected. The loss of accuracy cannot be but trifling, and the
simplification is considerable.

The Fourier series may be represented by

Pi sin (<+9i)+Pj sin (2/+02) +

where t is time counted from the beginning of the year, one month
being taken as the equivalent of 30°, PI, Pj represent the amplitudes,
and 0i, 81 the phase angles of the first two terms, whose periods
are respectively 12 and 6 months. Table XXI. gives the values of
these coefficients in the case of the range of the regular diurnal
inequality for certain specified elements and periods at Kew "
and Falmouth."" In the case of PI and P» the 'unit is i' for D and
I, and ly for H and V. M denotes the mean value of the range for
the 12 months. The letters q and o represent quiet and ordinary day
results. S max. means the years 1892-1895, with a mean sun spot
frequency of 75-0. S min. for Kew means the years 1890, 1899 and
1900 with a mean sun spot frequency of 9-6; for Falmouth it means
the years 1899-1902 with a mean sun spot frequency of 7-25.

Increase in 9i or 0j means an earlier occurrence of the maximum
or maxima, i° answering roughly to one day in the case of the 12-
month term, and to half a day in the case of the 6-month term.
Pi/M and Pj/M both increase decidedly as we pass from years of
many to years of few sun spots; i.e. relatively considered the range
of the regular diurnal inequality is more variable throughout the
year when sun spots are few than when they are many.

The tendency to an earlier occurrence of the maximum as we pass
from quiet days to ordinary days, or from years of sun spot minimum
to years of sun spot maximum, which appears in the table, appears

saltum. Suppose further that having formed twelve diurnal inequal-
ities from the days of the individual months of the year, we deduce
a mean diurnal inequality for the whole year by combining these
twelve inequalities and taking the mean. The hours of maximum
and minimum being different for the twelve constituents, it is
obvious that the resulting maximum will normally be less than the
arithmetic; mean of the twelve maxima, and the resulting minimum
(arithmetically) less than the arithmetic mean of the twelve minima.
The range — or algebraic excess of the maximum over the minimum —
in the mean diurnal inequality for the year is thus normally less than
the arithmetic mean of the twelve ranges from diurnal inequalities
for the individual months. Further, as we shall see later, there are
differences in type not merely between the different months of the
year, but even between the same months in different years. Thus
the range of the mean diurnal inequality for, say,' January based
on the combined observations of, say, eleven Januarys may be and
generally will be slightly less than the arithmetic mean of the
ranges obtained from the Januarys separately. At Kew, for instance,
taking the ordinary days of the n years 1890-^1900, the arithmetic
mean of the diurnal inequality ranges of declination from the 132
months treated independently was 8'-52, the mean range from the
12 months of the year (the eleven Januarys being combined into one,

TABLE XXI. — Annual Variation of Diurnal Inequality Range.
Fourier Coefficients.

P,.

P,.

01.

0«.

Pi/M

P./M.

Kew
1890-1900

Do

g-

ifc

3-36
3'8i
'0-67
13-6
11-7

0-94

1-22

0-16
3-o

2-2

279°
275°
264°
269°
282°

280°

273°
269°
261°
242"

0-40
0-47
0-42
0-48
0-63

O-II

0-15

O-IO
O-II
0-12

Smax.
D,

Kew
Falmouth

4-50
4-10

1-26
I-4O

277l
277°

282"
286°

0-47
o-43

0-13
0-15

Smin.
D,

Kew
Falmouth

3-35
3'«9

I-IO

1-14

274°
275°

269°
277°

0-49
0-49

0-16
0-17

and so on) was 8'-44, but the mean range from the whole 4,000 odd
days superposed was only S'-oi. Another consideration is this:
a diurnal inequality is usually based on hourly readings, and the
range deduced is thus an under-estimate unless the absolute
maximum and minimum both happen to come exactly at an hour.
These considerations would alone suffice to show that the absolute
range in individual days, i.e. the difference between the alge-
braically largest and least values of the element found any
time during the 24 hours, must on the average exceed the

37°

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

range in the mean diurnal inequality for the year, however
this latter is formed. Other causes, moreover, are at work
tending in the same direction. Even in central Europe, the
magnetic curves for individual days of an ordinary month often
differ widely amongst themselves, and show maxima and minima at
different times of the day. In high latitudes, the variation from day
to day is sometimes so great that mere eye inspection of magneto-
graph curves may leave one with but little idea as to the probable
shape of the resultant diurnal curve for the month. Table XXII.
gives the arithmetic mean of the absolute daily ranges from a few
stations. The values which it assigns to the year are the arithmetic

§ 25. The variability of the absolute daily range of declination is
illustrated by Table XXIII., which contains data for Kew " derived
from all days of the ll-year period 1890-1900. It gives the total
number of times during the II years when the absolute range lay
within the limits specified at the heads of the first nine columns of
figures. The two remaining columns give the arithmetic means of
the five largest and the five least absolute ranges encountered each
month. The mean of the twelve monthly diurnal inequality ranges
from ordinary days was only 8'-44, but the absolute range during the
1 1 years exceeded 20' on 492 days, 15' on 1196 days, and 10' on 2784
days, i.e. on 69 days out of every loo.

TABLE XXII. — Mean Absolute Daily Ranges (Units i' for Declination, 17 for H and V).

Declination.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year.

Pavlovsk
Ekatarinburg

13-42
7-^3

17-20

Q-S4

18-22

II-OO

17-25
12-89

17-76
I v6^

I5-9I

IVO1

16-89
12-78

16-57

12-21

16-75

1 1 '2\

I5-70

9 >A A

1387
7-86

12-37
6-8=

'5-99

Kew. All days
„ Ordinary days
„ Quiet „
Zi-ka-wei

11-16
10-14

6-12

V88

13-69
II-87

7-57

V25

15-93
14-19

10-59

6-22

15-00
14-24
11-84
7 -O4

14-90

I3-85
12-09
7-15

I3-65
13-26

"•95
7-4O

I4-I3
13-47
1 1 -60

7-77

I4-22
I3-67

"•93
8-06

H-57
13-71

10-86
6-7-?

14-07
13-10
9-16
4-68

11-71
10-40
6-54

2-Ql

9-80
9-00
5-08

2-C2

13-57
12-58
9-61

c.A-l

6'Q1

7-7Q

7-II

5-75

4-8?

4-OA

4-^6

6-00

6-28

6-71

6-78

6-11

Horizontal force.

Pavlovsk
Ekatarinburg
Mauritius

52-4

33-2
17-Q

74-5
43-i
ivo

79-1

48-4
16-2

80- 1

5'-7
•?7'6

86-2

56-2

^S'O

79-0

54-1

^4-1

86-7
56-7
«-8

77-6
5i-7

"?4-S

76-7
49-3
•16-6

67-3

44-1

-17-4.

55-7
34-i
37-8

45-9
29-3

•ic.i

» tj

71-8
46-0

7C.Q

Vertical force.

Pavlovsk
Ekatarinburg

27-0
17-4

5°-4
26-6

54-7

2Q-2

43-2

lO'I

45-3
29-6

34-8
27-6

42-1

2O-6

35-5
26-1

42-5

2V2

37-5

22' I

33-5

IQ'6

25-5

l6'4

39-3

I7-I

ID'S

2O- 1

17-^

i6-s

I^-S

I7-I

22-O

22-7

IQ'J.

16-7

I ^-2

18-2

means of the 12 monthly values. The Mauritius data are for differ-
ent periods, viz. declination 1875, 1880 and 1883 to 1890, horizontal
force 1883 to 1890, vertical force 1884 to 1890. The other data
are all for the period 1890 to 1900.

A comparison of the absolute ranges in Table XXII. with the
inequajity ranges for the same stations derivable from Tables VIII.
to X. is most instructive. At Mauritius the ratio of the absolute
to the inequality range is for D 1-38, for H 1-76, and for V 1-19.
At Pavlovsk the corresponding ratios are much larger, viz. 2-16 for
D, 2-43 for H, and 2-05 for V. The declination data for Kew in
Table XXII. illustrate other points. The first set of data are derived
from all days of the year. The second omit the highly disturbed
days. The third answer to the 5 days a month selected as typically
quiet. The yearly mean absolute range from ordinary days at Kew
in Table XXI I. is I -49 times the mean inequality range in Table VIII.;
comparing individual months the ratio of the absolute to the in-
equality range varies from 2-06 in January to 1-21 in June. Even
confining ourselves to the quiet days at Kew, which are free from any
but the most trifling disturbances, we find that the mean absolute
range for the year is I -20 times the arithmetic mean of the inequality
ranges for the individual months of the year, and 1-22 times the
range from the mean diurnal inequality for the year. In this case
the ratio of the absolute to the inequality range varies from 1-55 in
December to only 1-09 in May.

§ 26. Magnetic phenomena, both regular and irregular, at any station
vary from year to year. The extent of this variation is illustrated
in Tables XXIV. and XXV., both relating to the period „
1890 to 1900." Table XXIV. gives the amplitudes of *
the regular diurnal inequality in the elements stated at p"
the head of the columns. The ordinary day declination '"*'
data (D.) for Kew represent arithmetic means from the twelve
months of the year; the other data all answer to the mean diurnal
inequality for the whole year. Table XXV. gives the arithmetic
means for each year of the absolute daily range, of the monthly
range (or difference between the highest and lowest values in the
month), and of the yearly range (or difference between the highest
and lowest values of the year). The numerals attached to the years
in these tables indicate their order as regards sun-spot frequency
according to Wolf and Wolfer (see AURORA POLARIS), 1893 being
the year of largest frequency, and 1890 that of least. The differ-
ence in sun-spot frequency between 1897 and 1898 was microscopic;
the differences between 1890, 1900 and 1899 were small, and those
between 1893, 1894 and 1892 were not very large.

The years 1892-1895 represent high sun-spot frequency, while
1890, 1899 and 1900 represent low frequency. Table XXIV. shows
that 1892 to 1895 were in all cases distinguished by the large size of
the inequality ranges, and 1890, 1899 and 1900 by the small size.
The range in 1893 is usually the largest, and though the H and V

TABLE XXIII. — Absolute Daily Range of Declination at Kew.

Number of occasions during n years when absolute range was: —

Means from the 5 largest
and 5 least ranRcs of the

month on the average of

ii years.

o' to 5'.

5'toio'.

lo'tois'.

1 5' to 20'.

20' to 25'.

25' to 30'.

30' to 35'.

35' to 40'.

over 40'.

5 largest.

5 least.

/

t

January ....
February ....

2i

H5
99

69

84

37
51

24
26

7

10

4
4

3

2

I

8

22-90
27-21

5-07
6-55

March

I

72

138

61

32

21

8

I

7

29-87

8-93

April

O

43

167

73

27

IO

6

3

i

23-69

10-31

May

O

57

157

85

20

12

3

o

7

25-36

9-50

June

0

56

185

67

15

I

3

i

2

19-92

9-89

July

0

59

185

70

14

5

2

2

4

22-49

9.96

August ....

O

37

202

75

22

i

2

0

2

21-27

10-05

September

I

68

153

71

19

5

4

5

4

24-55

9-52

October ....

3

'03

III

67

34

IO

ii

2

o

23-92

8-01

November ....
December ....

42
64

140
166

81
56

28

29

H
14

9
7

8

I

5
i

3
3

23-58
20-43

5-64
4-36

Totals ....

1 88

1045

1588

7H

261

98

56

25

42

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

ranges at Ekaterinburg are larger in 1892 than in 1893, the excess
is trifling. The phenomena apparent in Table XXIV. are fairly
representative ; other stations and other periods associate large
inequality ranges with high sun-spot frequency. The diurnal
inequality range it should be noticed is comparatively little influenced
by irregular disturbances. Coming to Table XXV., we have ranges
of a different character. The absolute range at Kew on quiet days
is almost as little influenced by irregularities as is the range of the
diurnal inequality, and in its case the phenomena are very similar
to those observed in Table XXIV. As we pass from left to right
in Table XXV., the influence of disturbance increases. Simul-
taneously with this, the parallelism with sun-spot frequency is less
close. The entries relating to 1892 and 1894 become more and more

TABLE XXIV. — Ranges of Diurnal Inequalities.

Pavlovsk.

Ekatarinburg.

Kew.

D.

I.

H.

D.

I.

H.

V.

D,.

I,.

H,

D..

/

/

7

f

'

T

7

t

/

y

/

1890,,

6-32

'•33

22

5-83

•05

18

9

6-90

20

7-32

1891,

7-31

1-79

30

6-85

•38

25

14

8-04

•52

28

8-48

18923

8-75

2-21

37

7-74

•72

32

19

9-50

•66

31

9-85

18931

9-64

2-24

38

8-83

•80

3'

17

10-06

•96

35

10-74

18942

8-58

2-17

38

7-80

•73

30

17

9-32

•94

34

9-80

18954

8-22

2-08

33

7-29

•64

28

15

8-59

•66

3°

9-54

1896*

7-39

•77

29

6-50

•38

25

15

7'77

•31

25

8-50

1897,

6-79

•59

26

6-01

•16

21

12

6-71

•14

22

7-76

1898,

6-25

•56

26

5-76

•19

21

II

6-85

•07

21

7-59

1890.

6-O2

•44

24

5-33

•12

2O

II

6-69

•or

21

7-30

190010

6-2O

•28

22

5-88

o-93

17

8

6-52

•06

21

6-83

prominent compared to those for 1893. The yearly range may de-
pend on but a single magnetic storm, the largest disturbance of the
year possibly far outstripping any other. But taking even the
monthly ranges the values for 1893 are, speaking roughly, only half
those for 1892 and 1894, and very similar to those of 1898, though
the sun-spot frequency in the latter year was less than a third of that
in 1893. Ekatarinburg data exactly analogous to those for Pav-
lovsk show a similar prominence in 1892 and 1894 as compared to

TABLE XXV. — Absolute Ranges.

paper gives curves representing the phenomena over the whole
56 years. This period covered five complete sun-spot periods, and
the approximate synchronism of the maxima and minima, and the
general parallelism of the magnetic and sun-spot changes is patent
to the eye. Ellis27 has also applied an analogous method to investi-
gate the relationship between sun-spot frequency and the number of
days of magnetic disturbance at Greenwich. A decline in the num-
ber of the larger magnetic storms near sun-spot minimum is recog-
nizable, but the application of the method is less successful than
in the case of the inequality range. Another method, initiated by
Professor Wolf of Zurich, lends itself more readily to the investigation
of numerical relationships. He started by supposing an exact
proportionality between corresponding changes in sun-spot frequency
and magnetic range. This is expressed mathematically by the
formula

Kew Declina-

tion. Daily.

Daily.

Monthly.

Yearly.

9-

0.

a.

D.

H.

V.

D.

H.

V.

D.

H.

V.

/

1

r

•

7

y

/

y

y

/

y

y

1890,,

8-3

10-5

10-7

I2-I

49

21

28-2

118

80

42-1

169

179

1891,

10-0

12-8

13-7

16-0

7°

39

46-3

218

233

92-3

550

614

18923

12-3

15-4

i'-7

21-0

in

73

93-6

698

575

194-0

2416

1385

18931

u-8

15-2

15-6

I7-8

79

4i

48-3

241

210

87-1

5H

457

18942

"•3

14-7

16-5

20-4

97

62

84-1

493

493

145-6

1227

878

1895.

10-6

14-8

15-6

18-1

80

46

47-4

220

223

73'9

395

534

I896S

9'5

12-9

14-5

17-5

74

43

52-4

232

236

88-7

574

608

18979

8-2

1 1 -5

I2-I

14-6

61

30

43-8

201

170

IOI-I

449

480

1898,

8-2

II-2

12-3

14-7

67

35

46-6

276

242

118-9

1136

888

1899,

7'9

1 0-5

"•3

I3'l

58

27

38-3

I78

150

63-8

382

*27

1900,0

7'4

8-9

9-2

10-5

44

16

32-8

134

89

94-2

457

365

Means

9-6

12-6

13-6

16-0

72

39

5i-i

274

246

100-2

752

629

1893. The retirement of 1893 from first place, seen in the absolute
ranges at Kew, Pavlovsk and Ekatarinburg, is not confined to the
northern hemisphere. It is visible, for instance, in the amplitudes
of the Batavia disturbance results. Thus though the variation from
year to year in the amplitude of the absolute ranges is relatively not
less but greater than that of the inequality ranges, and though the
general tendency is for all ranges to be larger in years of many than
in years of few sun-spots, still the parallelism between the changes
in sun-spot frequency and in magnetic range is not so close for the
absolute ranges and for disturbances as for the inequality ranges.

i 27. The relationship between magnetic ranges and sun-spot
frequency has been investigated in several ways. W. Ellis2* has
employed a graphical method which has advantages, especially for
tracing the general features of the resemblance, and is besides inde-
pendent of any theoretical hypothesis. Taking time for the axis
of abscissae, Ellis drew two curves, one having for its ordinates the
sun-spot frequency, the other the inequality range of declination
or of horizontal force at Greenwich. The value assigned in the
magnetic curve to the ordinate for any particular month represents
a mean from 12 months of which it forms a central month, the object
being to eliminate the regular annual variation in the diurnal in-
equality. The sun-spot data derived from Wolf and Wolfer were
similarly treated. Ellis originally dealt with the period 1841 to
1877, but subsequently with the period 1878101896, and his second

where R denotes the magnetic range, S the corresponding sun-spot
frequency, while a and b are constants. The constant a represents
the range for zero sun-spot frequency, while bja is the proportional
increase in the range accompanying unit rise in sun-spot frequency.
Assuming the formula to be true, one obtains from the observed
values of R and S numerical values for a and b, and can thus investi-
gate whether or not the sun-spot influence is the same for the different
magnetic elements and for different places. Of course, the useful-
ness of Wolf's formula depends largely on the accuracy with which
it represents the facts. That it must be at least a rough approxima-
tion to the truth in the case of the diurnal inequality at Greenwich
might be inferred Yrom Ellis's curves. Several possibilities should
be noticed. The formula may apply with high accuracy, a and 6
having assigned values, for one or two sun-spot cycles, and yet not
be applicable to more remote periods. There are only three or four
stations which have continuous magnetic records extending even
50 years back, and, owing to temperature correction uncertainties,
there is perhaps no single one of these whose earlier records of
horizontal and vertical force are above criticism. Declination is
less exposed to uncertainty, and there are results of eye observations
of declination before the era of photographic curves. A change,
however, of i' in declination has a significance which alters with the
intensity of the horizontal force. During the period 1850-1900
horizontal force in England increased about 5%, so that the force
requisite to produce a declination change of 19' in 1900 would in
1850 have produced a deflection of 20'. It must also be re-
membered that secular changes of declination must alter the
angle between the needle and any disturbing force acting in
a fixed direction. Thus secular alteration in a and a is
rather to be anticipated, especially in the case of the declina-
tion. Wolf's formula has been applied by Rajnaa to the
yearly mean diurnal declination ranges at Milan based on
readings taken twice daily from 1836 to 1894, treating the
whole period together, and then the period 1871 to 1894
separately. During two sub-periods, 1837-1850 and 1854-
1867, Rama's calculated values for the range differ very
persistently in one direction from those observed; Wolf's
formula was applied by C. Chree24 to these two periods
separately. He also applied it to Greenwich inequality
ranges for the years 1841 to 1896 as published by Ellis,
treating the whole period and the last 32 years of it separ-
ately, and finally to all (a) and quiet (q) day Greenwich
ranges from 1889 to 1896. The results of these applications
of Wolf's formula appear in Table XXVI.

The Milan results are suggestive rather of heterogeneity
in the material than of any decided secular change in a or
6. The Greenwich data are suggestive of a gradual fall in a,
and rise in b, at least in the case of the declination.

Table XXVII. gives values of a, 6 and b/a in Wolf's formula
calculated by Chree26 for a number of stations. There are two sets
of data, the first set relating to the range from the mean diurnal
inequality for the year, the second to the arithmetic mean of the
ranges in the mean diurnal inequalities for the twelve months.
It is specified whether the results were derived from all or from quiet
days.

TABLE XXVI.— Values of a and b in Wolf's Formula.

Milan.

Greenwich.

Epoch.

Declination
(unit i').

Epoch.

Declination
(unit I').

Horizontal Force
(unit 17).

a.

6.

a.

b.

a.

6.

1836-94
1871-94
1837-50

1854-67

5-31
5-39
6-43

4-62

•047
•047
•041
•047

1841-96
1865-96
1889-96(0)
1889-96(5)

7-29
7-07
6-71
6-36

•°377
•0396
•0418
•0415

26-4
23-6
23-7
25-0

•190

•215
•218

•213

As explained above, a would represent the range in a year of no
sun-spots, while 100 b would represent the excess over this shown by
the range in a year when Wolfer's sun-spot frequency is 100. Thus

372

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

TABLE XXVII. — Values of a and b in Wolf's Formula.

Declination
(unit l').

Inclination
(unit l')-

Horizontal Force
(unit 17).

Vertical Force
(unit 17).

Diurnal Inequality for the Year.

a.

6.

too b/a.

a.

b.

loo b/a.

a.

b.

ioob/a.

a.

b.

1 00 ft/0.

Pavlovsk, 1890-1900 all
Pavlovsk, 1890-1900 quiet
Ekatarinburg, 1890-1900 . . . .all
Irkutsk „ „ . . . all
Kew „ „ . . . quiet
Falmouth, 1891-1902 quiet
Kolaba, 1894-1901 quiet
Batavia 1887-1898 all

5-74
6-17

5-29
4-82
6-10
5-90
2-37
2-47

4-06

•0400

•0424
•0342
•0358
•0433
•0451
•0066
•0179
•0164

•70
•69
•65
•74

9

•28

•72
•40

1-24

0-93
0-97
0-87

3-60

•0126

•0105
•0087
•0125

•0218

I -01

I-I3
0-90

1-45
0-61

20-7

2O-6

16-8
18-2
18-1

20-1

31-6
38-7

15-0

•211

•195
•182
•I9O
•194

•233
•28l

•274
•096

•I-O2

o-95
1-09
1-04
1-07
1-16
0-89
0-71

0-64

8-1

5'9
8-6

6-5
H-3

19-4
30-1

n-9

•265
•027
•117
•071
•081

•072
•156

•069

3-26
0-46

i'37
1-09
0-56

o-37
0-52

0-58

*/f •<.- < 1875-1880 )
Mauritius j ,8^_l89O | • • • -all

Mean from individual months : —
Pavlovsk, 1890-1900 all
„ „ quiet
Ekatarinburg, 1890-1900 . . .all
Greenwich, 1865-1896 . . . .all
Kew, 1890-1900 all
„ ,, „ quiet

6-81
6-52
6-18
7-07
6-65
6-49
6-16

•0446
•0442

•0355
•0396
•0428
•0410
•0450

•66
•68

'5f
•56

•64
•63
•73

1-44

I-I2
I-I7

•0151

•OI2O
•0130

1-05
i -06

i-n

22-8
22-2
I9-2
23-6

2i-'s

20-9

•243
•208

•195
•215

•191

•236

1-07
0-94

I-OI

0-91

0-89
1-13

9'7
7-0
9-2

16-0

•287
•044
•156

•072

2-97
0-63
1-70

o-45

Falmouth, 1891-1902 quiet

b/a seems the most natural measure of sun-spot influence. Accept-
ing it, we see that sun-spot influence appears larger at most places
for inclination and horizontal force than for declination. In the
case of vertical force there is at Pavlovsk, and probably in a less
measure at other northern stations, a large difference between all
and quiet days, which is not shown in the other elements. The
difference between the values of b/a at different stations is also
exceptionally large for vertical force. Whether this last result is
wholly free from observational uncertainties is, however, open to
some doubt, as the agreement between Wolf's formula and observa-
tion is in general somewhat inferior for vertical force. In the case
of the declination, the mean numerical difference between the
observed values and those derived from Wolf's formula, employing
the values of a and b given in Table XXVI I., represented on the aver-
age about 4 % of the mean value of the element for the period con-
sidered, the probable error representing about 6 % of the difference
between the highest and lowest values observed. The agreement
was nearly, if not quite, as good as this for inclination and horizontal
force, but for vertical force the corresponding percentages were
nearly twice as large.

Applying Wolf's formula to the diurnal ranges for different months
of the year, Chree found, as was to be anticipated, that the constant
a had an annual period, with a conspicuous minimum at midwinter;
but whilst ft also varied, it did so to a much less extent, the conse-
quence being that 6/a showed a minimum at midsummer. The
annual variation in b/a alters with the place, with the element, and
with the type of day from which the magnetic data are derived.
Thus, in the case of Pavlovsk declination, whilst the mean value of
loo b/a for the 12 months is, as shown in Table XXVII., 0-66 for all
and 0-68 for quiet days — values practically identical— if we take the
four midwinter and the four midsummer months separately.we have
loo b/a, varying from 0-81 in winter to 0-52 in summer on all days,'
but from 1-39 in winter to 0-52 in summer on quiet days. In the
case of horizontal force at Pavlovsk the corresponding figures to
these are for all days — winter 1-77, summer 0-98, but for quiet days
— winter 1-83, summer 0-71.

Wolf's formula has also been applied to the absolute daily ranges,
to monthly ranges, and to various measures of disturbance. In
these cases the values found for b/a are usually larger than those
found for diurnal inequality ranges, but the accordance between
observed values and those calculated from Wolf's formula is less
good. If instead of the range of the diurnal inequality we take the
sum of the 24-hourly differences from the mean for the day — or,
what comes to the same thing, the average departure throughout the
24 hours from the mean value for the day — we find that the resulting
Wolf's formula gives at least as good an agreement with observation
as in the case of the inequality range itself. The formulae obtained
in the case of the 24 differences, at places as wide apart as Kew and
Batavia, agreed in giving a decidedly larger value for ft/a than that
obtained from the ranges. This indicates that the inequality curve
is relatively less peaked in years of many than in years of few sun-
spots.

§ 28. The applications of Ellis's and Wolf's methods relate directly
only to the amplitude of the diurnal changes. There is, however, a
change not merely in amplitude but in type. This is clearly seen
when we compare the values found in years of many and of few sun-
spots for the Fourier coefficients in the diurnal inequality. Such
a comparison is carried out in Table XXVIII. for the declination
on ordinary days at Kew. Local mean time is used. The heading
S max. (sun-spot maximum) denotes mean average results from the
four years 1892-1895, having a mean sun-spot frequency of 75-0, whilst

S min. (sun-spot minimum) applies similarly to the years 1890, 1899
and 1900, having a mean sun-spot frequency of only 9-6. The data
relate to the mean diurnal inequality for the whole year or for the
season stated. It will be seen that the difference between the c,
or amplitude, coefficients in the S max. and S min. years is greater
for the 24-hour term than for the 12-hour term, greater for the 12-
hour than for the 8-hour term, and hardly apparent in the 6-hour
term. Also, relatively considered, the difference between the ampli-
tudes in S max. and S min. years is greatest in winter and least in
summer. Except in the case of the 6-hour term, where the differences
are uncertain, the phase angle is larger, i.e. maxima and minima
occur earlier in the day, in years of S min. than in years of S max.
Taking the results for the whole year in Table XXVIII., this advance
of phase in the S min. years represents in time 15-6 minutes for the
24-hour term, 9-4 minutes for the 12-hour term, and 14-7 minutes
for the 8-hour term. The difference in the phase angles, as in the
amplitudes, is greatest in winter. Similar phenomena are shown
by the horizontal force, and at Falmouth 24 as well as Kew.

TABLE XXVIII. — Fourier Coefficients in Years of many and few
Sun-spots.

Year.

Winter.

Equinox.

Summer.

Smax.

Smin.

S max.

Smin.

Smax.

Smin.

Smax.

Smin.

Cl

3'47
2-04
0-89
0-28

2-21

I-5I
0-72
0-27

2-41
I-I5
o-55
0-30

1-43

0-78
0-42
0-27

3-76
2-33
1-16
0-42

2-41
1-71
0-97
0-42

4-38
2-73
o-97

O-II

'2-06
0-77

O-II

O

O

0

O

o

o

o

o

ai
a3

228-5
41-7
232-6
58-0

232-4
46-6
243-6

57-3

243-0
23-5
234-0

52-3

256-0

257-6
60-8

231-3

40-6
228-4
62-0

233-7

43-9
236-2
58-2

218-2
50-6

236-8

57-4

220-3
52-5

245-4
45-2

§ 29. There have already been references to quiet days, for instance
in the tables of diurnal inequalities. It seems to have been originally
supposed that quiet days differed from other days only Ou/et Day
in the absence of irregular disturbances, and that mean p.
annual values, or secular change data, or diurnal inequal-
ities, derived from them might be regarded as truly normal or repre-
sentative of the station. It was found, however, by P. A. Miiller **
that mean annual values of the magnetic elements at St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk from 1873 to 1885 derived from quiet days alone
differed in a systematic fashion from those derived from all days,
and analogous results were obtained by Ellis *° at Greenwich for the
period 1889-1896. The average excesses for the quiet-day over the
all-day means in these two cases were as follows: —

Westerly
Declination.

Inclination.

Horizontal
Force.

Vertical
Force.

St Petersburg
Greenwich

+0-24
+0-08

-0-23

+3-27
+3-37

-o-8r
-0-97

The sign of the difference in the case of D, I and H was the same in
each year examined by Miiller, and the same was true of H at Green-
wich. In the case of V, and of D at Greenwich, the differences are

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

small and might be accidental. In the case of D at Greenwich 1891
differed from the other years, and of two more recent years examined
by Kills" one, 1904, agreed with 1891. At Kew, on the average of
the 1 1 years 1890 to 1900, the quiet-day mean annual value of declina-
tion exceeded the ordinary day value, but the apparent excess o -02
is too small to possess much significance.

Another property more recently discovered in quiet days is the
non-cyclic change. The nature of this phenomenon will be readily
understood from the following data from the u-year
Non-cyclic period iggo to 1900 at Kew32. The mean daily change
Change. for an jays ;s calculated from the observed annual
change.

D.

I.

H.

V.

Mean annual change

-5-79

-2-38

+25-97

— 22-67

Mean daily change, all days
Meandaily change, quiet days

— 0-016
+0-044

—0-007
-0-245

+0-077
+3-347

—0-067
-0-847

Thus the changes during the representative quiet day differed from
those of the average day. Before accepting such a phenomenon
as natural, instrumental peculiarities must be carefully considered.
The secular change is really based on the absolute instruments, the
diurnal changes on the magnetographs, and the first idea likely to
occur to a critical mind is that the apparent abnormal change on
quiet days represents in reality change of zero in the magnetographs.
If, however, the phenomenon were instrumental, it should appear
equally on days other than quiet days, and we should thus have a
shift of zero amounting in a year to over 1,2007 in H, and to about
90' in I. Under such circumstances the curve would be continually
drifting off the sheet. In the case of the Kew magnetographs, a
careful investigation showed that if any instrumental change occurred
in the declination magnetograph during the 1 1 years it did not exceed
a few tenths of a minute. In the case of the H and V magnetographs
at Kew there is a slight drift, of instrumental origin, due to weaken-
ing of the magnets, but it is exceedingly small, and in the case of
H is in the opposite direction to the non-cyclic change on quiet
days. It only remains to add that the hypothesis of instrumental
origin was positively disproved by measurement of the curves on
ordinary days.

It must not be supposed that every quiet day agrees with the aver-
age quiet day in the order of magnitude, or even in the sign, of the
non-cyclic change. In fact, in not a few months the sign of the non-
cyclic change on the mean of the quiet days differs from that
obtained for the average quiet day of a period of years. At
Kew, between 1890 and 1900, the number of months during which
the mean non-cyclic change for the five quiet days selected by the
astronomer royal (Sir W. H. M. Christie) was plus, zero, or minus,
was as follows : —

Element.

D.

I.

H.

V.

Number +
„ o

63
14

55

13
16

IOI

112
II

9

47
9
74

The + sign denotes westerly movement in the declination, and in-
creasing dip of the north end of the needle. In the case of I and
H the excess in the number of months showing the normal sign is
overwhelming. The following mean non-cyclic changes on quiet
days are from other sources : —

Element.

Greenwich
(1890-1895).

Falmouth
(1898-1902).

Kolaba
(1894-1901).

D
H

/

+ 0-03
+ 4-3-X

/
+ 0-05
+ 3-07

/

+ 0-07
+ 3-97

The results are in the same direction as at Kew, + meaning in
the case of D movement to the west. At Falmouth32, as at
Kew, the non-cyclic change showed a tendency to be small in years
of few sun-spots.

§ 30. In calculating diurnal inequalities from quiet days the non-
cyclic effect must be eliminated, otherwise the result would depend
on the hour at which the " day " is supposed to commence. If the
value recorded at the second midnight of the average day exceeds
that at the first midnight by N, the elimination is effected by apply-
ing to each hourly value the correction N(i2-n)/24, where n is the
hour counted from the first midnight (o hours). This assumes
the change to progress uniformly throughout the 24 hours. Unless
this is practically the case — a matter difficult either to prove or
disprove — the correction may not secure exactly what is aimed at.
This method has been employed in the previous tables. The fact
that differences do exist between diurnal inequalities derived from
quiet days and all ordinary days was stated explicitly in § 4, and is
obvious in Tables VIII. to XI. An extreme case is represented by

373

the data for Jan Mayen in these tables. Figs. 9 and 10 are vector
diagrams for this station, for all and for quiet days during May, June
and July 1883, according to data got put by Liideling. As shown
sy the arrows, fig. 10 (quiet days) is in the main described in the
normal or clockwise direction, but fig. 9 (all days) is described in
;he opposite direction. Liideling found this peculiar difference

21

FIG. 9. FIG. 10.

aetween all and quiet days at all the north polar stations occupied
.n 1882-1883 except Kingua Fjord, where both diagrams were
described clockwise.

In temperate latitudes the differences of type are much less, but
still they exist. A good idea of their ordinary size and character
in the case of declination may be derived from Table XXIX., con-
taining data for Kew, Greenwich and Pare St Maur.

The data for Greenwich are due to W. Ellis'0, those for Pare
St Maur to T. Moureaux ". The quantity tabulated is the algebraic
excess of the all or ordinary day mean hourly value over the corre-
•ponding quiet day value in the mean diurnal inequality for the
year. At Greenwich and Kew days of extreme disturbance have
been excluded from the ordinary days, but apparently not at Pare
St Maur. The number of highly disturbed days at the three stations
is, however, small, and their influence is not great. The differences
disclosed by Table XXIX. are obviously of a systematic character,
which would not tend to disappear however long a period was
utilized. In short, while the diurnal inequality from quiet days
may be that most truly representative of undisturbed conditions,
it does not represent the average state of conditions at the station.
To go into full details respecting the differences between all and quiet
days would occupy undue space, so the following brief summary of
the differences observed in declination at Kew must suffice. While
the inequality range is but little different for the two types of days,
the mean of the hourly differences from the mean for the day is
considerably reduced in the quiet days. The 24-hour term in the
Fourier analysis is of smaller amplitude in the quiet days, and its
phase angle is on the average about 6°-75 smaller than on ordinary
days, implying a retardation of about 27 minutes in the time of maxi-
mum. The diurnal inequality range is more variable throughout the
year in quiet days than on ordinary days, and the same is true of
the absolute ranges. The tendency to a secondary minimum in the
range at midsummer is considerably more decided on ordinary than
on quiet days. When the variation throughout the year in the
diurnal inequality range is expressed in Fourier series, whose periods
are the year and its submultiples, the 6-month term is notably larger
for ordinary than for quiet days. Also the date of the maximum in
the 12-month term is about three days earlier for ordinary than for
quiet days. The exact size of the differences between ordinary and
quiet day phenomena must depend to some extent on the criteria
employed in selecting quiet days and in excluding disturbed days.
This raises difficulties when it comes to comparing results at different
stations. For stations near together the difficulty is trifling. The
astronomer royal's quiet days nave been used for instance at Pare
St. Maur, Val Joyeux, Falmouth and Kew, as well as at Greenwich.
But when stations are wide apart there are two obvious difficulties:
first, the difference of local time; secondly, the fact that a day may
be typically quiet at one station but appreciably disturbed at the
other.

If the typical quiet day were simply the antithesis of a disturbed
day, it would be natural to regard the non-cyclic change on quiet
days as a species of recoil from some effect of disturbance. This view
derives support from the fact, pointed out long ago by Sabine",
that the horizontal force usually, though by no means always, is
lowered by magnetic disturbances. Dr van Bemmelen" who has
examined non-cyclic phenomena at a number of stations, seems
disposed to regard this as a sufficient explanation. There are,
however, difficulties in accepting this view. Thus, whilst the non-
cyclic effect in horizontal force and inclination at Kew and Falmouth
appeared on the whole enhanced in years of sun-spot maximum,
the difference between years such as 1892 and 1894 on the one hand,
and 1890 and 1900 on the other, was by no means proportional
to the excess of disturbance in the former years. Again, when the
average non-cyclic change of declination was calculated at Kew for
207 days, selected as those of most marked irregular disturbance
between 1890 and 1900, the sign actually proved to be the same as for
the average quiet day of the period.

374

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

TABLE XXIX.— All or Ordinary, less Quiet Day Hourly Values ( +

Forenoon.

Afternoon.

Hour.

Kew

Greenwich

Pare St Maur

Kew

Greenwich

Pare St Maur

1890-1900.

1890-1894.

1883-1897.

1890-1900.

1890-1894.

1893-1897.

I

-0-58

-0-59

-0-63

+0-42

+0-44

+0-40

2

-0-54

-0-47

-0-47

+0-52

+0-45

+0-50

3

-0-51

-0-31

-0-32

+o-57

+0-52

+0-59

4

—0-41

-0-23

— 0-16

+0-60

+0-51

+0-55

5

-0-28

—O-IO

— O-OI

+0-46

+0-34

+0-38

6

-0-08

+O-I2

+0-I8

+O-2I

+0-04

+0-07

7

+0-13

+0-30

+0-34

— O-O6

—0-24

-0-25

8

+0-29

+0-48

-f-o-47

-0-27

-0-50

-0-54

9

+0-40

+0-56

+0-53

-0-47

-0-68

-0-74

10

+0-44

+0-58

+0-51

— 0-61

-0-78

-0-79

n

+0-48

+0-50

+0-44

—0-62

-0-77

-0-79

12

+0-45

+0-44

+0-38

-0-54

— 0-61

—0-67

Disturb-
ances.

§ 31. A satisfactory definition of magnetic disturbance is about
as difficult to lay down as one of heterodoxy. The idea in its
fc generality seems to present no difficulty, but it is a very
different matter when one comes to details. Amongst
the chief disturbances recorded since 1890 are those of
February 13-14 and August 12, 1892; July 20 and
August 20, 1894; March 15-16, and September 9, 1898; October 31,
1903; February 9-10, 1907; September 11-12, 1908 and Sep-
tember 25, 1909. On such days as these the oscillations shown
by the magnetic curves are large and rapid, aurora is nearly always
visible in temperate latitudes, earth currents are prominent, and
there is interruption — sometimes very serious — in the transmission
of telegraph messages both in overhead and underground wires.
At the other end of the scale are days on which the magnetic curves
show practically no movement beyond the slow regular progression
of the regular diurnal inequality. But between these two extremes
there are an infinite variety of intermediate cases. The first serious
attempt at a precise definition of disturbance seems due to General
Sabine 36°. His method had once an extensive vogue, and still
continues to be applied at some important observatories. Sabine
regarded a particular observation as disturbed when it differed from
the mean of the observations at that hour for the whole month
by not less than a certain limiting value. His definition takes
account only of the extent of the departure from the mean, whether
the curve is smooth at the time or violently oscillating makes no
difference. In dealing with a particular station Sabine laid down
separate limiting values for each element. These limits were the
same, irrespective of the season of the year or of the sun-spot
frequency. A departure, for example, of 3'-3 at Kew from the mean
value of declination for the hour constituted a disturbance, whether
it occurred in December in a year of sun-spot minimum, or in June
in a year of sun-spot maximum, though the regular diurnal inequality
range might be four times as large in the second case as in the first.
The limiting values varied from station to station, the size depending
apparently on several considerations not very clearly defined. Sabine
subdivided the disturbances in each element into two classes: the
one tending to increase the element, the other tending to diminish
it. He investigated how the numbers of the two classes varied
throughout the day and from month to month. He also took
account of the aggregate value of the disturbances of one sign, and
traced the diurnal and annual variations in these aggregate values.
He thus got two sets of diurnal variations and two sets of annual
variations of disturbance, the one set depending only on the number
of the disturbed hours, the other set considering only the aggregate
value of the disturbances. Generally the two species of disturbance
variations were on the whole fairly similar. The aggregates of the
+ and — disturbances for a particular hour of the day were seldom
equal, and thus after the removal of the disturbed values the mean
value of the element for that hour was generally altered. Sabine's
complete scheme supposed that after the criterion was first applied,
the hourly means would be recalculated from the undisturbed
values and the criterion applied again, and that this process would
be repeated until the disturbed observations all differed by not less
than the accepted limiting value from the final mean based on
undisturbed values alone. If the disturbance limit were so small
that the disturbed readings formed a considerable fraction of the
whole number, the complete execution of Sabine's scheme would
be exceedingly laborious. As a matter of fact, his disturbed readings
were usually of the order of 5 % of the total number, and unless in
the case of exceptionally large magnetic storms it is of little conse-
quence whether the first choice of disturbed readings is accepted
as final or is reconsidered in the light of the recalculated hourly
means.

Sabine applied his method to the data obtained during the decade
1840 to 1850 at Toronto, St Helena, Cape of Good Hope and Hobart,
also to data for Pekin, Nertchinsk, Point Barrow, Port Kennedy
and Kew. C. Chambers " applied it to data from Bombay. The
yearly publication of the Batavia observatory gives corresponding

to the West), results for that station, and Th. Moureaux 33 has
published similar data for Pare St Maur. Tables
XXX. to XXXII. are based on a selection of these
data. Tables XXX. and XXXI. show the annual
variation in Sabine's disturbances, the monthly
values being expressed as percentages of the arith-
metic mean value for the 12 months. The Pare
St Maur and Batavia data, owing to the long periods
included, are especially noteworthy. Table XXX
deals with the east (E) and west (W) disturbances
of declination separately. Table XXXI., dealing
with disturbances in horizontal and vertical force,
combines the + and —disturbances, treated numeri-
cally. At Pare St Maur the limits required to
qualify for disturbance were 3'-o in D, 207 in H,
and 127 in V; the corresponding limits for Batavia
were i'-3, 117 and 117. The limits for D at
Toronto, Bombay and Hobart were respectively 3'-6,
I '-4 and 2'-4-

At Pare St Maur the disturbance data from
all three elements give distinct maxima near the
equinoxes; a minimum at midwinter is clearly
shown, and also one at midsummer, at least in D and H. A
decline in disturbance at midwinter is visible at all the stations,
but at Batavia the equinoctial values for D and V are inferior to
those at midsummer.

Table XXXII. shows in some cases a most conspicuous diurnal
variation in Sabine's disturbances. The data are percentages of

TABLE XXX. — Annual Variation of Disturbances
(Sabine's numbers).

Pare St Maur

Toronto'

Bombay

Batavia

Hobart

1883-97.

1841-48.

1859-65-

1883-99.

1843-48.

Month.

E.

W.

E.

W.

E.

W.

E.

W.

E.

W.

January .
February .

78
1 16

60
92

55
75

66
86

89
94

89
67

1 80
138

223
144

165

121

182
116

March

126

107

92

94

129

97

102

87

114

104

April . .

105

"3

"5

114

106

129

67

73

110

1 02

May .

101

118

101

IOI

63

99

72

71

62

53

June .

77

89

95

72

78

81

45

27

32

37

July . .

82

104

140

126

121

173

62

46

50

49

August .

88

"3

137

133

154

131

69

69

86

78

September

134

137

163

139

III

1 08

135

144

135

114

October .

119

"5

IOI

in

140

128

95

88

124

123

November

99

94

73

85

43

43

1 06

91

79

in

December

75

58

5i

72

72

55

124

137

123

'30

the totals for the whole 24 hours. But whilst at Batavia the easterly
and westerly disturbances in D vary similarly, at Pare St Maur
they follow opposite laws, the easterly showing a prominent maximum
near noon, the westerly a still more prominent maximum near mid-
night. The figures in the second last line of the table, if divided
by 0-24, will give the percentage of hours which show the species of
disturbance indicated. For instance, at Pare St Maur, out of 100
hours, 3 show disturbances to the west and 3-7 to the east; or in all
6-7 show disturbances of declination. The last line gives the average
size of a disturbance of each type, the unit being i' in D and 17 in
H and V.

At Batavia disturbances increasing and decreasing the element are
about equally numerous, but this is exceptional. Easterly disturb-
ances of declination predominated at Toronto, Point Barrow, Fort
Kennedy, Kew, Pare St Maur, Bombay and the Falkland Islands
whilst the reverse was true of St Helena, Cape of Good Hope, Pekin
and Hobart. At Kew and Pare St Maur the ratios borne by the

TABLE XXXI. — Annual Variation of Disturbances.

Pare St Maur.

Toronto.

Batavia.

Month.

Numbers.

Aggregates.

Numbers.

Aggregates.

H.

V.

H.

V.

H.

V.

H.

V.

January .
February

81
96

51
133

58
94

56

74

96
105

151
123

89
no

154
125

March

126

118

94

108

116

105

"7

103

April . .

94

in

150

149

104

76

105

73

May .

1 08

133

90

112

IOI

92

IOS

95

June . . .

90

85

36

5°

82

6p

79

66

July . . .

99

128

61

71

90

83

95

81

August .

H3

92

75

1 08

9i

91

98

QI

September .

119

122

171

160

"3

III

114

H5

October . .
November .

IOI

104

94
81

148
98

129

75

114
99

89
I O2

104

IOO

86

IOI

December

70

5i

128

IOO

89

1 08

84

no

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

TABLE XXXII. — Diurnal Variation of Disturbances (Sabine's numbers).

Pare St Maur.

Batavia.

Hour.

D.

H.

V.

D.

H.

V.

E.

W.

+

-

+

-

E.

W.

4-

-

+

-

o-3

IO-I

20-3

9-0

8-3

5-7

9-2

i-i

5-8

13-1

6-6

4-0

7-4

3-6

12-3

8-2

8-4

8-0

6-4

10-4

7-6

7'3

14-2

4-8

6-3

IO-0

6-9

15-7

3-8

14-1

12-5

7-2

9-0

24-9

16-8

I2-I

9.9

21-2

21-7

9 — noon

16-2

5-1

18-0

i.S'6

12-9

15-4

38-5

33-o

8-6

15-8

19-8

16-4

noon— 3

19-3

6-7

15-3

16-5

18-2

18-3

18-8

24-7

16-8

2I-I

23-5

22-1

3-6

14-8

97

12-5

'5-4

22-9

21-8

6-4

5-4

13-3

16-9

12-6

12-7

6-9

5-7

21-2

11-4

13-2

18-9

II-2

2-3

3-4

9'9

13-6

7'I

4-1

9-12

5-9

25-0

II-2

10-5

7-8

4-7

0-4

3-8

12-0

II'I

5-6

5-4

Mean number /

0-88

0-72

MS

1-56

1-04

0-96

0-46

0-44

1-62

1-61

1-19

1-13

per day . ]

Mean size

1-72

1-09

18-0

'9-5

ib-7

15-5

eastern to the western disturbances were 1-19 and 1-23 respectively,
and so not much in excess of unity ; but the preponderance of easterly
disturbances at the North American " stations was considerably
larger than this.

§32. From the point of view of the surveyor there is a good deal
to be said for Sabine's definition of disturbance, but it is less satis-
factory from other standpoints. One objection has been already
indicated, viz. the arbitrariness of applying the same limiting value
at a station irrespective of the size of the normal diurnal range at
the time. Similarly it is arbitrary to apply the same limit between
10 a.m. and noon, when the regular diurnal variation is most rapid,
as between 10 p.m. and midnight, when it is hardly appreciable.
There seems a distinct difference of phase between the diurnal
inequalities on different types of days at the same season; also
the phase angles in the Fourier terms vary continuously throughout
the year, and much more rapidly at some stations and at some
seasons than at others. Thus there may be a variety of phenomena
which one would hesitate to regard as disturbances which contribute
to the annual and diurnal variations in Tables XXX. to XXXII.

Sabine, as we have seen, confined his attention to the departure
of the hourly reading from the mean for that hour. Another and
equally natural criterion is the apparent character of the magneto-
graph curve. At Potsdam curves are regarded as " I " quiet, " 2 "
moderately disturbed, or " 3 " highly disturbed. Any hourly value
to which the numeral 3 is attached is treated as disturbed, and the
annual Potsdam publication contains tables giving the annual and
diurnal variations in the number of such disturbed hours for D, H and
V. According to this point of view, the extent to which the hourly
value departs from the mean for that hour is immaterial to the
results. It is the greater or less sinuosity and irregularity of the curve
that counts. Tables XXXIII. and XXXIV. give an abstract of
the mean Potsdam results from 1892 to 1901. The data are per-
centages: in Table XXXIII. of the mean monthly total, in Table
XXXlV. of the total for the day. So far as the annual variation
is concerned, the results in Table XXXIII. are fairly similar to those
in Table XXX. for Pare St Maur. There are pronounced maxima
near the equinoxes, especially the spring equinox. The diurnal

TABLE XXXIII. — Annual Variation of Potsdam Disturbances.

375

variations, however, in Tables XXXII.
and XXXIV. are dissimilar. Thus in
the case of H the largest disturbance
numbers at Pare St Maur occurred be-
tween 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., whereas in
Table XXXIV. they occur between
4 p.m. and midnight. Considering the
comparative proximity of Pare St
Maur and Potsdam, one must conclude
that the apparent differences between
the results for these two stations are
due almost entirely to the difference
in the definition of disturbance.

One difficulty in the Potsdam pro-
cedure is the maintenance of a uniform
standard. Unless very frequent refer-
ence is made t,° the curves of some
standard year there must be a ten-
dency to enter under " 3 " in quiet
years a number of hours which would
be entered under " 2 " in a highly
disturbed year. Still, such a source of

uncertainty is unlikely to have much influence on the diurnal, or
even on the annual, variation.

§ 33. A third method of investigating a diurnal period in disturb-
ances is to form a diurnal inequality from disturbed days alone, and
compare it with the corresponding inequalities from ordinary or
from quiet days. Table XXXV. gives some declination data for Kew,
the quantity tabulated being the algebraic excess of the disturbed
day hourly value over that for the ordinary day in the mean diurnal
inequality for the year, as based on the n years 1890 to 1900.

The disturbed day inequality was corrected for non-cyclic change
in the usual way. Fig. 1 1 shows the results of Table XXXV. graphi-
cally. The irregularities are pre-
sumably due to the limited number, +2"
209, of disturbed days employed ; to
get a smooth curve would require
probably a considerably longer period
of years. The differences between
disturbed and ordinary days at Kew
are of the same general character as
those between ordinary and quiet
days in Table XXIX.; they are,
however, very much larger, the range
in Table XXXV. being fully si times
that in Table XXIX. If quiet days
had replaced ordinary days in Table
XXXV., the algebraic excess of the
disturbed day would have varied
from +2'-7 at 2 p.m. to — 4'-! at
ii p. m., or a range of 6'-8.

at

Element.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

D
H
V

129
109
1 06

170
133
171

149

131

170

90

102
1 08

86
109

121

57
82

56

62
94
64

64
9i
74

99
89

93

118

101

87

94

75
78

82
84
70

Mean

"5

158

ISO

IOO

105

65

73

76

94

1 02

82

79

TABLE XXXIV.— Diurnal Variation of Potsdam Disturbances.

Hours.

>-3-

4-6.

7-9-

lo-noon.

1-3-

4-6.

7-9-

IO-I2.

D
H

V

14-9
10-5
13-5

II-I

8-4
9-7

8-0
8-0
5'7

5-2
8-5
47

57
"•3
8-5

'3-I
17-6
17-2

22-5
19-2
21-5

19-5

16-5
19-2

Mean

13-0

9-7

7-2

6-1

8-5

16-0

2I-I

18-4

TABLE XXXV. — Disturbed Day less ordinary Day Inequality (Unit i',-f-to West).

Hour.

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

II

12

a.m.
p.m.

-3'4
+ 1-8

-2-6
+ 2-2

— 2-O

4-2-1

-0-3
4-1-7

+ i-6
+ 1-4

+ 1-9
o-o

+2-3
->-3

4-2-0

-2-8

4-2-1

-3-5

4-2-0

-2-6

4-1-6
-3-5

-t-i-8
-2-4

§ 34. When the mean diurnal inequality in declination for the year
Kew is analysed into Fourier waves, the chief difference, it will
be remembered, between ordinary and quiet days was that the ampli-
tude of the 24-hour term was enhanced in the ordinary days, whilst
its phase angle indicated an earlier occurrence of the maximum.
Similarly, the chief difference between the Fourier waves for the
disturbed and ordinary day inequalities at Kew is the increase in
the amplitude of the 24-hour term in the former by over 70%, and
the earlier occurrence of its maximum by
about i hour 50 minutes. It is clear from
these results for Kew, and it is also a neces-
sary inference from the differences ob-
tained by Sabine's method between east
and west or + and — disturbances, that
there is present during disturbances some
influence which affects the diurnal inequality
in a regular systematic way, tending to
make the value of the element higher during
some hours and lower during others than it
is on days relatively free from disturbance.
At Kew the consequence is a notable in-
crease in the range of the regular diurnal
inequality on disturbed days; but whether
this is the general rule or merely a local
peculiarity is a subject for further research.

§ 35. There are still other ways of attack-
ing the problem of disturbances. W. Ellis n
made a complete list of disturbed days at
Greenwich from 1848 onwards, arranging
them in classes according to the amplitude
of the disturbance shown on the curves.
Of the 18,000 days which he considered,
Ellis regarded 2,119, or only about 12%,
as undisturbed. On 11,898 days, 01
66%, the disturbance movement in de-
clination was under 10'; on 3614, or
20%, the disturbance, though exceeding
10', was under 30'; on 294 days it lay

376

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

between 30' and 60'; while on 75 days it exceeded 60'. Taking each
class of disturbances separately, Ellis found, except in the case oi
his " minor " disturbances— those under 10' — a distinct double
annual period, with maxima towards the equinoxes. Subsequently
C. W. Maunder,38 making use of these same data, and of subsequent
data up to 1902, put at his disposal by Ellis, came to similar conclu-
sions. Taking all the days with disturbances of declination over
10', and dealing with 15-day periods, he found the maxima of fre-
quency to occur the one a little before the spring equinox, the other
apparently after the autumnal equinox; the two minima were found
to occur early in June and in January. When the year is divided into
three seasons — winter (November to February), summer (May to
August), and equinox — Maunder's figures lead to the results assigned
to Greenwich disturbed days in Table XXXVI. The frequency
in winter, it will be noticed, though less than at equinox, is con-
siderably greater than in summer. This greater frequency in winter
is only slightly apparent in the disturbances over 60', but their
number is so small that this may be accidental. The next figures
in Table XXXVI. relate to highly disturbed days at Kew. The
larger relative frequency at Kew in winter as compared to summer
probably indicates no real difference from Greenwich, but is simply
a matter of definition. The chief criterion at Kew for classifying
the days was not so much the mere amplitude of the largest move-
ment, as the general character of the day's curve and its departure
from the normal form. The data in Table XXXVI. as to magnetic
storms at Greenwich are based on the lists given by Maunder39 in the
Monthly Notices, R.A.S. A storm may last for any time from a few
hours to several days, and during part of its duration the disturbance
may not be very large; thus it does not necessarily follow that the
frequencies of magnetic storms and of disturbed days will follow
the same laws. The table shows, however, that so far as Greenwich
is concerned the annual variations in the two cases are closely alike.
In addition to mean data for the whole 56 years, 1848 to 1903, Table
XXXVI. contains separate data for the 14 years of that period which
represented the highest sun-spot frequency, and the 15 years which
represented lowest sun-spot frequency. It will be seen that rela-
tively considered the seasonal frequencies of disturbance are more
nearly equal in the years of many than in those of few sun-spots.
Storms are more numerous as a whole in the years of many sun-spots,
and this preponderance is especially true of storms of the largest size.
This requires to be borne in mind in any comparisons between larger
and smaller storms selected promiscuously from a long period.
An unduly large proportion of the larger storms will probably come
from years of large sun-spot frequency, and there is thus a risk of
assigning to differences between the laws obeyed by large and small
storms phenomena that are due in whole or in part to differences
between the laws followed in years of many and of few sun-spots.
The last data in Table XXXVI. are based on statistics for Batavia
given by W. van Bemmelen,40 who considers separately the storms
which commence suddenly and those which do not. These sudden
movements are recorded over large areas, sometimes probably all
over the earth, if not absolutely simultaneously, at least too nearly
so for differences in the time of occurrence to be shown by ordinary
magnetographs. It is ordinarily supposed that these sudden move-
ments, and the storms to which they serve as precursors, arise from
some source extraneous to the earth, and that the commencement
of the movement intimates the arrival, probably in the upper atmo-
sphere, of some form of energy transmitted through space. In the
storms which commence gradually the existence of a source external
to the earth is not so prominently suggested, and it has been some-
times supposed that there is a fundamental difference between the
two classes of storms. Table XXXVI. shows, however, no certain
difference in the annual variation at Batavia. At the same time,
this possesses much less significance than it would have if Batavia
were a station like Greenwich, where the annual variation in magnetic
storms is conspicuous.

Besides the annual period, there seems to be also a well-marked
diurnal period in magnetic disturbances. This is apparent in Tables
XXXVII. and XXXVIII., which contain some statistics for Batavia
due to van Bemmelen, and some for Greenwich derived from the
data in Maunder's papers referred to above. Table XXXVII.
gives the relative frequency of occurrence for two hour intervals,
starting with midnight, treating separately the storms of gradual
(g) and sudden (s) commencement. In Table XXXVIII. the day
is subdivided into three equal parts. Batavia and Greenwich agree
in showing maximum frequency of beginnings about the time of
minimum frequency of endings and conversely; but the hours at
which the respective maxima and minima occur at the two places
differ rather notably.

§ 36. There are peculiarities in the sudden movements ushering
in magnetic storms which deserve fuller mention. According to
van Bemmelen the impulse consists usually at some stations of a
sudden slight jerk of the magnet in one direction, followed
by a larger decided movement in the opposite direction, the former
being often indistinctly shown. Often we have at the very com-
mencement but a faint outline, and thereafter a continuous movement
which is only sometimes distinctly indicated, resulting after some
minutes in the displacement of the trace by a finite amount from
the position it occupied on the paper before the disturbance began.

TABLE XXXVI.— Disturbances, and their Annual Distribution.

Total

I

'ercentage

Number.

Winter.

Equinox.

Summer.

Greenwich disturbed days,

all, 1848-1902 .
Greenwich disturbed davs,

4.2H

33-9

39-2

26-9

range 10' to 30', 1848-

1902 ....

38^O

1 1'd

Greenwich disturbed days,

>°ou

06 9

39'°

27-1

range 30' to 60', 1848-

1902 ....

•3O7

1A • C

Greenwich disturbed days,

Ou/

o4 5

41 *o

24-4

range over 60', 1848-

1902

77

on.n

A T.A

oft A

Kew highly disturbed days,

/ /

*9 y

4 i o

2o'D

1890-1900 ....
Greenwich magnetic

209

38-3

4i-6

20-1

storms, all, 1848^-1903 .
Greenwich magnetic

726

32-1

42-3

25-6

storms, range 20' to 30',

1848-1903 ....
Greenwich magnetic

392

30-1

43-6

26-3

storms, range over 30',

1848-1903 ....
Greenwich magnetic

334

34-4

40-7

24-9

storms, all, 14 years of

S. max. .

2c8

1 C- 1

lfl,f\

0/r T

Greenwich magnetic

-=00

35 3

30'O

2t>'7

storms, all, 15 years of

S. min. .

127

28-4

yift.n

O-7 A

Batavia magnetic storms,

x*/

40 u

23-0

all, 1883-1899 . . .
Batavia magnetic storms

1,008

32-9

34-9

32-2

of gradual commence-

ment.

6*70

I'y • A

•5-1. ft

f> ft

Batavia magnetic storms

°/y

32 4

34 "o

32 o

of sudden commence-

ment.

1?O

1 1 «*7

o^y

33 7

35'3

31-0

This may mean, as van Bemmelen supposes, a small preliminary
movement in the opposite direction to the clearly shown displace-
ment-^ but it may only mean that the magnet is initially set in
vibration, swinging on both sides of the position of equilibrium,
the real displacement of the equilibrium position being all the
time in the direction of the displacement apparent after a few
minutes. To prevent misconception, the direction of the dis-
placement apparent after a few minutes has been termed the direc-

TABLE XXXVII. — Batavia Magnetic Storms, Diurnal
Distribution (percentages).

Hour.

0

2

4

6

8

IO

12

H

16

18

20

22

Beginning

S

g

5
7

5
5

5

7

6

10

20
IO

16
ii

7

IO

5

8

6

8

9
9

8
8

8
7

Maximum

£

12

10

6

5

4

9

9

6

6

6

12

15

End

ill

H

15

16

b
19

2
13

2

5

9
3

9
6

5

5

8
4

IO

5

13

4

16
5

tion of the first decided movement in Table XXXIX., which contains
some data as to the direction given by Ellis41 and van Bemmelen.*
The + sign means an increase, the — sign a decrease of the element.
The sign is not invariably the same, it will be anderstood, but there
are in all cases a marked preponderance of changes in the direction
shown in the table. The fact that all the stations indicated an
increase in horizontal force is of special significance.

TABLE XXXVIII. — Greenwich Magnetic Storms, Diurnal
Distribution.

Epoch.

End

( 1848-1903
•j 1882-1903

Class.

all
sudden

all
sudden

Total
Number.

721
276

77

720

276

77

Percentages.

1-8 p.m.

60- 1
58-0
45-4

9-4

7'2

11-7

9 p. m.-
4a.m.

21-9
18-8
27-3

44-6
41-7
35-1

5 a.m.-
noon.

18-0
23-2
27-3

46-0

5i-i
53-2

§ 37. That large magnetic disturbances occur simultaneously
over large areas was known in the time of Gauss, on whose initiative
observations were taken at 5-minute intervals at a number of stations

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

on prearranged term days. During March 1879 and August 1880
some large magnetic storms occurred, and the magnetic curve?
showing these at a number of stations fitted with Kew pattern
magnetographs were compared by W. G. Adams." He found the
more characteristic movements to be, so far as could be judged,
simultaneous at all the stations. At comparatively near stations

TABLE XXXIX. — Direction of First Decided Movement.

Place.

Declination.

Horizontal Force.

Vertical Force.

Pavlovsk
dam
( Irrenwich
Xi-ka-wei
Kolaba
Hatavia
Mauritius
Cape Horn

West
West
West
East
East
West
East
West

+
+

+
+
+
+
+

+
+

+

such as Stonyhurst and Kew, or Coimbra and Lisbon, the curves
were in general almost duplicates. At Kew and St Petersburg
there were usually considerable differences in detail, and the move-
ments were occasionally in opposite directions. The differences
brtwcen Toronto, Melbourne or Zi-ka-wei and the European
stations were still more pronounced. In 1896, on the initiative
of M. Eschenhagen,43 eye observations of declination and horizontal
force were taken at 5-second intervals during prearranged hours at
Batavia, Manila, Melbourne and nine European stations. The data
from one of these occasions when appreciable disturbance prevailed
\\riv published by Eschenhagen, and were subsequently analysed
by Ad\ Schmidt." Taking the stations in western Europe, Schmidt
drew several series of lines, each series representing the disturbing
forces at one instant of time as deduced from the departure of the
elements at the several stations from their undisturbed value.
The lines answering to any one instant had a general sameness of
direction with more or less divergence or convergence, but their
general trend varied in a way which suggested, to Schmidt the
passage of a species of vortex with large but finite velocity.

The conclusion that magnetic disturbances tend to follow one
another at nearly equal intervals of time has been reached by
several independent observers. J. A. Broun*6 pronounced for a
periijd of about 26 days, and expressed a belief that a certain zone,
or zones, of the sun's surface might exert a prepotent influence on
the earth's magnetism during several solar rotations. Very similar
views were advanced in 1904 by E. W. Maunder,39 who was wholly
unaware of Broun's work. Maunder concluded that the period
was 27-28 days, coinciding with the sun's rotation period relative
to an observer on the earth. Taking magnetic storms at Greenwich
from 1882 to 1903, he found the interval between the commencement
of successive storms to approach closely to the above period in a
considerably larger number of instances than one _would have
expected from mere chance. He found several successions of three
or four storms, and in one instance of as many as six storms, showing
his interva). In a later paper Maunder reached similar results
for magnetic storms at Greenwich from 1848 to 1881. Somewhat
earlier than Maunder, Arthur Harvey46 deduced a period of 27-246
days from a consideration of magnetic disturbances at Toronto.
A. Schuster,47 examining Maunder's data mathematically, concluded
that they afforded rather strong evidence of a period of about
i (27-28) or 13-6 days. Maunder regarded his results as demon-
strating that magnetic disturbances originate in the sun._ _He
regarded the solar action as arising from active areas of limited
extent on the sun's surface, and as propagated along narrow, well
defined streams. The active areas he believed to be also the seats
of the formation of sun-spots, but believed that their activity
might precede and outlive the visible existence of the sun-spot.

Maunder did not discuss the physical nature of the phenomenon,
but his views are at least analogous to those propounded somewhat
earlier by Svante Arrhenius,48 who suggested that small negatively
charged particles are driven from the sun by the repulsion of light
and reach the earth's atmosphere, setting up electrical currents,
manifest in aurora and magnetic disturbances. Arrhenius's cal-
culations, for the size of particle which he regarded as most probable,
make the time of transmission to the earth slightly under two days.
Amongst other theories which ascribe magnetic storms to direct
solar action may be mentioned that of Kr. Birkeland,49 who believes
the vehicle to be cathode rays. Ch. Nordmann60 similarly has
suggested Rontgen rays. Supposing the sun the ultimate source,
it would be easier to discriminate between the theories if the exact
time of the originating occurrence could be fixed. For instance, a
disturbance that is propagated with the velocity of light may be
due to Rontgen rays, but not to Arrhenius's particles. In support of
his theory, Nordmann mentions several cases when conspicuous
visual phenomena on the sun have synchronized with magnetic
movements on the earth — the best known instance being the ap-
parent coincidence in time of a magnetic disturbance at Kew on
the ist of September 1859 with a remarkable solar outburst seen
by R. C. Carrington. Presumably any electrical phenomenon on
the sun will set up waves in the aether, so transmission of electric

377

and magnetic disturbances from the sun to the earth with the
velocity of light is a certainty rather than a hypothesis; but it
by no means follows that the energy thus transmitted can give
rise to sensible magnetic disturbances. Also, when considering
Nordmann's coincidences, it must be remembered that magnetic
movements are so numerous that it would be singular if no apparent
coincidences had been noticed. Another consideration is that the
movements shown by ordinary magnetographs are seldom very
rapid. During some storms, especially those accompanied by
unusually bright and rapidly varying auroral displays, large to and fro
movements follow one another in close succession, the changes being
sometimes too quick to be registered distinctly on the photographic
paper. This, however, is exceptional, even in polar regions where
disturbances are largest and most numerous. As a rule, even
when the change in the direction of movement in the declination
needle seems quite sudden, the movement in one direction usually
lasts for several minutes, often for 10, 15 or 30 minutes. Thus the
cause to which magnetic disturbances are due seems in many cases
to be persistent in one direction for a considerable time.

§ 38. Attempts have been made to discriminate between the
theories as to magnetic storms by a critical examination of the
phenomena. A general connexion between sun-spot frequency
and the amplitude of magnetic movements, regular and irregular,
is generally admitted. If it is a case of cause and effect, and the
interval between the solar and terrestrial phenomena does not
exceed a few hours, then there should be a sensible connexion
between corresponding daily values of the sun-spot frequency and
the magnetic range. Even if only some sun-spots are effective,
we should expect when we select from a series of years two groups
of days, the one containing the days of most sun-spots, the other
the days of least, that a prominent difference will exist between
the mean values of the absolute daily magnetic ranges for the
two groups. Conversely, if we take out the days of small and the
days of large magnetic range, or the days that are conspicuously
quiet and those that are highly disturbed, we should expect a
prominent difference between the corresponding mean sun-spot
areas. An application of this principle was made by Chree" to.
the five quiet days a month selected by the astronomer royal between
1890 and 1900. These days are very quiet relative to the average
day and possess a much smaller absolute range. One would thus have
expected on Birkeland's or Nordmann's theory the mean sun-spot
frequency derived from Wolfer's provisional values for these days
to be much below his mean value, 41-22, for the eleven years. It
proved, however, to be 41-28. This practical identity was as visible
in 1892 to 1895, the years of sun-spot maximum, as it was in the
years of sun-spot minimum. Use was next made of the Greenwich
projected sun-spot areas, which are the result of exact measurement.
The days of each month were divided into three groups, the first
and third — each normally of ten days — containing respectively the
days of largest and the days of least sun-spot area. The mean
sun-spot area from group I was on the average about five times
that for group 3. It was then investigated how the astronomer
royal's quiet days from 1890 to 1900, and how the most disturbed
days of the period selected from the Kew14 magnetic records, dis-
tributed themselves among the three groups of days. Nineteen
months were excluded, as containing more than ten days with no
sun-spots. The remaining 113 months contained 565 quiet and 191
highly disturbed days, whose distribution was as follows:

Quiet days
Disturbed days

Group I.

Group 2.

Group 3.

1/9
68

195
65

191

58

The group of days of largest sun-spot area thus contained slightly
under their share of quiet days and slightly over their share of
disturbed days. The differences, however, are not large, and in
three years, viz. 1895, 1897 and 1899, the largest number of dis-
turbed days actually occurred in group 3, while in 1895, 1806 and
1899 there were fewer quiet days in group 3 than in group I. Taking
the same distribution of days, the mean value of the absolute daily
range of declination at Kew was calculated for the group I and the
group 3 days of each month. The mean range from the group I
days was the larger in 57% of the individual months as against
43% in which it was the smaller. When the days of each month
were divided into groups according to the absolute declination range
at Kew, the mean sun-spot area for the group I days (those of
largest range) exceeded that for the group 3 days (those of least
range) in 55% of the individual months, as against 45% of cases
in which it was the smaller.

Taking next the five days of largest and the five days of least
range in each month, sun-spot areas were got out not merely for
these days themselves, but also for the next subsequent day and the
four immediately preceding days in each case. On Arrhenius's
theory we should expect the magnetic range to vary with the sun-spot
area, not on the actual day but two days previously. The following
figures give the percentage excess or deficiency of the mean sun-spot
area for the respective groups of days, relative to the average value
for the whole epoch dealt with, n denotes the day to which the
magnetic range belongs, n+i the day after, n-i the day before, and

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

so on. Results are given for 1894 and 1895, the years which were
on the whole the most favourable and the least favourable for
Arrhenius's hypothesis, as well as for the whole eleven years.

TABLE XL.

Day.

n-4

»-3

n—2

n—i

n

n+i

, ] 1894
Five days of 11895

+ 12

-16

+ 9
-17

+n

+ 12
— 12

+ n
— II

+6

— 10

largest range j 1 1 yrs.

+ 9

+ 8

+ 8

+ 7

+ 5

+ 0-5

Five days of 1 ?|J94
least range J,?^

-15

+ 17

- 4

-I?
+ 10

- 4

-19

+ i

- 7

— 21

— 2

- 7

— 21

— 2

- 7

-19

- 4
- 6

Taking the II -year-means we have the sun-spot area practically
normal on the day subsequent to the representative day of large
magnetic range, but sensibly above its mean on that day and still
more so on the four previous days. This suggests an emission
from the sun taking a highly variable time to travel to the earth.
The n-year mean data for the five days of least range seem at first
sight to point to the same conclusion, but the fact that the deficiency
in sun-spot area is practically as prominent on the day after the
representative day of small magnetic range as on that day itself,
or the previous days, shows that the phenomenon is probably a
secondary one. On the whole, taking into account the extraordinary
differences between the results from individual years, we seem unable
to come to any very positive conclusion, except that in the present
state of our knowledge little if any clue is afforded by the extent
of the sun's spotted area on any particular day as to the magnetic
conditions on the earth on that or any individual subsequent day.
Possibly some more definite information might be extracted by
considering the extent of spotted area on different zones of the
sun. On theories such as those of Arrheniuspr Maunder, effective
bombardment of the earth would be more or less confined to spotted
areas in the zones nearest the centre of the visible hemisphere,
whilst all spots on this hemisphere contribute to the total spotted
area. Still the projected area of a spot rapidly diminishes as it
approaches the ed?e of the visible hemisphere, i.e. as it recedes
from the most effective position, so that the method employed
above gives a preponderating weight to the central zones. One
rather noteworthy feature in Table XL. is the tendency to a sequence
in the figures in any one row. This seems to be due, at least in
large part, to the fact that days of large and days of small sun-
spot area tend to occur in groups. The same is true to a certain
extent of days of large and days of small magnetic range,_but it is
unusual for the range to be much above the average for more than
3 or 4 successive days.

§ 39. The records from ordinary magnetographs, even when run
at the usual rate and with normal sensitiveness, not infrequently show
Pulsations. a reP61'1'011 °f regular or nearly regular small rhythmic
movements, lasting sometimes for hours. The amplitude
and period on different occasions both vary widely. Periods of 2 to 4
minutes are the most common. W. van Bemmelen61 has made a
minute examination of these movements from several years' traces
at Batavia, comparing the results with corresponding
statistics sent him from Zi-ka-wei and Kew. Table
XLI. shows the diurnal variation in the frequency
of occurrence of these small movements — called
pulsations by van Bemmelen — at these three stations.
The Batavia results are from the years 1885 and
1892 to 1898. Of the two sets of data for Zi-ka-
wei (i) answers to the years 1897, 1898 and 1900,
as given by van Bemmelen, while (ii) answers to
the period 1900-1905, as given in the Zi-ka-wei
Bulletin for 1905. The Kew data are for 1897. The
results are expressed as percentages of the total for
the 24 hours. There is a remarkable contrast be-
tween Batavia and Zi-ka-wei on the one hand and
Kew on the other, pulsations being much more
numerous by night than by day at the two former
stations, whereas at Kew the exact reverse holds.
Van Bemmelen decided that almost all the occasions
of pulsation at Zi-ka-wei were also occasions of
pulsations at Batavia. The hours of commence-
ment at the two places usually differed a little, oc-
casionally by as much as 20 minutes; but this he
ascribed to the fact that the earliest oscillations were
too small at one or other of the stations to be visible
on the trace. Remarkable coincidence between
pulsations at Potsdam and in the north of Norway
has been noted by Kr. Birkeland.49

With magnetographs of greater sensitiveness and
more open time scales, waves of shorter period be-
come visible. In 1882 F. Kohlrausch62 detected
waves with a period of about 12 seconds. Eschen-
hagen" observed a great variety of short period
waves, 30 seconds being amongst the most common.
Some of the records he obtained suggest the
superposition of regular sine waves of different
periods. Employing a very sensitive galvanometer to

record changes of magnetic induction through a coil traversed by
the earth's lines of force, H. Ebert64 has observed vibrations whose
periods are but a small fraction of a second. The observations of
Kohlrausch and Eschenhagen preceded the recent great develop-
ment of applications of electrical power, while longer period waves
are shown in the Kew curves of 50 years ago, so that the existence
of natural waves with periods of from a few seconds up to several
minutes can hardly be doubted. Whether the much shorter period
waves of Ebert are also natural is more open to doubt, as it is
becoming exceedingly difficult in civilized countries to escape
artificial disturbances.

TABLE XLI. — Diurnal Distribution of Pulsations.

Hours.

0-3-

3-6.

6-9.

9-Noon.

Noon-3.

3-6-

6-9.

9-12.

Batavia
Zi-ka-wei(i)

„ («J
Kew .

28
33
23
4

9
5
6

8

2
2

8
19

6

7
ii

H

8
4

7

22

6

4
5
18

13

10

14
• ii

28

35
26

4

§ 40. The fact that the moon exerts a small but sensible effect
on the earth's magnetism seems to have been first discovered in
1841 by C. Kreil. Subsequently Sabine65 investigated
the nature of the lunar diurnal variation in declination
at Kew, Toronto, Pekin, St Helena, Cape of Good Hope
and Hobart. The data in Table XLII. are mostly due to Sabine.
They represent the mean lunar diurnal inequality in declination
for the whole year. The unit employed is o'-ooi, and as in our
previous tables + denotes movement to the west. By " mean
departure " is meant the arithmetic mean of the 24 hourly
departures from the mean value for the lunar day; the range is
the difference between the algebraically greatest and least of the
hourly values. Not infrequently the mean departure gives the
better idea of the importance of an inequality, especially when as
in the present case two maxima and minima occur in the day.
This double daily period is unusually prominent in the case of the
lunar diurnal inequality, and is seen in the other elements as well
as in the declination.

Lunar action has been specially studied in connexion with
observations from India and Java. Broun66 at Trivandrum and
C. Chambers 67 at Kolaba investigated lunar action from a variety of
aspects. At Batavia van der Stok M and more recently S. Figee w
have carried out investigations involving an enormous amount of
computation. Table XLI 1 1. gives a summary of Figee "s results for
the mean lunar diurnal inequality at Batavia, for the two half-
yearly periods April to September (Winter or W.), and October to
March (S.). The + sign denotes movement to the west in the case
of declination, but numerical increase in the case of the other
elements. In the case of H and T (total force) the results for the
two seasons present comparatively small differences, but in the
case of D, I and V the amplitude and phase both differ widely.
Consequently a mean lunar diurnal variation derived from all the
months of the year gives at Batavia, and presumably at other

TABLE XLII. — Lunar Diurnal Inequality of Declination (unit o'-ooi).

Lunar

Kew.

Toronto.

Batavia.

St Helena.

Cape.

Hobart.

Hour.

1858-1862.

1843-1848.

1883-1899.

1843-1847.

1842-1846.

1841-1848.

0

+ 103

+315

-70

- 43

— 148

- 98

I

+ 160

+275

-63

-~ 5

-107

-138

2

+ 140

+ 158

-39

+ 37

- 35

-142

3

+ 33

+ 2

- 8

+ 70

+ 43

-107

4

+ 10

-'S3

+38

+ 85

+ 108

- 45

5

- 67

-265

+63

+ 77

+ 140

+ 27

6

-150

-302

+87

+ 48

+ 132

+ 88

7

-188

-255

+77

+ 5

+ 82

+ 122

8

— 160

-137

+40

- 43

+ 5

+ I2O

9

- 78

+ 7

~ 4

- 82

+ 82

10

+ 2

+ 178

-45

— 102

-143

+ 17

ii

+ 92

+288

-80

- 98

-177

- 57

12

+ 160

+323

-87

- 73

-165

— 120

13

+ 188

+272

-68

- 32

— 112

-152

H

+ 158

+ 148

-43

+ 13

- 30

-147

15

+ 90

- 17

- 8

+ 52

+ 58

-105

16

+ 10

-180

+30

+ 73

+ 132

- 35

17

- 85

-297

+62

+ 73

+ 172

+ 45

18

-142

-337

+72

+ 52

+ 168

+ 112

19

-163

—290

+68

+ 17

+ 122

+ 152

20

-147

-170

+52

- 25

+ 45

+ 152

21

-123

- 7

+ 8

- 58

- 40

+ 113

22

- 40

+ 155

-28

— 112

+ 47

23

+ 27

+265

-56

- 68

-153

- 30

Mean De-)

parture )

105

200

50

54

IO4

93

Range

376

660

174

187

349

3°4

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

379

TABLE XLIII. — Lunar DiuTnal Inequality at Batavia in Winter and Summer.

Declination

Inclination, S.

H.

V.

T.

(unito'-ooi).

(unito'-ooi).

(unit 0-017).

(unit 0-017).

(unit 0-017).

Lunar
Hour.

W.

S.

W.

S.

W.

S.

W.

S.

W.

S.

0

+30

-170

— i

+25

-IS

- 56

- 9

+ 4

- 17

-47

I

+21

-147

-23

+49

-40

- 87

-54

+20

- 61

-67

2

+ 5

- 83

-49

+69

-25

-107

-82

+37

- 62

-76

3

- 5

— 12

-51

+47

— 21

- 76

-83

+24

- 59

-55

4

+ i

+ 76

-37

+43

-13

- 59

-58

+ 18

- 39

-38

- 8

+ 134

-23

+ 12

+ 10

- 9

-27

+ n

- 4

- 3

6

— 7

+ 181

— 2

— 21

+21

+ 43

+ 9

- 6

+ 23

+35

7

— 10

+ 164

+30

— 12

+23

+ 45

+55

+ 8

+ 47

+43

8

— 7

+ 86

+36

— 21

+38

+ 52

+71

— i

+ 68

+45

9

— 8

o

+28

-23

+46

+ 30

+64

-16

+ 71

+ 19

10

- 5

- 85

+34

— 20

+ 13

+ 13

+54

—21

+ 38

+ i

ii

-15

-144

+27

— II

-12

- 6

+3i

-19

+ 5

-15

12

- 9

-164

+ 19

- 5

-47

- 23

o

-19

- 41

-29

13

+ i

-136

- 3

+ 17

-59

- 46

-36

— 2

- 69

-41

'4

- 7

- 79

-13

+27

-66

- 44

-55

+ 14

- 84

-32

'5

- 8

- 8

-32

+25

-53

- 37

-74

+ 14

- 82

-26

16

— 12

+ 72

-37

+25

-34

- 17

-70

+ 26

- 64

— 2

17

-13

+ 137

-33

+ 4

— i

+ 28

-47

+21

- 24

+35

18

— 21

+ 165

— 2

— 10

+20

+ 47

+ 8

+ 12

+ 21

+47

19

— 12

+ 147

+21

-42

+44

+ 81

+53

-14

+ 64

+64

20

+ 10

+ 95

+21

-62

+75

+ 107

+71

-28

+ IOO

+80

21

+ 13

+ 4

+26

-70

+65

+ 98

+72

-44

+ 92

+65

22

+ 25

- 82

+35

-41

+35

+ 35

+68

-38

+ 64

+ 12

23

+36

-147

+34

- 4

- 7

- 14

+44

-13

+ 15

-19

MeanDe- 1

parture {

12

15°

26

29

33

48

50

18

51

37

Range

57

35i

87

139

141

214

155

81

184

156

tropical stations, an inadequate idea of the importance of the
lunar influence. In January Figee finds for the range of the lunar
diurnal inequality 0-62 in D, 3-17 in H and 3-57 in V, whereas
the corresponding ranges in June are only o'-!3, 1-17 and 2-27
respectively. The difference between summer and winter is essen-
tially due to solar action, thus the lunar influence on terrestrial
magnetism is clearly a somewhat complex phenomenon. From
a study of Trivandrum data, Broun concluded that the action
of the moon is largely dependent on the solar hour at the time,
being on the average about twice as great for a day hour as for a
night hour. Fieee s investigations at Batavia point to a similar
conclusion. Following a method suggested by Van der Stok,
Figec arrives at a numerical estimate of the " lunar activity " for
each hour of the solar day, expressed in terms of that at noon taken
>o. In summer, for instance, in the case of D he finds the
" activity " varying from 114 at IO a.m. to only 8 at 9 p.m.; the
corresponding extremes in the case of H are 139 at 10 a.m. and 54
at 6 a.m.

The question whether lunar influence increases with sun-spot
frequency is obviously of considerable theoretical interest. Balfour
Stf\vart in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia gave some data
indicating an appreciably enhanced lunar influence at Trivandrum
(hiring years of sun-spot maximum, but he hesitated to accept the
result as finally proved. Figee recently investigated this point
at Batavia, but with inconclusive results. Attempts have also been
made to ascertain how lunar influence depends on the moon's
declination and phase, and on her distance from the earth. The
difficulty in these investigations is that we are dealing with a small
effect, and a very long series of data would be required satisfactorily
to eliminate other periodic influences.

§ 41. From an analysis of seventeen years data at St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk, Leyst60 concluded that all the principal planets
Planetary sensibly influence the earth's magnetism. According to
Influence ^'s figures' a" tne planets except Mercury — whose in-
fluence he found opposite to that of the others — when
nearest the earth tended to deflect the declination magnet at St
Petersburg to the west, and also increased the range of the diurnal
inequality of declination, the latter effect being the more con-
spicuous. Schuster,61 who has considered the evidence advanced
by Leyst from the mathematical standpoint, considers it to be
inconclusive.

§ 42. The best way of carrying out a magnetic survey depends on
where it has to be made and on the object in view. The object that
Magnetic Pr°bably still comes first in importance is a knowledge
Surveys. ?' tne declination, of sufficient accuracy for navigation
in all navigable waters. One might thus infer that
magnetic surveys consist mainly of observations at sea. This
cannot however be said to be true of the past, whatever it may
be of the future, and this for several reasons. Observations at sea
entail the use of a ship, specially constructed so as to be free from

disturbing influence, and so are inherently costly;
they are also apt to be of inferior accuracy. It
might be possible in quiet weather, in a large vessel
free from vibration, to observe with instruments of
the highest precision such as a unifilar magneto-
meter, but in the ordinary surveying ship apparatus
of less sensitiveness has to be employed. The
declination is usually determined with some form
of compass. The other elements most usually
found directly at sea are the inclination and the
total force, the instrument employed being a special
form of inclinometer, such as the Fox circle, which
was largely used by Ross in the Antarctic, or in
recent years the Lloyd-Creak. This latter instru-
ment differs from the ordinary dip-circle fitted for
total force observations after H. Lloyd's method
mainly in that the needles rest in pivots instead
of on agate edges. To overcome friction a pro-
jecting pin on the framework is scratched with a
roughened ivory plate.

The most notable recent example of observations
at sea is afforded by the cruises of the surveying
ships" Galilee "and" Carnegie "under the auspices
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, which
includes in its magnetic programme a general
survey. To see where the ordinary land survey
assists navigation, let us take the case of a country
with a long sea-board. If observations were taken
every few miles along the coast results might be
obtained adequate for the ordinary wants of coast-
ing steamers, but it would be difficult to infer what
the declination would be 50 or even 20 miles off
shore at any particular place. If, however, the
land area itself is carefully surveyed, one knows
the trend of the lines of equal declination, and
can usually extend them with considerable accuracy
many miles out to sea. One also can tell what
places if any on the coast suffer from local disturb-
ances, and thus decide on the necessity of special
observations. This is by no means the only imme-
diately useful purpose which is or may be served by magnetic surveys
on land. In Scandinavia use has been made of magnetic observations
in prospecting for iron ore. There are also various geological and
geodetic problems to whose solution magnetic surveys may afford
valuable guidance. Among the most important recent surveys may
be mentioned those of the British Isles by A. Riicker and T. E.
Thorpe,62 of France and Algeria by Moureaux,63 of Italy by Chistoni
and Palazzo,64 of the Netherlands by Van Ryckevorsel,66 of South
Sweden by Carlheim Gyllenskiold,66 of Austria-Hungary by Liznar,"
of Japan by Tanakadate,68 of the East Indies by Van Bemmelen,
and South Africa by J. C. Beattie. A survey of the United States has
been proceeding for a good many years, and many results have
appeared in the publications of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
especially Bauer's Magnetic Tables and Magnetic Charts, 1908.
Additions to our knowledge may also be expected from surveys of
India, Egypt and New Zealand.

For the satisfactory execution of a land survey, the observers
must have absolute instruments such as the unifilar magnetometer
and dip circle, suitable for the accurate determination of the magnetic
elements, and they must be able to fix the exact positions of the spots
where observations are taken. If, as usual, the survey occupies
several years, what is wanted is the value of the elements not at the
actual time of observation, but at some fixed epoch, possibly some
years earlier or later. At a magnetic observatory, with standardized
records, the difference between the values of a magnetic element at
any two specified instants can be derived from the magnetic curves.
But at an ordinary survey station, at a distance from an observatory,
the information is not immediately available. Ordinarily the reduc-
tion to a fixed epoch is done in at least two stages, a correction
being applied for secular change, and a second for the departure from
the mean value for the day due to the regular diurnal inequality
and to disturbance.

The reduction to a fixed epoch is at once more easy and more accur-
ate if the area surveyed contains, or has close to its borders, a well
distributed series of magnetic observatories, whose records are com-
parable and trustworthy. Throughout an area of the size of France
or Germany, the secular change between any two specified dates
can ordinarily be expressed with sufficient accuracy by a formula of
the type

S = i,+o(/-/o)+6(X-Xo) . . (i),

where 5 denotes secular change, / latitude and X longitude, the letters
with suffix o relating to some convenient central position. The
constants So, a, b are to be determined from the observed secular
changes at the fixed observatories whose geographical co-ordinates
are accurately known. Unfortunately, as a rule, fixed observatories
are few in number and not well distributed for survey purposes;
thus the secular change over part at least of the area has usually
to be found by repeating the observations after some years at several
of the field stations. The success attending this depends on the

38o

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

exactitude with which the sites can be recovered, on the accuracy of
the observations, and on the success with which allowance is made
for diurnal changes, regular and irregular. It is thus desirable that the
observations at repeat stations should be taken at hours when the
regular diurnal changes are slow, and that they should not be
accepted unless taken on days that prove to be magnetically quiet.
Unless the secular change is exceptionally rapid, it will usually be
most convenient in practice to calculate it from or to the middle of
the month, and then to allow for the difference between the mean
value for the month and the value at the actual hour of observation.
There is here a difficulty, inasmuch as the latter part of the correction
depends on the diurnal inequality, and so on the local time of the
station. No altogether satisfactory method of surmounting this
difficulty has yet been proposed. Rlicker and Thorpe in their
British survey assumed that the divergence from the mean value
at any hour at any station might be regarded as made up of a regular
diurnal inequality, identical with that at Kew when both were
referred to local time, and of a disturbance element identical with
that existing at the same absolute time at Kew. Suppose, for
instance, that at hour h G.M.T. the departure at Kew from the mean
value for the month is d, then the corresponding departure from the
mean at a station X degrees west of Kew is d — e, where e is the in-
crease in the element at Kew due to the regular diurnal inequality
between hour h — X/I5 and hour h. This procedure is simple, but
is exposed to various criticisms. If we define a diurnal inequality
as the result obtained by combining hourly readings from all the days
of a month, we can assign a definite meaning to the diurnal inequality
for a particular month of a particular year, and after the curves
have been measured we can give exact numerical figures answering
to this definition. But the diurnal inequality thus obtained differs,
as has been pointed out, from that derived from a limited number of
the quietest days of the month, not merely in amplitude but in phase,
and the view that the diurnal changes on any individual day can be
regarded as made up of a regular diurnal inequality of definite char-
acter and of a disturbance element is an hypothesis which is likely at
times to be considerably wide of the mark. The extent of the error
involved in assuming the regular diurnal inequality the same in the
north of Scotland, or the west of Ireland, as in the south-east of
England remains to be ascertained. As to the disturbance element,
even if the disturbing force were of given magnitude and direction
all over the British Isles — which we now know is often very far from
the case^— its effects would necessarily vary vejy sensibly owing to
the considerable variation in the direction and intensity of the local
undisturbed force. If observations were confined to hours at which
the regular diurnal changes are slow, and only those taken on days
of little or no disturbance were utilized, corrections combining
the effects of regular and irregular diurnal changes could be derived
from the records of fixed observations, supposed suitably situated,
combined in formulae of the same type as (i).

§ 4^5. The field results having been reduced to a fixed epoch, it
remains to combine them in ways likely to be useful. In most cases
the results are embodied in charts, usually of at least two kinds, one
set showing only general features, the other the chief local peculiar-
ities. Charts of the first kind resemble the world charts (figs. I to 4)
in being free from sharp twistings and convolutions. In these
the declination for instance at a fixed geographical position on a
particular isogonal is to be regarded as really a mean from a
considerable surrounding area.

Various ways have been utilized for arriving at these terrestrial
isomagnetics — as Rucker and Thorpe call them — of which an elabor-
ate discussion has been made by E. Mathias.69 from a theoretical
standpoint the simplest method is perhaps that employed by Liznar
for Austria-Hungary. Let I and X represent latitude and longitude
relative to a certain central station in the area. Then assume that
throughout the area the value E of any particular magnetic element
is given by a formula

E = E,,+al+b\+cP+d\t+el\,

where Eo, a, b, c, d, e are absolute constants to be determined from
the observations. When determining the constants, we write for
E in the equation the observed value of the element (corrected for
secular change, &c.) at each station, and for / and X the latitude and
longitude of the station relative to the central station. Thus each
station contributes an equation to assist in determining the six con-
stants. They can thus be found by least squares or some simpler
method. In Liznar's case there were 195 stations, so that the labour
of applying least squares would be considerable. This is one objec-
tion to the method. A second is that it may allow undesirably large
weight to a few highly disturbed stations. In the case of the British
Isles, Rucker and Thorpe employed a different method. The area
was split up into districts. For each district a mean was formed of
the observed values of each element, and the mean was assigned
to an imaginary central station, whose geographical co-ordinates
represented the mean of the geographical co-ordinates of the actual
stations. Want of uniformity in the distribution of the stations
may be allowed for by weighting the results. Supposing E0 the
value of the element found for the central station of a district, it
was assumed that the value E at any actual station whose latitude
and longitude exceeded those of the central station by I and X was
given by E = Eo+a/+6X, with a and b constants throughout the

district. Having found Eo, a and 6, Rucker and Thorpe calculated
values of the element for points defined by whole degrees of longitude
(from Greenwich) and half degrees of latitude. Near the common
border of two districts there would be two calculated values, of
which the arithmetic mean was accepted.

The next step was to determine by interpolation where isogonals
— or other isomagnetic lines — cut successive lines of latitude. The
curves formed by joining these successive points of intersection were
called district lines or curves. Rucker and Thorpe's next step was to
obtain formulae by trial, giving smooth curves of continuous curva-
ture — terrestrial isomagnetics — approximating as closely as possible
to the district lines. The curves thus obtained had somewhat
complicated formulae. For instance, the isogonals south of 54°-5
latitude were given for the epoch Jan. I, 1891 by

D = i8° 37' + i8'-5('-49'5)-3'-5 cos i450('-49'5))
+ [26'-3 + i'-5('-49-5))(X-4)+o'-oi(X-4)2(/-54-5)2,

where D denotes the westerly declination. Supposing, what is at
least approximately true, that the secular change in Great Britain
since 1891 has been uniform south of lat. 54°'5, corresponding
formulae for the epochs Jan. I, 1901, and Jan. i, 1906, could be
obtained by substituting for 18° 37' the values 17° 44' and 17° 24'
respectively. In their very laborious and important memoir
E. Mathias and B. Baillaud69 have applied to Rucker and Thorpe's
observations a method which is a combination of Rucker and
Thorpe's and of Liznar's. Taking Rucker and Thorpe's nine
districts, and the magnetic data found for the nine imaginary central
stations, they employed these to determine the six constants of
Liznar's formula. This is an immense simplification in arithmetic.
The declination formula thus obtained for the epoch Jan. I, 1891, was

+ -000343^ - -000239/2,

where i+(53° 3o'-s) represents the latitude, and (X+s° 35'-2) the
west longitude of the station. From this and the corresponding
formulae for the other elements, values were calculated for each of
Riicker and Thorpe's 882 stations, and these were compared with t"he
observed values. A complete record is given of the differences
between the observed and calculated values, and of the corresponding
differences obtained by Rucker and Thorpe from their own formulae.
The mean numerical (calculated ~ observed) differences from the
two different methods are almost exactly the same — being approxi-
mately 10' for declination, 5'j for inclination, and 707 for horizontal
force. The applications by Mathias69 of his method to the survey
data of France obtained by Moureaux, and those of the Netherlands
obtained by van Rijckevorsel, appear equally successful. The
method dispenses entirely with district curves, and the parabolic
formulae are perfectly straightforward both to calculate and to apply ;
they thus appear to possess marked advantages. Whether the
method could be applied equally satisfactorily to an area of the size
of India or the United States actual trial alone would show.

§ 44. Rucker and Thorpe regarded their terrestrial isomagnetics
and the corresponding formulae as representing the normal field
that would exist in the absence of disturbances

Local Dis-
turbances.

peculiar to the neighbourhood. Subtracting the forces
derived from the formulae from those observed, we
obtain forces which may be ascribed to regional disturbance.

When the vertical disturbing force is downwards, or the observed
vertical component larger than the calculated, Rucker and Thorpe
regard it as positive, and the loci where the largest positive values
occur they termed ridge lines. The corresponding loci where the
largest negative values occur were called valley lines. In the British
Isles Rucker and Thorpe found that almost without exception, in
the neighbourhood of a ridge line, the horizontal component of the
disturbing force pointed towards it, throughout a considerable
area on both sides. The phenomena are similar to what would
occur if ridge lines indicated the position of the summits of under-
ground masses of magnetic material, magnetized so as to attract
the north-seeking pole of a magnet. Rucker and Thorpe were
inclined to believe in the real existence of these subterranean mag-
netic mountains, and inferred that they must be of considerable
extent, as theory and observation alike indicate that thin basaltic
sheets or dykes, or limited masses of trap rock, produce no measur-
able magnetic effect except in their immediate vicinity. In support
of their conclusions, Rucker and Thorpe dwell on the fact that in
the United Kingdom large masses of basalt such as occur in Skye,
Mull, Antrim, North Wales or the Scottish coalfield, are according
to their survey invariably centres of attraction for the north-seeking
pole of a magnet. Various cases of repulsion have, however, been
described by other observers in the northern hemisphere.

§ 45. Rucker and Thorpe did not make a very minute examination
of disturbed areas, so that purely local disturbances larger than any
noticed by them may exist in the United Kingdom. But any that
exist are unlikely to rival some that have been observed elsewhere,
notably those in the province of Kursk in Russia described by
Moureaux ™ and by E. Leyst.71 In Kursk Leyst observed declina-
tions varying from O° to 360°, inclinations varying from 39°- 1 to
90° ; he obtained values of the horizontal force varying from o to
0-856 C.G.S., and values of the vertical force varying from 0-371 to
1-836. Another highly disturbed Russian district Krivoi Rog

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

(48° N. lat. 33° E. long.) was elaborately surveyed by Paul Passalsky.72
The extreme values observed by him differed, the declination by
282° 40', the inclination by 41° 53', horizontal force by 0-658, and
vertical force by 1-358. At one spot a difference of n6°J was observed
between the declinations at two positions only 42 metres apart.
In cases such as the last mentioned, the source of disturbance
comes presumably very near the surface. It is improbable that any
such enormously rapid changes of declination can be experienced
anywhere at the surface of a deep ocean. But in shallow water
disturbances of a not very inferior order of magnitude have been
met with. Possibly the most outstanding case known is that of an
area, about 3 m. long by ij m. at its widest, near Port Walcott. off
the N.W. Australian coast. The results of a minute survey made
here by H.M.S. " Penguin " have been discussed by Captain E. W.
:k." Within the narrow area specified, declination varied from
26° W. to 56° E., and inclination from 50° to nearly 80°, the observa-
tions being taken some 80 ft. above sea bottom. Another note-
worthy case, though hardly comparable with the above, is that of
Loch Roag at Lewis in the Hebrides. A survey by H.M.S.
" Research " in water about loo ft. deep — discussed by Admiral
A. M. Field74 — showed a range of 11° in declination. The largest
observed disturbances in horizontal and vertical force were of the
order 0-02 and 0-05 C.G.S. respectively. An interesting feature in
this case was that vertical force was reduced, there being a well-
marked valley line.

In some instances regional magnetic disturbances have been found
to be associated with geodetic anomalies. This is true of an elon-
gated area including Moscow, where observations were taken by
Friische." Again, Eschenhagen 76 detected magnetic anomalies in
an area including the Harz Mountains in Germany, where deflections
of the plumb line from the normal had been observed. He found a
magnetic ridge line running approximately parallel to the line of no
deflection of the plumb line.

§ 46. A question of interest, about which however not very much
is known, is the effect of local disturbance on secular change and on
the diurnal inequality. The determination of secular change in a
highly disturbed locality is difficult, because an unintentional
slight change in the spot where the observations are«made may
wholly falsify the conclusions drawn. When the disturbed area
is very limited in extent, the magnetic field may reasonably be
•ded as composed of the normal field that would have existed
in the absence of local disturbance, plus a disturbance field arising
from magnetic material which approaches nearly if not quite to the
surface. Even if no sensible change takes place in the disturbance
field, one would hardly expect the secular change
to be wholly normal. The changes in the rect-
angular components of the force may possibly be
the same as at a neighbouring undisturbed station,
but this will not give the same change in declination
and inclination. In the case of the diurnal in-
equality, the presumption is that at least the de-
clination and inclination changes will be influenced
by local disturbance. If, for example, we suppose
the diurnal inequality to be due to the direct in-
fluence of electric currents in the upper atmo-
sphere, the declination change will represent the
action of the component of a force of given magnitude which is
perpendicular to tne position of the compass needle. But when
local disturbance exists, the direction of the needle and the intensity
of the controlling field are both altered by the local disturbance,
so it would appear natural for the declination changes to be in-
fluenced also. This conclusion seems borne out by observations
made by Passalsky72 at Krivoi Rog, which showed diurnal inequal-
ities differing notably from those experienced at the same time
at Odessa, the nearest magnetic observatory. One station where
the horizontal force was abnormally low gave a diurnal range of
declination four times that at Odessa ; on the other hand, the range
of the horizontal force was apparently reduced. It would be unsafe
to draw general conclusions from observations at two or three
stations, and much completer information is wanted, but it is
obviously desirable to avoid local disturbance when selecting a site
for a magnetic observatory, assuming one's object is to obtain data
reasonably applicable to a large area. In the case of the older
observatories this consideration seems sometimes to have been lost
sight of. At Mauritius, for instance, inside of a circle of only 56 ft.
radius, having for centre the declination pillar of the absolute
magnetic hut of the Royal Alfred Observatory, T. F. Claxton77
found that the declination varied from 4° 56' to 13° 45' W., the in-
clination from 50° 21' to 58° 34' S., and the horizontal force from
0-197 to 0-244 C.G.S. At one spot he found an alteration of i°i
in the declination when the magnet was lowered from 4 ft. above the
ground to 2. Disturbances of this order could hardly escape even
a rough investigation of the site.

§47. If we assume the magnetic force on the earth's surface
derivable from a potential V, we can express V as the sum of two
Gaussian scries of solid spherical harmonics, one containing nega-
Poteniial tive, the other positive integral powers of the radius
and Coo- vector r from the earth's centre. Let X denote east
starts. longitude from Greenwich, and let M = cos(Jir— /),
where / is latitude; and also let

where n and m denote any positive integers, m being not greater than
n. Then denoting the earth's radius by R, we have

V/R = S (R/r)»+1 [HI (gma cos mX +A? sin m\)]
+S(r/R)»[H;T(g_S cos mX+A-S sin mX)],

where S denotes summation of m from o to n, followed by summa-
tion of n from o to oo. In this equation g™, &c. are constants,
those with positive suffixes being what are generally termed Gaussian
constants. The series with negative powers of r answers to forces
with a source internal to the earth, the series with positive powers
to forces with an external source. Gauss found that forces of the
latter class, if existent, were very small, and they are usually left
out of account. There are three Gaussian constants of the first
order, gi°, gi1, Ai1, five of the second order, seven of the third, and so
on. The coefficient of a Gaussian constant of the wth order is a
spherical harmonic of the n"> degree. If R be taken as unit length,
as is not infrequent, the first order terms are given by

Vi =r-*uTi° sin l+fo1 cos X+Ai1 sin X) cos/].

The earth is in reality a spheroid, and in his elaborate work on
the subject J. C. Adams n develops the treatment appropriate to
this case. Here we shall as usual treat it as spherical. We then
have for the components of the force at the surface

X = — R ~'(i — Ms)* (dV/din) towards the astronomical north,
Y=-R-1(i-M2)-!(<*V/<&) „ „ „ west,

Z = —dV/dr vertically downwards.

Supposing the Gaussian constants known, the above formulae would
give the force all over the earth's surface. To determine the Gaus-
sian constants we proceed of course in the reverse direction, equating
the observed values of the force components to the theoretical
values involving g™, &c. If we knew the values of the component
forces at regularly distributed stations all over the earth's surface,
we could determine each Gaussian constant independently of the
others. Our knowledge however of large regions, especially in the
Arctic and Antarctic, is very scanty, and in practice recourse is had
to methods in which the constants are not determined independently.
The consequence is unfortunately that the values found for some of
the constants, even amongst the lower orders, depend very sensibly
on how large a portion of the polar regions is omitted from the

TABLE XLIV. — Gaussian Constants of the First Order.

1829
Erman-
Petersen.

1830
Gauss.

A1,?45

Adams.

1880
Adams.

1885
Neumayer.

1885
Schmidt.

1885
Fritsche.

?;.'

AV

+ •32007
+ •02835
— •06011

+ •32348
+ •03111
— •06246

+ •32187
+•02778
-•05783

+•31684
+ •02427
— •06030

+ •31572
+ •02481
— •06026

+•31735
+ •02356
-•05984

+ •31635
+ •02414
-•05914

calculations, and on the number of the constants of the higner
orders which are retained.

Table XLIV. gives the values obtained for the Gaussian constants
of the first order in some of the best-known computations, as
collected by W. G. Adams.79

§ 48. Allowance must be made for the difference in the epochs,
and for the fact that the number of constants assumed to be worth
retaining was different in each case. Gauss, for instance, assumed
24 constants sufficient, whilst in obtaining the results given in the
table J. C. Adams retained 48. Some idea of the uncertainty thus
arising may be derived from the fact that when Adams assumed
24 constants sufficient, he got instead of the values in the table the
following: —

ft0 ft1 A,'

1842-1845 +-32I73 +-02833 --05820

1880 +-31611 +-02470 — 06071

Some of the higher constants were relatively much more affected.
Thus, on the hypotheses of 48 and of 24 constants respectively, the
values obtained for gj° in 1842-1845 were —'00127 and — '00057, and
those obtained for A>' in 1880 were +-00748 and +-00573. It must
also be remembered that these values assume that the series in positive
powers of r, with coefficients having negative suffixes, is absolutely
non-existent. If this be not assumed, then in any equation deter-
ming X or Y, g" must be replaced by g?+g!5i, and in any
equation determining Z by g~ — (»/(n + i)j gj; similar remarks
apply to A* and A^. It is thus theoretically possible to check the
truth of the assumption that the positive power series is non-existent
by comparing the values obtained for gj and A™ from the X and
Y or from the Z equations, when g^ and A^are assumed zero.
If the values so found differ, values can be found for g!^, and AJJ
which will harmonize the two sets of equations. Adams gives the
values obtained from the X, Y and the Z equations separately for the

382

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

Gaussian constants. The following are examples of the values thence
deducible for the coefficients of the positive power series : —

g_,° g-,1 fe-,1 g-4° gV g-e"
1842-1845 +'0018 — '0002 — '0014 +'0064 +'0072 +'0124

l880 — 'O002 — 'OOI2 +-OOI5 —'0043 —'0021 —'OOI3

Compared to g4°, gs° and ge° the values here found for g-4°, £-5° and
g-e° are far from insignificant, and there would be no excuse for
neglecting them if the observational data were sufficient and reliable.
But two outstanding features claim attention, first the smallness of
g-i°, g-i1 and h-i1, the coefficients least likely to be affected by obser-
vational deficiencies, and secondly the striking dissimilarity between
the values obtained for the two epochs. The conclusion to which these
and other facts point is that observational deficiencies, even up to
the present date, are such that no certain conclusion can be drawn
as to the existence or non-existence of the positive power series.
It is also to be feared that considerable uncertainties enter into the
values of most of the Gaussian constants, at least those of the
higher orders. The introduction of the positive power series neces-
sarily improves the agreement between observed and calculated
values of the force, but it is more likely than not to be disadvan-
tageous physically, if the differences between observed values and
those calculated from the negative power series alone arise in large
measure from observational deficiencies.

TABLE XLV. — Axis and Moment of First Order Gaussian
Coefficients.

Epoch.

Authority for
Constants.

North
Latitude.

West
Longitude.

M/R3in
G.C.S. units.

1650
1836

1845
1880
1885

1885

H.Fritsche . . .
J. C. Adams .

Neumayer-Petersen
and Bauer .
Neumayer, Schmidt

0 /

82 50
78 27
78 44
78 24

78 3
78 34

o /

42 55
63 35

64 20

68 4
67 3

68 31

•3260
•3262
•3282

•3234
•3224

•3230

§ 49. The first order Gaussian constants have a simple physical
meaning. The terms containing them represent the potential
arising from the uniform magnetization of a sphere parallel to a fixed
axis, the moment M of the spherical magnet being given by

where R is the earth's radius. The position of the north end of
the axis of this uniform magnetization and the values of M/R3,
derived from the more important determinations of the Gaussian
constants, are given in Table XLV. The data for 1650 are of some-
what doubtful value. If they were as reliable as the others, one
would feel greater confidence in the reality of the apparent move-
ment of the north end of the axis from east to west. The table
also suggests a slight diminution in M since 1845, but it is open to
doubt whether the apparent change exceeds the probable error in the
calculated values. It should be carefully noticed that the data in
the table apply only to the first order Gaussian terms, and so only
to a portion of the earth's magnetization, and that the Gaussian
constants have been calculated on the assumption that the negative
power series alone exists. The field answering to the first order
terms — or what Bauer has called the normal field — constitutes
much the most important part of the whole magnetization. Still
what remains is very far from negligible, save for rough calculations.
It is in fact one of the weak points in the Gaussian analysis that when
one wishes to represent the observed facts with high accuracy one
is obliged to retain so many terms that calculation becomes burden-
some.

§ 50. The possible existence of a positive power series is not the
only theoretical uncertainty in the Gaussian analysis. There is
_ the further possibility that part of the earth's magnetic

harth-i g^j may nQt answer to a potential at all. Schmidt80

in his calculation of Gaussian constants regarded this
as a possible contingency, and the results he reached implied that as
much as 2 or 3 % of the entire field had no potential. If the magnetic
force F on the earth's surface comes from a potential, then the line

integral^Fds taken round any closed circuit s should vanish. If the

integral does not vanish, it equals 471-!, where I is the total electric
current traversing the area bounded by s. A+ sign in the result of
the integration means that the current is downwards (i.e. from air
to earth) or upwards, according as the direction of integration round
the circuit, as viewed by an observer above ground, has been clock-
wise or anti-clockwise. In applications of the formula by W. von
Bezold 81 and Bauer K the integral has been taken along parallels of
latitude in the direction west to east. In this case a + sign indicates
a resultant upward current over the area between the parallel of
latitude traversed and the north geographical pole. The difference
between the results of integration round two parallels of latitude
gives the total vertical current over the zone between them.
Schmidt's final estimate of the average intensity of the earth-air
current, irrespective of sign, for the epoch 1885 was 0-17 ampere per

square kilometre. Bauer employing the same observational data
as Schmidt, reached somewhat similar conclusions from the differ-
ences between integrals taken round parallels of latitude at 5°
intervals from 60° N. to 60° S. H. Fritsche 83 treating the problem
similarly, but for two epochs, 1842 and 1885, got conspicuously
different results for the two epochs, Bauer 84 has more recently
repeated his calculations, and for three epochs, 1842-1845 (Sabine's
charts), 1880 (Creak's charts), and 1885 (Neumayer's charts), obtain-
ing the mean value of the current per sq. km. for 5° zones. Table
XLVI. is based on Bauer's figures, the unit being o'ooi ampere, and
+ denoting an upwardly directed current.

TABLE XLVI. — Earth-air Currents, after Bauer.

Latitude.

Northern Hemisphere.

Southern Hemisphere.

1842-5.

1880.

1885.

1842-5.

1880.

1885.

15°,- 30°
30°,, 45°
45°,, 60°

— I

-TO

+ 3

-32
-59

— 21

-34
-68

— 22

+78

+66

+ 2
+26

+ 5

+ 30
- 62
— ii

+276

+ 36
- 63
- M

+213

In considering the significance of the data in Table XLVI., it
should be remembered that the currents must be regarded as mean
values derived from all hours of the day, and all months of the year.
Currents which were upwards during certain hours of the day, and
downwards during others, would affect the diurnal inequality;
while currents which were upwards during certain months, and down-
wards during others, would cause an annual inequality in the absolute
values. Thus, if the figures be accepted as real, we must suppose
that between 15° N. and 30° N. there are preponderatingly down-
ward currents, and between o° S. and 15° S. preponderatingly upward
currents. Such currents might arise from meteorological conditions
characteristic of particular latitudes, or be due to the relative dis-
tribution of land and sea ; but, whatever their cause, any considerable
real change in their values between 1842 and 1885 seems very im-
probable. The most natural cause to which to attribute the differ-
ence between the results for different epochs in Table XLVI. is
unquestionably observational deficiencies. Bauer himself regards
the results for latitudes higher than 45° as very uncertain, but
he seems inclined to accept the reality of currents of the average
intensity of 1/30 ampere per sq. km. between 45° N. and 45° S.

Currents of the size originally deduced by Schmidt, or even those
of Bauer's latest calculations, seem difficult to reconcile with the
results of atmospheric electricity (<?.».).

§ 51. There is no single parallel of latitude along the whole of
which magnetic elements are known with high precision. Thus
results of greater certainty might be hoped for from the application
of the line integral to well surveyed countries. Such applications
have been made, e.g. to Great Britain by Riicker,86 and to Austria
by Liznar,86 but with negative results'. The question has also been
considered in detail by Tanakadate68 in discussing the magnetic
survey of Japan. He makes the criticism that the taking of a line
integral round the boundary of a surveyed area amounts to utilizing
the values of the magnetic elements where least accurately known,
and he thus considers it preferable to replace the line integral by
the surface integral.

He applied this formula not merely to his own data for Japan, but
also to British and Austrian data of Riicker and Thorpe and of
Liznar. The values he ascribes to X and Y are those given by the
formulae calculated to fit the observations. The result reached
was "a line of no current through the middle of the country; in
Japan the current is upward on the Pacific side and downward on
the Siberian side; in Austria it is upward in the north and downward
in the south ; in Great Britain upward in the east and downward in
the west." The results obtained for Great Britain differed con-
siderably according as use was made of Riicker and Thorpe's own
district equations or of a series of general equations of the type subse-
quently utilized by Mathias. Tanakadate points out that the fact
that his investigations give in each case a line of no current passing
through the middle of the surveyed area, is calculated to throw doubt
on the reality of the supposed earth-air currents, and he recom-
mends a suspension of judgment.

§ 52. A question of interest, and bearing a relationship to the
Gaussian analysis, is the law of variation of the magnetic elements
with height above sea-level. If F represent the value at sea-level,
and F+6F that at height h, of any component of force answering
to Gaussian constants of the nth order, then i +5F/F = (i +h/R)-^-*,
where R is the earth's radius. Thus at heights of only a few miles
we have very approximately 8F/F= — (n+2)hfR. As we have
seen, the constants of the first order are much the most important,
thus we should expect as a first approximation 3X/X = SY/Y
= «Z/Z= — 3/t/R. This equation gives the same rate of decrease in
all three components, and so no change in declination or inclination.
Liznar M (<•) compared this equation with the observed results of his
Austrian survey, subdividing his stations into three groups according

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

383

to altitude. He considered the agreement not satisfactory. It
must be remembered that the Gaussian analysis, especially when
only lower order terms are retained, applies only to the earth's field
freed from local disturbances. Now observations at individual
high level stations may be sepously influenced not merely by regional
disturbances common to low level stations, but by magnetic material
in the mountain itself. A method of arriving at the vertical change
in the elements, which theoretically seems less open to criticism, has
been employed by A. Tanakadate.68 If we assume that a potential
exists, or if admitting the possibility of earth-air currents we assume
their effort negligible, we have dX./dz = dZ/dx, dY/dz = dZ/dy. Thus
from the observed rates of change of the vertical component of force
along the parallels of latitude and longitude, we can deduce the rate
of change in the vertical direction of the two rectangular components
of horizontal force, and thence the rates of change of the hori-
zontal force and the declination. Also we have dZ/<fz = 4irp
— (d\ldx+dY Idy), where p represents the density of free magnetism
at the spot. The spot being above ground we may neglect p, and
thus deduce the variation in the vertical direction of the vertical
component from the observed variations of the two horizontal com-
ponents in their own directions. Tanakadate makes a comparison
of the vertical variations of the magnetic elements calculated in the
two ways, not merely for Japan, but also for Austria-Hungary and
Great Britain. In each country he took five representative points,
those for Great Britain being the central stations of five of Riicker
and Thorpe's districts. TableXLVII. gives the mean of the five
values obtained. By method (i.) is meant the formula involving
.V' R. by method (ii.) Tanakadate's method as explained above.
II, V, D, and I are used as defined in § 5. In the case of H and V
unity represents 17.

TABLE XLVII.— Change per Kilometre of Height

Great Britain.

Austria-Hungary.

Japan.

Method.

(i.)

(H.)

0.)

(ii.)

(i.)

(ii.)

H

V . .
D (west)

- 8-1

— 21-2

- 6-7
-19.4
— 0-04
- o'-os

— IO-I

— 19-0

- 8-7
-18-1
+ o'-io
- o'-o6

-13-9
-17-1

— 14-0
-17-4
- 0-27
— o'-oi

Diurnal

Variation

Potential.

The — sign in Table XLVII. denotes a decrease in the numerical
values of H, V and I, and a diminution in westerly declination. If
we except the case of the westerly component of force — not shown
in the table — the accordance between the results from the two
methods in the case of Japan is extraordinarily close, and there is
no very marked tendency for the one method to give larger values
"than the other. In the case of Great Britain and Austria the differ-
ences between the two sets of calculated values though not large
are systematic, the 3/i/R formula invariably showing the larger
reduction with altitude in both H and V. Tanakadate was so
lied with the accordance of the two methods in Japan, that he
employed his method to reduce all observed Japanese values to sea-
level. At a few of the highest Japanese stations the correction thus
introduced into the value of H was of some importance, but at the
great majority of the stations the corrections were all insignificant.
I 53- Schuster " has calculated a potential analogous to the
Gaussian potential, from which the regular diurnal changes of the
&. ^ magnetic elements all over the earth may be derived.
From the mean summer and winter diurnal variations
of the northerly and easterly components of force during
1870 at St Petersburg, Greenwich, Lisbon and Bombay,
he found the values of 8 constants analogous to Gaussian
constants; and from considerations as to the hours of occur-
rence of the maxima and minima of vertical force, he concluded
that the potential, unlike the Gaussian, must proceed in positive
powers of r, and so answer to forces external to the earth.
S(-lui-,ter found, however, that the calculated amplitudes of the
diurnal vertical force inequality did not accord well with observa-
tion; and his conclusion was that while the original cause of
the diurnal variation is external, and consists probably of electric
currents in the atmosphere, there are induced currents inside the
earth, which increase the horizontal components of the diurnal
inequality while diminishing the vertical. The problem has also
been dealt with by H. Fritsche,88 who concludes, in opposition to
Schuster, that the forces are partly internal and partly external,
the two sets being of fairly similar magnitude. Fritsche repeats
the criticism (already made in the last edition of this encyclopaedia)
that Schuster's four stations were too few, and contrasts their number
with the 27 from which his own data were derived. On the other
hand, Schuster's data referred to one and the same year, whereas
Fritsche's are from epochs varying from 1841 to 1896, and represent
in some cases a single year's observations, in other cases means from
several years. It is clearly desirable that a fresh calculation should be
made, using synchronous data from a considerable number of well dis-
tributed stations; and it should be done for at least two epochs,
one representing large, the other small sun-spot frequency. The
year 1870 selected by Schuster had, as it happened., a sun-spot

frequency which has been exceeded only once since 1750; so that
the magnetic data which he employed were far from representative
of average conditions.

§ 54. It was discovered by Folgheraiter * that old vases from
Etruscan and other sources are magnetic, and from combined ob-
servation and experiment he concluded that they acquired „
their magnetization when cooling after being baked, and /,*£"»
retained it unaltered. From experiments, he derived "
formulae connecting the magnetization shown by new clay
vases with their orientation when cooling in a magnetic field, and
applying these formulae to the phenomena observed in the old vases he
calculated the magnetic dip at the time and place of manufacture. His
observations led him to infer that in Central Italy inclination was
actually southerly for some centuries prior to 600 B.C., when it changed
sign. In 400 B.C. it wasabout 20° N. ; since 100 B.C. the change has been
relatively small. L. Mercanton * similarly investigated the magnet-
ization of baked clay vases from the lake dwellings of Neuchatel,
whose epoch is supposed to be from 600 to 800 B.C. The results
he obtained were, however, closely similar to those observed in recent
vases made where the inclination was about 63 °N., and he concluded
in direct opposition to Folgheraiter that inclination in southern
Europe has not undergone any very large change during the last
2500 years. Folgheraiter's methods have been extended to natural
rocks. Thus B. Brunhes M found several cases of clay metamor-
phosed by adjacent lava flows and transformed into a species of
natural brick. In these cases the clay has a determinate direction
of magnetization agreeing with that of the volcanic rock, so it is
natural to assume that this direction coincided with that of the dip
when the lava flow occurred. In drawing inferences, allowance
must of course be made for any tilting of the strata since the volcanic
outburst. From one case in France in the district of St Flour, where
the volcanic action is assigned to the Miocene Age, Brunhes inferred
a southerly dip of some 75°. Until a variety of cases have been
critically dealt with, a suspension of judgment is advisable, but if
the method should establish its claims to reliability it obviously
may prove of importance to geology as well as to terrestrial
magnetism.

§ 55. Magnetic phenomena in the polar regions have received
considerable attention of late years, and the observed results are
of so exceptional a character as to merit separate consideration.
One feature, the large amplitude of the regular diurnal _ . _.,
inequality, is already illustrated by the data for Jan
Mayen and South Victoria Land in Tables VIII. to XI. "
In the case, however, of declination allowance must be made for the
small size of H. If a force F perpendicular to the magnetic meridian
causes a change AD in D then AD=F/H. Thus at the " Dis-
covery's " winter quarters in South Victoria Land, where the value
of H is only about 0-36 of that at Kew, a change of 45' in D would
be produced by a force which at Kew would produce a change of
only 16'. Another feature, which, however, may not be equally
general, is illustrated by the data for Fort Rae and South Victoria
Land' in Table XVII. It will be noticed that it is the 24-hour term
in the Fourier analysis of the regular diurnal inequality which is
specially enhanced. The station in South Victoria Land — the
winter quarters of the " Discovery " in 1902-1904 — was at 77° si' S.
lat.; thus the sun did not set from November to February (mid-
summer), nor rise from May to July (midwinter). It might not thus
have been surprising if there had been an outstandingly large seasonal
variation in the type of the diurnal inequality. As a matter of fact,
however, the type of the inequality showed exceptionally small
variation with tne season, and the amplitude remained large through-
out the whole year. Thus, forming diurnal inequalities for the three
midsummer months and for the three midwinter months, we obtain
the following amplitudes for the range of the several elements'1: —

D. H. V. I.

Midsummer 64'- 1 577 587 2'-87
Midwinter 26'-8 257 187 l'-23

The most outstanding phenomenon in high latitudes is the fre-
quency and large size of the disturbances. At Kew, as we saw in
§ 25, the absolute range in D exceeds 20' on only 12% of the total
number of days. But at the " Discovery's " winter quarters, about
sun-spot minimum, the range exceeded i° on 70%, 2 on 37%, and
3° on fully 15% of the total number of days. One day in 25 had
a range exceeding 4°. During the three midsummer months, only
one day out of III had a range under 1°, and even at midwinter
only one day in eight had a range as small as 30'. The H range at
the " Discovery's' station exceeded 1007 on 40% of the days, and
the V range exceeded loo-y on 32 % of the days.

The special tendency to disturbance seen in equinoctial months
in temperate latitudes did not appear in the " Discovery's " records
in the Antarctic. D ranges exceeding 3° occurred on II % of equi-
noctial days, but on 40 % of midsummer days. The preponderance
of large movements at midsummer was equally apparent in the other
elements. Thus the percentage of days having a V range over
2007 was 21 at midsummer, as against 3 in the four equinoctial
months.

At the " Discovery's " station small oscillations of a few minutes'
duration were hardly ever absent, but the character of the larger
disturbances showed a marked variation throughout the 24 hours.

MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL

Those of a very rapid oscillatory character were especially numerous
in the morning between 4 and 9 a.m. In the late afternoon and
evening disturbances of a more regular type became prominent,
especially in the winter months. In particular there were numerous
occurrences of a remarkably regular type of disturbance, half the
total number of cases taking place between 7 and 9 p.m. This
" special type of disturbance " was divisible into two phases, each
lasting on the average about 20 minutes. During the first phase
all the elements diminished in value, during the second phase they
increased. In the case of D and H the rise and fall were about equal,
but the rise in V was about 35 times the preceding fall. The dis-
turbing force — on the north pole — to which the first phase might
be attributed was inclined on the average about 5 °$ below the horizon,
the horizontal projection of its line of action being inclined about
41 °j to the north of east. The amplitude and duration of the dis-
turbances of the " special type " varied a good deal ; in several cases
the disturbing force considerably exceeded 2007. A somewhat
similar type of disturbance was observed by Kr. Birkeland93 at
Arctic stations also in 1902-1903, and was called by him the " polar
elementary " storm. Birkeland's record of disturbances extends
only from October 1902 to March 1903, so it is uncertain whether
" polar elementary " storms occur during the Arctic summer. Their
usual time of occurrence seems to be the evening. During their
occurrence Birkeland found that there was often a great difference
in amplitude and character between the disturbances observed at

§ laces so comparatively near together as Iceland, Nova Zembla and
pitzbergen. This led him to assign the cause to electric currents
in the Arctic, at heights not exceeding a few hundred kilometres,
and he inferred from the way in which the phenomena developed
that the seat of the disturbances often moved westward, as if related
in some way to the sun's position. Contemporaneously with the
" elementary polar " storms in the Arctic Birkeland found smaller
but distinct movements at stations all over Europe; these could
generally be traced as far as Bombay and Batavia, and sometimes
as far as Christchurch, New Zealand. Chree,92 on the other hand,
working up the 1902-1904 Antarctic records, discovered that during
the larger disturbances of the " special type " corresponding but
much smaller movements were visible at Christchurch, Mauritius,
Kolaba, and even at Kew. He also found that in the great majority
of cases the Antarctic curves were specially disturbed during the
times of Birkeland's " elementary polar " storms, the disturbances in
the Arctic and Antarctic being of the same order of magnitude,
though apparently of considerably different type.

Examining the more prominent of the sudden commencements
of magnetic disturbances in 1902-1903 visible simultaneously in
the curves from Kew, Kolaba, Mauritius and Christchurch, Chree
found that these were all represented in the Antarctic curves by
movements of a considerably larger size and of an oscillatory char-
acter. In a number of cases Birkeland observed small simultaneous
movements in the curves of his co-operating stations, which appeared
to be at least sometimes decidedly larger in the equatorial than the
northern temperate stations. These he described as " equatorial "
perturbations, ascribing them to electric currents in or near the plane
of the earth's magnetic equator, at heights of the order of the earth's
radius. It was found, however, by Chree that in many, if not all,
of these cases there were synchronous movements in the Antarctic,
similar in type to those which occurred simultaneously with the
sudden commencements of magnetic storms, and that these Antarctic
movements were considerably larger than those described by Birke-
land at the equatorial stations. This result tends of course to suggest
a somewhat different explanation from Birkeland's. But until our
knowledge of facts has received considerable additions all'explana-
tions must be of a somewhat hypothetical character.

In 1831 Sir James Ross94 observed a dip of 89° 59' at 70° 5' N.,
96° 46' W., and this has been accepted as practically the position of
the north magnetic pole at the time. The position of
Magnetic tne south magnetic pole in 1840 as deduced from the
Poles- Antarctic observations made by the " Erebus " and
" Terror " expedition is shown in Sabine's chart as about 73° 30' S.,
J47° 3°' E. In the more recent chart in J. C. Adams's Collected
Papers, vol. 2, the position is shown as about 73° 40' S., 147° 7' E.
Of late years positions have been obtained for the south magnetic
pole by the " Southern Cross " expedition of 1898-1900 (A), by the
Discovery " in 1902-1904 (B), and by Sir E. Shackleton's
expedition 1908-1909 (C). These are as follow:

(A) 72° 40' S., 152° 30' E.

(B) 72° 51' S., 156° 25' E.

(C) 72° 25' S., 155° 16' E.

Unless the diurnal inequality vanishes in its neighbourhood, a some-
what improbable contingency considering the large range at the
" Discovery's " winter quarters, the position of the south magnetic
pole has probably a diurnal oscillation, with an average amplitude
of several miles, and there is not unlikely a larger annual oscillation.
Thus even apart from secular change, no single spot of the earth's
surface can probably claim to be a magnetic pole in the sense popu-
larly ascribed to the term. If the diurnal motion were absolutely
regular, and carried the point where the needle is vertical round a
closed curve, the centroid of that curve — though a spot where the
needle is never absolutely vertical — would seem to have the best

claim to the title. It should also be remembered that when the dip
is nearly 90° there are special observational difficulties. There are
thus various reasons for allowing a considerable uncertainty in
positions assigned to the magnetic poles. Conclusions as to change
of position of the south magnetic pole during the last ten years based
on the more recent results(A), (B) and (C) would, for instance, possess
a very doubtful value. The difference, however, between these re-
cent positions and that deduced from the observations of 1840-1841
is more substantial, and there is at least a moderate probability that
a considerable movement towards the north-east has taken place
during the last seventy years.

See publications of individual magnetic observatories, more
especially the Russian (Annales de I' Obsenaloire Physique Central),
the French (Annales du Bureau Central Meteorologique de France),
and those of Kew, Greenwich, Falmouth, Stonyhurst, Potsdam,
Wilhelmshaven, de Bilt, Uccle, O'Gyalla, Prague, Ppla, Coimbra,
San Fernando, Capo di Monte, Tiflis, Kolaba, Zi-ka-wei, Hong- Kong,
Manila, Batavia, Mauritius, Agincourt (Toronto), the observatories
of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Rio de Janeiro, Melbourne.

In the references below the following abbreviations are used:
B.A.=British Association Reports; Batavia = Observations made
at the Royal . . . Observatory at Batavia; M.Z. = Meteorologische
Zeitschrift, edited by J. Hann and G. Hellman; P.R S. = Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London ; P T. = Philosophical Transactions ;
R. = Repertorium fur Meteorologie, St Petersburg; T.M. = Terrestrial
Magnetism, edited by L. A. Bauer; R.A.S. Notices = Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Treatises are referred to
by the numbers attached to them; e.g. (i) p. 100 means p. 100 of
Walker's Terrestrial Magnetism.

1 E. Walker, Terrestrial and Cosmical Magnetism (Cambridge
and London, 1866). laH. Lloyd, A Treatise on Magnetism General
and Terrestrial (London, 1874). 2 E. Mascart, Traite de magnetisme
terrestre (Paris, 1900). 3 L. A. Bauer, United States Magnetic
Declination Tables and Isogonic Charts, and Principal Facts relating
to the Earth's Magnetism (Washington, 1902). 4Balfour Stewart,
" Terrestrial Magnetism " (under " Meteorology "), Ency. brit. gth
ed. 6 C. Chree, " Magnetism, Terrestrial," Ency. brit. loth ed.
'M.Z. 1906, 23, p. 145. '(3) p. 62. 8 K. Akad. van Weten-
schappen (Amsterdam, 1895; Batavia, 1899, &c.). 9 Atlas des
Erdmagnetismus (Riga, 1903). 10 (i) p. 16, &c. u Kolaba (Colaba)
Magnetical and Meteorological Observations, 1896, Appendix Table
II. u (i) p. 21. "Report for 1906, App. 4, see also (3) p. 102.
14 (i) p. 166. 15 Ergebnisse der mag. Beobachtungen in Potsdam,
1901, p. xxxvi. 16 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for
1895, App. i, &c. 17 T.M. i, pp. 62, 89, and 2, p. 68. u (3) p. 45.
19 Die Elemente des Erdmagnetismus, pp. 104-108. 20 Zur taglichen
Variation der mag. Deklination (aus Heft II. des Archivs des Erd-
magnetismus) (Potsdam, 1906). 21 M.Z. 1888, 5, p. 225. a M.Z.
1904, 21, p. 129. " P.T. 202 A, p. 335. 23a Camb. Phil. Soc.
Trans. 20, p. 165. u P.T. 208 A, p. 205. ™ P.T. 203 A, p. 151.
26 P.T. 171, p. 541 ; P.R.S. 63, p. 64. » R.A.S. Notices 60, p. 142.
28 Rendiconti del R. 1st. Lomb. 1902, Series II. vol. 35. » R. 1889,
vol. 12, no. 8. *°B.A. Report, 1898, p. 80. 31 P.R.S. (A) 79,
p. 151. 32 P.T. 204 A, p. 373. 83 Ann. du Bureau Central Meteoro-
logique, annee 1897, i Mem. p. 665. i4 P.T. 161, p. 307. 36 M.Z.
1895, 12, p. 321. 36° P.T. 1851, p. 123; and 1852, p. 103, see also
(4) § 38. *P.T. 159, p. 363. *> (i) p. 92. ™ R.A.S. Notices 65,
p. 666. » R.A.S. Notices, 65, pp. 2 and 538. «> K. Akad. van
Wetenschappen (Amsterdam, 1906) p. 266. 41 R.A.S. Notices 65,
p. 520. ° B.A. Reports, 1880, p. 201 and 1881, p. 463. 43 Anhang
Ergebnisse der mag. Beob. in Potsdam, 1896. 44 M.Z. 1899, 16,
p. 385. « P.T. 166, p. 387. «• Trans. Can. Inst. 1898-1899, p. 345,
and Proc. Roy. Ast. Soc. of Canada, 1902-1903, p. 74, 1904, p. xiv., &c.
"R.A.S. Notices 65, p. 186. « T.M. 10, p. i. « Expedition
norvegienne de 1899-1000 (Christiania, 1901). M Theses presentees
a la Faculte des Sciences (Paris, 1903). 61 Nat. Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indie, 1902, p. 71. M Wied. Ann. 1882, p. 336.
63 Sitz. der k. preuss. Akad. der Wiss., 24th June 1897, &c.
" T.M. 12, p. I. *• P.T. 143, p. 549 ;'St Helena Observations, vol. ii.,
p. cxlvi., &c., (i) § 62. » Trans. R.S.E. 24, p. 669. "P.T. 178
A, p. I. M Batavia, vol. 16, &c. 69 Batavia, Appendix to vol. 26.
60 .R. vol. 17, no. i. * T.M. 3, p. 13, &c. " P.T. 181 A, p. 53
and 1 88 A. 63 Ann. du Bureau Central Met. vol. i. for years 1884
and 1887 to. 1895. M Ann. dell' Uff. Centrale Met. e Geod. vol. 14,
pt. i. p. 57. 65 A Magnetic Survey of the Netherlands for the Epoch
1st Jan. 1891 (Rotterdam, 1895). M Kg. Svenska Vet. Akad. Hand-
lingar, 1895, vol. 27, no. 7. 67 Denkschriften der math, naturunss.
Classe der k. Akad. des Wiss. (Wien), vols. 62 and 67. M Journal of
the College of Science, Tokyo, 1904, vol. 14. M Ann. de I'observatoire
. . . de Toulouse, 1907, vol. 7. ™ Ann. du Bureau Central Met.

1897, I. p. 636. nT.M. 7, p. 74. B Bull. Imp. Univ. Odessa
85, p. i, and T.M. 7, p. 67. "P.T. 187 A, p. 345. '« P.R.S. 76
A, p. 181. ™ Bull. Soc. Imp. des Naturalistes de Moskau, 1893, no. 4,
p. 381, and T.M. i, p. 50. " Forsch. zur deut. Landes- u. Volkskunde,

1898, Bd. xi, i, and T.M. 3, p. 77. '"P.R.S. 76 A, p. 5°7-
78 Adams, Scientific Papers, II. p. 446. n B.A. Report for 1898,
p. 109. *> Abhand. der bayer. Akad. der Wiss., 1895, vol. 19. n Sitz.
k. Akad. der Wiss. (Berlin), 1897, no. xviii., also T.M. 3, p. 19'-
82 T.M. 2, p. 1 1. S3 Die Elemente des Erdmagnetismus (St Petersburg,

MAGNETITE— MAGNETOGRAPH

385

1899), p. 103. " T.M. 9, p. 113. " T.M. I, p. 77, and Nature, 57,
p. 160 and 180. «• M.Z. 15, p. 175. "• Sitz. der k. k. Akad. der
Viss. Wien, math. nat. Classe, 1898, Bd. cvii., Abth. ii. *> P.T.
\) 1 80, p. 467. M Die Tagliche Periode der erdmagnetischen Ele-
tnte (St Petersburg, 1902). * R. Accad. Lincei Atti, viii. 1899,
i. 121, 176, 269 and previous volumes, see also Seances de la Soc.

Franc, de Physique, 1899, p. 118. «° Bull. Soc. Vaud., Sc. Nat. 1906,
j, p. 225. " Comptes rendus, 1905, 141, p. 567. "National
intarctic Expedition 1901-1904, " Magnetic Observations." M The

Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition 1902-1903, vol. i. " (i)

p. 163. (C. CH.)

MAGNETITE, a mineral forming the natural magnet (see
MAGNETISM), and important also as an iron-ore. It is an iron-
black, opaque mineral, with metallic lustre; hardness about 6,
sp. gr. 4-9 to 5-2. When scratched, it yields a black streak. It
is an oxide of iron having the formula FeaOi, corresponding
with 72-4% of metal, whence its great value as an ore. It may
be regarded as a ferroso-ferric oxide, FeO.FezOs, or as iron
ferrate, Fe"Fe2"'O4. Titanium is often present, and occasionally
the mineral contains magnesium, nickel, &c. It is always
strongly magnetic. Magnetite crystallizes in the cubic system,
usually in octahedra, less commonly in rhombic dodecahedra,
and not infrequently in twinsof the" spinel type " (fig. i). The
rhombic faces of the dodecahedron are
often striated parallel to the longer
diagonal. There is no distinct cleav-
age, but imperfect parting may be
obtained along octahedral planes.

Magnetite is a mineral of wide dis-
tribution, occurring as grains in many
massive and volcanic rocks, like
granite, diorite and dolerite. It ap-
pears to have crystallized from the
magma at a very early period of con-
solidation. Its presence contributes to

FIG. i.

the dark colour of many basalts and other basic rocks, and may
cause them to disturb the compass. Large ore-bodies of granular
and compact magnetite occur as beds and lenticular masses in
Archean gneiss and crystalline schists, in various parts of Norway,
!en, Finland and the Urals; as also in the states of New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Michigan, as well as in Canada.
In some cases it appears to have segregated from a basic eruptive
magma, and in other cases to have resulted from metamorphic
action. Certain deposits appear to have been formed, directly
or indirectly, by wet processes. Iron rust sometimes contains
magnetite. An interesting deposit of oolitic magnetic ore occurs
in the Dogger (Inferior Oolite) of Rosedale Abbey, in Yorkshire;
and a somewhat similar pisolitic ore, of Jurassic age, is known on
the continent as chamoisite, having been named from Chamoison
(or Chamoson) in the Valais, Switzerland. Grains of magnetite
occur in serpentine, as an alteration -product of the olivine. In
emery, magnetite in a granular form is largely associated with
the corundum; and in certain kinds of mica magnetite occurs
as thin dendritic enclosures. Haematite is sometimes magnetic,
and A. Liversidge has shown that magnetite is probably present.
By deoxidation, haematite may be converted into magnetite,
as proved by certain pseudomorphs; but on the other hand
magnetite is sometimes altered to haematite. On weathering,
magnetite commonly passes into limonite, the ferrous oxide
having probably been removed by carbonated waters. Closely
related to magnetite is the rare volcanic mineral from Vesuvius,
called magnoferrite, or magnesioferrite, with the formula
MgFejO4; and with this may be mentioned a mineral from
Jakobsberg, in Vermland, Sweden, called jakobsite, containing
MnFe2O4. (F. W. R.*)

MAGNETOGRAPH, an instrument for continuously recording
the values of the magnetic elements, the three universally chosen
being the declination, the horizontal component and the vertical
component (see TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM). In each case the
magnetograph only records the variation of the element, the
absolute values being determined by making observations in
the neighbourhood with the unifilar magnetometer (q.v.) and
inclinometer (q.v.).
xvn. 13

Declination. — The changes in declination are obtained by means
of a magnet which is suspended by a long fibre and carries a mirror,
immediately below which a fixed mirror is attached to the base of
the instrument. Both mirrors are usually concave; if plane, a concave
lens is placed immediately before them. Light passing through
a vertical slit falls upon the mirrors, from which it is reflected,
and two images cf the slit are produced, one by the movable mirror
attached to the magnet and the other by the fixed mirror. These
images would be short lines of light; but a piano-cylindrical lens is
placed with its axis horizontal just in front of the recording surface.
In this way a spot of light is obtained from each mirror. The record-
ing surface is a sheet of photographic paper wrapped round a drum
which is rotated at a constant speed by clockwork about a horizontal
axis. The light reflected from the fixed mirror traces a straight line
on the paper, serving as a base line from which the variations in
declination are measured. As the declination changes the spot of
light reflected from the magnet mirror moves parallel to the axis of
the recording drum, and hence the distance between the line traced
by this spot and the base line gives, for any instant, on an arbitrary
scale the difference between the declination and a constant angle,
namely, the declination corresponding to the base line. The value
of this constant angle is obtained by comparing the record with the
value for the declination as measured with a magnetometer. The
value in terms of arc of the scale of the record can be obtained by
measuring the distance between the magnet mirror and the recording
drum, and in most observations it is such that a millimetre on thr
record represents one minute of arc. The time scale ordinarily
employed is 15 mm. per hour, but in modern instruments provision
is generally made for the time scale to be increased at will to 1 80 mm.
per hour, so that the more rapid variations of the declination can be
followed. The advantages of using small magnets, so that their
moment of inertia may be small and hence they may be able to
respond to rapid changes in the earth's field, were first insisted upon
by E. Mascart,1 while M. Eschenhagen2 first designed a set of
magnetographs in which this idea of small moment of inertia was
carried to its useful limit, the magnets only weighing 1-5 gram each,
and the suspension consisting of a very fine quartz fibre.

Horizontal Force. — The variation of the horizontal force is obtained
by the motion of a magnet which is carried either by a bifilar sus-
pension or by a fairly stiff metal wire or quartz fibre. The upper
end of the suspension is turned till the axis of the magnet is at
right angles to the magnetic meridian. In this position the magnet
is in equilibrium under the action of the torsion of the suspension
and the couple exerted by the horizontal component, H, of the
earth's field, this couple depending on the product of H into the
magnetic moment, M, of the magnet. Hence if H varies the magnet
will rotate in such a way that the couple due to torsion is equal to the
new value of H multiplied by M. Since the movements of the
magnet are always small, the rotation of the magnet is propor-
tional to the change in H, so long as M and the couple.0, correspond-
ing to unit twist of the suspension system remain constant. When
the temperature changes, however, both M and 6 in general change.
With rise of temperature M decreases, and this alone will produce
the same effect as would a decrease in H. To allow for this effect
of temperature a compensating system of metal bars is attached
to the upper end of the bifilar suspension, so arranged that with
rise of temperature the fibres are brought nearer together and hence
the value of 8 decreases. Since such a decrease in 8 would by
itself cause the magnet to turn in the same direction as if H had
increased, it is possible in a great measure to neutralize the effects
of temperature on the reading of the instrument. In the case of
the unifilar suspension, the provision of a temperature compensation
is not so easy, so that what is generally done is to protect the in-
strument from temperature variation as much as possible and then
to correct the indications so as to allow for the residual changes, a
continuous record of the temperature being kept by a recording
thermograph attached to the instrument. In the Eschenhagen
pattern instrument, in which a single quartz fibre is used for the
suspension, two magnets are placed in the vicinity of the suspended
magnet and are so arranged that their field partly neutralizes the
earth's field; thus the torsion required to hold the magnet with its
axis perpendicular to the earth's field is reduced, and the arrange-
ment permits of the sensitiveness being altered by changing the
position of the deflecting magnets. Further, by suitably choosing
the positions of the deflectors and the coefficient of torsion of the
fibre, it is possible to make the temperature coefficient vanish.
(See Adolf Schmidt, Zeits. fur Instrumentenkunde, 1907, 27, 145.)
The method of recording the variations in H is exactly the same
as that adopted in the case of the declination, and the sensitiveness
generally adopted is such that i mm. on the record represents a
change in H of -00005 C.G.S., the time scale being the same as that
employed in the case of the declination.

Vertical Component. — To record the variations of the vertical
component use is made of a magnet mounted on knife edges so
that it can turn freely about a horizontal axis at right angles to its

1 Report British Association, Bristol, 1898, p. 741.
1 Verhandlungen der deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft, 1899,
i, 147; or Terrestrial Magnetism, 1900, 5, 59.

386

MAGNETOMETER

length (H. Lloyd, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., ^839, i, 334). The
magnet is so weighted that its axis is approximately horizontal, and
any change in the inclination of the axis is observed by means of
an attached mirror, a second mirror fixed to the stand serving to
give a base line for the records, which are obtained in the same
way as in the case of the declination. The magnet is in equilibrium
under the influence of the couple VM due to the vertical component
V, and the couple due to the fact that the centre of gravity is slightly
on one side of the knife-edge. Hence when, say, V decreases the
couple VM decreases, and hence the north end of the balanced
magnet rises, and vice versa. The chief difficulty with this form of
instrument is that it is very sensitive to changes of temperature,
for such changes not only alter M but also in general cause the
centre of gravity of the system to be displaced with reference to
the knife-edge. To reduce these effects the magnet is fitted with
compensating bars, generally of zinc, so adjusted by trial that as
far as possible they neutralize the effect of changes of temperature.
In the Eschenhagen form of vertical force balance two deflecting
magnets are used to partly neutralize the vertical component, so
that the centre of gravity is almost exactly over the support. By
varying the positions of these deflecting magnets it is possible to
compensate for the effects of changes of temperature (A. Schmidt,
loc. cit.). In order to eliminate the irregularity which is apt to be
introduced by dust, &c., interfering with the working of the knife-
edge, W. Watson (Phil. Mag., 1904 [6], 7, 393) designed a form of
vertical force balance in which the magnet with its mirror is attached
to the mid point of a horizontal stretched quartz fibre. The tem-
perature compensation is obtained by attaching a small weight to
the magnet, and then bringing it back to the horizontal position by
twisting the fibre.

The scale values of the records given by the horizontal and
vertical force magnetographs are determined by deflecting the
respective needles, either by means of a magnet placed at a known
distance or by passing an electric current through circular coils
of large diameter surrounding the instruments.

The width of the photographic sheet which receives the spot of
light reflected from the mirrors in the above instruments is generally
so great that in the case of ordinary changes the curve does not go
off the paper. Occasionally, however, during a disturbance such
is not the case, and hence a portion of the trace would be lost. To
overcome this difficulty Eschenhagen in his earlier type of instru-
ments attached to each magnet two mirrors, their planes being
inclined at a small angle so that when the spot reflected from one
mirror goes off the paper, that corresponding to the other comes on.
In the later pattern a third mirror is added of which the plane is
inclined at about 30° to the horizontal. The light from the slit
is reflected on to this mirror by an inclined fixed mirror, and after
reflection at the movable mirror is again reflected at the fixed mirror
and so reaches the recording drum. By this arrangement the angu-
lar rotation of the reflected beam is less than that of the magnet,
and hence the spot of light reflected from this mirror yields a trace
on a much smaller scale than that given by the ordinary mirror
and serves to give a complete record of even the most energetic
disturbance.

See also Balfour Stewart, Report of the British Association, Aber-
deen, 1859, 200, a description of the type of instrument used in the
older observatories; E. Mascart, Traite de magn&isme terrestre,
p. 191; W. Watson, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1901, 6, 187, describing
magnetographs used in India; M. Eschenhagen, Verhandlungen
der deutschen physikalischen Gesettschaft, 1899, i, 147; Terrestrial
Magnetism, 1900, 5, 59; and 1901, 6, 59; Zeits. fur Instrumenten-
kunde, 1907, 27, 137; W. G. Cady, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1904,
9, 69, describing a declination magnetograph in which the record
is obtained by means of a pen acting on a moving strip of paper,
so that the curve can be consulted at all times to see whether a
disturbance is in progress.

The effects of temperature being so marked on the readings of
the horizontal and vertical force magnetographs, it is usual to place
the instruments either in an underground room or in a room which,
by means of double walls and similar devices, is protected as much
as possible from temperature changes. For descriptions of the
arrangements adopted in some observatories see the following:
U.S. observatories, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1903, 8, n; Utrecht,
Terrestrial Magnetism, 1900, 5, 49;-St Maur, Terrestrial Magnetism,
1898, 3, i; Potsdam, Verojfentlichungen des k. preuss. meteorol.
Instituts, " Ergebnisse der magnetischen Beobachtungen in Potsdam
in den Jahren 1890 und 1891;- Pavlovsk, " Das Konstantinow'sche
meteorologische und magnetische Observatorium in Pavlovsk,"
Ausgabe der kaiserl. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu St Petersburg,
1895- (W. WN.)

MAGNETOMETER, a name, in its most general sense, for
any instrument used to measure the strength of any magnetic
field; it is, however, often used in the restricted sense of an
instrument for measuring a particular magnetic field, namely,
that due to the earth's magnetism, and in this article the instru-
ments used for measuring the value of the earth's magnetic
field will alone be considered.

The elements which are actually measured when determining
the value of the earth's field are usually the declination, the dip
and the horizontal component (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL).
For the instruments and methods used in measuring the dip
see INCLINOMETER. It remains to consider the measurement
of the declination and the horizontal component, these two ele-
ments being generally measured with the same instrument,
which is called a unifilar magnetometer.

Measurement of Declination. — The measurement of the decli-
nation involves two separate observations, namely, the determi-
nation of (a) the magnetic meridian and (6) the geographical meri-
dian, the angle between the two being the declination. In order
to determine the magnetic meridian the orientation of the magnetic

FIG. I. — Unifilar Magnetometer, arranged to indicate declination.

axis of a freely suspended magnet is observed ; while, in the absence
of a distant mark of which the azimuth is known, the geographical
meridian is obtained from observations of the transit of the sun
or a star. The geometrical axis of the magnet is sometimes defined
by means of a mirror rigidly attached to the magnet and having the
normal to the mirror as nearly as may be parallel to the magnetic
axis. This arrangement is not very convenient, as it is difficult to
protect the mirror from accidental displacement, so that the angle
between the geometrical and magnetic axes may vary. For this
reason the end of the magnet is sometimes polished and acts as the
mirror, in which case no displacement of the reflecting surface with
reference to the magnet is possible. A different arrangement, used
in the instrument described below, consists in having the magnet
hollow, with a small scale engraved on glass firmly attached at one
end, while to the other end is attached a lens, so chosen that the
scale is at its principal focus. In this case the geometrical axis is
the line joining the central division of the scale to the optical centre
of the lens. The position of the magnet is observed by means of a
small telescope, and since the scale is at the principal focus of the
lens, the scale will be in focus when the telescope is adjusted to
observe a distant object. Thus no alteration in the focus of the
telescope is necessary whether we are observing the magnet, a distant
fixed mark, or the sun.

The Kew Observatory pattern unifilar magnetometer is shown in
figs. I and 2. The magnet consists of a hollow steel cylinder fitted
with a scale and lens as described above, and is suspended by a long
thread of unspun silk, which is attached at the upper end to the
torsion head H. The magnet is protected" from draughts by the
box A, which is closed at the sides by two shutters when an observa-
tion is being taken. The telescope B serves to observe the scale

MAGNETOMETER

387

attached to the magnet when determining the magnetic meridian,
and to observe the sun or star when determining the geographical
meridian.

When making a determination of declination a brass plummet
having the same weight as the magnet is first suspended in its place,
and the torsion of the fibre is taken out. The magnet haying been
attached, the instrument is rotated about its vertical axis till the
centre division of the scale appears to coincide with the vertical
cross-wire of the telescope. The two verniers on the azimuth circle
having been read, the magnet is then inverted, i.e. turned through
180° about its axis, and the setting is repeated. A second setting
with the magnet inverted is generally made, and then another
setting with the magnet in its original position. The mean of all
the readings of the verniers gives the reading on the azimuth circle
corresponding to the magnetic meridian. To obtain the geographical
meridian the box A is removed, and an image of the sun or a star is
reflected into the telescope B by means of a small transit mirror N.
This mirror can rotate about a horizontal axis which is at right

FIG 2. — Unifilar Magnetometer, arranged to show deflexion.

angles to the line of collimation of the telescope, and is parallel
to the surface of the mirror. The time of transit of the sun or star
across the vertical wire of the telescope having been observed by
means of a chronometer of which the error is known, it is possible to
calculate the azimuth of the sun or star, if the latitude and longitude
of the place of observation are given. Hence if the readings of
the verniers on the azimuth circle are made when the transit is
observed we can deduce the reading corresponding to the geographical
meridian.

The above method of determining the geographical meridian has
the serious objection that it is necessary to know the error of the
chronometer with very considerable accuracy, a matter of some
difficulty when observing at any distance from a fixed observatory.

, however, a theodolite, fitted with a telescope which can rotate
about a horizontal axis and having an altitude circle, is employed,
so that when observing a transit the altitude of the sun or star
can be read off, then the time need only be known to within a minute
or so. Hence in more recent patterns of magnetometer it is usual
to do away with the transit mirror method of observing and either
to use a separate theodolite to observe the azimuth of some distant
object, which will then act as a fixed mark when making the declina-
tion observations, or to attach to the magnetometer an altitude
ope and circle for use when determining the geographical
meridian.

The chief uncertainty in declination observations, at any rate at a
fixed observatory, lies in the variable torsion of the silk suspension,
as it is found that, although the fibre may be entirely freed from
torsion before beginning the declination observations, yet at the
conclusion of these observations a considerable amount of torsion
may have appeared. Soaking the fibre with glycerine, so that the
moisture it absorbs docs not change so much with the hygrometric
state of the air, is of some advantage, but does not entirely remove
the difficulty. For this reason some observers use a thin strip
of phosphor bronze to suspend the magnet, considering that the
absence of a variable torsion more than compensates for the increased
difficulty in handling the more fragile metallic suspension.

Measurement of the Horizontal Component of the Earth's Field. —
The method of measuring the horizontal component which is

almost exclusively used, both in fixed observatories and in the
field, consists in observing the period of a freely suspended
magnet, and then obtaining the angle through which an auxiliary
suspended magnet is deflected by the magnet used in the first part
of the experiment. By the vibration experiment we obtain the
value of the product of the magnetic moment (M) of the magnet
into the horizontal component (H), while by the deflexion experi-
ment we can deduce the value of the ratio of M to H, and hence the
two combined give both M and H.

In the case of the Kew pattern unifilar the same magnet that is
used for the declination is usually employed for determining H,
and for the purposes of the vibration experiment it is mounted as
for the observation of the magnetic meridian. The time of vibra-
tion is obtained by means of a chronometer, using the eye-and-ear
method. The temperature of the magnet must also be observed,
for which purpose a thermometer C (fig. i) is attached to the box A.
When making the deflection experiment the magnetometer is
arranged as shown in fig. 2. The auxiliary magnet has a plane

mirror attached, the plane of
which is at right angles to the
axis of the magnet. An image
of the ivory scale B is observed
after reflection in the magnet
mirror by the telescope A. T~he
magnet K used in the vibration
experiment is supported on a
carriage L which can slide along
the graduated bar D. The axis
of the magnet is horizontal and
at the same level as the mirror
magnet, while when the central
division of the scale B appears
to coincide with the vertical
cross-wire of the telescope the
axes of the two magnets are at
right angles. During the ex-
periment the mirror magnet is
protected from draughts by two
wooden doors which slide in
grooves. What is known as the
method of sines is used, for since
the axes of the two magnets are
always at right angles when the
mirror magnet is in its zero posi-
tion, the ratio M/H is propor-
tional to the sine of the angle
between the magnetic axis of the
mirror magnet and the magnetic
meridian. When conducting a
deflexion experiment the de-
flecting magnet K is placed
with its centre at 30 cm. from

the mirror magnet and to the east of the latter, and the whole
instrument is turned till the centre division of the scale B coincides
with the cross-wire of the telescope, when the readings of the
verniers on the azimuth circle are noted. The magnet K is then
reversed in the support, and a new setting taken. The difference
between the two sets of readings gives twice the angle which the
magnetic axis of the mirror magnet makes with the magnetic
meridian. In order to eliminate any error due to the zero of the
scale D not being exactly below the mirror magnet, the support L
is then removed to the west side of the instrument, and the settings
are repeated. Further, to allow of a correction being applied for the
finite length of the magnets the whole series of settings is repeated with
•the centre of the deflecting magnet at 40 cm. from the mirror magnet.
Omitting correction terms depending on the temperature and on
the inductive effect of the earth's magnetism on the moment of
the deflecting magnet, if 9 is the angle which the axis of the de-
flected magnet makes with the meridian when the centre of the
deflecting magnet is at a distance r, then

in which P and Q are constants depending on the dimensions
and magnetic states of the two magnets. The value of the constants
P and Q can be obtained by making deflexion experiments at three
distances. It is, however, possible by suitably choosing the pro-
portions of the two magnets to cause either P or Q to be very small.
Thus it is usual, if the magnets are of similar shape, to make the
deflected magnet 0-467 of the length of the deflecting magnet, in
which case Q is negligible, and thus by means of deflexion experi-
ments at two distances the value of P can be obtained. (See C.
Borgen, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1896, i. p. 176, and C. Chree, Phil.
Mag., 1904 [6], 7, p. 1 13-)

In the case of the vibration expenment correction terms have to
be introduced to allow for the temperature of the magnet, for the
inductive effect of the earth's field, which slightly increases the
magnetic moment of the magnet, and for the torsion of the suspension
fibre, as well as the rate of the chronometer. If the temperature of
the magnet were always exactly the same in both the vibration and

388

MAGNETO-OPTICS

deflexion experiment, then no correction on account of the effect of
temperature in the magnetic moment would be necessary in either
experiment. The fact that the moment of inertia of the magnet
varies with the temperature must, however, be taken into account.
In the deflexion experiment, in addition to the induction correction,
and that for the effect of temperature on the magnetic moment, a
correction has to be applied for the effect of temperature on the
length of the bar which supports the deflexion magnet.

.See also Stewart and Gee, Practical Physics, vol. 2, containing a
description of the Kew pattern unifilar magnetometer and detailed
instructions for performing the experiments; C. Chree, Phil. Mag.,
1901 (6), 2, p. 613, and Proc. Roy. Soc., 1899, 65, p. 375, containing
a discussion of the errors to which the Kew unifilar instrument is
subject; E. Mascart, Traits de magnetisme terrestre, containing a
description of the instruments used in the French magnetic survey,
which are interesting on account of their small size and consequent
easy portability; H. E. D. Fraser, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1901,
6, p. 65, containing a description of a modified Kew pattern unifilar
as used in the Indian survey; H. Wild, Mem. Acad. imp. sc. St
Petersbourg, 1896 (viii.), vol. 3, No. 7, containing a description of a
most elaborate unifilar magnetometer with which it is claimed
results can be obtained of a very high order of accuracy ; K. Haufs-
mann, Zeits. fur Instrumentenkunde, 1906, 26, p. 2, containing a
description of a magnetometer for field use, designed by M. Eschen-
hagen, which has many advantages.

Measurements of the Magnetic Elements at Sea. — Owing to the
fact that the proportion of the earth's surface covered by sea is
so much greater than the dry land, the determinaton of the
magnetic elements on board ship is a matter of very considerable
importance. The movements of a ship entirely preclude the
employment of any instrument in which a magnet suspended by
a fibre has any part, so that the unifilar is unsuited for such
observations. In order to obtain the declination a pivoted
magnet is used to obtain the magnetic meridian, the geographical
meridian being obtained by observations on the sun or stars.
A carefully made ship's compass is usually employed, though
in some cases the compass card, with its attached magnets, is
made reversible, so that the inclination to the zero of the card
of the magnetic axis of the system of magnets attached to the
card can be eliminated by reversal. In the absence of such a
reversible card the index correction must be determined by com-
parison with a unifilar magnetometer, simultaneous observations
being made on shore, and these observations repeated as often as
occasion permits. To determine the dip a Fox's dip circle ' is
used. This consists of an ordinary dip circle (see INCLINOMETER)
in which the ends of the axle of the needle are pointed and rest
in jewelled holes, so that the movements of the ship do not
displace the needle. The instrument is, of course, supported on
a gimballed table, while the ship during the observations is kept
on a fixed course. To obtain the strength of the field the method
usually adopted is that known as Lloyd's method.2 To carry out
a determination of the total force by this method the Fox dip
circle has been slightly modified by E. W. Creak, and has been
found to give satisfactory results on board ship. The circle is
provided with two needles in addition to those used for deter-
mining the dip, one (a) an ordinary dip needle, and the other (b)
a needle which has been loaded at one end by means of a small
peg which fits into one of two symmetrically placed holes in the
needle. The magnetism of these two needles is never reversed,
and they are as much as possible protected from shock and from
approach to other magnets, so that their magnetic state may re-
main as constant as possible. Attached to the cross-arm which
carries the microscopes used to observe the ends of the dipping
needle is a clamp, which will hold'the needle b in such a way that
its plane is parallel to the vertical circle and its axis is at right
angles to the line joining the two microscopes. Hence, when
the microscopes are adjusted so as to coincide with the points
of the dipping needle a, the axes of the two needles must be at
right angles. The needle a being suspended between the jewels,
and the needle b being held in the clamp, the cross-arm carrying
the reading microscopes and the needle b is rotated till the ends
of the needle a coincide with the cross-wires of the microscopes.
The verniers having been read, the cross-arm is rotated so as to
deflect the needle a in the opposite direction, and a new setting
is taken. Half the difference between the two readings gives

1 Annals of Electricity, 1839, 3, p. 288.

1 Humphrey Lloyd, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 1848, 4, p. 57.

the angle through which the needle a has been deflected under
the action of the needle b. This angle depends on the ratio of
the magnetic moment of the needle b to the total force of the
earth's field. It also involves, of course, the distance between
the needles and the distribution of the magnetism of the needles;
but this factor is determined by comparing the value given by
the instrument, at a shore station, with that given by an ordi-
nary magnetometer. Hence the above observation gives us a
means of obtaining the ratio of the magnetic moment of the needle
b to the value of the earth's total force. The needle b is then
substituted for a, there being now no needle in the clamp attached
to the microscope arm, and the difference between the reading
now obtained and the dip, together with the weight added to the
needle, gives the product of the moment of the needle b into the
earth's total force. Hence, from the two observations the value
of the earth's total force can be deduced. In an actual observation
the deflecting needle would be reversed, as well as the deflected
one, while different weights would be used to deflect the needle b.
For a description of the method of using the Fox circle for obser-
vations at sea consult the Admiralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry,
p. 116, while a description of the most recent form of the circle,
known as the Lloyd-Creak pattern, will be found in Terrestrial
Magnetism, 1901, 6, p. 119. An attachment to the ordinary ship's
compass, by means of which satisfactory measurements of the
horizontal component have been made on board ship, is described
by L. A. Bauer in Terrestrial Magnetism, 1906, n, p. 78. The
principle of the method consists in deflecting the compass needle
by means of a horizontal magnet supported vertically over the
compass card, the axis of the deflecting magnet being always
perpendicular to the axis of the magnet attached to the card. The
method is not strictly an absolute one, since it presupposes a know-
ledge of the magnetic moment of the deflecting magnet. In practice
it is found that a magnet can be prepared which, when suitably pro-
tected from shock, &c., retains its magnetic moment sufficiently
constant to enable observations of H to be made comparable in
accuracy with that of the other elements obtained by the instruments
ordinarily employed at sea. (W. \Vx. )

MAGNETO-OPTICS. The first relation between magnetism
and light was discovered by Faraday,1 who proved that the
plane of polarization of a ray of light was rotated when the ray
travelled through certain substances parallel to the lines of mag-
netic force. This power of rotating the plane of polarization in a
magnetic field has been shown to be possessed by all refracting
substances, whether they are in the solid, liquid or gaseous state.
The rotation by gases was established independently by H.
Becquerel,2 and Kundt and Rontgen,3 while Kundt 4 found that
films of the magnetic metals, iron, cobalt, nickel, thin enough to
be transparent, produced enormous rotations, these being in iron
and cobalt magnetized to saturation at the rate of 200,000° per
cm. of thickness, and in nickel about 89,000°. The direction
of rotation is not the same in all bodies. If we call the rotation
positive when it is related to the direction of the magnetic force,
like rotation and translation in a right-handed screw, or, what is
equivalent, when it is in the direction of the electric currents
which would produce a magnetic field in the same direction as
that which produces the rotation, then most substances produce
positive rotation. Among those that produce negative rotation
are ferrous and ferric salts, ferricyanide of potassium, the salts
of lanthanum, cerium and didymium, and chloride of titanium.'

The magnetic metals iron, nickel, cobalt, the salts of nickel and
cobalt, and oxygen (the most magnetic gas) produce positive
rotation.

For slightly magnetizable Substances the amount of rotation in a
space PQ is proportional to the difference between the magnetic
potential at P and Q ; or if 8 is the rotation in PQ, flp, OQ, the
magnetic potential at P and Q, then 0 = R(nP— HQ), where R is a
constant, called Verdet's constant, which depends upon the refract-
ing substance, the wave length of the light, and the temperature.
The following are the values of R (when the rotation is expressed
in circular measure) for the D line and a temperature of 18 C. : —

Substance.
Carbon bisulphide .

Water ....

Alcohol . . . .
Ether ....
Oxygen (at I atmosphere)
Faraday's heavy glass

RXio'.

J 1-222

1 1-225

5-377

( -3808

•330

•315
•000179

1-738

Observer.
Lord Rayleigh6 and Kopsel.7
Rodger and Watson.8
Arons.9

Rodger and Watson.8
Du Bois.10
Du Bois.10
Kundt and Rontgen (loc.cit.).

MAGNETO-OPTICS

389

The variation of Verdet's constant with temperature has been

determined for carbon bisulphide and water by Rodger and Watson

i it.). They find if R<, R<> are the values of Verdet's constant

at /°C. and o°C. respectively, then for carbon bisulphide R: = R0

(i —-0016961), and for water R( = Ro (i — -oooo3O5< — -00000305^).

lor the magnetic metals Kundt found that the rotation did not

i rapidly as the magnetic force, but that as this force was

increased the rotation reached a maximum value. This suggests

that the rotation is proportional to the intensity of magnetization,

iot to the magnetic force.

The amount of rotation in a given field depends greatly upon the
wave length of the light; the shorter the wave length the greater
the rotation, the rotation varying a little more rapidly than the
inverse square of the wave length. Verdet11 has compared in the
of carbon bisulphide and creosote the rotation given by the
formula

with those actually observed; in this formula 6 is the angular
rotation of the plane of polarization, m a constant depending on
the medium, X the wave length of the light in air, and i its index
of refraction in the medium. Verdet found that, though the agree-
ment is fair, the differences are greater than can be explained by
errors of experiment.

Vcrdel 12 has shown that the rotation of a salt solution is the
sum of the rotations due to the salt and the solvent; thus, by
mixing a salt which produces negative rotation with water which
produces positive rotation, it is possible to get a solution which
does not exhibit any rotation. Such solutions are not in general
magnetically neutral. By mixing diamagnetic and paramag-
netic substances we can get magnetically neutral solutions,
which, however, produce a finite rotation of the plane of polari-
zation. The relation of the magnetic rotation to chemical
consitution has been studied in great detail by Perkin,3 Wachs-
muth,4 Jahns and Schonrock.6

The rotation of the plane of polarization may conveniently
be regarded as denoting that the velocity of propagation of
circular-polarized light travelling along the lines of magnetic force
depen Is upon the direction of rotation of the ray, the velocity
when the rotation is related to the direction of the magnetic
force, like rotation and translation on a right-handed screw
being different from that for a left-handed rotation. A plane-
polarized ray may be regarded as compounded of two oppositely
circularly-polarized rays, and as these travel along the lines of
magnetic force with different velocities, the one will gain or
in phase on the other, so that when they are again com-
pounded they will correspond to a plane-polarized ray, but in
consequence of the change of phase the plane of polarization
will not coincide with its original position.

Reflection from a Magnet. — Kerr17 in 1877 found that when
plane-polarized light is incident on the pole of an electromagnet,
polished so as to act like a mirror, the plane of polarization of
the reflected light is rotated by the magnet. Further experi-
ments on this phenomenon have been made by Righi,18 Kundt,19
Du Bois,20 Sissingh,21 Hall," Hurion,23 Kaz24 and Zeeman.26 The
simplest case is when the incident plane-polarized light falls
normally on the pole of an electromagnet. When the magnet
is not excited the reflected ray is plane-polarized; when the
magnet is excited the plane of polarization is rotated through a
small angle, the direction of rotation being opposite to that of
the currents exciting the pole. Righi found that the reflected
light was slightly elliptically polarized, the axes of the ellipse
being of very unequal magnitude. A piece of gold-leaf placed
over the pole entirely stops the rotation, showing that it is not
produced in the air near the pole. Rotation takes place from
magnetized nickel and cobalt as well as from iron, and is in the
same direction (Hall). Righi has shown that the rotation at
reflection is greater for long waves than for short, whereas, as we
have seen, the Faraday rotation is greater for short waves than
for long. The rotation for different coloured light from iron,
nickel, cobalt and magnetite has been measured by Du Bois; in
magnetite the direction of rotation is opposite to that of the
other metals. When the light is incident obliquely and not nor-
mally on the polished pole of an electromagnet, it is elliptically
polarized after reflection, even when the plane of polarization
is parallel or at right angles to the plane of incidence.

According to Righi, the amount of rotation when the plane
of polarization of the incident light is perpendicular to the
plane of incidence reaches a maximum when the angle of
incidence is between 44° and 68°, while when the light is polar-
ized in the plane of incidence the rotation steadily decreases as
the angle of incidence is increased. The rotation when the light
is polarized in the plane of incidence is always less than when it is
polarized at right angles to that plane, except when the incidence
is normal, when the two rotations are of course equal.

Reflection from Tangentially Magnetized Iron. — In this case
Kerr 26 found : (i ) When the plane of incidence is perpendicular
to the lines of magnetic force, no rotation of the reflected light
is produced by magnetization: (2) no rotation is produced when
the light is incident normally; (3) when the incidence is oblique,
the lines of magnetic force being in the plane of incidence, the
reflected light is elliptically polarized after reflection, and the axes
of the ellipse are not in and at right angles to the plane of inci-
dence. When the light is polarized in the plane of incidence, the
rotation is at all angles of incidence in the opposite direction to
that of the currents which would produce a magnetic field of the
same sign as the magnet. When the light is polarized at right
angles to the plane of incidence, the rotation is in the same direc-
tion as these currents when the angle of incidence is between o°
and 75° according to Kerr, between o° and 80° according to
Kundt, and between o° and 78° 54' according to Righi. When
the incidence is more oblique than this, the rotation of the
plane of polarization is in the opposite direction to the electric
currents which would produce a magnetic field of the same sign.

The theory of the phenomena just described has been dealt
with by Airy,27 C. Neumann,28 Maxwell,29 Fitzgerald ,*> Rowland ,n
H. A. Lorentz,32 Voight,33 Ketteler," van Loghem," Potier,"
Basset,37 Goldhammer,38 Drude,39 J. J. Thomson,40 and Leatham ;«
for a critical discussion of many of these theories we refer the
reader to Larmor's * British Association Report. Most of these
theories have proceeded on the plan of adding to the expression
for the electromotive force terms indicating a force similar in
character to that discovered by Hall (see MAGNETISM) in metallic
conductors carrying a current in a magnetic field, i.e. an electro-
motive force at right angles to the plane containing the magnetic
force and the electric current, and proportional to the sine of the
angle between these vectors. The introduction of a term of
this kind gives rotation of the plane of polarization by trans-
mission through all refracting substance, and by reflection from
magnetized metals, and shows a fair agreement between the
theoretical and experimental results. The simplest way of
treating the questions seems, however, to be to go to the equa-
tions which represent the propagation of a wave travelling
through a medium containing ions. A moving ion in a magnetic
field will be acted upon by a mechanical force which is at right
angles to its direction of motion, and also to the magnetic force,
and is equal per unit charge to the product of these two vectors
and the sine of the angle between them. For the sake of brevity
we will take the special case of a wave travelling parallel to the
magnetic force in the direction of the axis of z.

Then supposing that all the ions are of the same kind, and that
there are n of these each with mass m and charge e per unit volume,
the equations representing the field are (see ELECTRIC WAVES) : —

</X0 . <?£ dB
- -

<iX0 d0
~ ~

</Y0
T

<TVo

~

da

where H is the external magnetic field, X0, Yo the components of
the part of the electric force in the wave not due to the charges on
the atoms, a and j3 the components of the magnetic force, { and t)

39°

MAGNETO-OPTICS

the co-ordinates of an ion, Ri the coefficient of resistance to the
motion of the ions, and o the force at unit distance tending to
bring the ion back to its position of equilibrium, KO the specific
inductive capacity of a vacuum. If the variables are proportional
to e'('"~q') we find by substitution that g is given by the equation

where P = (a - Jirne2) + R,i/> - m£>,

or, by neglecting R, 'P = m(s* — />2), where s is the period of the
free ions. If, g2, ql are the roots of this equation, then corre-
sponding to 31 we have Xo = tY0 and to qi Xo= — iY0. We
thus get two oppositely circular-polarized rays travelling with the
velocities p/qi and p/qi respectively. Hence if Vi, t)2 are these
velocities, and v the velocity when there is no magnetic field, we
obtain, if we neglect terms in H2,

i i 4irne3Hp
ti?~^~j»2(i-2-f>2)2'

The rotation r of the plane of polarization per unit length

Since l/v1 = Ko-\-^irnet/m(s1 — £2), we have if p is the refractive
index for light of frequency p, and t>o the velocity of light in
vacuo.

M2-i=4ir«eV0/m(s2-£2) ...... (i)

So that we may put

r = (M2-i)2/>2H/S7rMnCT03 ...... (2)

Becquerel (Comptes rendus, 125, p. 683) gives for r the expression

^HdM

*m i'0 d\'

where X is the wave length. This is equivalent to (2) if n is given
by (i). He has shown that this expression is in good agreement
with experiment. The sign of r depends on the sign of e, hence the
rotation due to negative ions would be opposite to that for positive.
For the great majority of substances the direction of rotation is
that corresponding to the negation ion. We see from the equations
that the rotation is very large for such a value of p as makes P = o:
this value corresponds to a free period of the ions, so that the
rotation ought to be very large in the neighbourhood of an absorp-
tion band. This has been verified for sodium vapour by Macaluso
and Corbino.43

If plane-polarized light falls normally on a plane face of the
medium containing the ions, then if the electric force in the incident
wave is parallel to x and is equal to the real part of At''1""'*),
if the reflected beam in which the electric force is parallel to x is
represented by Be'(p'+<!') and the reflected beam in which the
electric force is parallel to the axis of y by Ce'(pl+<"), then the
conditions that the magnetic force parallel to the surface is con-
tinuous, and that the electric forces parallel to the surface in the air
are continuous with Y0, X0 in the medium, give

or approximately, since

Thus in transparent bodies for which n is real, C and B differ in
phase by -r/2, and the reflected light is elliptically polarized, the
major axis of the ellipse being in the plane of polarization of the
incident light, so that in this case there is no rotation, but only
elliptic polarization; when there is strong absorption so that M
contains an imaginary term, C/B will contain a real part so that
the reflected light will be elliptically polarized, but the major axis
is no longer in the plane of polarization of the incident light; we
should thus have a rotation of the plane of polarization superposed
on the elliptic polarization.

Zeeman's Effect. — Faraday, after discovering the effect of a
magnetic field on the plane of polarization of light, made numer-
ous experiments to see if such a field influenced the nature of
the light emitted by a luminous body, but without success. In
1885 Fievez,44 a Belgian physicist, noticed that the spectrum of a
sodium flame was changed slightly in appearance by a magnetic
field; but his observation does not seem to have attracted much
attention, and was probably ascribed to secondary effects.
In 1896 Zeeman 4S saw a distinct broadening of the lines of
lithium and sodium when the flames containing salts of these
metals were between the poles of a powerful electromagnet;
following up this observation, he obtained some exceedingly

remarkable and interesting results, of which those observed with
the blue-green cadmium line may be taken as typical. He found
that in a strong magnetic field, when the lines of force are parallel
to the direction of propagation of the light, the line is split up
into a doublet, the constituents of which are on opposite sides
of the undisturbed position of the line, and that the light in the
constituents of this doublet is circularly polarized, the rotation in
the two lines being in opposite directions. When the magnetic
force is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the light,
the line is resolved into a triplet, of which the middle line occupies
the same position as the undisturbed line; all the constituents
of this triplet are plane-polarized, the plane of polarization of
the middle line being at right angles to the magnetic force, while
the outside lines are polarized on a plane parallel to the lines of
magnetic force. A great deal of light is thrown on this pheno-
menon by the following considerations due to H. A. Lorentz.46

Let us consider an ion attracted to a centre of force by a force
proportional to the distance, and acted on by a magnetic force
parallel to the axis of z: then if m is the mass of the particle
and e its charge, the equations of motion are

d'x • _u<*2:

-H,-:
' Hedt

ffiy

The solution of these equations is
x = Acos
y = A sin
z = C cos (pt+y)

where a — mp?=

a. — mpf = Hep?

He

,He.

1 m

or approximately pi

Thus the motion of the ion on the xy plane may be regardi
made up of two circular motions in opposite directions described
with frequencies pi and p^ respectively, while the motion along z
has the period p, which is the frequency for all the vibrations
when H=o. Now suppose that the cadmium line is due to the
motion of such an ion; then if the magnetic force is along the
direction of propagation, the vibration in this direction has its
period unaltered, but since the direction of vibration is perpen-
dicular to the wave front, it does not give rise to light. Thus we
are left with the two circular motions in the wave front with fre-
quencies pi and fa giving the circularly polarized constituents of
the doublet. Now suppose the magnetic force is at right angles
to the direction of propagation of the light; then the vibration
parallel to the magnetic force being in the wave front produces
luminous effects and gives rise to a plane-polarized ray of un-
disturbed period (the middle line of the triplet), the plane of polariza-
tion being at right angles to the magnetic force. The components
in the wave-front of the circular orbits at right angles to the magnetic
force will be rectilinear motions of frequency pi and pi at right
angles to the magnetic force — so that they will produce plane-
polarized light, the plane of polarization being parallel to thi
magnetic force ; these are the outer lines of the triplet.

If Zeeman's observations are interpreted from this point
view, the directions of rotation of the circularly-polarized light
in the doublet observed along the lines of magnetic foi;ce show
that the ions which produce the luminous vibrations are nega-
tively electrified, while the measurement of the charge of fre-
quency due to the magnetic field shows that ejm is of the order
io7. This result is of great interest, as this is the order of the
value of efm in the negatively electrified particles which consti-
tute the Cathode Rays (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC III. Through
Gases). Thus we infer that the " cathode particles " are found in
bodies, even where not subject to the action of intense electrical
fields, and are in fact an ordinary constituent of the molecule.
Similar particles are found near an incandescent wire, and also
near a metal plate illuminated by ultra-violet light. The value
of elm deduced from the Zeeman effect ranges from io7 to
3-4 X io7, the value of e/m for the particle in the cathode rays is
1-7- X io7. The majority of the determinations of e/m from the
Zeeman effect give numbers larger than this, the maxim
being about twice this value.

:

MAGNOLIA

391

A more extended study of the behaviour of the spectroscopic
lines has afforded examples in which the effects produced by a
magnet are more complicated than those we have described,
(1 the simple cases are much less numerous than the more
: >lex. Thus Preston 47 and Cornu w have shown that under
the action of a transverse magnetic field one of the D lines splits
up into four, and the other into six lines; Preston has given
many other examples of these quartets and sextets, and has
shown that the change in the frequency, which, according to
thi- simple theory indicated, should be the same for all lines,
illy varies considerably from one line to another, many lines
showing no appreciable displacement. The splitting up of a
single line into a quartet or sextet indicates, from the point of
view of the ion theory, that the line must have its origin in a
system consisting of more than one ion. A single ion having
only three degrees of freedom can only have three periods.
When there is no magnetic force acting on the ion these periods
are equal, but though under the action of a magnetic force they
are separated, their number cannot be increased. When there-
fore we get four or more lines, the inference is that the system
giving the lines must have at least four degrees of freedom, and
therefore must consist of more than one ion. The theory of a
system of ions mutually influencing each other shows, as we
should expect, that the effects are more complex than in the case
of a single ion, and that the change in the frequency is not
necessarily the same for all systems (see J. J. Thomson, Proc.
( \irnb. Phil. Soc. 13, p. 39). Preston 49 and Runge and Paschen
have proved that, in some cases at any rate, the change in the
frequency of the different lines is of such a character that they
can be grouped into series such that each line in the series has
the same change in frequency for the same magnetic force, and,
moreover, that homologous lines in the spectra of different metals
belonging to the same group have the same change in frequency.

A very remarkable case of the Zeeman effect has been dis-
covered by H. Becquerel and Deslandres (Comptes rendus, 127,
p. 1 8). They found lines in iron when the most deflected com-
ponents are those polarized in the plane at right angles to the
magnetic force. On the simple theory the light polarized in
this way is not affected. Thus the behaviour of the spectrum
in the magnetic field promises to throw great light on the nature
of radiation, and perhaps on the constitution of the elements.
The study of these effects has been greatly facilitated by the
invention by Michelson "> of the echelon spectroscope.

There are some interesting phenomena connected with the
Zeeman effect which are more easily observed than the effect
itself. Thus Cotton M found that if we have two Eunsen flames,
A and B, coloured by the same salt, the absorption of the light
of one by the other is diminished if either is placed between the
poles of a magnet: this is at once explained by the Zeeman effect,
for the times of vibration of the molecules of the flame in the
magnetic field are not the same as those of the other flame,
and thus the absorption is diminished. Similar considerations
explain the phenomenon observed by Egoroff and Georgiewsky,62
that the light emitted from a flame in a transverse field is par-
tially polarized in a plane parallel to the magnetic force; and also
Righi's53 observation that if a sodium flame is placed in a longi-
tudinal field between two crossed Nicols, and a ray of white light
sent through one of the Nicols, then through the flame, and then
through the second Nicol, the amount of light passing through
the second Nicol is greater when the field is on than when it is off.
Voight and Wiechert (Wied. Ann. 67, p. 345) detected the double
refraction produced when light travels through a substance
exposed to a magnetic field at right angles to the path of the
light; this result had been predicted by Voight from theoretical
considerations. Jean Becquerel has made some very interesting
experiments on the effect of a magnetic field on the fine absorp-
tion bands produced by xenotime, a phosphate of yttrium and
erbium, and tysonite, a fluoride of cerium, lanthanum and
didymium, and has obtained effects which he ascribes to the
presence of positive electrons. A very complete account of
magneto- and electro-optics is contained in Voight's Magneto-
and Elcktro-optik.

1 Experimental Researches, Series 19. * Comptes rendus, 88, p. 709.
' Wied. Ann. 6, p. 332; 8, p. 278; 10, p. 257. 4 Wied. Ann. 23,
p. 228; 27, p. 191. ''Wied. Ann. 31, p. 941. • Phil. Trans.,
A. 1885, Pt. II, p. 343. 7 Wied. Ann. 26, p. 456. « Phil. Trans., A.
1895, Pt. 17, p. 621. * Wied. Ann. 24, p. 161. l° Wied. Ann. 31,
p. 970. " Comptes rendus, 57, p. 670. " Comptes rendus, 43,
p. 529; 44, p. 1209. "Journ. Chem. Soc. i88\, p. 421 ; 1886, p. 177;
1887, pp. 362 and 808; 1888, p. 561; 1889, pp. 680 and 750;
1891, p. 981; 1892, p. 800; 1893, pp. 75, 99 and 488. u Wied.
Ann. 44, p. 377. " Wied. Ann. 43, p. 280. " Zeitschrift f. physikal.
Chem. ii, p. 753. "Phil. Mag. [5] 3, p. 321. a Ann. de chim. et
de phys. [6] 4, p. 433; 9, p. 65; 10, p. 200. w Wied. Ann. 23,
p. 228; 27, p. 191. K Wied. Ann. 39, p. 25. " Wied. Ann. 42, p. 115.

a Phil. Mag. [5] 12, p. 171. " Journ. de Phys. 1884, p. 360.
14 Beiblatter zu Wied. Ann. 1885, p. 275. ** Messungen fiber d.
Kerr'sche Erscheinung. _ Inaugural Dissert. Leiden, 1893. u Phil.

Ann. 1885, p. 275. K Messungen fiber d.
, Inaugural Dissert. Leiden, 1893. u Phil.

J- [5] 5- P- l61- n -P*1'- Aft*?- [3] 28> P- 469- M £>»« wagn. Dre-
hung d. Polarisationsebene des Lichts, Halle, 1863. a Electricity and
Magnetism, chap. xxi. *> Phil. Trans. 1880 (2), p. 691. "Phil.
Mag. (5) ii, p. 254, 1881. x Arch. Neerl. 19, p. 123. " Wied. Ann.
23, P- 493; 67, p. 345. " Wied. Ann. 24, p. 119. " Wied. Bei-
blatter, 8, p. 869. M Comptes rendus, 108, p. 510. " Phil. Trans.
182, A. p. 371, 1892; Physical Optics, p. 393. " Wied. Ann. 46,
p. 71; 47, p. 345; 48, p. 740; 50, p. 722. *» Wied. Ann. 46, p. 353;
48, p. 122; 49, p. 690. *° Recent Researches, p. 489 et seq. tl Phil.
Trans., A. 1897, p. 89. a Brit. Assoc. Report, 1893. " Comptes

Belt. '

Laboratory, Leiden, Mo. 33, 1090; rmu, Mag. 43, p. 226; 44, pp.
55 and 255; and 45, p. 197. "Arch. Neerl. 25, p. 190. " Phil.
Mag. 45, p. 325; 47, p. 165. ** Comptes rendus, 126, p. 181.
49 Phil. Mag. 46, p. 187. M Phil. Mag. 45, p. 348. " Comptes ren-
dus, 125, p. 865. K Comptes rendus, pp. 748 and 949, 1897.
" Comptes rendus, 127, p. 216; 128, p. 45. (j. J. T.)

MAGNOLIA, the typical genus of the botanical order Magno-
liaceae, named after Pierre Magnol (1638-1715), professor of
medicine and botany at Montpellier. It contains about twenty
species, distributed in Japan, China and the Himalayas, as well
as in North America.

Magnolias are trees or shrubs with deciduousor rarely evergreen
foliage. They bear conspicuous and often large, fragrant, white,
rose or purple flowers. The sepals are three in number, the petals
six to twelve, in two to four series of three in each, the stamens
and carpels being numerous. The fruit consists of a number of
follicles which are borne on a more or less conical receptacle, and
dehisce along the outer edge to allow the scarlet or brown seeds
to escape; the seeds however remain suspended by a long slender
thread (the funicle). Of the old-world species, the earliest in
cultivation appears to have been M. Yulan (or M. conspitua) of
China, of which the buds were preserved, as well as used medici-
nally and to season rice; together with the greenhouse species,
M. fuscata, it was transported to Europe in 1789, and thence to
North America, and is now cultivated in the Middle States.
There are many fine forms of M. conspicua, the best being
Soulangeana, white tinted with purple, Lenni and stricta. Of the
Japanese magnolias, M. Kobus and the purple-flowered M.
obovata were met with by Kaempfer in 1690, and were introduced
into England in 1709 and 1804 respectively. M. pumila, the
dwarf magnolia, from the mountains of Amboyna, is nearly
evergreen, and bears deliciously scented flowers; it was intro-
duced in 1786. The Indian species are three in number, M.
globosa, allied to M. conspicua of Japan, M. sphenocarpa, and,
the most magnificent of all magnolias, M. Campbellii, which
forms a conspicuous feature in the scenery and vegetation of
Darjeeling. It was discovered by Dr Griffith in Bhutan, and
is a large forest tree, abounding on the outer ranges of Sikkim,
80 to 150 ft. high, and from 6 to 12 ft. in girth. The flowers
are 6 to 10 in. across, appearing before the leaves, and vary
from white to a deep rose colour.

The first of the American species brought to Europe (in 1688
by John Banister) was M. glauca, a beautiful evergreen species
about 1 5 ft. high with obtuse leathery leaves, blue-green above,
silvery underneath, and globular flowers varying from creamy
white to pale yellow with age. It is found in low situations
near the sea from Massachusetts to Louisiana — more especially
in New Jersey and the Carolinas. M . acuminata, the so-called
" cucumber tree," from the resemblance of the young fruits to
small cucumbers, ranges from Pennsylvania to Carolina. The

392

MAGNUS— MAGNY

wood is yellow, and used for bowls; the flowers, 3 to 4 in. across,
are glaucous green tinted with yellow. It was introduced into
England from Virginia about 1736. M. tripetala (or M. um-
brella), is known as the " umbrella tree " from the arrangement
of the leaves at the ends of the branches resembling somewhat
that of the ribs of an umbrella. The flowers, 5 to 8 in. across, are
white and have a strong but not disagreeable scent. It was
brought to England in 1752. M. Fraseri (or M. auriculata),

Magnolia grandiflora, shoot with flower; rather less than \ nat. size.

1. Flower after removal of the sepals and petals, showing the in-

definite stamens, s, and carpels, c; f nat. size.

2. Fruit — the ripe carpels are splitting, exposing the seeds, some of

which are suspended by the long funicle; J nat. size.

3. Floral diagram, 6, bract.

discovered by John Bartram in 1773, is a native of the
western parts of the Carolinas and Georgia, extending southward
to western Florida and southern Alabama. It grows 30 to
50 ft. high, has leaves a foot or more long, heart-shaped and
bluntly auricled at the base, and fragrant pale yellowish-
white flowers, 3 to 4 in. across. The most beautiful species
of North America is M. grandiflora, the " laurel magnolia,"
a native of the south-eastern States, and introduced into
England in 1 734. It grows a straight trunk, 2 ft. in diameter and
upwards of 70 ft. high, bearing a profusion of large, powerfully
lemon-scented creamy-white flowers. It is an evergreen tree,
easily recognized by its glossy green oval oblong leaves with a
rusty-brown under surface. In England it is customary to train
it against a wall in the colder parts, but it does well as a bush tree;
and the original species is surpassed by the Exmouth varieties,
which originated as seedlings at Exeter from the tree first raised
in England by Sir John Colliton, and which flower much more
freely than the parent plant. Other fine magnolias now to be
met with in gardens are M . cordata, a North American deciduous
tree 40 to 50 ft. high, with heart-shaped leaves, woolly beneath,
and yellow flowers lined with purple; M. hypoleuca, a fine
Japanese tree 60 ft. high or more, with leaves a foot or more
long, 6 to 7 in. broad, the under surface covered with hairs;
M. macrophytta, a handsome deciduous North American tree,
with smooth whitish bark, and very large beautiful green
leaves, i to 3 ft. long, 8 to 10 in. broad, oblong-obovate and
heart-shaped at the base; the open sweet-scented bell-shaped
flowers 8 to 10 in. across, are white with a purple blotch at
the base of the petals; M. stellata or Halleana, a charming
deciduous Japanese shrub remarkable for producing its pure

white starry flowers as early as February and March on
leafless stems; and M. Walsoni, another fine deciduous Japanese
bush or small tree with very fragrant pure white flowers 5 to
6 in. across.

The tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, a native of North
America, frequently cultivated in England, is also a member of
the same family. It reaches a height of over too ft. in a native
condition, and as much as 60 to 80 ft. in England. It resembles
the plane tree somewhat in appearance, but is readily recognized
by lobed leaves having the apical lobe truncated, and by its
soft green and yellow tulip-like flowers — which however are rarely
borne on trees under twenty years of age.

For a description of the principal species of magnolia under
cultivation see J. Weathers, Practical Guide to Garden Plants, pp. 174
seq., and for a detailed account of the American species see C. S
Sargent, Silva of North America, vol. i.

MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870), German chemist
and physicist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of May 1802. His
father was a wealthy merchant; and of his five brothers one,
Eduard (1790-1872), became a celebrated painter. After study-
ing at Berlin, he went to Stockholm to work under Berzelius, and
later to Paris, where he studied for a while under Gay-Lussac and
Thenard. In 1831 he returned to Berlin as lecturer on technology ,
and physics at the university. As a teacher his success was rapid
and extraordinary. His lucid style and the perfection of his
experimental demonstrations drew to his lectures a crowd of
enthusiastic scholars, on whom he impressed the importance of
applied science by conducting them round the factories and work-
shops of the city; and he further found time to hold weekly
" colloquies " on physical questions at his house with a small
circle of young students. From 1827 to 1833 he was occupied
mainly with chemical researches, which resulted in the discovery
of the first of the platino-ammonium compounds (" Magnus's
green salt " is Ptllj, 2NH3), of sulphovinic, ethionic and isethionic
acids and their salts, and, in conjunction with C. F. Ammermuller,
of periodic acid. Among other subjects at which he subsequently
worked were the absorption of gases in blood (1837-1845), the
expansion of gases by heat (1841-1844), the vapour pressures of
water and various solutions (1844-1854), thermo-electricity
(1851), electrolysis (1856), induction of currents (1858-1861),
conduction of heat in gases (1860), and polarization of heat (1866-
1868). From 1861 onwards he devoted much attention to the
question of diathermancy in gases and vapours, especially to the
behaviour in this respect of dry and moist air, and to the thermal
effects produced by the condensation of moisture on solid
surfaces.

In 1834 Magnus was elected extraordinary, and in 1845
ordinary professor at Berlin. He was three times elected dean
of the faculty, in 1847, 1858 and 1863; and in 1861, rector
magnificus. His great reputation led to his being entrusted by
the government with several missions; in 1865 he represented
Prussia in the conference called at Frankfort to introduce a
uniform metric system of weights and measures into Germany.
For forty-five years his labour was incessant; his first memoir was
published in 1825 when he was yet a student; his last appeared
shortly after his death on the 4th of April 1870. He married in
1840 Bertha Humblot, of a French Huguenot family settled in
Berlin, by whom he left a son and two daughters.

See Allgemeine deutsche Biog. The Royal Society's Catalogue
enumerates 84 papers by Magnus, most of which originally appeared
in Poggendorjfs Annalen.

MAGNY, CLAUDE DRIGON, MARQUIS DE (1797-1879).
French heraldic writer, was born in Paris. After being employed
for some time in the postal service, he devoted himself to the
study of heraldry and genealogy, his work in this direction being
rewarded by Pope Gregory XVI. with a marquisate. He
founded a French college of heraldry, and wrote several works on
heraldry and genealogy, of which the most important were
Archives nobiliaires universelles (1843) and Liwe d' or de la
noblesse de France (1844-1852). His two sons, Edouard Drigon
and Achille Ludovice Drigon, respectively comte and vicomte
de Magny, also wrote several works on heraldry.

MAGO— MAGYARS

393

MAGO, the name of several Carthaginians, (i) The reputed
founder of the military power of Carthage, fl. 550-500 B.C.
(Justin xviii. 7, six. i). (2) The youngest of the three sons of
Hamilcar Barca. He accompanied Hannibal into Italy, and
held important commands in the great victories of the first three
years. After the battle of Cannae (216 B.C.) he sailed to Carthage
to report the successes gained. He was about to return to Italy
with strong reinforcements for Hannibal, when the government
ordered him to go to the aid of his other brother, Hasdrubal, who
was hard pressed in Spain. He carried on the war there with
varying success in concert with the two Hasdrubals until, in 209,
his brother marched into Italy to help Hannibal. Mago remained
in Spain with Hasdrubal, the son of Cisco. In 207 he was
defeated by M. Junius Silanus, and in 206 the combined forces of'
Mago and Hasdrubal were scattered by Scipio Africanus in the
decisive battle of Silpia. Mago maintained himself for some time
in Gades, but afterwards received orders to carry the war into
Liguria. He wintered in the Balearic Isles, where the harbour
Porlus Magonis (Port Mahon) still bears his name. Early in
204 he landed in Liguria, where he maintained a desultory
warfare till in 203 he was defeated in Cisalpine Gaul by the
Roman forces. Shortly afterwards he was ordered to return to
Carthage, but on the voyage home he died of wounds received
in battle.

See Polybius iii. ; Livy xxi.-xxiii.; xxviii., chs. 23-37; xxix., xxx. ;
Appian, Ilispanica, 25-37 ; T. Friedrich, Biographic des Barkiden
it ago; H. Lchmann, Der Angriff der drei Barkiden auf Jlalien
(Leipzig, 1905); and further J. P. Mahaffy, in Hermathena, vii.
29-36 (1890).

(3) The name of Mago is also attached to a great work on
agriculture which was brought to Rome and translated by order
of the senate after the destruction of Carthage. The book
Was regarded as a standard authority, and is often referred to by
later writers.

See Pliny, Nat. Hist, xviii. 5; Columella, i. i; Cicero, De
oratore, i. 58.

MAGPIE, or simply PIE (Fr. pie), the prefix being the abbrevi-
ated form of a human name (Margaret1), a bird once common
throughout Great Britain, though now nearly everywhere scarce.
Its pilfering habits have led to this result, yet the injuries it
causes are exaggerated by common report; and in many countries
of Europe it is still the tolerated or even the cherished neighbour
of every farmer, as it formerly was in England if not in Scotland
also. It did not exist in Ireland in 1617, when Fynes Morison
wrote his Itinerary, but it had appeared there within a hundred
years later, when Swift mentions its occurrences in his Journal to
Stella, gth July 1711. It is now common enough in that country,
and there is a widespread but unfounded belief that it was intro-
duced by the English out of spite. It is a species that when
not molested is extending its range, as J. Wolley ascertained in
Lapland, where within the last century it has been gradually
pushing its way along the coast and into the interior from one
lishing-station or settler's house to the next, as the country has
Inrn peopled.

Since the persecution to which the pie has been subjected in
Great Britain, its habits have altered greatly. It is no longer
the merry, saucy hanger-on of the homestead, but is become
the suspicious thief, shunning the gaze of man, and knowing that
danger may lurk in every bush. Hence opportunities of observ-
ing it fall to the lot of few, and most persons know it only as a
curtailed captive in a wicker cage, where its vivacity and natural
beauty are lessened or wholly lost. At large few European birds
possess greater beauty, the pure white of its scapulars and inner
web of the flight-feathers contrasting vividly with the deep glossy
black on the rest of its body and wings, while its long tail is
lustrous with green, bronze, and purple reflections. The pie's
nest is a wonderfully ingenious structure, placed either in high
trees or low bushes, and so massively built that it will stand for
years. Its foundation consists of stout sticks, turf and clay,

" Magot " and " Madge," with the same origin, are names,
requently given in England to the pie; while in France it is com-
monly known as Margot, if not termed, as it is in some districts,
Jaquette.

wrought into a deep, hollow cup, plastered with earth, and lined
with fibres; but around this is erected a firmly interwoven,
basket-like outwork of thorny sticks, forming a dome over the
nest, and leaving but a single hole in the side for entrance and
exit, so that the whole structure is rendered almost impregnable.
Herein are laid from six to nine eggs, of a pale bluish-green
freckled with brown and blotched with ash-colour. Superstition
as to the appearance of the pie still survives even among many
educated persons, and there are several versions of a rhyming
adage as to the various turns of luck which its presenting itself,
either alone or in company with others, is supposed to betoken,
though all agree that the sight of a single pie presages sorrow.

The pie belongs to the same family of birds as the crow, and is
the Corvus pica of Linnaeus, the Pica caudata, P. melanoleuca, or
P. ruslica of modern ornithologists, who have recognized it as
forming a distinct genus, but the number of species thereto
belonging has been a fruitful source of discussion. Examples
from the south of Spain differ slightly from those inhabiting the
rest of Europe, and in some points more resemble the P. mauri-
lanica of north-western Africa; but that species has a patch of
bare skin of a fine blue colour behind the eye, and much shorter
wings. No fewer than five species have been discriminated from
various parts of Asia, extending to Japan; but only one of them,
the P. leucoptera of Turkestan and Tibet, has of late been
admitted as valid. In the west of North -America, and in some
of its islands, a pie is found which extends to the upper valleys
of the Missouri and the Yellowstone, and has long been thought
entitled to specific distinction as P. hudsonia; but its claim
thereto is now disallowed by some of the best ornithologists
of the United States, and it can hardly be deemed even a
geographical variety of the Old- World form. In California,
however, there is a permanent race if not a good species,
P. nuttalli, easily distinguishable by its yellow bill and the bare
yellow skin round its eyes; on two occasions in the year 1867 a
bird apparently similar was observed in Great Britain (Zoologist,
ser. 2, pp. 706, 1016. (A. N.)

MAGWE, a district in the Minbu division of Upper Burma.
Area, 2913 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 246,708, showing an increase
of 12-38% in the decade. Magwe may be divided into two
portions: the low, flat country in the Taungdwingyi subdivision,
and the undulating high ground extending over the rest of the
district. In Taungdwingyi the soil is rich, loamy, and extremely
fertile. The plain is about 45 m. from north to south. At its
southern extremity it is about 30 m. wide, and lessens in width
to the north till it ends in a point at Natmauk. On the east are
the Pegu Yomas, which at some points reach a height of 1500 ft.
A number of streams run westwards to the Irrawaddy, of which
the Yin and the Pin, which form the northern boundary, are the
chief. The only perennial stream is the Yanpe. Rice is the
staple product, and considerable quantities are exported. Sesa-
mum of very high quality, maize, and millet are also cultivated,
as well as cotton in patches here and there over the whole
district.

In this district are included the well-known Yenangyaung petro-
leum wells. The state wells have been leased to the Burma Oil
Company. The amount of oil-bearing lands is estimated at 80 sq. m.
and the portion not leased to the company has been demarcated
into blocks of i sq. m. and offered on lease. The remaining land
belongs to hereditary Burmese owners called twinsa, who dig wells
and extract their oil by the rope and pulley system as they have
always done. Lacquered wood trays, bowls and platters, and cart-
wheels, are the only manufactures of any note in the district.

The annual rainfall averages about 27 inches. The maximum
temperature rises to a little over 100° in the hot season, and falls
to an average minimum of 53° and 54° in the cold season.

The town of MAGWE is the headquarters of the district; pop.
(1901), 6232. It is diagonally opposite Minbu, the headquarters
of the division, on the right bank of the Irrawaddy.

MAGYARS, the name of the dominant race in Hungary, or
Hungarians proper. Though they have become physically
assimilated to the western peoples, they belong in origin and
language to the Finno-Ugrian (q.v.) division of the Ural-Altaic
race. They form barely half of the population of Hungary, but
are by far the largest and most compact of all its racial groups.

394

MAHABALESHWAR— MAHANADI

Magyar is the official language of Hungary, the official name of
which (Magyarorzdg, or " country of the Magyars ") enshrines
the Magyar claim to predominance. While all Magyars are
properly Hungarians, all Hungarians are not necessarily Mag-
yars. " Hungarian " may be used as a generic term covering
all the various races of Hungary, while " Magyar " is strictly
specific to a single group. The Magyars themselves, indeed,
sometimes apply the name Magyarorzdg to Hungary " proper, "
excluding Croatia-Slavonia, the whole kingdom being called
Magyarbirodalom, the Magyar monarchy or realm. See
HUNGARY.

MAHABALESHWAR, or MALCOLMPETH, a hill station in
Satara district, and the principal sanatorium in the Bombay
presidency, India. Pop. (1901), 5299. It is reached by
carriage from Wathar railway station (39 m.) or by motor car
from Poona (119 m.). Mahabaleshwar occupies the summit
of a ridge of the Western Ghats, with a general elevation of
4500 ft. above sea-level. It was established in 1828 by Sir
John Malcolm, governor of Bombay, who obtained the site from
the raja of Satara in exchange for another patch of territory.
The superior elevation of Mahabaleshwar renders it much cooler
than Matheran (2460 ft.), a sanatorium about 50 m. E. of
Bombay, but its heavy rainfall (292 in. annual average) makes
it almost uninhabitable during the rainy season. The mean
annual temperature h 67° F. In the hottest season (March-
April) an extreme of a little over 90° is reached during the
day. Mahabaleshwar forms the retreat usually during spring,
and occasionally in autumn, of the governor of Bombay, and the
chief officers of his establishment, and has the usual public
buildings of a first-class sanatorium.

MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND (1839- ), Irish classical
scholar, was born in Switzerland on the i2th of July 1839. He
received his early education in Switzerland and Germany, and
later at Trinity College, Dublin, where he held the professorship
of ancient history. Mahaffy, a man of great versatility, published
numerous works, some of which, especially those dealing with
what may be called the Silver age of Greece, became standard
authorities. The following deserve mention : History of Classical
Greek Literature (4th ed., 1903 seq.); Social Life in Greece from
Homer to Menander (4th ed., 1903); The Silver Age of the Greek
World (1906); The Empire of the Ptolemies (1896); Greek Life and
Thought from Alexander to the Roman Conquest (2nd ed., 1896);
The Greek World under Roman Sway from Polybius to Plutarch
(1890). His translation of Kuno Fischer's Commentary on Kant
(1866) and his own exhaustive analysis, with elucidations, of
Kant's critical philosophy are of great value. He also edited the
Petrie papyri in the Cunningham Memoirs (3 vols. 1891-1905).

M AH ALL AT, a province of central Persia, situated between
Kashan and Irak. Pop. about 20,000; yearly revenue about
£2500. Until 1890 it was one of the five " central provinces "
(the other four being Irak, Ferahan, Kezzaz, and Savah), which
were under a governor appointed by the shah; since then it has
formed part of the Isfahan government. It is traversed by the
Anarbar or Kum River, and comprises the city of Mahallat,
divided into upper and lower, or Rivkan and Zanjirvan, and
twenty-two flourishing villages. It was known in former times
as Anar, the Anarus of Peutinger's tables. The city, capital of
the province, is situated at an elevation of 5850 ft. in 33° 51' N.,
50° 30' E.; pop. about 9000.

MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER (1840- ), American naval
officer and historian, was born on the 27th of September 1840
at West Point, New York. His father, Dennis Hart Mahan
(1802-1871) was a professor in the military academy, and the
author of textbooks on civil and military engineering. The son
graduated at the naval academy in 1859, became lieutenant in
1861, served on the " Congress," and on the " Pocahontas,"
" Seminole," and "James Adger" during the Civil War, and was
instructor at the naval academy for a year. In 1865 he was made
lieut.-commander, commander in 1872, captain in 1885. Mean-
while he saw service in the Gulf of Mexico, the South Atlantic, the
Pacific,' and Asia, and did shore duty at Boston, New York and
Annapolis. In 1 886-89 he was president of the naval war college at

Newport, Rhode Island. Between 1889 and 1892 he was
engaged in special service for the bureau of navigation, and in
1893 was made commander of the " Chicago," of the European
squadron. In 1896 he retired from active service, but was a
member of the naval board of strategy during the war between
the United States and Spain. He was a member of the peace
congress at the Hague in 1899. This long and varied service
gave him extensive opportunities for observation, which he sup-
plemented by constant study of naval authorities and reflection
on the interpretation of the problems of maritime history. His
first book was a modest and compact story of the affairs in The
Gulf and Inland Waters (1883), in a series of volumes by various
writers, entitled The Navy in the Civil War; in 1890 he suddenly
acquired fame by the appearance of his masterly work entitled
The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783. Having
been impressed by the failure of historians to allow for the in-
fluence of sea power in struggles between nations, he was led to
make prolonged investigations of this general theme (see SEA
POWER). The reception accorded the volume was instant and
hearty; in England, in particular, it was deemed almost an epoch-
making work, and was studied by naval specialists, cabinet
ministers and journalists, as well as by a large part of the general
public. It was followed by The Influence of Sea Power upon the
French Revolution and Empire (2 vols. 1892); The Life of Nelson,
the Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain (1897) ; and Sea
Power in its Relations to the War of 1812 (1905). The author's
general aim in these works — some of which have been translated
into French, German and Japanese — was to make the consider-
ation of maritime matters paramount to that of military, political
or economic movements, without, however, as he himself says
" divorcing them from their surroundings of cause and effect in
general history, but seeking to show how they modified the latter,
and were modified by them." He selected the year 1660 as the
beginning of his narrative, as being the date when the " sailing-
ship era, with its distinctive features, had fairly begun." The
series as a whole has been accepted as finally authoritative, sup-
planting its predecessors of similar aim, and almost — in the
words of Theodore Roosevelt — founding a new school of naval
historical writing.

Other works by Mahan are a Life of Admiral Farragut (1892);
The Interest of America in Sea Power (1897) ; Lessons of the War with
Spain (1899); The Story of the War with South Africa and The
Problem of Asia (1900); Types of Naval Officers drawn from the
History of the British Navy (1901); Retrospect and Prospect, studies
of international relations (1902).

MAHANADI, or MAHANUDDY ("The Great River"), a river
of India. It rises in 20° 10' N., 82° E., 25 m. S. of Raipur
town, in the wild mountains of Bastar in the Central Provinces.
At first an insignificant stream, taking a northerly direction,
it drains the eastern portion of the Chhattisgarh plain, then
a little above Seorinarayan it receives the waters which its
first great affluent, the Seonath, has collected from the western
portion of the plain; thence flowing for some distance due
E., its stream is augmented by the drainage of the hills of
Uprora, Korba, and the ranges that separate Sambalpur from
Chota Nagpur. At Padampur it turns towards the south,
and struggling through masses of rock, flows past the town of
Sambalpur to Sonpur. From Sonpur it pursues a tortuous
course among ridges and rocky crags towards the range of
the Eastern Ghats. This mountain line it pierces by a gorge
about 40 m. in length, overlooked by forest-clad hills. Since
the opening of the Bengal-Nagpur railway, the Mahanadi
is little used for navigation. It pours down upon the Orissa
delta at Naraj, about 7 m. west of Cuttack town; and after
traversing Cuttack district from west to east, and throwing off
numerous branches (the Katjori, Paika, Biropa, Chitartala,
&c.) it falls into the Bay of Bengal at False Point by several
channels.

The Mahanadi has an estimated drainage area of 43,800 sq. m.,
and its rapid flow renders its maximum discharge in time of flood
second to that of no other river in India. During unusually high
floods 1,500,000 cub. ft. of water pour every second through tl
Naraj gorge, one-half of which, uncontrolled by the elaborate

MAHANOY CITY— MAHDIA

395

embankments, and heavily laden with silt, pours over the delta,
filling the swamps, inundating the rice-fields, and converting the
plains into a sea. In the dry weather the discharge of the Mahanadi
dwindles to 1125 cub. ft. per second. Efforts have been made to
husband and utilize the vast water supply thrown upon the Orissa
il, ha during seasons of flood. Each of the three branches into
which the parent stream splits at the delta head is regulated by a
weir. Of the four canals which form the Orissa irrigation system,
two take off from the Biropa weir, and one, with its branch, from
the Mahanadi weir. On the 3ist of December 1868 the government
took over the whole canal works from the East Indian Irrigation
Company, at a cost of £941,368. The canals thus taken over and
since completed, are the high-level canal, the Kendrapara canal,
the Taldanda canal and the Machgaon canal, irrigating 275,000
acres.

MAHANOY CITY, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., 56 m. N.E. of Harrisburg. Pop, (1890), 11,286;
(1900), 13,504, of whom 3877 were foreign-born, mostly Slavs;
(1910 census) 15,936. It is served by branches of the Lehigh
Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. The borough
is situated in the valley of Mahanoy Creek, and has an elevation
of 1240 ft. above the sea; Broad Mountain (1795 ft.), a ridge
extending through Schuylkill county, overlooks it on the S.E.
The valley is a part of the anthracite coal region of Pennsyl-
vania, fire clay abounds in the vicinity, and the borough's
principal industries are the mining and shipping of coal, and
the manufacture of shirts and foundry products. Mahanoy
City, originally a part of Mahanoy township (pop. in 1910,
6256), was incorporated as a borough in 1863.

MAHAR, the name of a servile caste in the Deccan, India.
Their special function, apart from that of scavenger, is to act
as village watchman, as guardian of the village boundaries,
and as public messenger. In some parts they are also weavers
of coarse cotton cloth. In 1901 their total number in all India
was just under three millions.

MAHARAJPUR, a village in Gwalior state, Central India.
Pop. (1901), 366. It was the scene of a battle (Dec. 29, 1843)
in which Sir Hugh Gough, accompanied by the governor-
general, Lord Ellenborough, defeated the insurgent army of
the Gwalior state.

MAHAVAMSA, the Great Chronicle, a history of Ceylon
from the 5th century B.C. to the middle of the 5th century
A.D., written in Pali verse by Mahanama of the Dighasanda
Hermitage, shortly after the close of the period with which
it deals. In point of historical value it compares well with
early European chronicles. In India proper the decipher-
ment of early Indian inscriptions was facilitated to a very great
extent by the data found only in the Mahavamsa. It was
composed on the basis of earlier works written in Sinhalese,
which are now lost, having been supplanted by the chronicles
and commentaries in which their contents were restated in
Pali in the course of the 5th century. The particular one
on which our Mahavamsa was mainly based was also called
the Mahavamsa, and was written in Sinhalese prose with Pali
memorial verse interspersed. The extant Pali work gives
legends of the Buddha and the genealogy of his family; a sketch
of the history of India down to Asoka; an account of Buddhism
in India down to the same date; a description of the sending
out of missionaries after Asoka's council, and especially of
the mission of Mahinda to Ceylon; a sketch of the previous
history of Ceylon; a long account of the reign of Devanam-piya
Tissa, the king of Ceylon who received Mahinda, and estab-
lished Buddhism in the island; short accounts of the kings
succeeding him down Jto DuUha Gamiin (Dadagamana or
Dutegemunu); then a long account, amounting to an epic
poem, of the adventures and reign of that prince, a popular
hero, born in adversity, who roused the people, and drove
the Tamil invaders out of the island. Finally we have short
notices of the subsequent kings down to the author's time.
The Mahavarnsa was the first Pali book made known to Europe.
It was edited in 1837, with English translation and an elaborate
introduction, by George Tumour, then colonial secretary
in Ceylon. Its vocabulary was an important part of the material
utilized in Childer's Pali Dictionary. Its relation to the sources
from which it drew has been carefully discussed by various

scholars and in especial detail by Geiger. It is agreed that
it gives a reasonably fair and correct presentation of the tradi-
tion preserved in the lost Sinhalese Mahavamsa; that, except
in the earliest period, its list of kings, with the years of each
reign, is complete and trustworthy; and that it gives throughout
the view, as to events in Ceylon, of a resident in the Great
Minster at Anuradhapura.

See The Mahavamsa, ed. by Geo. Tumour (Colombo, 1837); ed.
by W. Geiger (London, 1908); H. Oldenberg, in the introduction
to his edition of the Dlpavamsa (London, 1879) ; O. Franke, in
Wiener Zeitschrift fur dte Kunde des Morgenlandes (1907) ; W
Geiger, Dipavamsa und Mahavamsa (Leipzig, 1905, trans, by Ethel
M.Coomaraswamy, Colombo, 1908). (T. W. R. D.)

MAHAYANA (" Great Vehicle "), the name given to the
later Buddhism, the popular religion which embraced all the
people and had its pantheon of Buddhas and Bodhisatvas,
with attendant deities and demons, spacious temples and
images, pompous ceremonial and noisy festivals. It was
thus contrasted with the Hinayana (" Little Vehicle ") of
the primitive Buddhism which had been only for the select
few. (See BUDDHISM.)

HAHDI (Arab. " he who is guided aright "), a title assumed
by the third Abbasid caliph (see CALIPHATE: Abbasids, § 3).
According to Moslem traditionists Mahomet declared that
one of his descendants, the imam of God, who would fill the
earth with equity and justice, would bear the name of al-mahdi.
The Sunnis hold that this mahdi has not yet appeared. The
name of mahdi is also given by the Shi'ite Mahommedans
to the last of the imams of the house of 'AH. It was under
the name of al-mahdi that Mokhtar proclaimed 'Ali's son
Mahommed as the opponent of the caliph Abdalmalik, and,
according to Shahrastani, the doctrine of the mahdi, the hidden
deliverer who is one day to appear and fill the oppressed world
with righteousness, first arose in connexion with a belief that
this Mahommed had not died but lived concealed at Mount
Radwa, near Mecca, guarded by a lion and a panther. The
hidden imam of the common Shi'ites is, however,. the twelfth
imam, Mahommed Abu'l-Qasim, who disappeared mysteriously
in 879. The belief in the appearance of the mahdi readily
lent itself to imposture. Of the many pretenders to this dignity
known in all periods of Moslem history the most famous was
the first caliph of the Fatimite dynasty in North Africa, 'Obaid-
allah al-Mahdi, who reigned 909-933. After him was named
the first capital of the dynasty, the once important city of
Mahdia (q.v.). Another great historical movement, headed
by a leader who proclaimed himself the mahdi (Mahommed
ibn Abdallah ibn Tumart), was that of the Almohades (q.v.).
In 1 88 1 Mahommed Ahmed ibn Seyyid Abdullah (q.v.), a
Dongolese, proclaimed himself al-mahdi and founded in the
eastern Sudan the short-lived empire overthrown by an Anglo-
Egyptian force at the battle of Omdurman in 1898. Con-
currently with the claim of Mahommed Ahmed to be the
mahdi the same title was claimed by, or for, the head of the
Senussites, a confraternity powerful in many regions of North
Africa.

MAHDIA (also spelt Mehdia, Mehedia, &c.), a town of Tunisia,
on the coast between the gulfs of Hammamet and Gabes, 47 m.
by rail S.S.E. of Susa. Pop. about 8000. Mahdia is built
on a rocky peninsula which projects eastward about a mile
beyond the normal coast line, and is not more than a quarter
of a mile wide. The extremity of the peninsula is called Ras
Mahdia or Cape Africa — Africa being the name by which
Mahdia was designated by Froissart and other European
historians during the middle ages and the Renaissance. In
the centre of the peninsula and occupying its highest point
is a citadel (i6th century); another castle farther west is now
used as a prison and is in the centre of the native town. The
European quarter and the new port are on the south-west side of
the peninsula. The port is available for small boats only;
steamers anchor in the roadstead about a quarter of a mile from
the shore. On the south-east, cut out of the rock, is the ancient
harbour, or cothon, measuring about 480 ft by 240 ft., the
entrance being 42 ft. wide. There are manufactories of olive

396

MAHE— MAHMUD II.

oil, but the chief industry is sardine fishing, largely in the
hands of Italians.

Mahdia occupies the site of a Phoenician settlement and
by some authorities is identified with the town called Turris
Hannibalis by the Romans. Hannibal is said to have embarked
here on his exile from Carthage. After the Arab conquest
of North Africa the town fell into decay. It was refounded
in 912 by the first Fatimite caliph, 'Obaidallah-al-Mahdi,
after whom it was named. It became the port of Kairawan
and was for centuries a city of considerable importance, largely
owing to its great natural strength, and its position on the
Mediterranean. It carried on an active trade with Egypt,
Syria and Spain. The town was occupied by the Normans
of Sicily in the izth century, but after holding it for about
twelve years they were driven out in 1159 by the Almohades.
In 1390 a joint English and French force vainly besieged Mahdia
for sixty-one days. In the early part of the i6th century the
corsair Dragut seized the town and made it his capital, but
in 1550 the place was captured by the Spaniards, who held
it until 1574. Before evacuating the town the Spaniards
dismantled the fortifications. Under the rule of the Turks
and, later, the beys of Tunis Mahdia became a place of little
importance. It was occupied by the French in 1881 without
opposition, and regained some of its former commercial import-
ance.

During 1908 numbers of bronzes and other works of art were
recovered from a vessel wrecked off Mahdia in the 5th century A.D.
(see Classical Review, June 1909).

MAH£, a French settlement in the Malabar district of Madras,
India, situated in 11° 43' N. and 75° 33' E., at the mouth of
a river of the same name. Area, 26 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 10,298.
It is the only French possession on the west coast of India,
and is in charge of a chef de service, subordinate to the governor-
general at Pondicherry. It is now a decaying place.

MAHESHWAR, a town in Indore state, Central India, on
the N. bank of the Narbada (Nerbudda). Pop. (1901), 7042.
Though of great antiquity and also of religious sanctity, it
is chiefly noted as the residence of Ahalya Bai, the reigning
queen of the Holkar dynasty during the last half of the i8th
century, whose ability and munificence are famous throughout
India. Close by her cenotaph stands the family temple of
the Holkars.

MAHI, a river of western India, which rises in Central India
and, after flowing through south Rajputana, enters Gujarat and
falls into the sea by a wide estuary near Cambay; total length,
300 m. ; estimated drainage area, 16,000 sq. m. It has given
its name to the Mahi Kantha agency of Bombay, and also
to the mehwasis, marauding highlanders often mentioned in
Mahommedan chronicles.

MAHI KANTHA, a political agency or collection of native
states in India, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. Over
half the territory is covered by the native state of Idar. There
are eleven other chiefships, and a large number of estates belong-
ing to Rajput or Koli thakurs, formerly feudatories of Baroda.
Several of the states are under British administration. Total
area, 3125 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 361,545, showing a decrease
of 38%in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue, £76,000;
tribute (mostly to the gaekwar of Baroda), £9000. Many
of the inhabitants belong to the wild tribes of Bhils and Kolis.
In 1897 a metre-gauge railway was opened from Ahmedabad
through Parantij 16 Ahmednagar. At Sadra is the Scott
College for the education of the sons of chiefs on the lines of
an English public school. There are also Anglo-vernacular
schools at Sadra, Idar and Mansa. The famine of 1899-1900
was severely felt in this tract.

MAHMUD I. (1696-1754), sultan of Turkey, was the son of
Mustafa II., and succeeded his uncle Ahmed III. in 1730. After
the suppression of a military revolt the war with Persia was
continued with varying success, and terminated in 1736 by
a treaty of peace restoring the status quo ante helium. The
next enemy whom Turkey was called upon to face was Russia,
later joined by Austria. War went on for four years; the

successes gained by Russia were outweighed by Austria's
various reverses, terminating by the defeat of Wallis at Krotzka.
and the peace concluded at Belgiade was a triumph for Turkish
diplomacy. The sultan, throughout desirous for peace, is
said to have been much under the influence of the chief eunuch,
Haji Beshir Aga. In 1754 Mahmud died of heart-disease
when returning from the Friday service at the mosque. He
had a passion for building, to which are due numberless
kiosques, where nocturnal orgies were carried on by him and
his boon companions. In this reign the system of appoint-
ing Phanariote Greeks to the principalities of Moldavia and
Wallachia was instituted. (See PHANARIOTES.)

MAHMUD II. (1785-1839), sultan of Turkey, was the son
of Abu-ul-Hamid I., and succeeded his brother, Mustafa IV.,
in 1808. He had shared the captivity of his ill-fated cousin,
the ex-sultan, Selim III., whose efforts at reform had ended
in his deposition by the janissaries. Mahmud was thus early
impressed with the necessity for dissembling his intention to
institute reforms until he should be powerful enough to carry
them through. The reforming efforts of the grand vizier
Bairakdar, to whom he had owed his life and his accession,
broke on the opposition of the janissaries; and Mahmud had
to wait for more favourable times. Meanwhile the empire
seemed in danger of breaking up. Not till 1812 was the war
with Russia closed by the treaty of Bucharest, which restored
Moldavia and. the greater part of Wallachia to the Ottoman
government. But though the war was ended, the terms of the
treaty left a number of burning questions, both internal and
external, unsettled. This was notably the case with the claim
of Russia to Poti and the valley of the Rion (Phasis) , which was
still outstanding at the time of the congress of Vienna (1814-
1815) and prevented the question of a European guarantee of
the integrity of Turkey from being considered.

Meanwhile, within the empire, ambitious valis were one by
one attempting to carve out dominions for themselves at the
expense of the central power. The ambitions of Mehemet AH
of Egypt were not yet fully revealed; but AH (q.v.) of Jannina,
who had marched to the aid of the sultan against the rebellious
pasha Pasvan Oglu of Widdin, soon began to show his hand,
and it needed the concentration of all the forces of the Turkish
empire to effect his overthrow and death (1822). The pre-
occupation of the sultan with AH gave their opportunity to
the Greeks whose disaffection had long been organized in the
great secret society of the Hetaeria Philike, against which
Metternich had in vain warned the Ottoman government.
In 1821 occurred the abortive raid of Alexander Ypsilanti
into the Danubian principalities, and in May of the same year
the revolt of the Greeks of the Morea began the war of Greek
Independence (see GREECE: History). The rising in the north
was easily crushed; but in the south the Ottoman power was
hampered by the defection of the sea-faring Greeks, by whom
the Turkish navy had hitherto been manned. After three
abortive campaigns Mahmud was compelled, infinitely against
his will, to summon to his assistance the already too powerful
pasha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, whom he had already employed
to suppress the rebellious Wahhabis in Arabia. The disciplined
Egyptian army, supported by a well organized fleet, rapidly
accomplished what the Turks had failed to do; and by 1826
the Greeks were practically subdued on land, and Ibrahim
was preparing to turn his attention to the islands. But for
the intervention of the powers and -the battle of Navarino
Mahmud's authority would have been restored in Greece.
The news of Navarino betrayed Mahmud into one of those
paroxysms"of rage to which he was Hable, and which on critical
occasions were apt fatally to cloud his usual good sense. After
in vain attempting to obtain an apology for " the unparalleled
outrage against a friendly power" he issued on the 2oth of
December a solemn hatti sheriff summoning the faithful to a
holy war. This, together with certain outstanding grievances
and the pretext of enforcing the settlement of the Greek Ques-
tion approved by the powers, gave Russia the excuse for declar-
ing war against Turkey. After two hardly fought campaigns

MAHMUD NEDIM PASHA— MAHMUD OF GHAZNI

397

(1828, 1829) Mahmud was at length, on the I4th of September
1829, compelled to sign the peace of Adrianople. From this
loment until his death Mahmud was, to all intents and purposes,
he " vassal of Russia," though not without occasional desperate
fforts to break his chains. (For the political events of the
period between the first revolt of Mehemet Ali (Sept. 1832) and
the death of Mahmud see MEHEMET ALI.) The personal attitude
of the sultan, which alone concerns us here, was determined
throughout by his overmastering hatred of the upstart pasha,
of whom he had stooped to ask aid, and who now defied his
will; and the importance of this attitude lies in the fact that,
as the result of the success of his centralizing policy, and notably
of the destruction of the janissaries (q.v.), the supreme authority,
hitherto limited by the practical power of the ministers of the
Porte and by the turbulence of the privileged military caste,
had become concentrated in his own person. It was no longer
the Porte that decided, but the Seraglio, and the sultan's
private secretary had more influence on the policy of the Otto-
man empire than the grand vizier.

This omnipotence of the sultan in deciding the policy of
the government was in striking contrast with his impotence
in enforcing his views on his subjects and in his relations
with foreign powers. Mahmud, in spite of — or rather because
of — his well-meant efforts £it reform, was hated by his
Mussulman subjects and stigmatized as an " infidel " and a
traitor to Islam. He was, in fact, a victim to those " half-
measures " which Machiavelli condemns as fatal to success.
Ibrahim, the conqueror of Syria, scoffed at the sultan's idea
" that reform consisted in putting his soldiers into tight
trousers and epaulettes." The criticism is not entirely un-
just. Mahmud's policy was the converse of that recommended
by Machiavelli, viz. in making a revolution to change the
Substance while preserving the semblance of the old order.
Metternich's advice to Mahmud to " remain a Turk " was
sound enough. His failure to do so — in externals — left him
isolated in his empire: rayahs and true believers alike dis-
trusted and hated him. Of this hatred he was fully conscious;
he knew that his subjects, even many of his own ministers,
regarded Mehemet Ali as the champion of Islam against the
"infidel sultan;" he suspected the pasha, already master
of the sacred cities, of an intention to proclaim himself caliph
in his stead. This, together with the weakness due to military
reforms but recently begun, drove him to rely on foreign aid;
which, in the actual conditions of Europe, meant the aid of
Russia. The long tradition of French friendship for Turkey
had been broken, in 1830, by the conquest of Algiers. Austria
was, for the time, but the faithful ally of the tsar. On the
pth of August 1832 Mahmud made, through Stratford Canning,
a formal proposal for an alliance with Great Britain, which
Palmerston refused to consider for fear of offending France.
Mahmud bitterly contrasted the fair professions of England
with the offers of effective help from Russia. His old ally
having deserted him, he accepted the aid of his hereditary
foe. The Russian expedition to the Bosporus, the convention
of Kutaiah, and the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July 8, 1833)
followed. Mahmud was under no illusion as to the position
in which the latter placed him towards Russia; but his fear
of Mehemet Ali and his desire to be revenged upon him out-
weighed all other considerations. He resented the action
of France and England in forcing the settlement of Kutaiah
upon him, and remained shut up in his palace, inaccessible
to all save his favourites and the representative of Russia.
With his single aim in view he busied himself with the creation
of a national militia, with the aid of Moltke and other German
officers. In 1834 the revolt of Syria against Ibrahim seemed
to give him his opportunity. He pleaded the duty of a sultan
to go to the aid of his subjects when oppressed by one of his
servants; but the powers were obdurate, even Russia, much
occupied in affairs nearer home, leaving him in the lurch. He
was astute enough to take advantage of the offence given to
the powers by Mehemet Ali's system of monopolies, and in
1838 signed with" Great Britain, and afterwards with others,

a commercial treaty which cut at the root of the pasha's system.
A few months later his passionate impatience overcame his
policy and his fears. The hand of death was upon him, and
he felt that he must strike now or never. In vain the powers,
now united in their views, warned him of the probable con-
sequences of any aggressive action on his part. He would
rather die, he exclaimed, or become the slave of Russia, than
not destroy his rebellious vassal. On his sole initiative, without
consulting his ministers or the council of the empire, he sent
instructions to Hafiz Pasha, commanding the Ottoman troops
concentrated at Bir on the Euphrates, to advance into Syria.
The fatal outcome of the campaign that followed he did
not live to hear. When the news of Ibrahim's overwhelming
victory at Nessib (June 24, 1839) reached Constantinople,
Mahmud lay dying and unconscious. Early in the morning
of the ist of July his proud and passionate spirit passed away.

Mahmud II. cannot be reckoned among the great sultans,
neither had he any of the calculating statecraft which character-
ized Abd-ul-Hamid II.; but his qualities of mind and heart,
none the less, raised him far above the mass of his predecessors
and successors. He was well versed in state affairs and loyal
to those who advised and served him, personally brave, humane
and kindly when not maddened by passion, active and energetic,
and always a man of his word. Unhappily, however, the
taint of the immemorial corruption of Byzantium had fallen
upon him too, and the avenue to his favour and to political
power lay too often through unspeakable paths. In view of
the vast difficulty of the task before him at his succession it
is less surprising that he failed to carry out his ideas than
that he accomplished so much. When he came to the throne
the empire was breaking up from within; one by one he freed
the provinces from the tyrannical rulers who, like Ali of Jannina,
were carving out independent, or quasi-independent, empires
within the empire. If he failed in his wider schemes of reform,
this was only one more illustration of a truth of which other
" enlightened " sovereigns besides himself had experienced
the force, namely, that it is impossible to impose any system,
however admirable, from above on a people whose deepest
convictions and prejudices it offends.

There is a great deal of valuable material for the history of
Mahmud and his policy in the unpublished F.O. records (1832-
'839), volumes of correspondence marked Turkey. — From Sir
Stratford Canning. — From Mr. Mandeville. — From Lord Ponsonby.
See further works mentioned under TURKEY : History ; and MEHEMET
An. (W. A. P.)

MAHMUD NEDIM PASHA (c. 1818-1883), Turkish statesman,
was the son of Nejib Pasha, ex-governor-general of Bagdad.
After occupying various subordinate posts at the Porte he became
successively under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, governor-
general of Syria and Smyrna, minister of commerce, and gover-
nor-general of Tripoli; minister successively of justice and of
marine (1869); grand vizier from 1871 to 1872 and from 1875 to
1876. He was high in favour with Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz and fell
much under the influence of General Ignatiev, the forceful
Russian ambassador before the war of 1877-78, his subserviency
to Russia earning for him the nickname of " Mahmudoff."
His administration was most unsuccessful from every point of
view, and he was largely responsible for the issue of the decree
suspending the interest on the Turkish funds. He was minister
of the interior from 1879 to 1883.

MAHMUD1 OF GHAZNI (971-1030), son of Sabuktagin,
Afghan conqueror, was born on the 2nd of October 971. His
fame rests chiefly on his successful wars, in particular his
numerous invasions of India. His military capacity, inherited
from his father, Nasir-ud-din Sabuktagin, was strengthened by
youthful experience in the field. Sabuktagin, a Turki slave of
Alptagln, governor of Khorasan under Abdalmalik I. b. Nuh of
the Samanid dynasty of Bokhara, early brought himself to notice
(see SAMANIDS). He was raised to high office in the state by
Alptagin's successor, Abu Ishak, and in A.H. 366 (A.D. 977), by
the choice of the nobles of Ghazni, he became their ruler. He
soon began to make conquests in the neighbouring countries,
1 The name is strictly Mabmud.

39«

MAHMUD OF GHAZNI

and in these wars he was accompanied by his young son Mahmud.
Before he had reached the age of fourteen he encountered in two
expeditions under his father the Indian forces of Jaipal, raja of
Lahore, whom Sabuktagln defeated on the Punjab frontier.

In 994 Mahmud was made governor of Khorasan, with the
title of Saif addaula (ud-daula) (" Sword of the State ") by the
Samanid Nuh II. Two years later, his father Sabuktagln died
in the neighbourhood of Balkh, having declared his second son,
Ismail, who was then with him, to be his successor. As soon as
Ismail had assumed the sovereignty at Balkh, Mahmud, who was
at Nishapur, addressed him in friendly terms, proposing a divi-
sion of the territories held by their father at his death. Ismail
rejected the proposal, and was immediately attacked by Mahmud
and defeated. Retreating to Ghazni, he there yielded, and
was imprisoned, and Mahmud obtained undisputed power as
sovereign of Khorasan and Ghazni (997).

The Ghaznevid dynasty is sometimes reckoned by native
historians to commence with Sabuktagln's conquest of Best
and Kosdar (978). But Sabuktagln, throughout his reign at
Ghazni, continued to acknowledge the Samanid suzerainty, as did
Mahmud also, until the time, soon after succeeding to his father's
dominions, when he received from Qadir, caliph of Bagdad
(see CALIPHATE, C. § 25), a khttat (robe of honour), with a letter
recognizing his sovereignty, and conferring on him the titles
Yamln-addaida (" Right hand of the State "), and Amin-ul-
Millat (" Guardian of the Faith "). From this time it is the
name of the caliph that is inscribed on Mahmud's coins, together
with his own new titles. P-eviously the name of the Samanid
sovereign, Mansur II. b. Nuh is given along with his own former
title, Saif addaula Mahmud. The earliest of those of the new
form gives his name Mahmud bin Sabuktagln. Thereafter his
father's name does not appear on his coins, but it is inscribed
again on his tomb.

The new honours received from the caliph gave fresh impulse
to Mahmud's zeal on behalf of Islam, and he resolved on an
annual expedition against the idolaters of India. He could not
quite carry out this intention, but a great part of his reign was
occupied with his Indian campaigns. In 1000 he started on
the first of these expeditions, but it does not appear that he
went farther than the hill country near Peshawar. The hostile
attitude of Khalaf ibn Ahmad, governor of Seistan, called
Mahmud to that province for a short time. He was appeased
by Khalaf's speedy submission, together with the gift of a
large sum of money, and further, it is said, by his subdued
opponent addressing him as sultan, a title new at that time,
and by which Mahmud continued to be called, though he
did not formally adopt it, or stamp it on his coins. Four years
later Khalaf, incurring Mahmud's displeasure again, was im-
prisoned, and his property confiscated.

Mahmud's army first crossed the Indus in 1001, opposed by
Jaipal, raja of Lahore. Jaipal was defeated, and Mahmud,
after his return from this expedition, is said to have taken the
distinctive appellation of Chazi (" Valiant for the Faith "), but
he is rarely so-called. On the next occasion (1005) Mahmud
advanced, as far as Bhera on the Jhelum, when his adversary
Anang-pal, son and successor of Jaipal, fled to Kashmir. The
following year saw Mahmud at Multan. When he was in the
Punjab at this time, he heard of the invasion of Khorasan by
the Ilek Khan Nasr I. ruler of Transoxiana whose daughter
Mahmud had married. After a rapid march back from India,
Mahmud repelled the invaders. The Ilek Khan, having re-
treated across the Oxus, returned with reinforcements, and took
up a position 'a few miles from Balkh, where he was signally
defeated by Mahmud.

Mahmud again entered the Punjab in 1008, this time for the
express purpose of chastising Sewah Pal, who, having become
a Mussulman, and been left by Mahmud in charge of Multan,
had relapsed to Hinduism. The Indian campaign of 1009 was
notable. Near the Indus Mahmud was opposed again by Anang-
pal, supported by powerful rajas from other parts of India.
After a severe fight, Anang-pal 's elephants were so terror-struck
by the fire-missiles flung amongst them by the invaders that they

turned and fled, the whole army retreating in confusion and
leaving Mahmud master of the field. Mahmud, after this victory,
pushed on through the Punjab to Nagar-kot (Kangra), and car-
ried off much spoil from the Hindu temples to enrich his treasury
at Ghazni. In ion Mahmud, after a short campaign against
the Afghans under Mahommed ibn Sur in the hill country of
Ghur, marched again into the Punjab. The next time (1014)
he advanced to Thanesar, another noted stronghold of Hinduism,
between the Sutlej and the Jumna. Having now found his way
across all the Punjab rivers, he was induced on two subsequent
occasions to go still farther. But first he designed an invasion
of Kashmir (1015), which was not carried out, as his progress
was checked at Loh-kot, a strong hill fort in the north-west of
the Punjab. Then before undertaking his longer inroad into
Hindustan he had to march north into Khwarizm (Khiva)
against his brother-in-law Mamun, who had refused to acknow-
ledge Mahmud's supremacy. The result was as usual, and Mah-
mud, having committed Khwarizm to a new ruler, one of Mamun's
chief officers, returned to his capital. Then in 1018, with a very
large force, he proceeded to India again, extending his inroad
this time to the great Hindu cities of Mathra on the Jumna and
Kanauj on the Ganges. He reduced the one, received the sub-
mission of the other, and carried back great stores of plunder.
Three years later he went into India again, marching over nearly
the same ground, to the support, this time, of the raja of Kanauj,
who, having made friendship with the Mahommedan invader
on his last visit, had been attacked by the raja of Kalinjar. But
Mahmud found he had not yet sufficiently subdued the idolaters
nearer his own border, between Kabul and the Indus, and the
campaign of 1022 was directed against them, and reached no
farther than Peshawar. Another march into India the following
year was made direct to Gwalior.

The next expedition (1025) is the most famous of all. The
point to which it was directed was the temple of Somnath on the
coast of the Gujarat peninsula. After an arduous journey by
Multan, and through part of Rajputana, he reached Somnath,
and met with a very vigorous but fruitless resistance on the part
of the Hindus of Gujarat. Moslem feet soon trod the courts of
the great temple. The chief object of worship it contained was
broken up, and the fragments kept to be carried off to Ghazni.
The story is often told of the hollow figure, cleft by Mahmud's
battle-axe, pouring out great store of costly jewels and gold.
But the idol in this Sivite temple was only a tall block or pillar
of hewn stone, of a familiar kind. The popular legend is a very
natural one. Mahmud, it was well known, made Hindu temples
yield up their most precious things. He was a determined idol-
breaker. And the stone block in this temple was enriched with
a crown of jewels, the gifts of wealthy worshippers. These data
readily give the Somnath exploit its more dramatic form. For
the more recent story of the Somnath gates see SOMNATH.

After the successes at Somnath, Mahmud remained some
months in India before returning to Ghazni. Then in 1026
he crossed the Indus once more into the Punjab. His brilliant
military career closed with an expedition to Persia, in the third
year after this, his last, visit to India. The Indian campaigns
of Mahmud and his father were almost, but not altogether,
unvarying successes. The Moslem historians touch lightly on
reverses. And, although the annals of Rajputana tell how
Sabuktagln was defeated by one raja of Ajmere and Mahmud by
his successor, the course of events which followed shows how
little these and other reverses affected the invader's progress.
Mahmud's failure at Ajmere, when the brave raja Bisal-deo
obliged him to raise the siege but was himself slain, was when
the Moslem army was on its way to Somnath. Yet Mahmud's
Indian conquests, striking and important in themselves, were,
after all, in great measure barren, except to the Ghazni treasury.
Mahmud retained no possessions in India under his own direct
rule. But after the repeated defeats, by his father and himself,
of two successive rajas of Lahore, the conqueror assumed the
right of nominating the governors of the Punjab as a dependency
of Ghazni, a right which continued to be exercised by seven of
his successors. And for a time, in the reign of Masa'ud II.

MAHOBA— MAHOMET

399

i

enei

(1098-1114), Lahore was the place of residence of the Ghaz-
nevid sovereign.

Mahmud died at Ghazni in 1030, the year following his ex-
ition to Persia. He is conspicuous for his military ardour,
ambition, strong will, perseverance, watchfulness and
energy, combined with great courage and unbounded self-
reliance. But his tastes were not exclusively military. His
love of literature brought men of learning to Ghazni, and his
acquaintance with Moslem theology was recognized by the
learned doctors.

The principal histories of Mahmud's reign are — Kit&b-i-Yamini
i); Tarlkh-us-Subuktizln (Baihaki); Tabak&t i Nasin (Minhaj
cl-Siraj) ; Rauzat-us-Safa (Mir Khond) ; Hablb-us-Sivar (Khon-
damir). S«v Elliot, History of India; Elphinstone, History of
India; and Roos-Keppel's translation of the Tarikh-i-Sidtan
Mahmud-i-Ghaznavi (1901).

MAHOBA, an ancient town in India, in Hamirpur district of
the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 10,074. As the capital of
the Chandel dynasty, who ruled over Bundelkhand from the gth
to the I3th century, the neighbourhood is covered with archi-
tectural antiquities, prominent among which are artificial lakes,
formed by banking up valleys with masonry dams. The largest
of these is more than 4 m. in circuit.

MAHOGANY, a dark-coloured wood largely used for household
furniture, the product of a large tree indigenous to Central
• America and the West Indies. It was originally received from
Jamaica; 521,300 ft. were exported from that island in 1753.
It is known botanically as Swietenia Mahogani, and is a member
of the order Meliaceae. It bears compound leaves, resembling
those of the ash, and clusters of small flowers, with five sepals and
petals and ten stamens which are united into a tube. The fruit
is a pear-shaped woody capsule, and contains many winged
seeds. The dark-coloured bark has been considered a febrifuge,
and the seeds were used by the ancient Aztecs with oil for a cos-
metic, but the most valuable product is the timber, first noticed
by the carpenter on board Sir Walter Raleigh's ship in 1595 for
its great beauty, hardness and durability. Dr Gibbons brought
it into notice as well adapted for furniture in the early part of
the 1 8th century, and its use as a cabinet wood was first practi-
cally established by a cabinet-maker named Wollaston, who was
employed by Gibbons to work up some mahogany brought to
England by his brother. It was introduced into India in 1795,
and is now cultivated in Bengal and as far north as Saharunpur.

The timber of species of Cedrela and Melia, other members of the
order Meliaceae, are used as Mahogany, and the product of the
\\Vst African Khaya senegalensis is known as African mahogany.
There is some confusion between the product of these various
trees. Herbert Stone (The Timbers of Commerce, 1904) says:
" The various species of mahogany and cedar are so confusing that
it is difficult to make precise statements as to their structure or
origin. I know of no convincing proof that any of the American
kinds met with on the English market are the wood of Swietenia
Mahogani, nor that those shipped from Africa are the wood of
Khaya senegalensis. These two genera are very nearly allied to
Cedrela and Melia, and it is difficult to separate any of the four from
the rest by the characters of the wood. After giving the most
careful attention to every detail, I lean to the view that most if
not all of the mahoganies commonly met with are Cedrelas."

Kiggelaria Dregeana (natural order Bixineae), a native of South
Africa, is known as Natal mahogany.

MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED),
founder of the religious system called in Europe %iter him
Mahommedanism, and by himself Islam or Hanifism. He died,
according to the ordinary synchronism, on the 7th of June 632
(12 Rabia, A.H. n), and his birthday was exactly sixty-three
or sixty-five years earlier, the latter number being evidently
an interpretation in lunar years of a number thought to refer
to solar years. The lunar system was introduced into Arabia
by Mahomet himself quite at the close of his career; that which
existed before was certainly solar, as it involved a process of
intercalation — which, however, seems to have been arbitrarily
manipulated by priests, whence certain synchronisms cannot be
got for the events in the Prophet's career. The number 63 for
the years of his life may rest on tradition, though it is unlikely
that such matters were accurately noted; it can also be accounted

for by a priori combination. A Meccan, it is said, became a full
citizen at the age of 40; this then would be the age at which the
mission might be started. The Medina period (of which count
was kept) lasted ten to eleven years; for the Meccan period
ten years would seem a likely length. Finally it was known that
for some years — about three — the mission had been conducted
secretly. The only event in contemporary history to which the
Koran alludes in its earlier parts is the Persian conquest of
Palestine in 616. Clearly Mahomet had begun to prophesy at
that date.

Before the rise of Islam, Mahomet's native place, Mecca,
appears to figure nowhere in historical records, unless there
be a reference to it in the " valley of Baca " (Psalm
Ixxxiv. 6). Its sacred, and therefore archaic, name country.
is Bakkah; hence the identification of the name with
that of the sanctuary Makoraba, known to the Greek geo-
graphers, is not philologically tenable; although so eminent a
linguist as Dozy evolved a theory of the origin of the city from
this name, which appears to be South Arabian for " sanc-
tuary," and has no connexion with Hebrew (as Dozy supposed).
In the 3rd century of Islam the mythology of Mecca was
collected and published in book form, but we learn little more
from it than names of tribes and places; it is clear that there
was no record of the mode in which the community inhabiting
the place had got there, and that little was remembered with
accuracy of the events which preceded the rise of its prophet.
The city had a sanctuary, called the Cube (ka'ba), of which
the nucleus was the " Black Stone," probably to be identified
with Allah, the god of the community; both still exist, or rather
their legitimate substitutes, as the Ka'ba has been repeatedly
reconstructed, and the original Black Stone was stolen by the Car-
mathians in the 4th century of Islam; they afterwards returned
one, but it may or may not have been the same as that which
they removed. At some time in the 6th century — said to have
been the birth-year of the Prophet, but really much earlier —
an Abyssinian invader raided Mecca with the view of abolishing
this sanctuary; but for some reason had to desist. This expedi-
tion, known as the "Raid of the Elephant," one of these animals
being employed in it, seems to be of great importance for ex-
plaining the rise of Islam; for a sanctuary which can repel an
invader acquires tremendous reputation. Some verses in the
Koran which are perhaps not genuine, record the miracle whereby
Allah repelled the " People of the Elephant." The sanctuary
was apparently in the possession of the tribe Koreish (Quraish),
the origin of whose name is unknown, said to have come origi-
nally from Cutha in Mesopotamia. They were known (we are
told) as the people of Allah, and, by wearing a badge, were
sacrosanct throughout Arabia. If this be true, it was probably
a privilege earned by the miraculous defence of the Ka'ba, and
is sufficient to account for the rise of Meccan commerce of
which we hear much in the biography of the Prophet, and to
which some verses of the earliest part of the Koran allude; for
merchants who were safe from attacks by bandits would have
an enormous advantage. The records seem, however, to be
inconsistent with this assertion; and the growth of the Meccan
commerce is sufficiently accounted for by the fact that after
the Abyssinian invasion pilgrimage to the Ka'ba became the
practice of numerous Arab tribes, and for four months in the
year (selected by Meccan priests) raiding was forbidden, in order
to enable the pilgrimage to be safely made. In addition to this
it would seem that all Mecca counted as sanctuary — i.e. no blood
might under any circumstances be shed there. The community
lived by purveying to pilgrims and the carrying trade; and both
these operations led to the immigration of strangers.

There seems to be no doubt that Mahomet was himself a mem-
ber of the tribe Koreish, and indeed too many of his relatives figure
in history to permit of his parentage being questioned.
His cousin 'Ali, fourth caliph, was the son of Abu
Talib, whose name attests the historical character of
the kindred name 'Abd al-Mottalib, Mahomet's grandfather: for
the fact that this name is in part enigmatical is certainly no
argument against its genuineness. In the 3rd century of Islam

MAHOMET

a document was shown in which a man of San'a in Yemen
acknowledged that he had borrowed from 'Abd al-Mottalib 1000
silver dirhems of the Hudaida standard, and Allah with the
two " angels " (probably a euphemism for the goddesses Al-lat
and al-'Uzza) served as witness; it is difficult to see why such a
document should have been forged. The name Hashim (for
'Abd al-Mot^alib's father) may or may not be historical; here, as
in the ascending line throughout, we have subjects without
predicates. The name of 'Abd al-Mottalib's son, who was
Mahomet's father, is given as 'Abdallah; the correctness of this
has been questioned, because " Servant of Allah " would seem
to be too appropriate, and the name was often given by the
Prophet to converts as a substitute for some pagan appellation.
This, however, is hypercritical, as the name of the father could
not easily be altered, when relatives abounded, and it would seem
that at one time the Prophet made no theological use of the name
Allah, for which he intended to substitute Rahman. The name
of his mother is given as Aminah, and with this one of his own
titles, Arnin, agrees; although the Arabs do not appear to bring
the two into connexion. Her father's name is given as Wahb,
and she is brought into relation with a Medinese tribe called the
Banu 'Adi b. al-Najjar, to whom she is said to have brought her
son in his early infancy. The circumstances may have been
suggested by his later connexion with that place; yet in what
seems a historical narrative her grave is mentioned as known
to be at Abwa, midway between the two cities, whence this early
bond between the Prophet and his future home may have really
existed.

His own name is given in the Koran in the forms Ahmad and
the familiar Muhammad; in contemporary poetry we also find
the form Mahmud. Similar variation between derivatives from
the same root is found in proper names which occur in early
poetry; the meaning of all would be " the praised," if the root
be given its Arabic signification — " the desired " if interpreted
from the Hebrew.

The form Mubammad (ordinarily transliterated Mohammed ;
Mahomet, Mehmet, &c., represent the Turkish pronunciation) is
found in a pre-Islamic inscription, and appears to have been fairly
common in Arabia. In Hag. ii. 7 a derivative of the Hebrew
equivalent root occurs in the prophecy " and the desired of all
nations shall come," and this passage has suggested the idea that
the name may have been taken by the Prophet as the equivalent
of " Messiah," while the Moslems themselves find its equivalent in
the Paraclete of the Fourth Gospel, though this identification re-
quires more ingenuity. His kunyah (i.e. the Arab title of respect,
in which a man is called after'his son) is Abu'l-Qasim; other names
by which he is called are titles of honour, e.g. Mustafa " chosen."
(See further the genealogical table, ad fin.)

In the Koran, Allah says that He found the Prophet an
orphan, poor and astray; it is possible that all these expressions
Early Life. snould be understood figuratively, like the " poor,
naked, blind " of Christian hymns; the Arabs, how-
ever, take them literally, and Mahomet is said to have been a
posthumous child, whose mother died a few months or years after
his birth, and who was brought up first by his grandfather, and
then by his uncle Abu Talib, one of the poorer members of the
family; in the controversy between the Alid and Abbasid pre-
tenders of the 2nd century of Islam the Abbasid Mansur claims
that his ancestor fed the ancestor of 'Ali, i.e. Abu Talib, other-
wise he would have had to beg. There was evidently an
apparent inconsistency between Mahomet's being a poor orphan
and the favourite grandchild of the eminent and wealthy 'Abd
al-Mottalib; and it was solved in this way. There was a tradition
that in his early years he was sent into the desert to acquire the
habits and the language of the Bedouins; and this seems to have
been attested by the Prophet himself. In a tribal fight he is said
to have acted as armour-bearer to one of his uncles, Zubair.
There seems no doubt that he often accompanied Meccan
caravans to the countries with which the Meccans had trade
relations; such especially were Syria and south Arabia, and
perhaps Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is conceivable that he may
have visited Abyssinia by sea. For though accurate knowledge
is nowhere to be found in the Koran, it exhibits a large amount of
miscellaneous information, such as a trader might well pick up.

His career as a caravan-conductor appears to have terminate
with his marriage to Khadija, daughter of Khuwailid, represented
by the tradition as a wealthy widow, fifteen years his senior
and forty years of age at the time of the union. As she became
the mother of a numerous family, a special rule was discovered
by Moslem physiologists extending the child-bearing period of
Korashite women beyond that of others. Since it is claimed
for Mahomet that he first gave Arab women the right to inherit
property, the difficulty noticed is not the only one connected
with this marriage; and Robertson Smith has called attention
to some others, unconnected with his theory of " marriage and
kinship in early Arabia." After his marriage Mahomet appears
to have been partner in a shop in Mecca; where he apparently
sold agricultural produce. His style is strongly marked by
phrases and metaphors drawn from trade, though as a statesman
he never displayed any financial ability.

Writing in the monumental script of South Arabia had been
known for centuries in the peninsula; and shortly before the rise
of Islam a cursive script — the parent of the ordinary Educatl 0
Arabic character — had been started in the Christian
state of Hira, with which the beginnings of modern Arabic
literature are connected. A modification of this had been intro-
duced into Mecca, and was probably used for contracts and
similar documents. The word ummi, literally " popular " or
" plebeian " (according to one etymology) , applied to Mahomet in
the Koran, is said to mean " one who can neither read nor write,"
and the most generally accepted view is that he could do neither,
a supposition which enters into the doctrine of the miraculous
nature of the Koran. According to another interpretation the
word means " Meccan," i.e. native of " the Mother of the
Villages " (Umm al-Qura) ; and the most probable theory is that
he could do both, but unskilfully. Indeed on one historic
occasion he erased certain words in a document; and where in
the Koran he rebuts the charge of " taking notes," he does not
employ the obvious retort that he could not write, but gives a
far less convincing answer. For poetry, which seems to have
been cultivated in Arabia long before his time, he possessed no
ear; but we have little reason for supposing that either writing
or versification had yet entered into Arabian education. The
former would be acquired by those who needed it, the latter was
regarded as a natural gift. There is reason for thinking the
language of the Koran incorrect and ungrammatical in parts,
but as it afterwards became the ultimate standard of classical
Arabic, this point is not easy to prove. On the whole then his
early life seems to have been such as was normal in the case of a
man belonging to one of the more important families in a com-
munity which had not long been started on a career of prosperity.

Of the organization of that community we unfortunately
know very little, though we hear of a council-chamber, and, as
has been seen, of an age-qualification for admission
to it. It is, however, certain that the theory of
decision by majority was absolutely unknown to
Mahomet's second successor, whence we learn little from this
tradition (even if it be authentic) of the mode whereby
the tribes who together formed the Meccan population
managed their common concerns, whether commercial or
political. The form of government seems to have been
a rudimentary oligarchy, directed by some masterful indi-
vidual; before the Flight we read of various prominent
personages, after the Flight and the battle of Badr (A.H. 2)
one chieftain, Abu Sofian (see CALIPHATE, ad inil.), appears
to take the lead whether in war or in policy. It would
seem, however, that the right of independent action belonged
to the individual tribes, even to the extent of refusing to take
part in a campaign. For the settlement of ordinary disputes
recourse was had (it appears) rather to soothsayers, near or dis-
tant, than to any regularly constituted authority or tribunal.
On the other hand we are furnished with a list of officials who
were concerned with different parts of the festal performances
and the ordinary worship. Of these we may mention the
Custodian of the Ka'ba, and the official whose duty was siqayah
(" watering "), said to mean furnishing the pilgrims with water,

Social
System.

MAHOMET

401

but more ingeniously interpreted in recent times as " rain-bring-
a function which even in the 2nd century of Islam the

vernor in some places was supposed to exercise.

Of Arabian paganism we possess no trustworthy or complete

count; since we hear of no theological literature belonging to it,
•aings probably no such account could have been given.
There were doubtless a variety of practices, many of

iss/on. which have been continued to this day in the cere-
lonies of the pilgrimage, and offerings of different sorts to vari-
us deities, interpreted variously by the worshippers in accordance

th their spiritual, intellectual and moral levels; e.g. as actual
.ones, or as men (or more often women) residing in the stones

otherwise connected with them, or bearing a similar relation

trees, or stars, &c. In general every tribe had its patron of
he kind, and where there were aggregations of tribes, connexions
were established between these deities, and affiliation-theories
excogitated; hence the theory attributed in the Koran to the
Meccans that the goddesses al-'Uzza, &c. were the daughters of
Allah, may well represent the outcome of such speculation.
These, however, were known to few, whereas the practices were
familiar to all. Some of these were harmless, others barbarous;
many offensive, but not very reprehensible, superstitions.

Before Mahomet's time Arabian paganism had already been
attacked both from the outside and from the inside. On the
one hand the northern tribes had gradually been
fn»ucnces christianized, owing to the influence of the Byzantine
empire; on the other hand south Arabia had fallen
successively under Jewish, Abyssinian and Persian influence;
and the last, though little is known of Persian rule, is un-
likely to have favoured pagan cults. Christianity had also
some important representation in Najran far south of
Mecca, while Jewish settlements were prospering north of
Mecca in the Prophet's future home Yathrib and its neigh-
bourhood. Power, civilization and learning were thus asso-
ciated with monotheism (Judaism), dualism (Mazdaism) and
tritheism (as the Arabs interpreted Christianity); paganism
was the religion of ignorance (jahiliyyah, interpreted by Goldziher
as " barbarism," but the difference is not very considerable).
Mecca itself and the neighbouring and allied Taif are said to have
produced some monotheists or Christians, who identified the
Allah of Mecca with the Allaha or God of the Syrian Christians,
called by the Abyssinian Christians " Lord of the Regions,"
and by the Jews " the Merciful " (Rahmdna); one such is said
to have been a cousin of Khadija, Mahomet's wife; his name is
given as Waraqah, son of Naufal, and he is credited with copying
or translating a Gospel. We even hear of flagellant monks and
persons vowed to total. abstinence among the precursors of
Islam.

With these persons Mahomet had little in common, since they
do not appear to have claimed to enforce their views upon others,
or to have interfered with politics. He appears mainly to have
been struck by the personality of the founders of the systems
dominant in the civilized world, and to have aspired from the first
to occupy the place of legislator or mouthpiece of the Deity; and
that he was this was and is the main proposition of the Mahom-
medan creed. The " Prophet " or " Apostle " (at different
times he employed both the Jewish and the Christian phrase)
was the divinely appointed dictator of his community; if he were
not obeyed, divine vengeance would overtake the disobedient.
At this proposition Mahomet arrived by induction from the re-
cords of the Biblical prophets, as well as others who seem to have
figured in Arabian mythology, e.g. the destruction of the tribe
Thamud (mentioned by Pliny, and therefore historical) for their
disobedience to their prophet Salih, and of 'Ad (probably mythi-
cal) for their similar treatment of Hud. The character of the
message did not affect the necessity for obedience; at times it
was condemnation of .some moral offence, at others a trivial
order. Divine vengeance overtook those who disobeyed either.

This is the theory of the prophetic office which pervades the
Koran, wherein the doctrine is formulated that every nation
had its divine guide and that Mecca before Mahomet's time had
none. This place, then, Mahomet felt a divine call to fill.

But we are never likely to ascertain what first put the idea into
his mind. The fables which his biographers tell on this
subject are not worth repeating; his own system, in The
which he is brought into direct communication with Prophet's
the Deity, though at a later period the angel Gabriel CaU-
appears to have acted as intermediary, naturally leaves no room
for such speculations; and since his dispensation was thought
to be absolutely new, and to make a tabula rasa of the pagan
past, his first followers, having broken with that past, left no
intelligible account of the state of affairs which preceded their
master's call. Some generations therefore elapsed before that
past was studied with any sort of sympathy, and details could
not then be recovered, any more than they can now be supplied
by conjecture.

So far as Mahomet may be said from the first to have formu-
lated a definite notion of his work, we should probably be right
in thinking it to be the restoration of the religion of Abraham, or
(as the Koran calls him) Ibrahim. Though we have no reason
for supposing the name of Abraham or Ishmael to have been
known in Mecca generally before Mahomet's time, the Biblical
ethnology was not apparently questioned by those who were
told of it, and there are stories, not necessarily apocryphal, of
precursors of Mahomet going abroad in search of the " religion
of Abraham." One feature of that system, associated in the
Bible with the name of Ishmael as well, was circumcision, which
was actually observed by the Meccan tribes, though it -would
appear with technical differences from the Jewish method; the
association of monotheism with it would seem reasonable enough,
in view of Jewish traditions, such as Mahomet may have heard
on his travels; why the doctrine of the future life should be
coupled with it is less obvious. That the Meccan temple and its
rites had been founded by these two patriarchs appears to have
been deduced by Mahomet himself, but perhaps at a later stage
of his career. That these rites, so far as they were idolatrous,
were in flagrant defiance of the religion of Abraham must have
struck any one who accepted the accounts of it which were
current among Jews and Christians. The precursors, however,
appear to have felt no call to reform their fellow-citizens; whereas
it is evident that Mahomet regarded himself as charged with a
message, which he was bound to deliver, and which his God
would in some way render effective.

As it was obvious that the claim to be God's mouthpiece
was to claim autocracy, Mahomet employed the utmost caution
in his mode of asserting this claim ; on the question of his sin-
cerity there have been different opinions held, and it is not
necessary to take any view on this matter. For three years
his followers were a secret society; and this period appears to
have been preceded by one of private preparation, the first
revelation being received when the Prophet was in religious
retirement — a ceremony called tahannuth, of which the mean-
ing is uncertain, but which can have no connexion with the
Hebrew tehinnoth ("supplications") — on Mount Hira, near
Mecca.

If the traditional dates assigned to the suras (chapters) of
the Koran (q.v.) are correct, the earliest revelations took the form
of pages or rolls which the Prophet was to read by the " grace of
God," as Joseph Smith, the founder of the Mormon community,
said of the power given him to read the "Egyptian" flieKona.
characters on the gold plates which he had found.
The command to read is accompanied by the statement that " his
most generous Lord had taught man by the pen (calamus) that
which he did not know." Waraqah, to whom the event is said
to have been communicated by Khadija, called these communi-
cations " the Greater Law (nomos)." The Prophet was directed
to communicate his mission at the first only to his nearest
relatives. The utterances were from the first in a sort of rhyme,
such as is said to have been employed for solemn matter in
general, e.g. oracles or prayers. At an early period the produc-
tion of a written communication was abandoned for oral com-
munications, delivered by the Prophet in trance; their delivery
was preceded by copious perspiration, for which the Prophet
prepared (in accordance with instructions found in the Koran)

402

MAHOMET

by wrapping himseW in a blanket. Trusty followers were in-
structed to take these utterances down, but the phenomena which
accompanied their delivery at least in one case suggested im-
posture to the scribe, who apostatized in consequence. It is
extraordinary that there is no reason to suppose that any official
record was ever kept. of these revelations; the Prophet treated
them somewhat as the Sibyl did her leaves. This carelessness
is equally astounding whether the Prophet was sincere or
insincere.

If the matter afterwards collected in the Koran be genuine,
the early revelations must have been miscellaneous in content,
magical, historical and homiletic. To some strange oaths are
prefixed. Apparently the purpose to be compassed was to
convince the audience of their miraculous origin. The formula-
tion of doctrines belongs to a later period and that of jurispru-
dence to the latest of all. In that last period also, when Mahomet
was despot of Medina, the Koran served as an official chronicle,
well compared by Sprenger to the leading articles on current
events in a ministerial organ. Where the continuous para-
graph is substituted for the ejaculation, the divine author
apologizes for the style.

Certain doctrines and practices (e.g. washing of the person
and the garments) must have been enjoined from the first, but
our authorities scarcely give us any clear notion what they were.
The doctrines to which the Prophet himself throughout assigned
most value seem to have been the unity of God and the future
life, or resurrection of the body. The former necessitated the
abandonment of the idolatrous worship which formed part of
the daily life of Mecca, and in which Mahomet and Khadija had
been accustomed to take their part. Yet it seems to have been
due to the initiative of the proselytes themselves rather than to
the Prophet's orders that the Meccan worship was actually
flouted by them; for the anecdote which represents the Prophet
and his young cousin attempting to pull down the images in or
about the Ka'ba appears to be apocryphal. The first Moslem
ceremony would appear to have been the religious meeting for
the purpose of hearing the delivery of revelations, of which
after the Prophet's death the sermon (khutbah) took the place.
After various provisional meeting-places, the house of one al-
Arqam on Mt. Safa was adopted for this purpose; and here
proselytes were initiated.

The names which the new community received from its
founder are both philological puzzles; for the natural sense of
Growth of Moslem (Muslim) appear to be " traitors," and to
the Early this a contemporary war-song of Mahomet's enemies
Commun/0'.a]iU(jes. wnjje ]jani] (especially applied in the Koran
to Abraham) seems to be the Hebrew word for " hypocrite."
The former is explained in the Koran to mean " one who hands
over his face or person to God," and is said to have been invented
by Abraham; of the latter no explanation is given, but it seems
to signify from the context " devotee." Since the divine name
Rahman was at one time favoured by Mahomet, and this was
connected with one Maslama of the tribe Hanlfa, who figures in
politics at the end of Mahomet's career but must have been a
religious leader far earlier, it has been suggested that the names
originally belonged to Maslama's community. The honour
of having been Mahomet's first convert is claimed for three
persons: his wife Khadija, his cousin Ali, who must have been
a lad at the commencement of the mission, and Abu Bekr, son
of Abu Quhafah, afterwards Mahomet's first successor. This
last person became Mahomet's alter ego, and is usually known as
the Siddiq (Heb. word signifying " the saint," but to the Arabs
meaning " faithful friend)". His loyalty from first to last was
absolutely unswerving; he was selected to accompany Mahomet
on the most critical occasion of his life, the Flight from Mecca;
Mahomet is said to have declared that had he ever made a
confidant of any one, that person would have been Abu Bekr;
implying that there were things which were not confided even to
him. The success of the Prophet's enterprise seems to have been
very largely due to the part played by this adherent, who pos-
sessed a variety of attainments which he put at Mahomet's service ;
who when an intermediary was required was always ready to

represent him, and who placed the commendation of the Prophet
above every other consideration, private or public. The two
appear to have regularly laid siege to those persons in Mecca
whose adherence was desirable; and the ability which many
of the earlier converts afterwards displayed, whether as states-
men or generals, is a remarkable testimony to their power of
gauging men. It seems clear that the growth of wealth in Mecca
had led to the accentuation of the difference between persons of
different station, and that many were discontented with the olig-
archy which governed the city. Converts could, therefore, be
won without serious difficulty among the aliens and in general
those who suffered under various disqualifications. Some
members of the Jewish community seem also to have joined;
and some relics of the Abyssinian expedition (i.e. descendants of
the invaders). Among the most important converts of the
Meccan period were Mahomet's uncle Hamza, afterwards for
his valour called " the Lion of God "; 'Abd al-Rahman (Abdar-
rahman) son of 'Auf ; Othman, son of 'Affan, who married two
of the Prophet's daughters successively, and was Mahomet's
third successor; and, more important than any save Abu Bekr,
Omar, son of al-Khattab, a man of extraordinary force of charac-
ter, to whom siege seems to have been laid with extraordinary
skill. At some time he received the honourable title Faruq
(" Deliverer"); he is represented as regularly favouring force,
where Abu Bekr favoured gentle methods; unlike Abu Bekr,
his loyalty was not always above suspicion. His adherence is
ascribed to the period of publicity.

The secrecy which marked its early years was of the greatest
value for the eventual success of the mission; for when Mahomet
came forward publicly he was already the head of a band of
united followers. His own family appear to have been either
firm adherents, or violent enemies, or lukewarm and temporizing
— this is the best which can be said for 'Abbas, eponymus of the
Abbasid dynasty; or finally espousers of his cause, on family
grounds, but not as believers.

Rejecting accounts of Mahomet's first appearance as a public
preacher, which are evidently comments on a text of the Koran,
we have reason for supposing that his hand was forced pint
by ardent followers, who many times in his career Period ot
compelled him to advance. The astute rulers of Publ1
the community perceived that the claim made by Mahomet
was to be dictator or autocrat; and while this was naturally
ridiculed by them, some appear to have been devoted adherents
of the gods or goddesses whom he attacked. The absence of
dated documents for the period between this open proclamation
(which in any case commenced before 616) and the Flight to
Medina in 622 renders the course of events somewhat conjectural,
though certain details appear to be well established. Apparently
there was a war of words, followed by a resort to diplomacy and
then to force; and then a period in which Mahomet's attention
was directed to foreign conversions, resulting in his being offered
and accepting the dictatorship of Yathrib.

Of the war of words we have an imperfect record in the Meccan
suras of the Koran, which occasionally state the objections urged
by the opponents. In the course of the debate the theological
position of both parties seems to have shifted, and the knowledge
of both was probably increased in various ways. The miracle
of the Koran, which at first consisted in its mode of production,
was transformed into a marvel connected with its contents; first
by Mahomet's claiming to tell historical narratives which had
previously been unknown to him; afterwards by the assertion
that the united efforts of mankind and Jinn would be unable to
match the smallest passage of the Koran in sublimity. Probably
the first of these claims could not be long maintained, though
A. J. Davis, " the Seer of Poughkeepsie," in our own time brought
a similar one in regard to his Principles of Nature. Indeed both
parties evidently resorted to external aid. To those who under-
took to name the man who dictated stories of the ancients to
Mahomet day and night, he replied that the individual whom
they had in mind was a foreigner, whereas the Koran was in pure
Arabic. This was obviously a quibble, for it was scarcely
asserted that he delivered the matter dictated to him without

MAHOMET

403

The Exiles
la Axam.

alteration. The purity of the Arabic also appears to have been
•cry questionable; for several expressions appear to be Ethiopic
ther than Arabic, and the person whom the Meccans had in
ind is likely to have been an Abyssinian Christian, since the
ristian technicalities of the Koran are mainly derived from
e Ethiopic Gospels and Acts. On one occasion when some
i-stions suggested by learned foreigners had been propounded
the Prophet he required a fortnight's delay before the revela-
n which solved them came; the matter contained in his reply
certainly such as required research. His sources of informa-
in seem at all times to have been legendary rather than canoni-
1; and the community which seemed to his opponents to agree
,t with his views was that of the Sabians or Mandaeans (qq.v.).
It has been suggested that Mahomet first threatened the
ieccans with temporal punishment, and only when this threat
failed to take effect resorted to the terrors of the Day of Judgment
and the tortures of Hell; it seems however a mistake to distinguish
between the two. These threats provided the Prophet with his
most powerful sermons. The boasts of incomparable eloquence
which the Koran contains are evidence that his oratorical power
was effective with his audiences, since the more successful among
the Arabic poets talk of their compositions somewhat in the same
way. These discourses certainly led to occasional conversions,
perhaps more frequently among women than men.

The diplomatic war seems to have been due to the Prophet's
increasing success, which led to serious persecution of Mahomet's
less influential followers, though, as has been seen, no
blood could be shed in Mecca. Abu Talib, moreover,
prevented him from being exiled, though he probably
had to endure many personal insults. Something' however had
to be done for the persecuted Moslems, and (perhaps at the sugges-
tion of his_ Abyssinian helper) Mahomet endeavoured to find a
refuge for them in the realm of Axum. Abyssinia was doubtless
connected in every Meccan mind with the " Expedition of the
Elephant "; and such an alliance secured by Mahomet was a
menace to the existence of the Meccan community. A deputation
was therefore sent by the Meccan leaders to demand extradition
of the exiles; and as chief of this expedition the future conqueror
of Egypt, 'Amr b. al-'A§ (see 'AMR IBN EL-Ass), first figures in
history. To frustrate his efforts Mahomet sent his cousin Ja'far
armed with an exposition of the Prophet's beliefs and doctrines
afterwards embodied in the Koran as the Sura of Mary (No. XIX.;
though with the addition of some anti-Christian matter). The
original document contained an account of the Nativity of Christ
with various miracles not known to either the canonical or even
the apocryphal gospels which have been preserved, but which
would be found edifying rather than unorthodox by a church one
of whose most popular books is The Miracles of the Virgin Mary.
To this there were added certain notices of Old Testament
prophets. The Abyssinian king and his ecclesiastical advisers
took the side of Mahomet and his followers, whom they appear
to have regarded as persecuted Christians; and an attempt made
probably by the astute 'Amr to embroil them with the Abys-
sinians on the difficult question of the Natures of Christ failed
completely. There seems reason for thinking that the Abyssinian
king contemplated bringing back the exiles by force, but was
diverted from this purpose by frontier wars; meanwhile they
were safely harboured, though they seem to have suffered from
extreme poverty. The want of an Abyssinian chronicle for this
period is a serious disadvantage for the study of Islamic origins.
The sequel shows that regular correspondence went on between
the exiles and those who remained in Mecca, whence the former
were retained within the fold of Islanl, with occasional though
rare apostasies to Christianity.

Mahomet's diplomatic victory roused the Meccan leaders to
fury, and they decided on the most vigorous measures to which
they could rise; Abu Talib, Mahomet's protector, and the clan
which acknowledged him as sheikh, including the Prophet and his
family, were blockaded in the quarter which they occupied; as
in other sanctuaries, though blood might not be shed, a culprit
might be starved to death. That this did not occur, though the
siege appears to have lasted some months at least, was due to the

weak good nature of the Meccans, but doubtless also to the fact
that there were enlisted on Mahomet's side many men of great
physical strength and courage (as their subsequent careers
proved), who could with impunity defy the Meccan embargo.
After a time however the besieged found the situation intolerable,
and any assistance which they might have expected from the
king of Axum failed to come. The course adopted by Mahomet
was retractation of those of his utterances which had most
offended the Meccans, involving something like a return to
paganism. A revelation came acknowledging the effectiveness
of the Meccan goddesses as well as Allah, and the Meccans raised
the siege. News of the reconciliation reached the Abyssinian
exiles and they proceeded to return.

By the time they reached the Arabian coast the dispute
had recommenced. The revelation was discovered to be a
fabrication of the Devil, who, it appears, regularly interpolates
in prophetic revelations; such at least is the apology preserved
in the Koran, whence the fabricated verses have been expunged.
Since our knowledge of this episode (regarded as the most dis-
graceful in the Prophet's career) is fragmentary, we can only
guess that the Prophet's hand had once more been forced by the
more earnest of his followers, for whom any compromise with
paganism was impossible. The exiles went back to Abyssinia;
and about this time both Abu falib and Khadija died, leaving
the Prophet unprotected.

He fled to the neighbouring oasis of Taif, where wealthy
Meccans had possessions, and where the goddess al-'Uzza was
worshipped with special zeal — where she is said still to exist in
the form of a block of stone. He had but little success there in
proselytizing, and indeed had to cease preaching; but he opened
negotiations with various Meccan magnates for a promise of
protection in case of his return. This was at last obtained with
difficulty from one Mofim b. 'Adi. It would appear that his
efforts were now confined to preaching to the strangers who
assembled at or near Mecca for the ceremonies connected with
the feasts. He received in consequence some invitations to
come and expound his views away from Mecca, but had to wait
some time before one came of a sort which he could wisely
accept.

The situation which led to Mahomet's Flight (hijra, anglicized
incorrectly hejira, q.v.) was singularly favourable to Mahomet's
enterprise, and utilized by him with extraordinary
caution and skill. At the palm plantation called to yatbrib
Yathrib, afterwards known as ol-Medina, Medina,
" the City" (i.e. of the Prophet), there were various tribes, the
two most important, called Aus and Khazraj, being pagan, and
engaged in an internecine feud, while under their protection there
were certain Jewish tribes, whose names have come down to us
as Qainuqa, Nadir and Quraiza — implying that the Israelites,
as might be expected, imitated' the totem nomenclature of their
neighbours. The memory of these Israelites is exclusively
preserved by the Moslem records; the main stream of Jewish
history flowed elsewhere. In the series of combats between the
Aus and Khazraj the former had generally been worsted; the
Jews, as usual, had avoided taking any active part in the fray.
Finally, owing to an act of gross perfidy, they were compelled
to fight in aid of the Aus; and in the so-called battle of Bu'ath
the Aus aided by the Jews had won a victory, doubtless attributed
to the God of the Jews. As has been seen, the divine name
employed by Mahomet (Rahman) was one familiar to the Jews;
and the Yathribites who visited Mecca at feast-time were
naturally attracted by a professed representative of al-Rahman.
The first Yathribite converts appear to have been Khazrajites,
and one As'ad, son of Zurarah, is the most prominent figure.
Their idea may have been in the first place to secure the aid of the
Israelitish Deity in their next battle with the Aus, and indeed the
primary object of their visit to Mecca is said to have been to re-
quest assistance for their war. For this the plan was substituted
of inviting the Prophet to come to Mecca as dictator, to heal the
feud and restore order, a procedure to which Greek antiquity
offers parallels. The new converts were t'old to carry on secret
propaganda in Yathrib with this end in view. At the next feast

4°4

MAHOMET

some of the rival faction embraced Islam. A trusty follower of
Mahomet, Mus'ab b.'Umair, who resembled Mahomet in personal
appearance, was sent to Yathrib to assist in the work. The
correspondence between this person and the Prophet would, if
we possessed it, be of the greatest value for the study of Islamic
antiquity. We first hear at this time of the conditions of Islam, i.e.
a series of undertakings into which the convert entered: namely,
to abstain from adultery, theft, infanticide and lying, and to obey
Mahomet in licitis et honestis. The wholesale conversion of
Yathrib was determined by that of two chieftains, Usaid b.
Huraith and Sa'd b. Mu'adh, both Ausites. The example of
these was quickly followed, and iconoclasm became rife in the
place. At the next Meccan feast a deputation of seventy Yathrib-
ites brought Mahomet a formal invitation, which he accepted,
after imposing certain conditions. The interviews between
Mahomet and the Yathribites are known as the 'Aqabah (prob-
ably with reference to a text of the Koran). The attitude of the
Jews towards the project appears to have been favourable.

Among the conditions imposed by Mahomet on his new ad-
herents appears to have been the protection and harbouring of
the older proselytes, whom Mahomet most wisely determined to
send before him to Yathrib, where, in the event of the
Refugees. Yathribite loyalty wavering, they could be counted
on with certainty. The welcome given these refugees
(muhajirun), as they were from this time known in contra-
distinction to the helpers (ansar) or allies from Yathrib, is said
to have been of the warmest; a Helper with two wives would
hand one over to a wifeless Refugee. A yet more important
condition which preceded the Flight was readiness to fight men
of all colours in defence of the faith.

Although the transactions with the people of Yathrib had been
carried on with profound secrecy, the nature of Mahomet's
contract with his new adherents was somewhat divulged to the
Meccan magnates, and the danger of allowing an implacable
enemy to establish himself on the high-road of their north-bound
caravans flashed upon them. ' The rule which forbade bloodshed
in the sacred city had at last to be suspended; but elaborate pre-
cautions were to be taken whereby every tribe (except Mahomet's
own clan) should have their share in the guilt, which would thus
be spread over the whole community fairly. When the com-
mittee appointed to perpetrate the crime reached Mahomet's
house, they found that it was too late; Mahomet had already
departed, leaving Ali in his bed.

The actual Flight from Mecca to Yathrib has naturally been
a favourite subject for romance, and indeed appears to have been
executed with the greatest cunning. Accompanied by Abu Bekr
only, Mahomet took refuge in a cave of Mt Thaur, in the opposite
direction to that which he intended to take finally, and there
remained for three days; provision had been made of every
requisite, food, powerful camels, a trusty and competent guide.
The date at which he reached Kuba, on the outskirts of Yathrib,
where there was already some sort of Moslem oratory, is given as
8 Rabia I., of the year A.H. i; the fact that he arrived there on
the Jewish Day of Atonement gives us the date September
20, 622. The Meccans, who had employed professional trackers
to hunt down the fugitives, proceeded to confiscate the houses
and goods of Mahomet and of his followers who had fled.

The safe arrival of Mahomet at his destination marks the
turning-point in his career, which now became one of almost
Mahomet as unDr°ken success; his intellectual superiority over
Despot of both friends and enemies enabling him to profit by
Yathrib. defeat little less than by victory. His policy appears
to have been to bind his followers to himself and them to each
other by every possible tie; he instituted brotherhoods between
the Refugees and Helpers, which were to count as relationships
for legal purposes, and having himself no sons, he contracted
numerous marriages partly with the same end in view; e.g. with
the infant daughter of Abu Bekr, Ayesha ('A'ishah), whose
ability he appears to have discerned; and the unamiable Hafsa,
daughter of Omar. Of his own daughters three were given to
faithful allies, the one by whom his line is supposed to have
been continued to our time, Fatima, was reserved for his cousin

Ali. Owing to his efforts the alliance between the Refugees
and Helpers resisted numerous attempts on the part of enemies
to break it up, and only towards the end of the Prophet's life,
when he appeared to favour Meccans unduly, do we hear of
any bitterness between the two communities.

The population of Yathrib, or,asit maynow be called, Medina,
soon divided into three groups: Mahomet's united followers;
the Jews; and a party known as the " Hypocrites,"
i.e. professing Moslems, who were lukewarm, or dis- commu
affected, among whom the most prominent is
'Abdallah b. Ubayy, a Khaziajite chieftain, who is said to have
himself aspired to be despot of Yathrib, and who till nearly the
end of Mahomet's career figures somewhat as a leader of the
opposition; of his importance there is no question, but the reason
for it and the mode whereby he made it felt are often obscure.
It would seem that the pagans remaining in Yathrib speedily
adopted Islam after the Prophet's arrival, whence we hear little
of serious opposition on their part. Coming in the capacity of
prophet of the Israelitish God, Mahomet at first seems to have
courted alliance with the Jews, and to have been ready to adopt
their system with very slight modifications — similar to those
which, according to his opinion, Jesus had come to introduce.
The Jews met these advances by submitting him to examination
in the intricacies of the Torah, and, finding him very poorly
equipped, proceeded to denounce him as an imposter; one of his
examiners is said to have even translated the Torah into Arabic
with a view of convicting him of ignorance and imposture. They
are further charged with exercising their magical arts on the
Prophet and his followers, and to have succeeded thereby in
producing barrenness among the Moslem women. Their conduct
must not of course be judged by the statement of their enemies;
it is however clear that Mahomet soon found that there was no
possibility of compromising with them on religious questions,
or of obtaining their loyal support; meanwhile he discovered
that they were incapable of united and persistent action, and
useless as warriors except against each other. He therefore
resolved on their extermination. His ruthlessness in their case
compared with his patience and forbearance in the case of the
" Hypocrites" was consistent with his principle (always faith-
fully observed) that no inquiry was permissible into the motives
of conversion, and with his division of mankind into the two
antagonistic factions Believers and Unbelievers. The latter
principle, as will be seen, was somewhat modified before the
end of his life.

Mahomet's failure to effect a compromise with the Jews
caused a reaction in his mind towards paganism, and after about
a year's residence at Medina the direction of prayer,
which had till then been towards Jerusalem, was V°
turned southward to the pagan temple at Mecca.
With this change we may perhaps couple the adoption of the
namely/a/! for the Diety; in the Moslem formula "in the Name
of Allah the Rahman the Merciful," the translation attached to
the word Rahman, and the prefixing to it of the name Allah
furnish clear evidence of theological transition, though the stages
are not recorded; we know, however, that the Meccans approved
of the name Allah, but objected to the name Rahman. Prayer
(ja/o/), said to have been prescribed on the occasion of the
Prophet's ascent into heaven after a miraculous journey from
Mecca to Jerusalem, began to assume a stereotyped form in the
place of assembly built by Mahomet immediately after his arrival;
the attitudes of prayer in use among many communities (e.g. the
Jewish standing, the prostration of some Christian sects) were
combined. In general it 'was Mahomet's principle, while taking
over a practice from some other sect, to modify it so as to rendef
the Moslem method absolutely distinct; thus when a summons
to prayer became requisite, a new mode (by the voice of a crier
called muaddhin or muezzin) was preferred to the Christian
hammer; a new sacred day was adopted, in lieu of the Jewish
Saturday and the Christian Sunday, in the weekday on which he
had safely reached Kuba, Friday; but the sanctity was reduced to
the actual time occupied by public worship. On the subject of
food he was satisfied with the regulations of the Council of

MAHOMET

405

Jerusalem, recorded in Acts xv.; which were observed by few if
ny Christian sects. The prohibition of wine, which was enacted
i A.H. 3, is said to have been occasioned by the riotous conduct
one of his followers when under the influence of liquor;
Palgrave saw in it (perhaps with justice) a deliberate attempt to
prevent harmony between Moslems and Christians, in whose
nost sacred rite wine is used. The Fast of Ramadan, in which
ood both liquid and solid is forbidden from sunrise to sunset, is
lid to be a pagan or semi-pagan institution; its importance for
ailitary training and discipline is not likely to have been over-

oked by the Prophet. When the direction of prayer was
Jtered, it is probable that Mahomet already intended to intro-
duce into his system the whole of the pagan pilgrimage with its
intique ceremonial (with, of course, a new interpretation);
before this he is supposed to have aimed at the abolition of
the Ka'ba and all that appertained to it.

The difference between religious and civil law has never been
recognized by Islamic jurists, whose manuals deal equally with
the law of contract and the amount of the body to be washed
before prayer; the Prophet's ordinances on both subjects were
suggested by the occasion in each case, and it would seem that the
opinions of trusted advisers were regularly heard before a revela-
tion was issued. Even when this had been done the ordinance
might be cancelled by an abrogating revelation; it being " easy
for Allah " to substitute for a text already revealed another that
was better or at least as good.

As Islam began to spread outside the limits of Medina both
conversion to Islam and persistence therein were reduced to
simple tests; the pronunciation of the double formula of belief
in Allah and Mahomet was sufficient to indicate conversion,
whilst payment of an income-tax, called by the Jewish names for
alms (zakat and sadaqah), was evidence of loyalty. This income-
tax, of which the definite assessment perhaps belongs to a later
period, was for the support of necessitous converts — an element
in the community whose presence accounts for the mode in which
the development of the Islamic state proceeded.

The industries in which the Meccan Refugees had been engaged
were not of a sort which they could exercise at Medina, where the
First palm took the place of the camel as the basis of

Campaigns society. Moreover the Prophet seems to have given
r Mahomet. some disastrous advice on the subject of palmiculture,
and thereby to have accentuated the poverty of the place.
He had, therefore, to find some fresh source of revenue in order
to deal with this difficulty, and one of the Helpers is said to
have suggested the plan which he adopted, viz. of attacking
the Meccan caravans. With this view he organized a series of
expeditions, taking the lead himself sometimes, while at others
he gave it to one of his veteran followers; and at first only
Refugees took part in them. The leaders of the caravans, how-
ever, were expert in evading attacks of this sort, which were
doubtless regularly attempted by the desert tribes; and in the
first year of his despotism Mahomet did not score a single success
of the kind intended. The attempts were not wholly fruitless;
for while on the one hand he accustomed his followers to campaign-
ing, on the other he made a series of agreements with the chief-
tains of the tribes through whose territory the caravans ordinarily
passed. Finding continued failure intolerable, he resolved to
take advantage of his power to bind and to loose by sending an
expedition of seven men under his cousin 'Abdallah b. Jahsh to
attack a caravan at the beginning of the sacred month Rajab,
when, as raiding during such a season was unknown, success was
practically certain. The commander on this, the Nakhlah raid,
was given sealed orders, to be opened after two days' march;
the men were then to be given the option of retiring, if they dis-
approved. Of this no one seems definitely to have availed him-
self, and the raid ended successfully, for considerable booty was
captured, while of the four persons who escorted the caravan two
were made prisoners, one escaped, and one, "Amr b. al-Hadrami,
was killed; he was the first person slain fighting against an
Islamic force. The violation of the sacred month seems to have
caused considerable scandal in Arabia, but led to no serious con-
sequence; on the other hand the shedding of blood created a feud

between the people of Mecca and the Refugees, with whom the
Meccans long declined to identify the people of Medina. The
fact that the man who had been killed was a client, not a citizen,
made no difference. The circumstance that booty had been
actually acquired appears to have helped the Prophet's cause
very considerably.

Both these consequences, the Meccan desire to avenge the
blood that had been shed and the anxiety of the Medinese to take
part in a successful raid, manifested themselves a few Attack
months later, when an expedition was organized by <"» Meccaa
Mahomet to attack a caravan returning from Syria, Carava".
which had escaped him the previous year. Many desired to take
part in the raid, and finally some 300 persons were selected,
including a large number of " Helpers." The leader of the
caravan learned somehow that an attack was being organized by
Mahomet on a large scale, and sent to Mecca for aid, while hurry-
ing home by forced marches. This is the first historical appear-
ance of Abu Sofian (the leader of the caravan) , who now for some
years played the part of president in the Meccan opposition to
Mahomet, and whose son was destined to found the second
Mahommedan dynasty (see CALIPHATE, B). The day before the
battle to be fought at Badr, near the point where the northern
road leaves the coast to turn eastwards to Mecca, the Moslem
army learned that the Meccan succour (some 1000 strong) was
near, but that the caravan had escaped. The Meccans, it is
asserted, would have returned home now that their object was
secured, but the patrons of the man who had been killed in the
former raid were compelled to strike for vengeance.

The battle (Ramadan 19, A.H. 2, usually made to synchronize
with March 17, 624) ended in a complete victory for Mahomet,
whose followers killed seventy of the enemy and took seventy
prisoners — if we may trust what seem to be round numbers; it
was attributed by him to divine co-operation, taking the form of
an illusion wrought on the enemy, and the despatch of a regiment
of angels to the assistance of the Believers, while on the other
hand the treachery of the Devil did mischief to the Meccans.
The popular tradition attributed it to the prowess of some of
Mahomet's followers, especially his uncle Hamza and his cousin
Ali. In the narratives which have come down and which seem
to be authentic the result is amply accounted for by the excellence
of the Moslem discipline and the complete absence of any on the
Meccan side. Mahomet himself is said to have fainted at the
first sight of blood, and to have remained during the battle in a
hut built for him to which swift camels were tied, to be used in
case of a defeat; yet these accounts make him responsible for
the tactics, whilst assigning the credit for the strategy to one
Hobab b. al-Mondhir. Several of Mahomet's old enemies and
friends of Meccan days perished on this occasion; notably one
Abu Jahl, his uncle, but represented as an implacable enemy;
another hostile uncle, Abu Lahab, who is cursed in the Koran,
was not present but died shortly after the battle.

The day is called in the Koran by a Syriac expression the
" Day of Deliverance," and both for internal and external politics
it was of incalculable advantage to Islam. The booty and the
ransoms of the prisoners provided the means for dealing with
distress; the story of supernatural aid soothed the feelings of the
defeated Meccans and had a tendency to disarm resistance else-
where; whilst Mahomet in the popularity acquired by his victory
was able to strike forcibly at his enemies in Medina. One of
the sequels to the victory was a series of assassinations whereby
critics of his actions were removed.

The defeat at Badr naturally led to efforts on the part of the
Meccans to avenge their dead and besides to secure the commerce,
by which they lived, from an enemy who was gradu-
ally getting all the seaboard that lay between Jeddah
and Yanbo within his sphere of influence; and the
year after Badr (A.H. 3) Abu Sofian was able to lead a force
said to be three times as great as that which had been defeated,
and so numbering some 3000 men, against Medina itself; part
of it was under Khalid b. al-Walid, one of the greatest of Arab
captains, afterwards conqueror of Syria. It is said that Maho-
met's plan was to remain in Medina itself, and leave it to the

406

MAHOMET

Meccan commander to discover some way of taking the place;
but that his hand was forced by his more ardent followers.
Others, however, assign this advice to Abdallah b. Ubayy, and
make the Prophet anxious to fight from the first. A battle was
in consequence fought under Mt Uhud (or Ohod), north-west of
Medina, wherein Khalid succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat
on Mahomet's forces; his uncle Hamza, hero of Badr, was killed
on this occasion. Fortunately for the Moslems, the Meccans
considered that they had finished their task when they discovered
that they had killed a number of the former equal to those who
had fallen at Badr on their own side ; instead therefore of pursuing
their victory they went home. The immediate effect on Arabia
appears to have been to dissipate the illusion that the Prophet
could count on supernatural assistance in his wars; and we hear
of some blows being dealt him from outside. Meanwhile his rela-
tions towards the Medinese Jews had grown more and more hostile,
and these are credited with doing their best to rouse the Meccans
to a sense of the danger which threatened them in the continu-
ance of the Prophet's power, and in general to stir up hostility
against him in Arabia. Whether this part was played by them
or not, in the fifth year of the Prophet's stay at Medina a fresh
invasion of the territory took place by a vast confederate force
of Meccans with their allies, the tribes Fazarah, Asad, Murrah,
&c., to the number, it is said, of 10,000. This time the intention
of the leaders was undoubtedly to stamp out Islam. For the
first time in Arab warfare Mahomet resorted to the expedient
of defending his city by a trench, called by a Persian name, and
suggested by a Persian convert. But he also employed agents
to sow dissension among the confederates, and succeeded with
this no less than with the other expedient. After a brief stay,
and scarcely striking a blow, the confederacy dispersed, leaving
the Jews who still remained in Medina to the summary vengeance
of the Prophet. The want of records written from the Meccan
standpoint renders the abortiveness of this last attempt at
storming the Prophet's stronghold scarcely intelligible.

From this time, however, the road towards the eventual taking
of Mecca became easy, and we are told that such was the impor-
tance attached to that city throughout Arabia that its acquisition
meant for the Prophet the acquisition of the whole peninsula.
The next year (A.H. 6) he deemed it advisable to make a truce
with the Meccans (the Truce of Hodaibiyah), whereby he secured
for his followers the right of performing the pilgrimage in the
following year; on this occasion he even consented to forgo his
title " Prophet of Allah," when the Meccans refused to sigft a
deed in which it was employed, greatly to the scandal of his more
earnest followers, including Omar; they were however too deeply
committed to Islam to be able to defy the Prophet. When the
pilgrimage was performed (A.H. 7), Mahomet not only won
important converts in the persons of Khalid and the no less
able "Amr b. al-'As, but in general impressed the population
with the idea that his was the winning side. An excuse was easily
found for invading Mecca itself in the following year, when Abu
Sofian took the opportunity of embracing Islam before it was too
late. Very little resistance was now made by the Meccans,
whose chiefs were already in Mahomet's canip, and Mahomet
used his victory with great moderation; his proscription list
was finally reduced to two. The theory that all offences were
cancelled by conversion was loyally observed. Moreover the
Prophet incurred the displeasure .of his Medinese friends by the
anxiety which he displayed to soothe the feelings of his former
enemies and antagonists. The Medinese, however, prevailed
upon him to maintain their city as his political capital,
while making Mecca the religious centre of his system; and
this arrangement accounts perhaps more than anything else
for the persistence of the system amid so many dynastic
changes.

In the main he appears to have introduced little alteration
into the government of Mecca, and it is said that he even declined
to retaliate on those who had confiscated the possessions of the
Refugees. Even the Ka'ba was left in the keeping of its former
custodian, though of course its interior as well as its precincts
were cleansed of all that could offend monotheists. In the

following year the pilgrimage was for the first time conducted by
a Moslem official, Abu Bekr. A proclamation was made on that
occasion, forbidding idolaters in future to take part in the pil-
grimage, and giving all Arabs who were not as yet converted
four months' grace before force was to be brought to bear upon
them. In the following year Mahomet conducted the Pilgrimage
himself. This solemn occasion (the " Farewell Pilgrimage ")
was also employed for the delivery of an important proclamation,
wherein the Prophet declared that God had completed their
religion. The principle whereon he specially insisted was the
brotherhood of Islam; but there is some difficulty in enucleating
the original sermon from later additions.

It would seem that Mahomet's enterprise originally comprised
the conversion of Mecca only, and that he thought of himself
as sent to his fellow-citizens only, as had been the
case with earlier prophets, whose message was for
their " brethren." His views took a somewhat
different direction after his brief exile to Taif, and the conquest
of Arabia was in a way forced upon him in the course of his
struggle with the Meccans. It is not indeed perfectly clear by
what process he arrived at the resolution to exclude paganism
from Arabia; at first he appears to have tolerated it at Medina,
and in some of his earlier contracts with neighbouring tribes he
is represented as allowing it, though some of our texts make him
reserve to himself the right of enforcing Islam if he chose; only
the Meccans were at first, according to the most authentic
documents, excluded from all truce or treaty. At the battle of
Badr he appears to have formulated the rule that no one might
fight on his side who had not embraced Islam; and when once
he had won fame as a successful campaigner, those who wished
to share his adventures had to pass the Islamic test. After the
battle of Uhud (Ohod) we hear of a tribe demanding missionaries
to instruct them in Islamic principles; and though in the case
recorded the demand was treacherous, the idea of sending mis-
sionaries appears not to have been unfamiliar even then, albeit
the number sent (70) , if rightly recorded, implies that the Prophet
suspected the good faith of the applicants. After the taking of
Mecca, whereby the chief sanctuary at any rate of north Arabia
had been cleared of all idolatrous associations, and consecrated
to monotheism, paganism in general was conscious of being
attacked; and the city had scarcely been brought under the
new regime before the Prophet had to face a confederation of
tribes called Hawazin and Thaqif. The battle which ensued,
known as the Day of Honain, was near ending disastrously for
Islam; some of Mahomet's sturdiest followers fled; but the
terrible danger of a defeat in the neighbourhood of recently
conquered Mecca roused the Prophet and Ali to heroism, and they
saved the day. Emissaries were now sent far and wide demand-
ing the destruction of idols, and only Taif appears to have made
any considerable resistance; against this place for the first time
the Prophet made use of siege artillery, such as was employed by
the Byzantines; though compelled by the bravery of the inhabi-
tants to raise the siege, he was afterwards able to take the city
by capitulation. It has been observed that here only do we
read of much attachment to the old deities; in most places they
were discarded with few regrets when once their impotence had
been found out. After the taking of Mecca and the victory of
Honain there appears to have been a general desire, extending
even to the extreme south of Arabia, to make the best terms with
the conqueror so soon as possible; iconoclasm became general.
Flatterers of various kinds, including poets, came to seek the
favour of the sovereign; and a mock war of words appears to
have been substituted by some tribes for more serious fighting,
to terminate in surrender. For warfare of his sort Mahomet
had a powerful helper in the poet Hassan b. Thabit, for whose
effusions a pulpit was erected in the Medina mosque, and whose
verses were said to be inspired by the Holy Spirit; though, as
has been seen, Mahomet was not himself able to judge of their
artistic merit. It was not, however, found easy to enforce the
payment of the alms on these new converts; and this taxation
caused an almost general revolt so soon as Mahomet's death had
been ascertained.

MAHOMET

407

Although the central portions of the peninsula in Mahomet's
time were practically independent, large portions of the north-
Piaa of west and south-east were provinces of the Byzantine
World- and Persian empires respectively, whence any scheme
oaqucst. £or tne conquest 0{ Arabia would necessarily involve
he conqueror in war with these great powers. The conquest of
'ersia is said to have been contemplated by the Prophet as
rly as A.H. 5, when the famous Trench was being dug; but it was
lot till the year A.H. 7, on the eve of the taking of Mecca, that
he Prophet conceived the idea of sending missives to all known
vereigns and potentates, promising them safety if, but only if,
icy embraced Islam. The text of these letters, which only
varied in the name of the person addressed, is preserved (doubt-
faithfully) by the Moslem Oral Tradition; in the middle of
the last century a French explorer professed to discover in Egypt
the original of one of them — addressed to the mysterious person-
age called the Muqauqis(Mukaukis)of Egypt — and this,it appears,
is still preserved amid other supposed relics of the Prophet in
Constantinople, though there is little reason for believing it to
be genuine. The anecdotes dealing with the reception of these
letters by their addressees are all fabulous in character. Two
appear to have sent favourable replies: the king of Axum, who
now could send the exiles whom he had so long harboured to
their successful master; and the Egyptian governor, who sent
Mahomet a valuable present, including two Coptic women for
his harem. The emperor Heraclius is claimed as a secret convert
to Islam, on whom pressure had to be put by his advisers to
conceal his convictions. The Persian king is said to have sent
orders to have Mahomet arrested; his messengers arrived in
Medina, but were unable to carry out the commands of their
master, who died while they were there. Two of the letters are
said to have had important results. One was addressed to the
Himyarite chiefs (called by the south Arabian appellation qail)
in Yemen, and effected their conversion; another to the governor
of Bostra in Roman Arabia, who put the bearer of this insolent
message to death; a force was despatched by Mahomet imme-
diately afterwards (beginning of A.H. 8) to avenge this outrage;
and though the Moslems were defeated in their first encounter
with the Byzantine forces at Mutah, they appear to have given
a good account of themselves; it was here that Ja'far, cousin of
the Prophet, met his death. In A. H. 9 a successful .expedition
was led by the Prophet himself northward, in which, though
no Byzantine force was encountered, a considerable region was
withdrawn from the Byzantine sphere of influence, and made
either Islamic or tributary to Islam. At the time of his death
(of fever, after a short illness) he was organizing an expedition
for the conquest of Syria.

The Prophet claimed throughout that his revelation confirmed
the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, and this claim is on the
Jewish aaa whole reasonable, though his acquaintance with both
Christian was in the highest degree vague and inaccurate.
Commuol- Still he reproduced the Old Testament as faithfully
as he could, and though he patriotically endeavours
to shed some lustre on his supposed ancestor Ishmael, he does not
appear to have questioned the Biblical theory according to which
the founder of the north Arabian nations was the son of a slave
girl. On neither the truth of the Biblical history and miracles nor
the validity of the Mosaic legislation does he appear to have cast
any doubt. He even allows that Israel was the chosen people.
The Gospel was known to him chiefly through apocryphal and
heretical sources, which cannot certainly be identified; but he
accepted the doctrine of the Virgin-birth, the miracles of healing
the sick and raising the dead, and the ascension; the crucifixion
and resurrection were clearly denied by the sect from whom he
had received his information, and rejected by him, though
certainly not because of any miracle which the latter involved.
His quarrel with the Jews at Medina appears to have been by no
means of his own seeking, but to have arisen unavoidably, owing
to his particular view of his office being such as they could not
accept; and his attempt to discredit, not the Mosaic Law, but
the form in which they presented it, was an expedient to which
he resorted in self-defence. An attempt was made shortly after

his arrival at Medina to settle the relations between the two
communities by a treaty, according to which, while their equality
was guaranteed there should be little interference between the
two; this, however, was found unworkable, and each victory of
Mahomet over the Meccans was followed by violent measures
against the Medinese Israelites. When experience had shown
him their military incompetence he appears to have been unable
to resist the temptation to appropriate their goods for the benefit
of his followers; and his attack on the flourishing Jewish settle-
ment of Khaibar, after the affair of Hodaibiyah, appears to have
been practically unprovoked, and designed to satisfy his discon-
tented adherents by an accession of plunder. Yet the conscious-
ness that this process was economically wasteful suggested to him
an idea which Islamic states are only now abandoning, viz.
that of a tolerated caste, who should till the soil and provide
sustenance for the Believers who were to be the fighting caste.
Whereas then his former plan in dealing with Israelites had been
to banish or massacre, he now left the former owners of Khaibar
(who had survived the capture of the place) in possession of the
soil, of whose produce they were to pay a fixed proportion to
the Islamic state. The same principle was adopted in the case
of later conquests of Jewish settlements.

Disputes with Christians occur somewhat later in the Prophet's
career than those with Jews, for neither at Mecca nor Medina were
the former to be found in any numbers; individuals are likely
to have been found in both cities, and we hear of one Medinese
" Abu' Amir the Monk," who after Mahomet's arrival at Medina
branded him as an impostor, and, going himself into exile, made
many an abortive attempt to discredit and injure Mahomet's
cause. The notices of him are meagre and obscure. Mahomet's
manifesto to the world, about the time of the taking of Khaibar,
appears to represent his definite breach with Christianity; and
when in the " year of the embassies " the Christians of Najran
sent a deputation to him, they found that the breach between
the two systems was not to be healed. Of the three alternatives
open to them — conversion, internecine war, and tribute, they
chose the last. The Christian tribes of north Arabia showed
greater inclination towards the first. The Prophet's policy was to
give Christians lighter terms than Jews, and though the Koran
reflects the gradual adoption by the Prophet of an attitude of
extreme hostility to both systems, its tone is on the whole
far more friendly to the former than to the latter. Some other
communities are mentioned in the Koran, but merely in casual
allusions: thus we know that Mahomet's sympathy was with the
Byzantines in their struggle with Persia, but in his most tolerant
utterance the Magians or Mazdians as well as the Sabians
(with whom his followers were identified by the Meccans) are
mentioned with respect.

The financial requirements of Mahomet's state were of the
simplest kind, for there is no trace of any form of governmental
department having been instituted by him, even Mahomet'*
when he was master of the peninsula; nor can we
name any permanent officials in his employ except
his muaddhin Bilal, and perhaps his court-poet Hassan. A staff
of scribes was finally required both to take down his revelations
and to conduct correspondence; but although he encouraged the
acquisition of penmanship (indeed some of the prisoners at Badr
are said to have been allowed to ransom themselves by teaching
it to the Medinese), we know of no regular secretaries in his
employ. As despot of Medina he combined the functions of
legislator, administrator, general and judge; his duties in the
last three capacities were occasionally delegated to others, as
when he appointed a governor of Medina during his absence, or
leaders for expeditions, with provision for successors in case
of their falling, but we hear of no permanent or regular dele-
gation of them. Till near the end of his career at Medina he
maintained the principle that migration to that city was a con-
dition of conversion; but when, owing to the extension of his
power, this was no longer practicable, his plan was in the main
to leave the newly converted communities to manage their in-
ternal affairs as before, only sending occasional envoys to dis-
charge special duties, especially instruction in the Koran and

a°"'

408

MAHOMET

the principles of Islam, and to collect the. Alms; quite towards
the end of his life he appears to have sent persons to the provinces
to act as judges, with instructions to judge according to the
Koran, and where that failed, the practice (sunna), i.e. the practice
of the community, for which a latsr generation substituted the
practice of the Prophet. There were, therefore, no regular
payments to permanent officials; and the taxation called Alms,
which developed into an income-tax, but was at first a demand
for voluntary contributions, was wholly for the support of the
poor Moslems; it might not be used for the maintenance of the
state, i.e. Mahomet and his family. For them, and [for public
business, e.g. the purchase of war material and gratuities to
visitors, provisio: was made out of the booty, of which Mahomet
claimed one-fifth (the chieftain's share had previously, we are
told, been one-fourth), while the remainder — or at least the bulk
of it — was distributed among the fighting men; the Prophet
appears to have prided himself on the justice of his distribu-
tion on these occasions, and doubtless won popularity thereby,
though we hear occasionally of grumbling; for difficulties occurred
when a defeated tribe embraced Islam, and so could claim equal-
ity with their conquerors, or when portions of the spoil were
irregularly employed by Mahomet to allay resentment: the
persons whose allegiance was thus purchased were euphemisti-
cally termed " those whose hearts were united." What after-
wards proved the main source of revenue in Islamic states
dates from the taking of Khaibar; for the rent paid to the state
by tolerated communities for the right to work their land
developed long after Mahomet's time into a poll-tax for Unbe-
lievers (see CALIPHATE, e.g. B. § 8 and MAHOMMEDAN INSTITU-
TIONS), and a land-tax for all owners of land. Immediately after
the taking of Khaibar certain communities, of which the most
notable was Fadak, sent tribute before they had been attacked
and reduced; their land was regarded by Mahomet as his
private domain, but after his death it was withdrawn from his
heirs by his successor Abu Bekr, in virtue of a maxim that
Prophets left no inheritance, which in the opinion of Fatima
was contrary to Koranic doctrine, and invented by Ayesha's
father expressly for the purpose of excluding her and her husband
from their rights; and this is likely to have been the case.

As a military organizer Mahomet, as has been seen, was
anxious to adopt the most advanced of contemporary methods,
and more than once is said to have scandalized the Arabs by
foreign innovations, as at a later time the Moslem chiefs who
first used gunpowder scandalized their co-religionists. The
unit in his armies seems to have been, as of old, the tribe,
under its natural leader; that he introduced no more scientific
division, and nothing like a hierarchy of officers was perhaps
due to the difficulty of reconciling such a system with the equality
of all Moslems.

As has been seen, the Koran only assumed the character of
a civil code as the need for one arose; and for some time after
Mahomet's arrival at Medina old-fashioned methods of settling
disputes continued in use, and doubtless in accordance with
precedent where such was known. For difficult cases, even in
Arab opinion, divine inspiration was required ; and since Mahomet
naturally claimed to be in sole enjoyment of this, his utterances
soon became the unique source of law, though he did not at first
think of organizing a code. Such a plan is said to have occurred
to him, and he even wished to dictate a code upon his death-
bed; but his friends supposed or professed to suppose him to be
delirious. A table regulating the " Alms " was left by him, it is
said, in the possession of Abu Bekr; but other traditions assign
another origin to this document.

Just as there were no regular officials for the arrangement of
business, so there were none for its execution; when punishment
was to be administered, any follower of Mahomet might be called
upon to administer it. In the case of the massacre of the
Banu Quraizah care was taken to see that some of the heads
were struck off by their former allies, in order that the latter
might be unable at any time to bring a demand for vengeance.
The Prophet hoped by the mere terror of his name to make
complete security reign throughout Arabia, and there is no

evidence that any system of policing either it or even Medina
occurred to him.

Until the death of Khadija the Prophet's private life seems to have
been normal and happy, for though the loss of his sons in infancy is
said to have earned him a contemptuous epithet, he was
fortunate in his adoption of Zaidb. rlarithah, apparently Doa>estlc
a prisoner ransomed by Khadija or one of her relatives, Ll/e'
who appears as dutiful almost to excess and competent in affairs.
The marriages of his daughters seem all to have been happy, with,
curiously, the exception of that between Fatima and AH. His
domestic troubles, to which an unreasonable amount of space seems
to be devoted, even in the Koran, began after the Migration, when,
probably in the main for political reasons, he instituted a royal
harem. One of these political motives was the principle which long
survived, that the conquest of a state was consummated by posses-
sion of the former monarch's wife, or daughter; another, as has been
seen, the desire to obtain the securest possible hold on his ministers.
In his marriage with the daughter of his arch-enemy Abu Sofian,
before the latter's conversion, we can see a combination of the two.
Few, therefore, of these marriages occasioned scandal; yet public
morality seemed to be violated when the Prophet took to himself
the wife of his adopted son Zaid, whose name has in consequence
the honour of mention in the Koran in the revelation which was
delivered in defence of this act. Its purpose was, according to this,
to establish the difference between adoptive and real filiation.
Serious trouble was occasioned by a charge of adultery brought
against the youthful favourite Ayesha, and this had to be refuted
by a special revelation; the charge, which was backed up apparently
by Ali, seems to have been connected with some deeper scheme for
causing dissension between the Prophet and his friends. Yet an-
other revelation is concerned with a mutiny in the harem organized
by Omar's daughter Hafsa, owing to undue favour shown to a
Coptic concubine (Mary, mother of a son called Ibrahim, who died
in infancy; his death was marked by an eclipse, January 27, 632);
and various details of factions within the harem are told us by
Mahomet's biographers.

Of the members of this harem the only prominent one is Ayesha,
married to the Prophet shortly after the Flight, when she had scarcely
passed the period of infancy, but who appears to have been gifted
with astuteness and ambition that were quite beyond her years, and
who maintained her ascendancy over the Prophet in spite of the fact
that many carping criticisms of his revelations are attributed to her.
Some of this may have been due to the obligations (including pecuni-
ary obligations) under which her father had laid Mahomet; but her
reputation seems to have been greatly enhanced by the sending down
of a revelation to exonerate her (A.H. 6), for which she thanked Cud
and not the Prophet. Each accession to the harem rendered the
building of a house or room necessary for the newcomer's accom-
modation ; a fact in which Robertson Smith perhaps rightly saw a
relic of thetjlder system whereby the tent was the property of women.
The trouble noticed above seems to have arisen from the want of
asimilararrangement in the case of slave girls, with whom Mahomet's
system permits cohabitation. When Mahomet, whether in conse-
quence of the fatigue incurred by the " Farewell Pilgrimage," or,
as others thought, by the working of some poison put into his food
some years before by a Jewess of Khaibar, was attacked by the illness
which proved fatal, it was to the house of Ayesha that he was trans-
ferred (from that of another wife) to be nursed ; and he apparently
died in the arms of the favourite, on whose statements we have to
rely for what we know of his last hours.

The traditional description of Mahomet is " of middle height,
greyish, with hair that was neither straight nor curly; with a large
head, large eyes, heavy eyelashes, reddish tint in the nenenl
eyes, thick-bearded, broad-shouldered, with thick hands c
and feet " ; he was in the habit of giving violent expres- /sWcs
sion to the emotions of anger and mirth. The supposi-
tion that he at any time suffered from physical weakness seems
absolutely refuted by his career as a leader of difficult, dangerous
and wearisome expeditions, from his migration to Medina until his
death; indeed, during his last years he exhibited a capacity for both
physical and intellectual activity which implies a high degree of both
health and strength; and without these the previous struggle at
Mecca could scarcely have been carried on. The supposition that
he was liable to fits (epileptic or cataleptic) was intended to account
for certain of the phenomena supposed to accompany the delivery
of revelations; some of these however rest on very questionable
authority: and the greater number of the revelations give evidence
of careful preparation rather than spontaneity.

The literary matter ascribed to the Prophet consists of (i) the
Koran (g.r.); (2) certain contracts, letters and rescripts preserved
by his biographers; (3) a number of sayings on a vast variety of
topics, collected by traditionalists. The references in the Koran
to a form of literature called " Wisdom " (Ijikmah) suggest that even
in the Prophet's time some attempts had been made to collect or at
least preserve some of the last ; the general uncertainty of oral tradi-
tion and the length of time which elapsed before any critical treatment
of it was attempted, and the variety of causes, creditable and dis-
creditable, which led to the wilful fabrication of prophetic utterances,

MAHOMET

409

render the use to which No. 3 can be put very limited. Thus
ugthy description of the journey to Jieaven which Sprenger was
inclined to accept as genuine is regarded by most critics as a later
fabrication. It is very much to be regretted that the number of pieces
justificatives (No. 2) quoted by the. biographers is so small, and that
for these oral tradition was preferred! to a search for the actual
documents, some of which may well have been in existence when
the earliest biographies were written. Their style appears to have
been plain and straightforward, though the allusions which they
contain are not always intelligible.

In his personal relations with men Mahomet appears to have been
able to charm and impress in an extraordinary degree, whence we
find him able to control persons like Omar and Khalid, who appear

ito have been self-willed and masterful, and a single interview seems
to have been sufficient to turn many an enemy into a devoted
adherent. Cases (perhaps legendary) are quoted of his being able
by a look or a word to disarm intending assassins.

Although the titles which he took were religious in character, and
his office might not be described as sovereignty, his interests appear
to have lain far more in the building up and maintenance of empire
than in ecclesiastical matters. Thus only can we account for the
violent and sudden changes which he introduced into his system,
for his temporary lapse into paganism, and for his ultimate adoption
of the cult of the Black Stone, which, it is said, gave offence to some
of his sincere adherents (e.g. Omar), and seems hard to reconcile with
his tirades against fetish-worship. The same is indicated by his
remarkable doctrine that the utterance of the creed constituted a
Moslem and not its cordial acceptance, and his practice of at times
buying adhesion. Even an historian so favourable to the Prophet
as Prince Caetani recognizes that ultimately what he regarded as
most important was that his subjects should pay their taxes. And
in general his system was not favourable to fanaticism (al-ghulu
fi'l-din) ; he repeatedly gave permission for concealment of faith when
the profession of it was dangerous; he took care to avoid institutions
which, like the Jewish Sabbath, interfered seriously with military
expeditions and the conduct of business, and permitted considerable
irregularity in the matters of prayer and fasting when circumstances
rendered it desirable. In his theory that Koranic texts could be
abrogated he made wise provision against the danger of hasty legisla-
tion, though some of its usefulness was frustrated by his failure to
provide for such abrogation after his death.

As has been seen, Mahomet claimed to introduce a wholly new
dispensation, and a maxim of his law is that Islam cancels all
, that preceded it, except, indeed, pecuniary debts; it is
Reforms no(; certaii that even this exception always held good.
Hence his system swept away a number of practices
(chiefly connected with the camel) that were associated with
pagan superstitions. The most celebrated of these is the arrow-
game, a form of gambling for shares in slaughtered camels, to
which poetic allusions are very frequent. More important than
this was his attitude towards the blood-feud, or system of tribal
responsibility for homicide (whether intentional or accidental),
whereby one death regularly led to protracted wars, it being
considered dishonourable to take blood-money (usually in the
form of camels) or to be satisfied with one death in exchange.
This system he endeavoured to break down, chiefly by sinking
all earlier tribal distinctions in the new brotherhood of Islam;
but also by limiting the vengeance to be demanded to such as
was no more than the equivalent of the offence committed, and
by urging the acceptance of money-compensation instead, or
complete forgiveness of the offence. The remembrance of pre-
Islamic quarrels was visited by him with condign punishment
on those who had embraced Islam; and though it was long before
the tribal system quite broke down, even in the great cities which
rose in the new provinces, and the old state of things seems to
have quickly been resumed in the desert, his legislation on this
subject rendered orderly government among Arabs possible.

Next in importance to this is the abolition of infanticide,
which is condemned even in early Suras of the Koran. The
scanty notices which we have of the practice are not altogether
consistent; at times we are told that it was confined to certain
tribes, and consisted in the burying alive of infant daughters; at
other times it is extended to a wider area, and said to have been
carried out on males as well as females. After the taking of Mecca
this prohibition was included among the conditions of Islam.

In the laws relating to women it seems Likely that he regulated
current practice rather than introduced much that was actually
new, though, as has been seen, he is credited with giving them the
right to inherit property; the most precise legislation in the Koran
deals with this subject, of which the main principle is that the

share of the male equals that of two females. Our ignorance of
the precise nature of the marriage customs prevalent in Arabia
at the rise of Islam renders it difficult to estimate the extent to
which his laws on this subject were an improvement on what
had been before. The pre-Islamic family, unless our records
are wholly misleading, did not differ materially from the Islamic;
in both polygamy and concubinage were recognized and normal;
and it is uncertain that the text which is supposed to limit the
number of wives to four was intended to have that meaning.
The " condition of Islam " whereby adultery was forbidden is
said to have been ridiculed at the time, on the ground that this
practice had never been approved. Yet it would seem that
certain forms of promiscuity had been tolerated, though the
subject is obscure. Against these services we must set the
abrogation of some valuable practices. His unfortunate essay
in astronomy, whereby a calendar of twelve lunar months,
bearing no relation to the seasons, was introduced, was in any
case a retrograde step; but it appears to have been connected
with the abrogation of the sanctity of the four months during
which raiding had been forbidden in Arabia, which, as has
been seen, he was the first to violate. He also, as has been
noticed, permitted himself a slight amount of bloodshed in
Mecca itself, and that city perhaps never quite recovered its
sacrosanct character. Of more serious consequences for the
development of the community was his encouragement of the
shedding of kindred blood in the cause of Islam; the consequences
of the abrogation of this taboo seem to have been felt for a great
length of time. His assassinations of enemies were afterwards
quoted as precedents in books of Tradition. No less unfortunate
was the recognition of the principle whereby atonement could be
made for oaths. On the question how far the seclusion of
women was enjoined or countenanced by him different views
have been held.

Besides the contemporary documents enumerated above (Koranic
texts, rescripts and authentic traditions) many of the events were
celebrated by poets, whose verses were ostensibly in- Sources
corporated in the standard biography of Ibn Ishaq; in
the abridgment of that biography which we possess many of these
are obelized as spurious, and, indeed, what we know of the procedure
of those who professed to collect early poetry gives us little confidence
in the genuineness of such odes. A few, however, seem to stand
criticism, and the diwan (or collection of poems) attributed to Hassan
b. Thabit is ordinarily regarded as his. Though they rarely give
detailed descriptions of events, their attestation is at times of value,
e. g. for the story that the bodies of the slain at Badr were cast by the
Prophet into a pit. Besides this, the narratives of eyewitnesses
of important events, or of those who had actually taken part in them,
were eagerly sought by the second generation, and some of these
were committed to writing well before the end of the 1st century.
The practice instituted by the second Caliph, of assigning pensions
proportioned to the length of time in which the recipient had been
a member of the Islamic community, led to the compilation of certain
rolls, and to the accurate preservation of the main sequence of events
from the commencement of the mission, and for the detailed sequence
after the Flight, which presently became an era (beginning with the
first month of the year in which the Flight took place). The pro-
cedure whereby the original dates of the events (so far as they were
remembered) were translated into the Moslem calendar — for some-
thing of this sort must have been done — is unknown, and is unlikely
to have been scientific.

Mahomet's conduct being made the standard of right and wrong,
there was little temptation to " whitewash " him, although the
original biography by Ibn Ishaq appears to have contained details
which the author of the abridgment omitted as scandalous. The
preservation of so much that was historical left little room for the
introduction of miraculous narrations; these therefore either belong
to the obscure period of his life or can be easily eliminated ; thus the
narratives of the Meccan council at which the assassination of
Mahomet was decided, of the battles of Badr, Ubud and Honain, and
the death of Sa'd b. Mu 'adh, would lose nothing by the omission of
the angels and the devil, though a certain part is assigned the one
or the other on all these occasions. We should have expected
biographies which were published when the 'Abbasids were reigning
to nave falsified history for the purpose of glorifying 'Abbas, their
progenitor ; the very small extent to which this expectation is justified
is a remarkable testimony to their general trustworthiness.
RELATIVES OF THE PROPHET l

i. Family of AM al-Mo(talib, Mahomet's maternal grandfather: —
*'Abbas(d. A.n.32or34),*r.Iamza(d. A.H. 3),'Abdallah,fatherof the

1 * is prefixed to names which figure on occasions which seem to
be historical. Female names are in italics.

410

MAHOMMED AHMED

Prophet, *Abu Talib (said to be named 'Abd Manaf), ? *Zubair,
Harith, Hajal, Moqawwam, Dirar, *Abu Lahab (said to be named
'Abd al-'_U'zza, d. A.H. 2), *Safiyyah (d. A.H. 20), Umm Hakim, al-
Baida, 'Atikah, Umaimah, Anva, Barrah.

2. Family of Abu Talib: — *'Aqil (d. after A.H. 40), "Ja'far (d.
A.H. 8), Talib, T"laiq, ' All, the caliph, Umm Hani', Jumdnah,
Raifah.

3. Family of Mahomet. Wives: — *Khadlja (Children: — Qasim;
? 'Abd Manaf (Tahir, Tayyib) ; *Zainab m. Abu'l-'As b. Rabi', d.
A.H. 7; 'Ruqayyah, m. 'Othman b. 'Affan, d. A.H. 2; *UmmKulthum
m. 'Othman b. 'Affan, d. A.H. 9; *Fa(imah, m. 'Ali, d. A.H. n):
*SaudahbintZam'ah,?d.A.n.5A, *'A'ishah(Ayesha) bint Abi Bekr (d.
A.H. 56), *Hafsa bint 'Omar (d. A.H. 45 or 47), "Zainab bint Khu-
zaimah, d. before A.H. n, *Zainab bint Jahsh, d. A.H. 20, *Umm
Salimah, d. A.H. 59, *Maimunah, d. A.H. 38, *Juwairiyah, d. A.H. 56,
*Umm Habibah Ramlah bint Abi Sofian, d. A.H. 44.

Concubines: — *Safiyyah bint Huyyay, d. A.H. 36, *Raihdnah bint
Zaid, *Mariyah ike Copt, d. A.H. 15 or 16, mother of Ibrahim. (Other
names given by Ibn Sa'd, vol. viii.)

Chronological Table of Chief Events in the Life of Mahomet.1
? 570 Birth.

? 595 Marriage with Khadija.
? 610 Commencement of call.
? 613 Public appearance.

616 Persian conquest of the nearer East.
? 617 Flight of his followers to Abyssinia.

? 618-619 Siege in Mecca. Retractation and subsequent repudia-
tion. Death of Abu Talib and Khadija.
? 620 Flight toTaif.
622 July 16. Beginning of the Moslem era.

Sept. 20. Arrival at Kuba after the Flight.
632 Jan. 27. Death of his son Ibrahim.
632 June 7. Death of Mahomet.

The following dates are given by the Arabic historians according
to their own calendar. For the reasons which have been seen it is
impossible to obtain certain synchronisms.

A.H. 2. Rajab I. Raid of 'Abdallah b. Jahsh to Nakhlah.
Ramadan 19. Battle of Badr.
Shawwal 15. Attack on the Banu Qainuqa.

3. Rabia I. 14. Assassination of Ka'b b. al-Ashraf.
Shawwal 7. Battle of Uhud.

4. Saphar. Massacre of Mahomet's 70 missionaries at Bi'r

Ma'unah.

Rabia I. Attack on the Banu Nadir.
Dhu'l-Qa'da. Abortive raid called " the lesser Badr."

5. Shaaban 2. Attack on the Banu'l-Mustaliq (according

to Waqidi).
Dhu'l-Qa'da. Battle of the Trench.

Massacre of the Banu Quraizah.

6. Jornada i. Capture of a caravan by Zaid b. rlarithah.
Futile attempt to assassinate Abu Sofian.
Dhu'l-Qa'da. Affair of Hodaibiyah.

7. Jornada i. Taking of Khaibar. Mission extended to

the world.
Dhu'l-Qa'da. Pilgrimage to Mecca (called 'umrat al-

qadiyyah)

8 Jornada i. Expedition to Mutah.
Ramadan 20. Taking of Mecca.
Shawwal. Battle of Honain.
Attack on Ta'if.

9. Muharram. Tax-gatherers sent over Arabia.
Rajab. Expedition to Tabuk.

Rival Mosque built at Kuba, destroyed on

Mahomet's return to Medina.
Dhu'l-Hijja. Pilgrimage conducted by Abu Bekr.
Abolition of idolatry in Arabia.

10. Ramadan. Expedition of 'AH to Yemen.
Dhu'l-Qa'da. " Farewell Pilgrimage."

11. Suphur. Expedition ordered against the Byzantines.

Companions of the Prophet.

The sahabah, as they are called, are the subject of a vast literature,
and the biographical dictionaries devoted to them, of which the best
known are the Usd ul-ghaba of the historian Ibn Athir and the Isabah
of Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, enumerate many thousands. The follow-
ing two lists are of special groups.

(a) Naqibs, i.e. leaders selected by Mahomet from the Medinese
tribes: i. Khazrajites : — As'ad b. Zurarah, Sa'd b. al-Rabi',
'Abdallah b. Rawahah, al-Bara' b. Ma'rur, 'Abdallah b. 'Amr b.
Haram, 'Ubadah b. al-§amit, Sa'd b. 'Ubadah, al-Mondhir b. 'Amr;
ii. Ausites: Usaid b. Hudair, Sa'd b. Khaithamah, Rifa'ah b. 'Abd
al-Mondhir.

(b) Commanders of Expeditions: names occurring in (a) are not
repeated : 'Abdallah b. Jahsh, 'Abd ar- Rahman b. 'Auf , Abu Bekr,
Abu Qatadah, Abu 'Ubaidah b. al-Jarrah, 'Ali, 'Alqamah b. Mujaz-
ziz, 'Amr b. al-'As (ibn el- Ass), Bashir b. Sa'd, Dahhak b. Sofian,
Ghalib b. 'Abdallah, Ibn Abi'1-Auja, Ka'b b. 'Umair, Khalid b. al-
Walld, Kurz b. Jabir, Marthad b. Abi Marthad, Muhammad b.

1 Dates are given A.D.

Maslamah, Qutbah b. 'Amir, Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, Sa'd d. Zaid,
Salama b. 'Abd al-Asad, Shuja' b. Wahb, 'Ubaidah b. al-Harith|
'Ukkashah b. Miljsan, 'Umar b. al-Khattab, Usamah b.' Zaidj
'Uyainah b. Hisn, Zaid b. Harithah.

AUTHORITIES. — The biography of Ibn Ishaq was before the world
long before the two chief causes for the falsification of tradition had
begun to have serious effects; these were the need for legal pre-
cedents, and the concept of saintliness, combining those of
asceticism and thaumaturgy. These gave rise to the classical
works on the Evidences of Mohammed's Mission by Abu Nu'aim
(d. A.D. 1012-1013) and Baihaqi (d. A.D. 1066).

Lives of the Prophet (f indicates that the work is lost); t'Urwah b.
Zubair (d. 712-713) ; fMusa b. 'Ukbah (d. 758-759) ; fMohammed b.
Ishaq (d. 768) ; Mohammed b. Hisham (d. 828-829), ed. Wiistenfeld
(Gottingen, 1860) ; reprinted in Egypt by Zubair Pasha, a series of
excerpts from the last; Mohammed b. Omar al-Waqidi (d. 823),
portion published by Kremer (Calcutta, 1855), abridged trans, of
a fuller copy by Wellhausen, Muhammad in Medina (Berlin, 1882);
Mohammed b. Sa'd (d. 844-845), anencyclopaedic work on the history
of Mahomet and his followers, called Tabaqat, ed. Sachau and others
(Berlin, foil.); Mohammed b. Jarir al-Tabari (see TABARI). Many
more writers on this subject are enumerated in the Fihrist, cf.
Sprenger's Leben Muhammads, iii. 54-76.

Among the most popular compilers of later times are: Ibn al-
A'thir (q.v.) al Jazari, the historian (d. 1233) ; Ahmad b. Ali al Kasta-
lani (d. A.D. 1517), whose al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah was published
with commentary (Cairo, !278);Hosainb. Mohammed al Diyarbakri
(d. 1574) whose work Ta'rikh oJ-Khamis was published in Cairo,
A.H. 1382; 'Ali b. Burhan al-din al-rjalabi (d, A.D. 1634), whose
biography called Insan al-'uyun was published in Cairo, A.H. 1292.
To these must be added all the collections of Tradition.

Modern Authorities. — The critical study of the Life of Mahomet be-
gins in Europe with the publication by Th. Gagnier in 1723 of the Life
by Abulfeda (q.v.). Presently there appeared an apologetic biography
by Henri Cmte. de Bpulainvilliers (2nd ed., Amsterdam, 1731), to
which Gagnier replied in 1732 (LaVie de Mahomet, traduite, &c. ibid.).
The next considerable advance in the treatment of the subject is
marked by the biography of G. Weil (Muhammed der Prophet,
Stuttgart, 1843), which is wholly without religious bias; the popular
life by Washington Irving (London, 1849) is based on this. That
by J. L. Merrick (the Life and Religion of Mohammed, Boston, U.S.A.,
1850) rests on Shi'ite sources. The search for MSS. in India con-
ducted by A. Sprenger led to the discovery of fresh material, which
was utilized by Sprenger himself in his unfinished Life of Mohammad
(Pt. I, Allahabad, 1851), and his more elaborate Das Leben und die
Lehre des Mohammad (Berlin, 1861-1865), and by Sir William Muir
in his Life of Mahomet, London, 1858-1861) 4 vols. : afterwards
abridged in one volume and reprinted. These are still the standard
treatises on the subject; the pro-Christian bias of Muirisvery marked,
while Sprenger has hazarded numerous conjectures on subjects
with which he had little familiarity. The biography by S. VV.
Koelle, Mohammed and Mohammedanism (London, 1889), is pro-
Christian, the popular work of Syed Ameer Ali The Spirit of Islam,
(London, 1896) an apology for Mahommedanism. Later treatises,
resting on original authorities, are those by H. Grimme Mohamed,
(Miinster, 1892, and Munich, 1904), F. Buhl, Mohameds Lvo (Copen-
hagen, 1903 — Danish: since translated into German), D. S. Margoli-
outh Mohammed and. the Rise of Islam (N.Y., 1905, &c.), and Prince ,
Caetani Annali del Islam, i. ii. (Milan, 1905-1907). For the direction
of public opinion in Mahomet's favour the Lecture on The Hero as
Prophet in Carlyle's Heroes and Hero-worship (London, 1846) was
singularly effective ; his views were enforced by R. Bosworth Smith
Mohammed and Mohammedanism, (London, 1873, &c.). A some-
what similar line was taken in France by J. Barthelemy Satnt-
Hilaire, Mahomet et le Coran, (Paris, 1865), while the Vie de Mahomet
d'aprks la Tradition of E. Lamairesse and G. Dujarric (Paris, 1897)
is written entirely from the Moslem standpoint.

See further CALIPHATE, ad init.; MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS;
MAHOMMEDANLAW; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. (D. S. M.*)

MAHOMMED AHMED IBN SEYYID ABDULLAH (1848-1885),
Sudanese tyrant, known as " the Mahdi," was born in Dongola.
His family, known as excellent boat-builders, claimed to be
Ashraf (or Sherifs), i.e. descendants of Mahomet. His father
was a fiki or religious teacher, and Mahommed Ahmed devoted
himself early to religious studies. When about twenty years old
he went to live on Abba Island on the White Nile about 150 m.
above Khartum. He first acquired fame by a quarrel with the
head of the brotherhood which he had joined, Mahommed asser-
ting that his master condoned transgression of the divine law.
After this incident many dervishes (religious mendicants)
gathered round the young sheikh, whose reputation for sanctity
speedily grew. He travelled secretly through Kordofan, where
(with ample justification) he denounced to the villagers the extor-
tion of the tax-gatherer and told of the coming of the mahdi
who should deliver them from the oppressor. He also wrote a

MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS

411

pamphlet summoning true believers to purify their religion
from the defilements of the " Turks " i.e. the Egyptian officials
and all non-native inhabitants of the Sudan. The influence he
gained at length aroused the anxiety of the authorities, and in
lay 1 88 1 a certain Abu Saud, a notorious scoundrel, was sent
to Abba Island to bring the sheikh to Khartum. Abu Saud's
nission failed, and Mahommed Ahmed no longer hesitated to
ill himself al-Mahdi al Montasir, " The Expected Guide." In
August he defeated another force sent to Abba Island to arrest
dim, but thereafter deemed it prudent to retire to Jebel Gedir,
the Nuba country south of Kordofan, where he was soon at
he head of a powerful force; and 6000 Egyptian troops under
I'usef Pasha, advancing from Fashoda, were nearly annihilated
i June 1882. By the end of 1882 the whole of the Sudan south
9f Khartum was in rebellion, with the exception of the Bahr-el-
Jha/.ul and the Equatorial Provinces. In January 1883 El
)beid, the capital of Kordofan, was captured. In the November
following Hicks Pasha's force of 10,000 men was destroyed at
Cashgil, and in the same year the mahdi's lieutenant, Osman
)igna, raised the tribes in the eastern Sudan, and besieged
Sinkal and Tokar, near Suakin, routing General Valentine
Baker's force of 2500 men at El Teb in February 1884. The
operations undertaken by Great Britain in face of this state
of affairs are narrated under EGYPT: Military Operations.
It need only be added that General Gordon (g.v.) was besieged
at Khartum by the mahdi and was killed there when the town
was captured by the mahdists on the 25th-26th of January 1885.
The mahdi himself died at Omdurman a few months later
(June 22, 1885), and was succeeded in power by his khalifa
Abdullah.

When he announced his divine mission Mahommed Ahmed
adopted the Shi'ite traditions concerning the mahdi, and thus
put himself in opposition to the sultan of Turkey as the only
true commander of the faithful. To emphasize his position the
mahdi struck coins in his own name and set himself to suppress
all customs introduced by the " Turks." His social and
religious reforms are contained in various proclamations, one of
which is drawn up in the form of ten commandments. They
concern, chiefly, such matters as ritual, prayers, soberness in food
and raiment, the cost of marriage and the behaviour of women.
How far the mahdi was the controller of the movement which
he started cannot be known, but from the outset of his public
career his right-hand man was a Baggara tribesman named
Abdullah (the khalifa), who became his successor, and after his
llight to Jebel Gedir the mahdi was largely dependent for his
support on Baggara sheikhs, who gratified one of his leading
tastes by giving him numbers of their young women. In the
few months between the fall of Khartum and his death the mahdi,
relieved from the incessant strain of toil, copied in his private
life all the vices of Oriental despots while maintaining in public
the austerity he demanded of his followers. His death is vari-
ously attributed to disease and to poisoning by a woman of his
harem. On the occupation of Omdurman by the British (Sept.
1898) the mahdi's tomb was destroyed, his body burnt and the
ashes thrown into the Nile (see SUDAN: Anglo-Egyptian).

See Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan by F. R. Wingate (1891);
Ten Years' Captivity in the Mahdi's Camp (1882-1892) from the MS.
of Father Joseph Ohrwalder by F. R. Wingate (1892) and Fire and
Sword in the Sudan (1879-1895) by Slatin Pasha (trans. F. R.
Wingate, 1896). Both Ohrwalder and Slatin were personally
acquainted with the mahdi, and their narratives contain much
first-hand information. Wingate prints many translations of the
proclamations and correspondence of the mahdi.

MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS. Of all the institutions
of Islam the caliphate is the oldest, the most fundamental, and
in essence the most enduring. For its history see CALIPHATE;
the present subject is its origin and nature. Mahomet enjoyed
absolute rule over his people as a divinely inspired and guided
prophet. He led the public prayers; he acted as judge; he
juled. If he consulted with others or paid attention to public
feeling or local usage, it was as a matter of policy; the ultimate
decision lay with himself. He was the state. On his death a
leader was put in his place of similar authority, though without

the divine prophetic guidance. He was called the " successor "
(khalifa, caliph) of the Prophet, later also the amir-al-mu'minin,
commander of the faithful, and was elected by the The CaU-
Moslems, just as the Arab tribes had always elected pbatc.
their chiefs. He was thus an absolute ruler, but was democrati-
cally elected; and such is the essence of the caliphate among
Sunnite Moslems to this day. For them it has been a matter
of agreement (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW) from the earliest times
that the Moslem community must appoint such a leader (see
IMAM). The Shi'ites, on the other hand, hold that the appoint-
ment lies with God, and that God always has appointed, though
his appointment may not always have been known and accepted.
Their position may be called a legitimist one. Some few hereti-
cal sects have held that the necessity of a leader was based on
reason, not on the agreement of the community. But, for all,
the rule of the leader thus appointed is absolute, and all authority
is delegated from him and, in theory, can be resumed by him at
any time. Just as God can require unreasoning obedience from
his creatures (his " slaves " in Arabic), so can the caliph, his
representative on earth.

But Abu Bekr, the first caliph, nominated his successor,
Omar, and that nomination was accepted and confirmed by the
people. So a second precedent was fixed, which was again
carried a step farther, when Moawiya I., the first Omayyad
caliph, nominated his son, Yazld I., as his successor, and caused
an oath of allegiance to be taken to him. The hereditary
principle was thus introduced, though some relics of the form of
election persisted and still persist. The true election possible
in the early days of the small community at Medina became first
a formal acceptance by the populace of the capital; then an
assertion, by the palace guard, of their power; and now, in the
investiture of the sultans of the Ottoman Turks, who claim the
caliphate, a formal ceremony by the 'ulema (q.v.) of Constanti-
nople. The Ottoman claim is based on an asserted nomination
by the last Abbasid, who died in exile in Egypt in 1538, of the
Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Great, as his successor. Such a
nomination in itself was a perfectly legal act, but in this case had
a fatal flaw. It is an absolute condition, laid down in tradition,
that the caliph must be of the tribe of Koreish (Quraish),
that of the Prophet.

The duties of this democratically elected autocrat are, in
theory, generally stated as follows. He shall enforce legal
decisions and maintain the divinely revealed restrictive ordi-
nances; guard the frontiers and equip armies; receive the alms;
put down robberies, thieving, highwaymen; maintain the
Friday services and the festivals; decide disputes and receive
evidence bearing on legal claims; marry minors, male and female,
who have no guardians; divide booty. He must be a free,
male, adult Moslem; must have administrative ability; must be
an effective governor and do justice to the wronged. So long as
he fulfils these conditions he is to be absolutely obeyed ; private
immorality or even tyranny are not grounds for deposing him.
This is a position reached by Islam practically. But a caliph
who openly denied the faith would be as impossible as an un-
believing pope. The caliph, therefore, is the highest executive
officer of a system assumed to be definite and fixed. He, in a
word, administers Islam; and the content of Islam is determined
by the agreement of the Moslem people, expressed immediately
through the 'ulema, and ultimately, if indirectly and half-
consciously, by the people. To depose him a.fatu-d (see MUFTI)
would be required — in Turkey from the Sheikh-ul-Islam — that
he had violated some essential of the Moslem faith, and no longer
fulfilled the conditions of a caliph.

But it was impossible for the caliph personally to administer
the affairs of the empire, and by degrees the supreme office was
gradually put into commission, until the caliph himself
became a mere figurehead, and vanished into the sacred
seclusion of his palace. The history of the creation of
government bureaus (dnaans; see DIVAN) must therefore now
be sketched. The first need which appeared was that of a
means of regulating and administering the system of taxation
and the revenues of the state. Immense sums flowed into
Medina from the Arab conquests; the surplus, after the require-
ments of the state were met, was distributed among the believers.

_.

412

MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS

All Moslems had a right to a certain share of this, which was
regarded as booty. Omar, the second caliph, regulated this dis-
tribution and also the system of taxation, and the result was the
first divan and the constitution of Omar, looked back to now by all
Sunnite Moslems as an ideal. The sources of revenue were (i) the
poor-rate (zakdt), a tithe paid by every Moslem; (ii) the fifth of all
booty; (iii) the poll-tax (jizya) on non-Moslems; and (iv) the land-
tax (kharaj) also on non-Moslems. Thus the constitution determined
the position of all non-Moslems in a Moslem state. The ideal was
that the Moslems should be kept apart as a superior, fighting caste,
and that the non-Moslems should support them (cf. CALIPHATE, B.
§ 8, on the reign of Omar II.). The Moslems, therefore, were for-
bidden to acquire land in conquered countries. The non-Moslems
must retain their lands, cultivate them and pay the land-tax (the
Arabic word is also used of revenue from the work of a slave) and
the poll-tax (the Arabic word means also " ransom "), and give
contributions in kind to support the local Moslem garrisons which
were massed in great camp-cities at strategic points. If a non-
Moslem embraced Islam he entered the ruling caste; his land was
distributed among his non-Moslem fellows, and he no longer paid
the land-tax but rather received support from the public funds.
The amount of these pensions varied with the standing of the
pensioner from 10,000 dirhems (a dirhem equalled about a franc)
to the widows and relations of the Prophet down to 300. This
bureau had, therefore, not only to keep the books of the state, but
also to maintain a list of all Moslems, classified genealogically and
socially. Its registers were kept by Greeks, Copts and Persians;
the Arabs, it may be said in general, adopted the method of ad-
ministration which they found in the captured countries and drew
upon the trained services of their inhabitants.

Such a system led naturally to wholesale conversions to Islam ;
and the consequent decline in revenue, combined witlfMarge dona-
tions of lands by Othman, the third caliph, to his own family,
gradually broke it down. The first patriarchal period of conquest,
unearned wealth and the simple life — called by Moslems the period
of the " four rightly guided caliphs," and very happily by Sachau,
ein monchisches Imperium — passed rapidly into the genuinely Arab
empire of the Omayyads, with whom came an immediate develop-
ment of organization in the state. The constructive genius in this
was Moawiya, the first Omayyad caliph. Under him the old sim-
plicity vanished. A splendid and ceremonious court was maintained
at Damascus. A chamberlain kept the door; a bodyguard sur-
rounded the caliph, and even in the mosque the caliph, warned by
the murder of Othman and of Ali, prayed in a railed-off enclosure.
The beginning of the seclusion of the caliph had come, and he no
longer walked familiarly among his fellow Moslems. This seclusion
increased still further when the administration of the state passed by
delegation into other hands, and the caliph himself became a sacro-
sanct figure-head, as in the case of the later Abbasids; when
theories of semi-divine nature and of theocratic rule appeared, as
in the case of the Fatimites; and finally when all the elaborate court
ritual of Byzantium was inherited by the Ottoman sultans.

But Moawiya I. was still a very direct and personal ruler. He
developed a post-system for the carrying of government despatches
by relays, and thus received secret information from and kept
control of the most distant provinces. He established a sealing-
bureau by which state papers were secured against change. He
dealt arbitrarily with the revenues of the state and the pensions of
the Moslems. Governors of provinces were given a much freer
hand, and were required to turn over to the central treasury their
surplus revenue only. As they were either conquerors or direct
successors of conquerors they had an essentially military govern-
ment, and were really semi-independent rulers, unhampered except
by direct action of the caliph, acting on information sent by the post-
master, who was his local spy. Being thus the heads of armies of
occupation, they were not necessarily charged with the control of
religious ritual and of justice. These, like every other function,
inhered in the office of the caliph and he generally appointed in each
province independent cadis over the courts and imams to be in
charge of religious services. Yet the governor was sometimes per-
mitted to hold these two other offices (see CADI; IMAM).

Further administrative developments came with the Abbasids.
They created a new city, Bagdad, between the Tigris and the
Euphrates, where the three races, Syrian, Arab and Persian, met
and sought with Bagdad as a capital to- consolidate the empire.
The Arab empire, it is true, had passed away with the Omayyads;
yet there might be a chance to create a world-empire of all the
Moslem peoples. But not even the genius and administrative
skill of the early Abbasids could hold together that unwieldy
mass. The semi-independent provinces soon became fully
independent, or at most acknowledged the caliph as a spiritual
head and paid a nominal tribute. His name might stand on the
coinage and prayers be offered for him in the Friday service,
the two signs of sovereignty to this day in Islam. With this
crumbling of the empire went a more elaborate organization;

bureaus took the place of principles and of -the energy of indi-
vidual rulers. As the system of Moslem law was built on that
of the Roman codes, so was the machinery of administration on
that of Persia. And with the Abbasids the chance of the Persians
had come. Abu '1-Abbas, the first Abbasid caliph, was the first
to appoint a vizier (wazir, " helper," so Aaron is The
viazlr to Moses in the Koran), a confidential minister vizierate.
to advise him and come between him and the people. Advisers
the caliphs had had before; but not a definite adviser with this
name. He must, we are told, have a strain of the ruler in him
and a strain of the people to be able to work with both. He
must know how to be acceptable; fidelity and truthfulness are his
capital; sagacity, firmness, generosity, clemency, dignity, effec-
tiveness of speech are essential. It is plain that the vizier became
as important as the caliph. But Abu '1-Abbas was fortunate
in early securing as his vizier the grandfather of the house of
the Barmecides (q.v.). On this Persian family the fortunes of
the Abbasids hung, and it secured for them and for Islam a short
golden age, like that of the Antonines, until the jealous madness
of Harun al-Rashid cast them down. Thereafter the vizierate
had many vicissitudes. Technically a vizier could be either
limited or unlimited. The limited vizier had no initiative; he
carried out the commands of the caliph. The unlimited vizier,
often afterwards called the grand vizier, exercised full authority
and was the alter ego of the caliph, to whom he was required
only to report. Naturally the formal distinction is a later
theorizing of history; for a weak ruler his vizier became absolute,
for a strong ruler his vizier remained subordinate. Here, as
with regard to all Moslem institutions, a marked distinction
must be made between the historic facts and the speculative
edifices raised by constitutional theorizers. Compare especially
MAHOMMEDAN LAW. Until the time of Radi (934-940) the
vizierate thus fluctuated in importance. In that caliphate the
vizier lost all authority, and in his place came the amir al-omara
— equivalent to the major domus of the Franks — the head of the
Turkish bodyguard, in terror of whom the caliph now stood.
When in 945 the Buyids captured Bagdad and the caliph became
a purely spiritual sovereign, they took the title " vizier " for
their own chief minister, and the caliphs retained only a secre-
tary (see CALIPHATE, C. § 22). Under the Seljuks, however,
they regained their viziers and some real authority. Elsewhere,
also the vizierate had its vicissitudes. Under the Mamelukes
the vizier fell to be merely the court purveyor. Under the
Omayyads of Spain the title was given to several responsible
officers of the state, but their chief was called hajib, chamberlain.
Under the Almohades the chamberlain was called vizier. In the
modern Turkish empire the grand vizier (called generally sadr
A'zam) is the sultan's representative in secular matters, and
nominally stands between the sovereign and all the other offi-
cials. He is the president of the council of ministers, but Abd-ul
Hamid II. deprived the office of almost all its importance.

Under the early Abbasids the four most important ministers were
the chief cadi, the chief of police or head of the life guards, the
minister of finance and the postmaster, who was the
head of the system of information and espionage which
covered the empire. But at different times the different
bureaus varied greatly. Under Motawakkil we find the bureau
of taxes and finance; bureau of the crown estates; bureau of state
book-keeping; bureau of war, i.e. of hired troops; bureau which
kept reckoning and control of the pensions of the clients and
slaves of the ruling family; bureau of the post system; bureau of
expenditures. But in spite of this elaborate system, no Moslem
government has, except sporadically, been highly centralized. Pro-
vided the taxes are paid, a large measure of local autonomy has
always been enjoyed by the country districts. Under the Abbasids
almost the only exception was the necessarily centralized control
of the irrigation system of the Tigris and Euphrates. And
similarly elsewhere.

In the case of all these offices, we have delegation by the caliph,
under necessity, of his too heavy burdens. But one duty of an
Oriental ruler he could not so easily lay aside. It had always to be
possible for the oppressed to come into his presence and claim justice;
he must sit in the gate and judge. Therefore, when the caliph found
it necessary to delegate the ordinary administration of justice, he
found it also necessary to set up a special court of oppressions, which
developed, to a certain extent, into a court of appeals. The first
to establish such a separate court was Abdal-malik the Omayyad

MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS

(685-705), and his example was followed by the more vigorous of the
caliphs up to the time of Mohtadi the Abbasid (869-870). If any
other than the caliph presided over this court it had to be a man
whose dignity, independence and authority commanded respect. He
wai not bound by strict rules of evidence, method and literal appli-
cation of law as was the cadi. Rather, he applied a system of equity
suited to the absolute source of authority which he represented.

: he chief of police, mentioned above, was rather the head of the
li's bodyguard, there was also a police system after our ideas,
but more thoroughgoing. The muhtasib had charge in the broadest
of public order and morals in the streets, and had oversight as
i^hts, measures and adulterations; but had no right to interfere
privately or enter houses save in the clearest and most necessary cases.
He had a summary jurisdiction in all minor cases where no trial was
; but where witnesses and oaths entered the case must go
le cadi. Slaves and beasts of burden were under his guardian-
ship ; he prevented public scandals, such as the sale of wine; he regu-
lated the public conduct of Jews and Christians. In the interest
of public morals he had to find suitable husbands for widows and
see that they did not marry before the legal time; questions of
paternity also he had to investigate. The outdoor costume of the
people he could regulate. It should, of course, be remembered that
inon law of Islam covers minutely all sides of life (see MAHOM-
MEDAN LAW).

It is impossible in Islam to separate logically from the mass
of institutions those which we should call religious, as Islam on
all sides is for the Moslem equally religious. But perhaps the
following may practically be separated under that rubric. Islam ,
runs a tradition, is built on five things: testimony that there is
no god save Allah, and that Mahomet is the apostle of Allah;
prayer; the poor-rate; pilgrimage; fasting. For these see
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION.

The law and usage of religious foundations in perpetuity (waqf,
mortmain) became as important in Islam as monastic endowments
in medieval Europe, and such foundations tended similarly to absorb
the greater part of the national wealth. It was the only safe way
of providing for posterity. A pious foundation could be erected in
such a way that either so much from its funds would be paid yearly
in perpetuity to the descendants of the erector, or those descendants
would be employed as officials of the foundation.

When it became impossible for the caliph to lead the people
personally in prayer in the mosque, he delegated that part of his
- duties to another, hence called imam (q.v.). Naturally,
'" then, the appointment of the imam would lie with the
supreme ruler. This holds of the daily prayers in the principal
mosque (al-masjid al-jami') supported by the ruler where the Friday
service is held, but in the separate smaller mosques built by each
community the community chooses its own imam. With regard
to the Friday service, the schools of law disagree as to the necessity
of the presence of an imam appointed by the chief ruler. But the
imam should certainly make mention of the ruler in his sermon and
pray for him. At the occasional prayers, such as those for rain, &c.,
the presence of an imam appointed by the ruler is not necessary. The
imam appoints the muaddhin, the announcer of the hour of prayer
from the minaret, and both have a claim on the state treasury.

Another office exercised when possible by the caliph, but very
frequently delegated to some high dignitary, such as the heir to the
caliphate or a prince, was the leadership «f the pilgrimage caravan
to Mecca and back. Sometimes this official, called amir-al-bajj , was
appointed imam as well. He then led all the pilgrimage ceremonies
at Mecca. When outside of towns where there was a cadi he
ed also over the caravan the rights of a judge.

Mahommedan law (q.v.) is treated separately. Here, again, as
judging is a duty of the caliph, a cadi is the delegate, or, when ap-
Tbe Cadi P°'nted "V a v'zier or governor, a delegate of his delegate.
He examines into disputes brought before him arid
enforces his judgments, he names administrators of the estates of
minors, the insane, &c. ; he supervises the waqf property of mosques
and schools in his district and inspects highways and public buildings ;
he watches over the execution of wills; he inflicts the due legal
penalties for apostasy, neglect of religious duties, refusal to pay taxes,
theft, adultery, outrages, murder; he can inflict the penalties of
imprisonment, fine, corporal punishment, death; if there is no imam,
he can perform his duty, as in fact can anyone who has the requisite
knowledge. But it should be noticed that all this holds only of the
un-europeanized Moslem state.

For the existence of an army in Islam, there are two grounds,
the holy war (jihad, q.v.) against unbelievers without the state
The Army. &D^ tne suppression of rebellion within. Under the
ordinance of Omar the entire community was pre-
served and used as a weapon for the subduing of the world to
Islam, and every able-bodied male Moslem was theoretically a
fighting man, part of the national militia. This army was
divided into corps situated in the conquered lands, as armies
of occupation, where they eventually came to form military

colonies in great camp-cities. The occupied countries had to
support them, and they were bound to render military service
at any time. But as the ideal of Omar broke down before facts
the use of mercenary and slave troops finally increased; although
there has always continued in Moslem armies acting against
unbelievers a proportion of volunteers not paid a fixed wage
but subsidized by the state from the poor-rate and alms funds.
The generals were appointed by the caliph, and had either
unlimited authority to act as his representatives, concluding
peace, acting as cadi and imam, distributing booty; or were
restricted within limits, e.g. to simple leading of the troops and
carrying on military operations. They, in turn, appointed their
subordinates; this principle of giving a head full powers and
full responsibility was very generally applied in Islam. It was
controlled of course by the espionage of the postal system. As
war by a Moslem power is essentially sacred war, the regulations
of jihad must be considered here. Unbelievers must first be
invited to embrace Islam and, if they follow a sacred book and
are not idol-worshippers, are given a choice between (a) becoming
Moslems; or (b) submitting to the Moslems and entering on a
treaty with them of protection and tribute; or (c) fighting. If
they accept Islam, their lives, families and property are secure,
and they form henceforth part of the Moslem community. The
ability of Islam to create a common feeling between highly
different races is one of its most striking features. If they
submit and enter on treaty relations, they pay a poll-tax, for
which their personal safety is assured, and assume a definitely
inferior status, having no technical citizenship in the state, only
the condition of protected clients (dhimmis). If they elect to
fight, the door of repentance is open, even when the armies are
face to face. But after defeat their lives are forfeit, their families
are liable to slavery, and all their goods to seizure. It is open
to the sovereign either to put them 'to death; or to enslave
them; or to give them their liberty; or to exchange them for
ransom or against Moslem prisoners. The sovereign will choose
that which is best for Islam. As for their families and wealth, the
sovereign can release them only with consent of the army that
has captured them. Apostates must be put to death. Four-
fifths of the booty after a battle goes to the conquering army.
The technical art of war seems to have been little studied
among Moslems; they have treatises on archery but very little
upon tactics. Their writers recognize, however, the essential
difference between the European and Persian methods of charging
in solid lines and holding the ground stubbornly, and the Arab
and Berber method of flying attacks and retreats by clouds of
cavalry. Therefore, one explained, the custom grew of using
a mass of European mercenaries as a fixed nucleus and rallying-
point. The early Moslem armies, too, had used the solid,
unyielding charge, which may have been the secret of their
success. For one of the greatest puzzles of history is the cause
which changed the erratic, untrustworthy swarms of Arab
horsemen with their childish strategy into the ever-victorious
legions of the first caliphs. They certainly learned rapidly.
Byzantium and Persia taught them the use of military engines
and the entrenched camp. Before that they had been, at the
best, single knights with mail-shirt, helmet, sword and lance.
Bowmen, too, they used, but the principal use of the bow seems
to have come with the Turks.

The glory of Moslem education was its university system, which
fed the higher learning and did not serve every-day needs. Its
primary system was very poor, almost non-existent; CAucstlott
and technical education has never been recognized in
Islam. Primary teachers were despised as ignorant and foolish.
Apparently, if we may trust the many stones of how ignorant
men set up for themselves, there was no control of them by the
state. Their pupils were young only; they taught the rudiments
of reading, Koran, catechism, prayer, writing and arithmetic, but
very little of the latter. Technical education was given by the
gilds through their apprentice system, teaching mechanical arts
and crafts. This was genuine instruction, but was not so regarded ;
it was looked upon rather as are the mysteries and secrets of operative
masonry. It produced artisans of independent character, but not
artists. Thus there was no distinction between architect and builder ;
there was no sculpture; and painting, so far as it went, was like
carving, a craft. All Moslem university education, like all Moslem

MAHOMMEDAN LAW

science, revolved round theology. There were, apparently, only two
outstanding exceptions to this rule, the academy of Maraun (813-
833) at Bagdad, and the hall of wisdom of the Fatimites at Cairo
(1004-1171); both of these are explained by their environment.
From the earliest times, independent scholars instructed classes
in mosques — the common places of meeting for. the community —
and gave their pupils personal certificates. Their subjects were
the reading and interpretation of the Koran; the body of tradi-
tions from the Prophet; the thence deduced system of theology;
the canon law. But the interpretation of the Koran involved
grammatical and lexicographical studies of early Arabic, and hence
of the early Arabic literature. Theology came to involve meta-
physical and logical studies. Canon law required arithmetic and
mensuration, practical astronomy, &c. But these last were strictly
ancillary ; the object of the instruction was primarily to give know-
ledge of value for the life of the next world, and, secondarily, to turn
out theologians and lawyers. Medicine was in Jewish and Christian
hands; engineering, architecture, &c., with their mathematical bases,
were crafts. Then this instruction was gradually subsidized and
organized by the state, or endowed by individuals. How early this
took place is uncertain. But the individual teacher, with his
certificate, remained the object of the student; there was nothing
corresponding to our general degrees. Thirdly, educational institu-
tions came to be equipped with scholarships of money or in kind
for the students. The first instance of this is generally ascribed to
Nishapur (Naisabur) in 1066; but it soon became general in the
system and afforded a means of control and centralization. A final,
and most important, characteristic was the wide journeying of the
students " in search of knowledge." Aided by Arabic as the univer-
sal language of learning, students journeyed from teacher to teacher,
and from Samarkand to the Atlantic, gathering on their way hundreds
of personal certificates. Scholars were thus kept in touch all over
the Moslem world, and intellectual unity was maintained.

To the democratic equality of Islam, in which the slave of
to-day may be the prime minister of to-morrow, there is one
outstanding exception. The descendants of the
Sae ldg Prophet and of his relatives (the family of Hashim)
formed and form a special class, held in social
reverence, and guarded from contamination and injury. These
are the sayyids (lords), and genealogical registers of them are
carefully preserved. They are of all degrees of wealth and
poverty, but are guarded legally from misalliances with persons
of ignoble origin or equivocal occupation. Their influence is
very great, and in some parts of the Moslem world they have
the standing and reverence of saints.

See Von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des Orients, based largely on
Mawardi's Ahkam, trans, in part by Ostrorog; McG. de Slane's trans,
of Ibn Khaldun, Prolegomenes; Lane, Manners and Customs of the
Modern Egyptians; R. F. Burton, Pilgrimage to Mekka; Snouck
Hurgronje, Mekka; Hughes, Dictionary of Islam; Juynboll, De
Mohammedaansche Wet; Macdonald, Development of Muslim
Theology, &c. For women in Islam, see HAREM. (D. B. MA.)

MAHOMMEDAN LAW. The legal situation in the Moslem
world is of the highest complexity, and can be made intelligible
only by tracing its historical development. First came the
system (fiqh, shari'a) which takes the place in Islam of canon
law in Roman Christendom. It begins with Mahomet sitting
as judge over the primitive Moslem community at Medina. He
was, the Prophet of God, and judged, as he ruled, absolutely;
any decision of his was valid. But he found it, in general,
advisable and fitting to follow the local law or usage .of Medina
when the new faith did not require a change. It thus came
about that his decisions followed, at one time, the usage of the
Arab tribes of Medina; at another, the law respected by the
Jewish tribes there — a rabbinic development of the law of Moses,
deeply affected by Roman law; at another, the more developed
commercial law of Mecca, known to his followers who had fled
thence with him; or, finally, his own personal judgment, stated
it might be as his own sense of right or as the decision of Allah
and even incorporated in the Koran. In his use of these he was
an eclectic opportunist, and evidently, except as regards such
frequently recurring subjects as inheritance, marriage, &c., had
no thought of building up a system or code. At his death he
left behind only a few specific prescriptions in the Koran and
a mass of recorded decisions of cases that had come before him.
He had used himself, in our terms, common law, equity, legisla-
tion; to guide his followers he left his legislative enactments and
the record of his use of common law. Since his death there has
been no new legislation in orthodox Islam.

With the death of Mahomet began the development and
codification of Moslem law. It was at first entirely practical.
Cases had to be decided, and to decide them there was, first
the Koran; secondly, if nothing ad rent was found in the Koran,
there were the decisions of the Prophet; thirdly, if these failed,
there was the common law of Medina; and, fourthly, if it, in
turn, failed, the common sense of the judge, or equity. A
knowledge of the decisions of Mahomet came thus to be of great
importance, and records of such decisions were eagerly sought and
preserved. But this was simply a part of a much wider movement
and tendency. As among primitive peoples in general, custom
and usage have always been potent among the Arabs. The
ways of the fathers, the old paths, they love to tread. Very
early there arose a special reverence for the path and usage
(sHnna) of Mahomet. Whatever he did or said, or left unsaid
or undone, and how he did it, has become of the first importance
to the pious Moslem, who would act in every way as did the
Prophet. There is evidence that for this purpose the immediate
companions of Mahomet took notes, either in memory or in
writing, of his table talk and wise sayings, just as they took
down or learned by heart for their private use the separate
fragments of the Koran. His sayings and doings, manners and
customs, his answers to questions on religious life and faith,
above all his decisions in legal disputes, came to be recorded on
odd sheets in private notebooks. This was the beginning of
the enormous literature of traditions (hadlth) in Islam. The
collecting and preserving of these, which was at first private,
for personal guidance and edification, finally became one of the
most powerful weapons of political and theological propaganda,
and coloured the whole method and fabric of Moslem thought.
All knowledge tended to be expressed in that form, and each
element of it to be traced back to, and given in the words of,
some master or other through a chain of transmitters. Above
all there grew up an enormous mass of evidently forged sayings
put into the mouth of Mahomet. At every important political
or theological crisis each party would invent and put into circu-
lation a tradition from him, supporting its view. By a study
of these flatly opposed " sayings " it is possible to reconstruct
the different controversies of Islam in the past, and to discover
what each party regarded as the essence of its position.

The first collecting of traditions was for private purposes, and the
first publication dealing with them was legal. This was the Muwafla.'
of Malik ibn Anas (d. 795), a corpus juris based partly on traditions,
and a protest in its methods against the too speculative character of
the books of canon law which preceded it. Thereafter came collec-
tions of two different types. The earlier kind was arranged accord-
ing to the companions of Mahomet, on whose authority the traditions
were transmitted ; after each companion came the traditions going
back to him. The best known example of this kind is the Musnad
of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. The other kind, called Mu$annaf (classified),
contains traditions arranged in chapters according to their subject
matter. That of Bukhari is the most famous, and is arranged to
give a traditional basis for a complete system of canon law; its
rubrics are those of such a system. Another is that of Muslim ibn
al-Hajjaj, who paid less attention to legal aspects and more to minute
accuracy. There are many others of more or less acceptance and
canonicity. Bukhara's book enjoys a reverence only second to that
of the Koran. But in all these publications the primary object was
to purify the mass of traditions of forged accretions and to give to
the believer a sound basis for his knowledge of the usages of the
Prophet, whether for his personal or for public use. These two kinds
were a natural development. In the Moslem community there were
from the first students of tradition proper whose interest lay in col-
lecting, testing and transmitting, not in combining, systematizing
and elucidating; whose preference was to take a single statement
from the Prophet and apply it to a case, without reasonings or
questionings. And there were students of canon law who were
interested rather in the system and results, and who, while they used
traditions, used them only to an end and insisted on the free applica-
tion of speculative principles. The conflict of the future was to be
between these traditionalists, on the one hand, and rationalists, on
the other; and the result was to be a compromise.

With the wide sweep of Moslem conquest another element
came into the development. This was Roman law, which the
Moslem jurist found at work in the conquered Roman provinces
and in the law courts of which they went to school. It is to
be remembered that the Arab armies were not devastating
hordes; they recognized the need of law and order wherever

MAHOMMEDAN LAW

they went, and it was the policy of their leaders to take over
the administrative systems of the countries which they seized.
Even the Arabic legal nomenclature shows evident signs of
literal translation from Latin, and many Moslem principles can
be traced to the Roman codes. One important development
was plainly influenced by the liberty involved in the Responsa
prudentium of Roman lawyers, and by the broad conception
of the law of nature in the Edict of the Praetor. In its earliest
s Moslem law recognized in the judge a liberty of opinion
••) which went beyond even that of the Responsa and became
plain equity, in the English sense, and one school (the Hanifite)
established as a basis the right of preference (islihsdn) even when
the analogy of the code dictated otherwise; while another (the
Malikite) used the term istitfdh, "a seeking of (general) benefit"
to the community, in a similar situation. But these develop-
ments were bitterly contested, and the liberty of opinion was
in the end narrowed down to a principle of analogy (qiyas), the
nearest approach to which in Western law is legal fiction.

It is necessary now to return to the first successorsof Mahomet.
" For thirty years after my death," he is said to have declared,
" my people will tread in my path (sunna); thereafter will come
kings and princes." This tradition crystallizes the later feeling
of Islam. The first thirty years were a golden age; the centre of
the state was the Prophet's own city of Medina; the conditions
of the state continued in close conformity to those of his own
time. The study of tradition, i.e. of his usage, went hand in
hand with the study of law. They were vital functions of the
state, and it encouraged both.

Then came the great debdcle. The ancien regime, a semi-
monkish, theocratic empire, went down, and the Omayyad
dynasty, kings and princes of the old Arab type, took its place
(see CALIPHATE, B). The public life of the state was no longer
deeply religious; the pious said that it was godless. Under
these conditions law was indeed still needed; but it had to be
opportunist. Its development went on, but became speculative.
The study of tradition was now private, and its students were
more and more the personally pious. There were, thus, two
results. On the one hand, the framers of systems of canon
law— as it now was — no longer lived in contact with reality;
hypothetical and ideal structures were reared which could never
stand the touch of the practical law-court. And on another,
traditions and law, even this hypothetical law, came to take
separate roads. The interest of the students of tradition became
the gathering of traditions for their own sake, going no farther
than a striving to regulate each detail of life by some specific,
concrete, prophetic dictum. They had no use for systems that
went beyond the mere registering of these dicta. The feeling
also became widespread that any system of government which
did not simply reproduce the patriarchal form of Medina was
of the world and the devil — a thing with which no religious man
could have aught to do. At every turn he would have to peril
his soul.

Here we must place the transition of this law with which we
have hitherto dealt from being the law of the land to being in
essence a variety of canon law. It was always broader than any
western secular law. It regulated all the aspects of life — duty
to God, to one's neighbour, to one's self. It was really a system
of duties, ethical, legal, religious. It did not limit itself to
defining the forbidden (hardm); but designated actions also as
required (fard, wdjib), recommended (mandub, mustahabb),
indifferent (ja'iz, mubdk), disliked (makruh). It played the
part of, or rendered necessary, a religious director quite as much
as a lawyer. And for a time at Medina it was really the law
of the land. But from the Omayyad period on it has held the
position of the canon law of the Roman Church in countries that
will not recognize it and yet dare not utterly reject it. It
governs, in one or other of its four schools, the private lives of
all pious Moslems, it regulates some semi-public relationships —

;. marriage, divorce, inheritance; it compels respect, if not
acceptance, from the state; and by its ideal standard the world,
filled with righteousness by the Mahdi, will be ruled in the
Moslem millennium.

The rise of the Abbasids brought a change, but not a great
one. They had promised a return to the old religious attitudes,
and the promise was formally kept. But in substance they
were as much as the Omayyads, and though the state was
outwardly on a pious footing, and the religious sentiment of
the people was respected, the old, absolute canon law was not
restored. It was made possible for more theologians and
lawyers to work with the state, but an irreconcilable party still
remained, and the situation was fixed as it is to this day. It is
true that the struggle to adapt such a single and detailed system
to all (he varying conditions, climates and times of the great
empire was impossible; but the failure marked the great rent
in the supposed unity of Islam between the church and the
world, religion and law.

Yet the Abbasids did, in their way, encourage legal studies,
and under them processes and results, long pursued in private,
became public. Almost within the first century of their dynasty
the four legal schools, or rites, were formed and the principles
established which survive to this day.

The first school to take definite form was the Hanifite, founded
by Abu Hanifa (d. 767), who left behind him a definite system and
many enthusiastic pupils. He was a man of means, in touch with
commercial, but not with practical legal life, a speculative or philo-
sophical jurist. Being of non-Arab origin, the usage of Medina had
small interest for him. He therefore used few traditions, and pre-
ferred to go back to the Koran, and extract from it by reasoning the
rulings which fitted his ideas. This he called the use of analogy
(qiyds);_ but, in his hands, it became practically legal fiction, the
application of a law in some sense undreamed by its first imposer.
But he had another, and still freer instrument. The effect of differ-
ences in local conditions had been early observed and admitted in
general terms. Abu Hanifa reduced it to a subjective formula.
Under such conditions he claimed the right of preference (istifisan) of
a ruling suited to the local needs, even when the strict analogy in-
dicated otherwise. This met and meets with vehement protest
when formally stated, but the usage of Islam has practically accepted
it. His system, finally, was not developed through the exigencies
of actual cases, but was worked out as a system of casuistry, though
in a good sense. He tried, that is, to construct a system of rules to
answer any conceivable question. After his death his pupils
elaborated it still further, and accepted public office. The 'Abbasids
adopted his school, and threw their influence on its side ; its philo-
sophic breadth and casuistic possibilities evidently commended it
to them. Later, the Ottoman Turks also adopted it, and it may
be said to hold now a leadership among the four legal rites. Its
influence has undoubtedly tended to broaden and humanize
Moslem law.

Twenty-eight years after Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas, the founder
of the Malikite school, died at Medina. In many points his situation
was precisely opposite to that of Abu Hanifa, and yet his results
were very similar. He was a working jurist, in practical touch with
actual life; he was in the centre of the tradition of the usage of the
Prophet, in the line, one might say, of the apostolic succession. He,
therefore, used traditions much more generally than did Abu Hanifa,
and when he, under pressure, took refuge in opinion, he certainly
felt that he, under his conditions, had a better right to do so than
any outsider. But two of his principles marked a distinct advance
and showed that he was no mere traditionalist. For one, he laid
down the conception of public advantage (istislafi) ; when a rule
founded on even a valid analogy would work a general injury it was
to b« set aside; justice must not be overcome by logic. And, for
the other, he laid stress on the conception of the agreement (tjma'),
an idea which was to have indefinite importance in the future.
When the surviving companions of the Prophet, after his death,
agreed upon any point as belonging to their store of tradition and
experience, their agreement was accepted as final. In the first
instance they agreed that such had been the statement of the Prophet.
That easily passed over into an agreement that such was the true
Moslem view, and finally into an acceptance of the principle that the
Moslem Church, when unanimous, could formulate truth — practic-
ally as in the canon of Vincent of LeVins, Quod semper, quod ubiqur,
quod ab omnibus. But such a broadly catholic position was still in
the future, and for Malik, juristic agreement meant the agreement
of Medina, though there are signs that he permitted the same latitude
to other places also. It was a way of allowing for local conditions
rather than of reaching the voice of the Church. His law book, the
Muwafta', the earliest in our possession written bv the founder of
a school, has already been mentioned. It is a collection of about
seventeen hundred traditions of juristic importance, arranged
according to subject, with appended remarks on the usage of Medina
and on his own view of each matter.

So far opinion and local usage had fully held their own, and the
philosophical jurist had been free to work out his system. The
difference between the isiibsSn of Abu Hanifa and the istis_lali of

416

MAHOMMEDAN LAW

Malik was not great; students attended the lectures of both and
combined their systems. But a reaction now began, and the tradi-
tionalist party finally made itself felt. We have the inevitable
rivalry between the historical-empirical and the speculative-philo-
sophical schools of jurisprudence, rendered all the more bitter in that
the historical lawyers believed, in this case, that they were defending
a divine institution. There resulted, first, one of the most important
schools, the Shafi'ite; secondly, an extremely literal school for which
ash-Shafi'I did not go far enough, and which has now vanished; and
thirdly, the Hanbalite school, still surviving in small numbers, more
moderately traditional than the last.

The school founded by ash-Shafi'I (d. 820), a pupil of Malik, came
first in order of time. The others were really revolts against the
mildness of his compromise. His characteristics were a broad-
minded, steady grasp of means and ends, a perception of what could
and what could not be done, a willingness to admit all the tried
principles in due balance, and, at one point especially, the insight
of genius as to the possibilities of these principles. He laid great
stress on tradition ; a clear, authentic tradition he regarded as no less
valid than the Koran itself. If the tradition was chronologically
later than a Koranic passage and corrected that passage, he followed
the tradition. But in this he was only regulating a fixed tendency.
The Koran may be regarded theoretically as the first of all the
sources of law and theology; practically its clear statements have
been over-ridden in many cases. Most important of all, the principle
of agreement (ijmd') came finally with him to its full rights. The
agreement of the Moslem peoples was to be the voice of God. "My
people," said a tradition from Mahomet, " v/ill never agree in an
error." And so, over traditions and over the Koran itself, the
agreement tacitly or explicitly ruled and rules. It stamps as
authoritative that which the other principles lay down. At the
head of each section of a Shafi'ite law book we read, " The basis of
this, before the agreement, is such and such." But with the aid of
a principle of this breadth it was easy to reject the opinion which
was so objectionable to the traditionalist party. In its place he took
analogy (qiyas), which, discreetly used, could serve almost the same
purpose. The Koranic passage or the tradition with which an
analogy was suggested should, he taught, be examined to see if
there was a reason clearly stated for the command. If so, that reason
would give a basis for the analogy. Analogy based on the mechanical
or external could not hold.

The four bases thus laid down by ash-Shafi'I — Koran; prophetic
usage as expressed in traditions; analogy; agreement — have come
to be accepted by all existing schools. This applies to all spheres
of life, ethical, social, theological, legal, and it should never be for-
gotten that the Koran is only one of the sources for Moslem faith
and conduct.

Few words are needed for the other, reactionary schools. One,
now long extinct, was founded by a certain Da'ud u?-Zahiri, " David
the Literalist," born three or four years before the death of ash-
Shafi'I, and so called because he insisted upon an absolutely literal
interpretation of his texts — Koran or tradition — without account
of context or metaphor. In consequence he had to reject analogy,
and limited agreement to that of the companions of Mahomet ; the
Church of Islam was to have no constructive authority. In one
point he showed great sanity of judgment, namely in his rejection
of the principle jurare in veroa magislri, otherwise regnant in Islam.
His school had long and interesting consequences, mostly theological,
but is now extinct, and never took rank with the others. The Moslem
world found his positions too impossible, and now no one swears to
his words. The other, the Hanbalite school, was founded by the
scholars of Ahmad ibn Hanbal after his death in 885. He himself
would never have revolted against his master, ash-Shafi'i, but it was
soon felt that his system, so far as he had any, was in essential
opposition. He had been no lawyer, but a theologian and a collector
and student of traditions. All his life had been a protest against
speculation in divine things. Where the Koran and traditions were
silent, he, too, had been silent. For this agnostic principle he had
witnessed and suffered, and his standing with the people was that
of a saint. Naturally, then, the last still existent school of tradi-
tionalist protest was launched in his name. It minimizes agreement
and analogy, is literal in its interpretations, and is now by far the
smallest of the four surviving schools. Its external history is that
of a testifying and violent minority.

Other men, such as Tabari, the historian and commentator, have
had dreams that they, too, might join the Four Imams (see IMAM)
as founders of legal rites, but none has succeeded. The Four remain
the ultimate exponents of this canon law, and under the banner of
one or other of them every Moslem must range himself. As there
is a principle of unity in Islam, expressed in the alleged prophetic
saying, " My people will never agree in an error," so there is a principle
of variety, also expressed in an alleged prophetic saying, " The dis-
agreement of my people is a mercy from God." The four rites may
differ upon many points, yet the adherents of one never dream of
regarding the adherents of the others as outside the Church of Islam ;
they are not " dissenters " in the English sense. God is merciful
to his creatures, and gives them so much liberty of choice. Yet in
practice this liberty is not great. The principle of swearing to the
words of the master is a dead hand laid upon Islam. A man's legal

rite is generally settled by the place and other conditions of his birth
and after he has once accepted a rite, he must, if good and piou<
follow it in all its details. Only the avowed sceptic or the recognized
eccentric can be an eclectic.

The geographical distribution of the rites is roughly as follov
Moslems in Central Asia and northern India and the Turks evei
where are Hanifites; in Lower Egypt, Syria, southern India and
Malay Archipelago they are Shaft 'Ites; in Upper Egypt and in north
Africa, west of Egypt, they are Malikites; only the Wahhabis (q.v )
in central Arabia are Hanbalites. But the will of the sovereign has
also had a powerful influence and has frequently dictated the legal,
as well as the theological, affiliations of his subjects. The Turks, for
example, have thrown their weight almost everywhere on the
Hanifite side. Their policy is to appoint only Hanifite judges
(see CADI), although for private and personal questions they appoint
and pay Muftis (q.v.) of the other rites. In other cases, with a popu-
lation of mixed legal adherence, the government has been known to
appoint judges of different rites.

The Shi'ite canon law is dealt with separately, but some mention
of two outstanding sects is here in place. The Ibadites (see MAHOM-
MEDAN RELIGION : Sects) have a system of canon law which in essen-
tials is of older codification than that of any of the orthodox si -I
going back to Abdallah ibn Ib. ad himself, of the first century of the
Hijra (Hejira). Its basis is above all the Koran, then a sparing use
of traditions, natural to their early origin, and finally the agreement
of their own learned men, again natural to an extreme dissenting
sect, and it still rules the Ibadite communities at Oman, Zanzibar
and the Mzab in southern Algeria. At all these places they, the last
descendants of the Kharijites, hold severely apart, while the other
Moslems shrink from them as heretics of the worst. Not nearly
so far from ordinary Islam, but still of an extreme self-conscious
Puritanism are the Wahhabis. They are really Hanbalites, but
apply the rules of that school with uncompromising, reforming
energy. The doctrine of the agreement of the Church of Islam they
reject ; only that of the immediate companions of Mahomet is valid.
The people of Mahomet can err and has erred; each man must, on
his own responsibility, draw his doctrine from the Koran and thi
traditions. Here they follow the Zahirites.

All these schools of lav/ administer a scheme of duties, which,
as has already been remarked, comes nearest to the canon law
of the Roman Church, and which for centuries has had only a
partial connexion with the real legal systems of the Moslem
peoples. Among the Wahhabis and Ibadites alone is it the
whole of law. Elsewhere, since the Omayyad period, its courts
have been in great part pushed aside by others, and its scheme
has come to be regarded as an expression of impossible theory,
to be realized at best with the coming of the millennium. The
causes and methods of this change call now for detailed notice.

As Islam spread beyond the desert and the conditions in which
the life of Mahomet and his companions had been cast, it came
to regions, climates, customs, where the Arabian usages no
longer held. Not only were the prescripts of Medina ill adapted
to the new conditions; the new people had legal usages of their
own to which they clung and which nothing could make them
abandon. It was rather the Moslem leaders who were compelled to
abandon their ideas and for the sake of the spread of Islam
to accept and incorporate much that was diametrically opposed
to the original legislation either of the Koran or of Mahomet's
recorded decisons. As in religion the faiths of the conquered
peoples were thinly veneered with Moslem phrases, so in law
there grew up a customary code ('adat) for each country, differing
from every other, which often completely obscured and annulled
the prescriptions of the canon law. The one was an ideal
system, studied and praised by the pious learned; the other
was the actual working of law in the courts.

But besides the obstinate adherence of various peoples t
their old paths, the will of individual rulers was a determining
factor. When these ceased to be saints and students of divine
things, and came to be worldly statesmen and opportunists,
followers of their own objects and pleasures, no system could
hold which set a limit to their authority. The Oriental ruler
must rule and judge on his own initiative, and the schools of
canon law tended to reduce everything to an academic fixedness.
There thus arose a new and specific statute law, emanating fro:
the sovereign. At first he judged in the gate as seemed
in his eyes and as was his right and duty (cf. " court of oppres-
sions "; see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS); later, his will was
codified as in the Turkish statute law (qawdnin) derived from
various European codes. Thus there has grown up in almos^

MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION

every Moslem country at least two systems of courts, the one
ministering this canon law, and taking cognisance of private
id family affairs, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, its
icials also giving rulings on purely personal religious questions,
ch as details of the ritual law, the law of oaths and vows, &c.;
lie other, the true law courts of the land, administering codes

on local custom and the decrees of the local rulers.
A rift almost as important entered the legal life of the Moslem
lands on another side. Non-Moslem communities, settled in
m territory, have been uniformly permitted to administer
nd judge themselves according to their own customs and laws,
ve when they come into direct contact and conflict with
oslems, they are left to themselves with a contemptuous
tolerance. The origin of this attitude in Islam appears to be
threefold: (i) The Islam of theory cannot conceive cf a mixed
state; it takes account, only, of a state containing none but
cms, and its ideal is that the whole world will, in the end,
form such a state. In practice, then, Moslems try to shut their
to the existence of non-Moslems in their midst and make no
provision for them until compelled. That a non-Moslem should
have the same civil position as a Moslem is unthinkable.
(ii) This, of course, produces an attitude of extreme contempt.
The only citizens are Moslems and all others are to be looked down
upon and left to themselves. What they do or think among
themselves does not matter; they are outside the ring-fence of
Islam, (iii) A different, but equally important, cause is the
Moslem indolence. When the Arabs conquered, they knew that
they must administer the conquered lands, and they, very
wisely, sought help from the machinery which they found in
operation. But besides the ordinary organization of the state,
they found also various ecclesiastical organizations, Christian
and Jewish, and to these they gave over the administration of
the non-Moslem sections of the community, making their rabbis
and bishops their responsible heads and the links of contact
with the Moslem rulers. They, unquestionably, found the same
method in use by the Byzantine government; but in Moslem
hands it went so far as to make a number of little states (millet,
within the state and effectually to preclude the possibility of
ever welding all the inhabitants of the land into one corporate life«
Hut this indolence, when applied to resident aliens, had conse-
quences still more serious, because external as well as internal.
Following the same method of leaving the unbeliever to settle his
rs for himself, the European merchant, living and trading
in the East, was put first by usage and finally by treaty under
the jurisdiction and control of his own consul. Thus there
grew up the extra-territorial law of the capitulations and con-
ventions, by which the sanctity of the person and household
of an ambassador is extended to every European. And this
in turn, has reacted on the status of the non-Moslem subject
. and has come to be the indirect but chief support on
which they lean. Through it, an element has developed which
makes it practically impossible for a Moslem state to introduce
legal changes even remotely affecting its non-Moslem population,
alien or subject, without the consent of the European embassies.
Any change may be upset by their refusal to accept it as incom-
patible with the capitulations and conventions. The embassies
have thus, as interpreters of a part, at least, of the constitution,
come to hold a position remarkably, if absurdly, like that of
the Supreme Court of the United States (see Young, Corps de
droit Ottoman, passim).

There may be said, then, in short, to be three elements in
the legal life of a Moslem state: the sacred and fixed canon
>f Islam; the civil law, based on the usages of the different
peoples, Moslem and non-Moslem, and on statutes going back
to the will of rulers; the international law of the capitulations,
with a contractual sanction of its own. The hope for the future
in Islam, there can be little doubt, lies in the principle of the
agreement of the Moslem people, with its conception of catholic
unity, and its ability, through that unity, to make and abrogate
laws. As the Moslem peoples advance, their law can, thus,
advance with them, and the grasp of the dead hand of the canon
law be gradually and legally released,
xvn. 14

See I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, I. and II. (Halle
a.C., 1889-1890); Zahiriten (Leipzig, 1884) ; E. Sachau, Zur dltesten
Geschichte des muhammedanischen Rechts (Vienna Akad., 1870) and
Muhammedanisches Recht (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1897); Snouck
Hurgronje, review of preceding in Z.D.M.G. liii. 125 seq. and " Le
droit musulman " (Rev. de I' hist, des religions, xxxvii. I seq. and 174
seq.); Juynboll, Handleiding tot de Kennis von de mohammedaansche
Wet (Leiden, 1903) ; Von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des Orients unter
den Chalifen, i. 470 seq. (Vienna, 1875-1877); Hughes, Dictionary of
Islam, pp. 285 seq. (London, 1896) ; D. B. Macdonald, Development of
Muslim Theology, &c., pp. 65 seq. (New York, 1903); Bukhari, Les
Traditions islamiques traduites . . . par O. Ploudas et W. Marcel
(Paris, 1906) ; N. B. E. Bailie, Digest of Moohummadan Law (2 vols.,
London, 1875-1887). A good bibliography appeared in the Bulletin
of the New York Public Library for January 1907. (D. B. MA.)

MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. The Mahommedan religion is
generally known as Islam — the name given to it by Mahomet
himself — and meaning the resigning or submitting oneself to
God. The participle of the same Arabic verb, Muslim (in
English usually spelt Moslem), is used for one who professes this
religion. The expression " Mahommedan religion " has arisen
in the West probably from analogy with " Christian religion,"
but is not recognized as a proper one by Moslem writers. Islam
claims to be a divinely revealed religion given to the world by
Mahomet, who was the last of a succession of inspired prophets.
Its doctrine and practices are to be found in (i) the Book of
God — the Koran — which was sent down from the highest heaven
to Gabriel in the lowest, who in turn revealed it in sections to
Mahomet; (2) the collections of tradition (hadith) containing the
sayings and manner of life (sunna) of the Prophet; (3) the use
of analogy (qiyas) as applied to (i) and (2) ; and (4) the universal
consent (ijmd') of the believers. The worship of Islam consists
in (i) the recital of the creed; (2) the recital of the ordained
prayers; (3) the fast during the month of Ramadhan; (4) alms-
giving; (5) the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. The theology of
Islam finds its first public expression among the orthodox in
the teaching of al-Ash'arl (d. after 932), but had its real beginning
among the sects that arose soon after the death of Mahomet.

Islam is the latest of the so-called world-religions, and as
several of the others were practised in Arabia at the time of
Mahomet, and the Prophet undoubtedly borrowed some of his
doctrines and some of his practices from these, it is necessary
to enumerate them and to indicate the extent to which they
prevailed in the Arabian world.

Relations with Other Religions. — The religions practised in
Arabia at the time of Mahomet were heathenism, Judaism,
Christianity, and Zoroastrianism.

I. Heathenism was the religion of the majority of the Arabs. In
the cities of south Arabia it was a survival from the forms represented
in the Sabaean, Minaean and Himyaritic inscriptions of south Arabia
(see ARABIA: Antiquities). The more popular form current among
the nomads is known very imperfectly from the remains of pre-
Islamic poetry and such works as the Kitab ul-As.nam contained
in Yaqut's geography, from Shahrastani's work on the sects, and
from the few references in classical writers. From these we have
mostly names of local deities (cf. J. Wellhausen, Reste arabischen
Heidentums, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1897) and ancient religious customs,
which remained in part after the introduction of Islam (cf. W.
Robertson Smith, The Religion of the Semites, Edinburgh, 1889, and
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, Cambridge, 1885). From
these sources we learn that Arabian religion was a nature-worship
associated with fetishism. Sun, moon and stars were worshipped,
some tribes being devoted to the worship of special constellations.
Certain stones, wells and trees were regarded as sacred and as con-
taining a deity. Many (perhaps most) tribes had their own idols.
Hobal was the chief god of the Ka'ba in Mecca with its sacred stone,
but round him were grouped a number of other tribal idols. It was
against this association (shirk) of gods that Mahomet inveighed in
his attempt to unify the religion and polity of the Arabs. But there
were features in this heathenism favourable to unity, and these
Mahomet either simply took over into Islam or adapted for his
purpose. The popularity of the Ka'ba in Mecca as a place of resort
for worshippers from all parts of Arabia led Mahomet not only to
institute the hajj as a duty, but also to take over the customs con-
nected with the heathen worship of these visits, and later to make
Mecca the qibla, i.e. the place to which his followers turned when
they prayed]. The name of Allah, who seems to have been the god
of the Koreish (cf. D. S. Margoliouth, Mohammed, p. 19, London,
1905), was accepted by Mahomet as the name of the one God, though

abandoned the corresponding female deity Al-lat.

MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION

2. Judaism had long been known in Arabia at the time of the
Prophet. Whether Hebrews settled in Arabia as early as the time
of David (cf. R. Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mecca, Leipzig, 1864), or
not, is of little importance here as Judaism cannot be said to have
existed until the end of the 5th century B.C. The Seleucid persecu-
tions and the political troubles that ended with the fall of Jerusalem
(A.D. 70) probably sent many Jews to Arabia. In the sth and 6th
centuries the history of south Arabia and of Nejran is largely that
of the strife between Jews and Christians. In the north-west the
Jews possessed Tema, Khaibar, Yathrib (Medina), Fadak, and other
smaller settlements. In these they lived as self-contained com-
munities, not seeking to proselytize but working at their trades,
especially concerned with money and jewelry. Mahomet seems to
have expected their help in his proclamation of monotheism, and his
first qibla was Jerusalem. It was only when they refused to accept
him as prophet that he turned in anger against them. They had,
however, supplied him with much material from the Old Testament,
and the stories of creation, the patriarchs and early kings and pro-
phets occur continually in the Koran, told evidently as they were
recited by the common people and with many mistakes caused by
his own misunderstanding.

3. Christianity, though later than Judaism, had a sure footing
in Arabia. It had suffered persecution in Nejran and had been
supported in the south by the Abyssinian invasions. The kingdom
of Hira was largely Christian ; the same is true of the north Arabian
tribes of Bakr and Taghlib, and east of the Jordan and on the Syrian
boundary as well as in Yemama Christianity had made progress.
Pre-Islamic literature contains many allusions to the teaching and
practices of Christianity. Of the time of its introduction little is
known; little also of the form in which it was taught, save that it
came from the Eastern Church and probably to a large extent
through Monophysite and Nestorian sects. Tradition says that
Mahomet heard Christian preaching at the fair of Ukaz, and he
probably heard more when he conducted the caravans of Khadija.
Gospel stories derived apparently from uncanonical works, such as
the Gospel of the Nativity, occur in the Koran. The asceticism of
the monks attracted his admiration. A mistaken notion of the
Trinity was sharply attacked by him. It is curious that his followers
in the earliest times were called by the heathen Arabs, Sabians (q.v.),
this being the name of a semi-Christian sect. In the time of the
Omayyads Christianity led to some of the earliest theological sects
of Islam (see below).

4. Zoroasirianism was known to the Arab tribes in the north-east,
but does not seem to have exercised any influence in Mecca or Medina
except indirectly through Judaism in its angelology. As soon,
however, as the armies of Islam conquered Mesopotamia it began
to penetrate the thought and practices of Islam (see below).

Sources of Authority. — Islam, as we have said, is founded on:
(i) the Koran; (2) the tradition or rather the sunna (manner of
life of Mahomet) contained in the tradition (JJadith) ; (3) ij ma ;
the universal agreement; (4) qiyas (analogy).

i. The Koran1 (properly Qur'an from qara'a to collect, or
to read, recite) is the copy of an uncreated original preserved by
God (see below), sent down from the seventh heaven to Gabriel
in the first heaven, and revealed to Mahomet in sections as
occasion required. These revelations were recited by the
Prophet and in many cases written down at once, though from
ii. 100 it would seem that this was not always the case. God
is the speaker throughout the revelations. It seems probable
that the whole Koran was written in Mahomet's lifetime, but
not brought together as a whole or arranged in order.

As it exists now the Koran consists of 114 chapters called suras
(from sura, a row of bricks in a wall, a degree or step). The first
is the Fatiba (opening), which occupies the place of the Lord's Prayer
in Christianity. The others are arranged generally in order of
length, the longest coming first, the shortest (often the earliest in
date) coming at the end. Certain groups, however, indicated by
initial unvowelled letters, seem to have been kept together from the
time of the Prophet. At the head of each sura is a title, the place
of its origin (Mecca or Medina) arid the number of its verses (ayat)
together with the formula, " In the name of God the Merciful,
the Compassionate " (except in sura 9). For liturgical purposes the
whole book is divided into 60 sections (ahzab) or into 30 divisions
(ajzd), each subdivided into a number of prostrations (ruk'a or
sajda). The origin of the collected and written Koran is due to
Omar, who in the caliphate of Abu Bekr pointed out that many
possessors of suras were being slain in the battles of Islam and their
property lost, that there was a danger in this way that much of the
revelation might disappear, and that men were uncertain what was
to be accepted as genuine revelation. Accordingly Zaid ibn Thabit
who had been secretary to Mahomet, was commissioned to collect
all he could find of the revelation. His work seems to have been
simply that of a collector. He seems to have done his work thor-
oughly and made a copy of the whole for Abu Bekr. The collection

1 See also KORAN.

was thus chiefly a private matter, and this copy passed after Abu
Bekr's death into the hands of Omar, and after his death to Hafsa,
daughter of Omar, a widow of Mahomet. In the caliphate of Othman
it was discovered that there were serious differences between the
readings of the Koran possessed by the Syrian troops and those of
the Eastern soldiers, and Othman was urged to have a copy prepared
which should be authoritative for the Moslem world. He appointed
Zaid ibn Thabit and three members of the tribe of Koreish (Quraish)
to do the work. Each of these made a copy of Abu Bekr's collection,
carefully preserving Koreishite forms of words. How far the text
was amended by the help of other copies is doubtful ; in any case the
mode of procedure was undoubtedly very conservative. The four
similar manuscripts were sent, one each to Medina, Cufa (Kufa),
Basra and Damascus, and an order was issued that all differing
copies should be destroyed. In spite of the personal unpopularity
of Othman this recension was adopted by the Moslem world and
remains the only standard text. A few variant readings and differ-
ences of order of the suras in the collections of Ubay ibn Ka'b and
of Ibn Mas'ud were, however, known to later commentators. The
only variants after the time of Othman were owing to different
possible ways of pronouncing the consonantal text. These are
usually of little importance for the meaning. As the text is now
always vowelled, variations are found in the vowels of different
copies, and the opinions of seven leading " readers " are regarded
as worthy of respect by commentators (see Th. Noldeke, Geschichte
des Qorans, pp. 279 seq., Gottingen, 1860). Various characteristics
enable one to establish with more or less certainty the relative
chronological order of the suras in the Koran, at any rate so far as
to place them in the first or second Meccan period or that of Medina.
The form of the sentences is a guide, for the earliest parts are usually
written in the saj' form (see ARABIA: Literature). The expressions
used also help; thus the " O ye people " of the Meccan period is
replaced in the Medina suras by " O ye who believe." The oaths
in the first Meccan period are longer, in the second shorter, and are
absent in the Medinan. In the earliest period the style is more ele-
vated and passionate. Occasionally the time of origin is determined
by reference to historical events. In accordance with such principles
of criticism two leading scholars, Noldeke (loc. cit.) and H. Grimme
(in his Mohammed Zweiter Teil. Einleitung in den Koran. System der
koranischen Theologie, Munster, 1895), have arranged the suras us
follows : —

Order of Suras in Koran.
NOLDEKE.

Mecca.

1st to sth yr. (a). 96. 74. in. 106. 108. 104. 107. 102. 105. 92. 90.
94- 93- 97- 86. 91. 80. 68. 87. 95. 103. 85. 73.

101. 99. 82. 81. 53. 84. 100. 79.77. 78. 88. 89.
75. 83. 69. 51. 52. 56. 70. 55. 112. 109. 113.
114. i.

5th and 6th yr. (ft). 54. 37. 71. 76. 44. 50. 20. 26. 15. 19. 38. 36. 43.

72. 67. 23. 21. 25. 17. 27. 18.
7th yr. to Flight (c). 32. 41. 45. 16. 30. n. 14. 12. 40. 28. 39. 29. 31.

42. 10. 34. 35. 7. 46. 6. 13.'
Medina. 2. 98. 64. 62. 8. 47. 3. 61. 57. 4.65. 59. 33.63. 24.

58. 22. 48. 66. 60. no. 49. 9. 5.
GRIMME.

Mecca, (i). ' In old saj' form : 1 1 1. 107. 106. 105. 104. 103.

102. 101. 100. 99. 108. 96. 95. 94. 93. 92. 91.

90. 89. 88._8j. 86. 83. 84. 83. 82. 8±. 80. 79. 7_8.
77- Z6.- 75- B- Zi 70. 69. 68. 114. 113.56.55.
54- £i- 52.51. 50. 15. 22. 14.

(2). In loosened saj' form : 46. 72. 45. 44. 41. 97. 40.
39- 38- 37- 36. 35- 34- 32. 31- 67. 3°. 23. 2

27. 26. 71. 25. 20. 23. 43. 21. 19. I. 42. 18. 17.

Medina. 16. 13. 12. u. io._7_: 6. 98. (112. 109).

From the Flight to 2.^62. 5i&-ss.io8-i20. 47 and some interpolations

Badr. in Meccan suras.

From Badr to Ohod 8. 24. 59.

From Ohod to cap- 3. 291-12. 4. 57- 64. 61. 60. 58. 65. 33. 63. 49.

ture of Mecca. no. 48. 5i_u. 66. 9i_2«.
After capture of Mecca. 925-124.

On the supposition that the arrangements given above are
at any rate approximately correct, it is possible to trace a certain
development in the teaching of the Koran on some _. ol
of the chief dogmas. It must, however, be borne
in mind that orthodox Islam recognizes the Koran as the work
not of Mahomet but of God. Yet Moslem theologians recognize
that some revelations are inconsistent with others, and so have
developed the doctrine of nasikh and mansukh (" abrogating "
and " abrogated "), whereby it is taught that in certain definite
cases a later revelation supersedes an earlier. A critical study
of the Koran shows in the earlier revelations the marks of a
reflective mind trained under the influence of Arabian education
1 Underlined = with interpolations.

MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION

419

and stirred by an acquaintance (somewhat imperfect) with
Judaism and Christianity. The later revelations seem to be
in line IK wl by the now dominant position of the Prophet and a

re alter the capture of Mecca to incorporate such heathen
religious ceremonies as are national. God is one and universal
from the beginning. His unity is emphasized as against the
mistaken conception of the Christian Trinity. At first his
might is taught by the name Rabb (Lord) which is generally
d with an attribute as "the highest Lord," "Lord of the
worlds," " Lord of men," " Lord of heaven and earth," " Lord
of the East and West," or " our Lord." Then he is identified
with the god Allah (see above) and the first part of the later

• lem creed is announced — la ilaha illa-llaha, " there is no
K<«1 but Allah." But every act of creation is a proof not only
of God's power but also of his beneficence (xiv. 37), and so he
becomes known as ar-Rahmdn, " the Compassionate." The
attributes of God may all be arranged in the three classes of
his power, unity and goodness. They are expressed by the

'y-nine "beautiful names" applied to him in the Koran

k. H. 1'almer, The Quran in " Sacred Books of the East,"
vol. vi., Introd. pp. 67-68, Oxford, 1880). In the Medina period
of Mahomet's life the nature of God is not so clear, and the

i iption of it varies according to the moods of the Prophet.
lii'side God are two other uncreated beings: (i) the original
of the Koran, the" mother of the Book" (xliii. 3) on a " preserved
Spirits. tab'et " (lauf> mahfuz) (Ixxxv. 22), in accordance with
which God acts, and (2) the throne (hurst) (ii. 256).
When the heavens are created, God sits on his throne in the
seventh heaven; around him are angels, pure, sexless beings,
some of whom bear the throne, while some are engaged in praising
him continually. They are also his messengers and are sent to
fight with the believers against the heathen. Some are the
guardian angels of men, others are the watchmen of hell. Mediate
beings between God and man are the " word " (amr) and from
it the " spirit " (ruh) or " holy spirit " (ruh ul-qudus). Another
manifestation of God to the believers only is the " glory "
(soktna).

( ;od created the world in six days according to the plan of the
Book. Each new life was created by God's breathing into it a

Cosmology.

sou'-

duality of soul and body is maintained.

.

In each man is a good and a bad impulse. The bad
impulse which was latent in Adam was roused to action by Satan
(I Mis). Adam by his fall lost the grace of God, which was restored
to him solely by the gracious choice of God. Between men and
angels in their nature are the genii (jinn) male and female, in-
habitants of desert places, created from smokeless fire. They
had been accustomed to spy round heaven, but in Mahomet's
time could learn no more of its secrets. Some of them were
converted by the Prophet's teaching. Lowest of creation in his

state is Satan (Shaitdn), who was an angel but was expelled from
ijcaven because he refused to worship Adam at his Lord's com-
mand. God has revealed himself to man by (i) writing (kitab),
and (2) prophets. As he had given to the Jews the Law ( Taurdl)
and to the Christians the Gospel (Injil) so he revealed to Mahomet
the Koran (Qur'an, known also by other names, e.g. al-Furqdn, at-
Ta}$ti, &c.), each single revelation being called an aya. With his

•evelation God has also sent an apostle or prophet to each people.
veral of these are mentioned in the Koran, Moses the prophet
of the Jews, Jesus (Isd) that of the Christians. Mahomet is not
only the apostle of the Moslems but the " seal of the prophets,"
*'.«. the final member of the class. His mission at first was to
warn men of imminent judgment. Later he became more of a
teacher. At first he seems to have relied for the salvation of men
on his natural faculties, but later announced the doctrine of God's
election. The ethics of the Koran are based on belief (imdn) and
fittta. £°od works, the latter alone occurring in the early
Meccan suras. Fear of the judgment of God was a
motive of action; this is followed by repentance and turning to
God. A complete surrender to God's will (i$lam) is the necessary
Condition of religious life and is expressed in the phrase so com-
mon in everyday speech among the Moslems— inshalla h, " if
God will." God has full power to overlook evil deeds if he will.

Unbelievers can acquire no merit, however moral their actions.
A short account of the chief ethical requirements of the Koran is
given in xvii. 23-40: —

" Put not God with other gods, or thou wilt sit despised and
forsaken. Thy Lord has decreed that ye shall not serve other than
Him; and kindness to one's parents, whether one or both of them
reach old age with thee, and say not to them, ' Fie,' and do not
grumble at them, but speak to them a generous speech. And lower
to them the wing of humility out of compassion, and say, ' O Lord!
have compassion on them as they brought me up when I was little! '
Your Lord knows best what is in your souls if ye be righteous, and,
verily, He is forgiving unto those who come back penitent.

" And give thy kinsman his due and the poor and the son of the
road; and waste not wastefully, for the wasteful were ever the
devil's brothers, and the devil is ever ungrateful to his Lord.

" But if thou dost turn away from them to seek after mercy from
thy Lord, which thou hopest for, then speak to them an easy speech.

" Make not thy hand fettered to thy neck, nor yet spread it out
quite open, test thou shouldest have to sit down blamed and
straightened in means. Verily, thy Lord spreads out provision
to whomsoever He will or He doles it out. Verily, He is ever well
aware of and sees His servants.

" And slay not your children for fear of poverty; we will provide
for them ; beware ! for to slay them is ever a great sin.

" And draw not near to fornication; verily, it is ever an abomina-
tion, and evil is the way thereof. •

" And slay not the soul that God has forbidden you, except for just
cause; for he who is slain unjustly we have given his next of kin
authority; yet let him not exceed in slaying; verily, he is ever helped.

" And draw not near to the wealth of the orphan, save to improve
it, until he reaches the age of puberty, and fulfil your compacts;
verily, a compact is ever enquired of.

" And give full measure when ye measure out, and weigh with a
right balance ; that is better and a fairer determination.

" And do not pursue that of which thou hast no knowledge; verily,
the hearing, the sight and the heart, all of these shall be enquired of.

" And walk not on the earth proudly; verily, thou canst not cleave
the earth, and thou shall not reach the mountains in height.

" All this is ever evil in the sight of your Lord and abhorred."

(E. H. Palmer's translation.)

The eschatology of the Koran is especially prominent in its
earlier parts. The resurrection, last judgment, paradise and hell
are all described. At death the body again becomes _.
earth, while the soul sinks into a state of sleep or
unconsciousness. At a time decreed, known as " the hour "
(as-Sa'a), " the day of resurrection " (yaum ul-qiyydma), " day
of judgment " (yaum-ud-din) , &c., an angel will call or will sound
a trumpet, the earth will be broken up, and the soul will rejoin
the body. God will appear on his throne with angels. The great
book will be opened, and a list of his deeds will be given to every
man, to the good in his right hand, to the evil in his left (sura 69).
A balance will be used to weigh the deeds. The jinn will testify
against the idolaters. The righteous will then obtain eternal
peace and joy in the garden (al-janna) and the wicked will be
cast into the fiery ditch (Jahannam), where pains of body and of
soul are united.

2. The Tradition. — The revelation of God is twofold — in a
writing and by a prophet. The former was contained in the
Koran, the latter was known from the actions of Mahomet in the
different circumstances of life. The manner of life of the Prophet
(sunna) was contained in the tradition (al-hadil/i). The infor-
mation required was at first naturally obtained by word of mouth
from the companions and helpers of Mahomet. These in turn
bequeathed their information to their younger companions, who
quoted traditions and gave decisions in their names.

For long these traditions circulated orally, the authority of each
depending on the person who first gave it and the reliability of the
chain (isnad) of men who had passed it on from him. At first this
tradition was regarded as explanatory of, or at the most supple-
mentary to, the teaching of the Koran. Early Moslem teachers
pointed to the Jews as having two law-books — the Taurdt and the
Mishna — while Islam had only one-^-the Koran. But opinion
changed, the value of tradition as an independent revelation came
to be more highly esteemed until at last it was seriously discussed
whether a tradition might not abrogate a passage of the Koran
with which it was at variance. The writing of traditions was at
first strongly discouraged, and for more than a century the stories
of the Prophet's conduct passed from mouth to mouth. Had all
the narrators been pious men, this might have been tolerable, but
this was not the case. The Omayyad dynasty was not a pious
one. Men who were not religious but wished to appear so invented

420

MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION

traditions to justify their manner of life. The sectarians did not
hesitate to adopt the same means of spreading their own teaching.
Many Moslem writers testify to the fact that forged traditions were
circulated, and that religious opinion was confused thereby. The
need for some sort of authoritative collection seems to have been
felt by the one pious Omayyad caliph, Omar II. (717-720), who is
said to have ordered Ibn Shihab uz-Zuhrl to make such a collection.
Of this work, if it was carried out, we know nothing further. It was,
however, by a man born during this reign that the first systematic
collection of traditions was made — the Muwatta' of Malik ibn Anas
(q.v.). Yet this work is not a book of tradition in the religious sense.
It is really a corpus juris and not a complete one. The object of
Malik was simply to record every tradition that had been used to
give effect to a legal decision. The work of sifting the vast mass
of traditions and arranging them according to their relation to the
different parts of religious life and practice was first undertaken in
the 3rd century of Islam (A.D. 815-912). In this century all the six
collections afterwards regarded as canonical by the Sunnites (ortho-
dox) were made. By this time an immense number of traditions
was in circulation. Bukhari in the course of sixteen years' journey-
ing through Moslem lands collected 600,000, and of these included
7275 (or, allowing for repetitions, 4000) in his work. The six collec-
tions of tradition received by the Sunnites as authoritative are:
(i) The Kildb ul-jami' us-Safcb of Bukhari (q.v.) (810-870). This is
the most respected throughout the Moslem world and most carefully
compiled (ed. L. Krehl and T. W. Juynboll, Leiden, 1862 — and
frequently in the East; also with many commentaries. French
translation by O. Houdas and W. Marcais, Paris, 1903 sqq.). (ii) The
$afii>i of Muslim (817-875) with an introduction on the science of
tradition (ed. Calcutta, 1849, &c.). (iii) The Kildb us.-Sunan of
Abu Da'ud (817-888) (ed. Cairo, 1863, Lucknow, 1888, Delhi, 1890).
(iv) The Jami' uf-Safcli of Tirmidhi (q.v.). (v) The Kitab us.-Sunan
of Nasa' i (830-915) (ed. Cairo, 1894). (vi) The Kitab uf-Sunan of
Ibn Maja (824-866) (ed. Delhi, 1865 and 1889). The last four are
not held in the same repute as the first two.

3. Ijma' is the universal consent which is held to justify
practices or beliefs, although they are not warranted by the
Koran or tradition, and may be inconsistent with the apparent
teaching of one or both of these. These beliefs and practices,
which had often come from the pre-Islamic customs of those
who had become believers, seem to have escaped notice until
the Abbasid period. They were too deeply rooted in the lives
of men to be abolished. It became necessary either to find a
tradition to abrogate the earlier forbidding one, or to acknowledge
that ijma is higher than the tradition. The former expedient
was resorted to by some later theologians (e.g. Nawawl) by a
fiction that such a tradition existed though it was not found now
in writing. But in earlier times some (as Ibn Qutaiba) had
adopted the latter alternative, saying that the truth can be
derived much earlier from the ijma' than from the tradition,
because it is not open to the same chances of corruption in its
transmission as the latter. Tradition itself was found to confirm
this view, for the Prophet is related to have said, " My people
does not agree to an error."

But ijma' itself has been used in different senses: (i) The ijma'
of Medina was used to indicate the authority coming from the prac-
tices of the people of Medina (see below), (ii) The ijma' of the whole
community of Moslems is that most commonly recognized. It was
used to support fealty to the Abbasid dynasty. By it the six books
of tradition mentioned above are recognized as authoritative, and
it is the justification of the conception of Mahomet as superhuman,
(iii) Some of the more thoughtful theologians recognize only the ijma'
of the doctors or the teachers of Islam (the mujtahidun), these being
restricted by the orthodox to the first few generations after Mahomet,
while the Shi'ites allow the existence of such up to the present
time.

4. The fourth basis of Islam is qiyas, i.e. analogy. It is that
process by which a belief or practice is justified on the ground
of something similar but not identical in the Koran, the tradition
or ijma. Originally it seems to have been instituted as a check
upon the use of private opinion (ra'y) in the teaching of doctrine.
The extent to which it may be used is a subject of much
discussion among theologians. Some would apply it only to a
" material similarity," others to similarity of motive or cause as
well.

Worship and Ritual. — The acts of worship required by Islam
are five in number: (i) the recital of the creed; (ii.) observance
of the five daily prayers; (iii) the fast in the month of Rama-
dhan; (iv) giving of the legal alms; (v) the pilgrimage to
Mecca.

i. The creed is belief — " la ilaha illa-llahu, Muhammad rasul
allahi," "there is no god but God (Allah), Mahomet is the apostle
of God." It is required that this shall be recited at least
once in a lifetime aloud, correctly, with full understand-
ing of its meaning and with heartfelt belief in its truth. It is to be
professed without hesitation at any time until death.

ii. Every man who professes Islam is required in ordinary life
to pray five times in each day. In the Koran these prayers are
commanded, though four only are mentioned. " Where-
fore glorify God, when the evening overtaketh you, and
when ye rise in the morning, and unto Him be praise in Heaven and
earth; and in the evening and when ye rest at noon " (xxx. 16-17),
but commentators say the " evening " includes the sunset and after
sunset. The five times therefore are: (i) Dawn or just before sunrise,
(2) just after noon, (3) before sunset, (4) just after sunset, and (5) just
after the day has closed. Tradition decides within what limits the
recitals may be delayed without impairing their validity. Pra\
preceded by the lesser ablution (wadu) consisting in the washing of
face, hands (to the elbows) and feet in prescribed manner. Com-
plete washing of the body (ghusl) is required only after legal pollu-
tion. In prayer the worshipper faces the qibla (direction of prayer),
which was at first Jerusalem, but was changed by the Prophet to
Mecca. In a mosque the qibla is indicated by a niche (mifrrab) in
one of the walls. The prayers consist of prescribed ejaculations,
petitions, and the recital of parts of the Koran, always including
the first sura, accompanied by prostrations of the body. Detailed
physical positions are prescribed for each part of the worship; these
vary slightly in the four orthodox schools (see below). On a journey,
in time of war or in other special circumstances, the set form of
prayers may be modified in accordance with appointed rules. Besides
these private prayers, there is the prayer of the assembly, which is
observed on a Friday (yaum ul-jam'a, " the day of assembly" ) in a
mosque, and is usually accompanied by an address or declamation
(khutba) delivered from a step of the pulpit (minbar). Special
prayers are also prescribed for certain occasions, as on the eclipse of
the sun or the moon, &c. Among the Sufis special attention is
given to informal prayer, consisting chiefly in the continual repetition
of the name of God (dhikr) (see SUFI'ISM). This is still a character-
istic of some of the dervish (q.v.) communities.

iii. The command to fast begins with the words, " O ye who
believe! There is prescribed for you the fast, as it was prescribed
for those before you." The expression " those before P
you " has been taken to refer to the Jews, who fasted on
the day of atonement, but more probably refers to tiie long fast of
thirty-six days observed by the Eastern Christians. In the passage
of the Koran referred to (ii. 179-181) Moslems are required to fast
during the month of Ramadhan, " wherein the Koran was revealed,"
but if one is on a journey or sick he may fast " another number of
days," and if he is able to fast and does not, " he may redeem it
by feeding a poor man," but " if ye fast, it is better for you." This
fast was probably instituted in the second year at Medina. At that
time the corrected lunar year was in use and Ramadhan, the ninth
month, was always in the winter. A few years later Mahomet
decreed the use of the unconnected lunar year, which remains the
standard of time for the Moslem world, so that the month of fasting
now occurs at all seasons of the year in turn. The fast is severe, and
means entire abstinence from food and drink from sunrise to sunset
each day of the month. The fast is associated with the statement
that in this month God sent down the Koran from the seventh heaven
to Gabriel in the lowest that it might be revealed to the Proplirt.

iv. Alms are of two kinds: (i) the legal and determined
(zakdt), and (2) voluntary (?adaqat). The former were given in
cattle, grain, fruit, merchandise and money once a year
after a year's possession. For cattle a somewhat
elaborate scale is adopted. Of grain and fruit a tenth is given if
watered by rain, a twentieth if the result of irrigation. Of the
value of merchandise and of money a fortieth is prescribed. In the
early days of Islam the alms were collected by officials and used for
the building of mosques and similar religious purposes. At the
present time the carrying of these prescriptions is left to the
conscience of the believers, who pay the alms to any needy fellow-
Moslem. A good example of a §adaqd is found in a gift to an un-
believer (see C.M. Doughty, A rabia deserta, 1.446, ii. 278, Cambridge,
1888).

v. The fifth religious duty of the Moslem is the pilgrimage (hajj)
to Mecca, which should be performed once by every Moslem " if he
is able," that is if he can provide or obtain the means to _„ .
support himself on pilgrimage and his family during his
absence, and if he is physically capable. The pilgrimage is made at
one time of the (Moslem) year, namely, from the 7th to the loth
of the month Dhu'l-Hijja. For the arrangements for the journey
from various countries to Mecca see CARAVAN. When the pilgrim
arrives within five or six miles of the holy city he puts off his ordinary
dress after ablution and prayer, and puts on the two seamless wrap-
pers which form the dress of the pilgrim (the ihram), who goes with-
out head-covering or boots or shoes. He must not shave at all, or
trim the nails or anoint the head during the ceremonial period.
The chief parts of the ceremonial are the visit to the sacred mosque
masjid ul-ftardm), the kissing of the black stone, the compassing of

MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION

421

the Ka'ha (the Tawaf) seven times, three times running, four times

•.lowly, tin- \i-il to tin- Ma(|fun Ibrahim, the ascent of Mount $afa

; mining from it to Mount Marwa seven times, the run to Mount

tt , hearing a sermon, and going to Muzdalifa, where he stays the

t In- throwing of stones at the three pillars in Mina on the great

il.iy, and the offering of sacrifice there (for the localities see

< A). After the accomplishment of these ceremonies the ordinary

••I, the pilgrimage is finished, but the pilgrim usually

iih .mother three days in Mecca, then visits Medina to pay his

1 1 he tomb of Mahomet. Beside the hajj (great pilgrimage)

.1 also recognizes the merit of the 'umra (or lesser pilgrimage),

:ous visit to Mecca at any time accompanied by most of

lemonies of the hajj.

The ivremonies of the hajj have been described by several European

\lio have witnessed them, such as J. L. Burckhardt :n

IN 14, Sir Richard Burton in 1853 (see bibliography to MECCA). A

rotint of them is given in T. P. Hughes, Notes on Muham-

•nism (3rd ed., London, 1894). Details in vol. i. of Bukhari's

traditions (Houdas and Marcais's French translation, i. 493-567).

The Development of Islam. — The battle of Sifftn (657) between
'Ali and Moawiya was the occasion of the first breach in the
unity of Islam, and the results remain to this day. The occasion
was in the first case political, but politics were at that time too
intimately connected with religion to be considered apart from it.
r the battle (see CALIPHATE) 'All was practically compelled
to submit his claims to arbitration, whereupon a number of his
supporters broke away from him, saying that there should have
been no appeal save to the Book of God. These men were for
the most part country Arabs, and, inspired by the free spirit of
tin deseri. were democratic, claiming that the caliph should be
i ed by the whole community from any family (and not from
the Koreish alone), and that the caliph might be deposed for sin.
A few extremists were republicans and would do without a
caliph altogether. The whole party was known as the Kharijites
(Kharijiyya or Khawarij). The Moslems who disagreed with
them were regarded by them as renegades and were to be put to
ii. They were soon divided into extremists and moderates.
Tho former put to death the children of unbelievers and refused
to hold intercourse in daily life with unbelievers. The moderates,
who came to be known as Ibadites (from their leader 'Abdallah
ibn 'Ibad), would allow the children of unbelievers to grow up,
and would then deal with them according to their choice. In
ordinary life they would mix with all men, but marriage with
other Moslems outside their own ranks was forbidden. These still
remain in Oman, parts of Algeria and East Africa.

Another party, consisting mainly of city Arabs infected with
Persian ideas as to the divinity of the ruler, clung to 'All with
inconvenient affection. They regarded 'All and his descendants
as the only legitimate caliphs, and came to be known as Shi'ites
(q.v.). They remain to-day the largest part of Islam outside
orthodoxy. During the Omayyad caliphate (661-750) there
were three centres of religious thought and influence; students
and teachers often passed from one to the other, thus making
universal the teachings which in their origin were due to local
circumstances. These centres were Damascus (the seat of the
caliphate), Medina and the East (Irak, &c.). In Damascus the
court was worldly and indifferent to the interests of Islam. The
early Omayyads were distinguished for their striving after
dominion (mulk). Instead of attempting to propagate Islam,
they tolerated other religions and favoured Christians who were
'liM inguished as poets (e.g. Akhtal)orofncials (John of Damascus),
or men likely to be of use to them in any way. The doctrines
of Christianity began to influence even serious Moslems and to
t their way of stating Moslem belief. John of Damascus
(A. before 767), the Greek theologian, and his pupil, Theodorus
Abucara (d. 826), have written controversial works on Islam,
from which it seems probable that disputations on subjects per-
taining to religion were held between Christians and Moslems.
Two schools of heretical Moslem sects arose under these influ-
ences— that of the Murjiites and that of the Qadarites. The
Murjiitcs (" postponers ") were so called because they postponed
the judgment of human actions until the Day of Judgment. In
politics they accepted the Omayyads as de facto rulers, since they
were Moslems, and left the judgment of their actions to God. As
theologians they taught that religion consists in belief (iman) in

the unity of God and in his apostle, and in that alone; conse-
quently no one who held this faith would perish eternally, though
he had been a sinner. This was opposed to the Kharijite
doctrine that the unrepentant sinner would perish eternally,
even though he had professed Islam.

The Qadarites were concerned with the doctrine of pre-
destination and free-will. So long as Moslems were fighting the
battles of Islam they naturally paid most attention to those
revelations which laid stress on the absolute determination of a
man's destiny by God. They fought with great bravery, because
they believed that God had foreordained their death or life and
they could not escape His will. In the quieter realm of town and
court life and in their disputations with Christians they were
called upon to reconcile this belief with the appeals made in the
Koran to man's own self-determination to good, to courage, &c.
Mahomet was not a systematic theologian and had done nothing
to help them. The Qadarites declared that man had power over
his own actions. But the teaching of predestination had gained
too great a hold on Moslems to be thus displaced. The teaching
of the Qadarites was held to be heresy, and one of its first pro-
fessors, Ma'bad ul-Juham, was put to death in 699.' During
this period Medina was the home of tradition. Those who had
been in closest relation with the Prophet dwelt there. The very
people of the city derived a certain splendour and authority
from the fact that Mahomet had lived and was buried there.
Free thought in religion had little chance of arising, less of ex-
pressing itself, in the holy city. But the Koran was diligently
studied, traditions were collected (and invented) though not yet
written in books, and innovation (bid'a) was resolutely avoided.
At the same time it really did contribute a new element to
religious practice, for the custom (ijma\ see above) of -Medina
gained a certain authority even in Syria and the East.

In the East, on the other hand, there was more mental activity,
and the religious teachers who came from Medina had to be pre-
pared to meet with many questions. The wits of the Moslems
were sharpened by daily contact with Christians, Buddhists,
Manichaeans and Zoroastrians. Hasan ul-Basrl (q.ii.), who has
been claimed as one of the first mystics, also as one of the first
systematic theologians of Islam, was remarkable alike for his
personal piety and his orthodoxy. Yet it was among his pupils
that the great rationalist movement originated. Its founder was
Wasil ibn 'Ata, who separated himself (whence his followers
were called Motazilites, strictly Mu'tazilites, " Separatists ")
from his teacher and founded a school which became numerous
and influential. The Mu'tazilites objected to the attributes
of God being considered in any way as entities beside God; they
explained away the anthropomorphisms used in speaking of the
deity; they regarded the Koran as created and as a product of
Mahomet writing under the divine influence. Briefly, they
asserted the supremacy of reason ('aql) as distinct from faith
received by tradition (naqt). They also called themselves " the
people of justice and unity " (Aid ul-'adl wat-lauhid). Such a
faith as this naturally found favour rather with the thinking
classes than with the uneducated multitude, and so went through
many vicissitudes. At the time of its appearance and until the
reign of Ma'mun its adherents were persecuted as heretics. After
discussions among the theologians Ma'mun took the decided
step of proclaiming that the Koran was created, and that a belief
in this dogma was necessary. Other Mu'tazilite doctrines were
proclaimed later. Mu'tazilites were appointed to official posts,
and an inquisition (mihna) was appointed to enforce belief in their
doctrines. This movement was strongly opposed by theortbodox
and especially by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (q.v.). By him the founding
of theology on reason was rejected, and he suffered persecution
for his faith (see W. N. Patton, Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna,
Leiden, 1897). Mu'tazilism retained its sway until 849, when
the caliph Motawakkil again declared the Koran uncreate and
restored orthodoxy. It was during the early years of the Abbasid

1 For the doctrines of these two sects see Shahrastani's Book of
Sects, and for the Qadarites, A. de Vlieger's Kitab ul-Qadr, materiaux
pour servir a I'tlude de la doctrine de la predestination dans la thtologie
musulmane (Leiden, 1903).

422

MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION

rule that the four legal schools of Abu Hanlfa (d. 767), Malik ibn
Anas (d. 795), ash-Shafi'i (d. 819) and Ibn Hanbal (d. 855) came
into existence (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). As the bases of religion
and law were the same, so the methods applied in the treatment of
the one affected the other. Abu Hanlfa depended little on
tradition, but referred back to the Koran, making use of indi-
vidual opinion (ray) as controlled by analogy (qiyds) with a
written ordinance. Malik Ibn Anas supplemented the Koran
and Sunna by customary law founded largely on the custom
(ijma') of Medina, and by what he conceived to be for the public
good (isiisldh) . Shan 'I recognized tradition as equal to the Koran,
and even as being able to supersede its ordinances, while he also
recognized the universal custom (ijma) of the Moslem world as
divine and binding. His four bases of religion — Koran, sunna,
qiyas and ijma' — have been generally accepted in Islam (see
above). Ibn Hanbal's position has been already mentioned. All
these four schools are reckoned orthodox, and all orthodox
Moslems belong to one or another of them. Another teacher of
this time, who founded a school which did not succeed in being
recognized as orthodox, was Da'ud uz-Zahiri. Trained as a
Shafi'ite, he became too strict for this school, rejected analogy,
restricted ijma to the agreement or custom of the companions
of Mahomet, and accepted the whole of the Koran and tradition
in the most literal and external sense. His followers were called
Zahirites (i.e. externalists). After Ash'ari 's time these principles
were applied to theology by Ibn Hazm (q.v.) see I. Goldziher,
Die Zahirilen, ihr Lehrsystem und ihre Geschichte (Leipzig, 1884).
Before turning to the reform of Ash'ari and the introduction
into orthodox theology of scholastic philosophy it is necessary to
notice another phase of religious life which became the common
property of orthodox and heretics. This was the introduction
of asceticism in religious practice and of mysticism in religious
thought. Sufi'ism (q.v..), which combined these 'two, is rightly
not counted among the sects of Islam. Asceticism seems to have
won a certain amount of approval from Mahomet himself, who
much respected the Christian monks. The attention paid in early
Islam to the joys and punishments of the future life led to self-
denial and simple living in this world. An Arabian writer, speak-
ing of the simplicity of manners of the first four caliphs, says
that their affairs were conducted with more consideration of the
future life than of this world. Many Moslems went even farther
than these caliphs, and gave up all concern as far as possible with
the affairs of this world and lived in poverty, in wanderings or in
retirement (see DERVISH). For the historical development of
this movement, with its accompanying mysticism, see SUFI'ISM.
Ash'ari (d. before 942) was for forty years a Mu'tazilite, then
became orthodox (see ASH'ARI),- and at once applied rational
methods for the support and interpretation of the orthodox
faith. Before him, reason had not been allowed any scope in
orthodox theology. He was not the first to use it ; some teachers
(as al-Junaid) had employed it in teaching, but only in secret and
for the few. The methods of scholastic philosophy were now
introduced into Moslem theology. The chief characteristic of
his religious teaching was the adoption of the via media between
materialistic grossness and the ideas of pure speculative philo-
sophy. Thus he taught, as to the attributes of God, that they
exist, but are not to be compared with human attributes; as to
His visibility, that He can be seen but without the limitations of
human sight. As to the great question of freewill, hedeniedman's
power b.ut asserted his responsibility. So he passed in review
the doctrines of God, faith, the Koran, sin, intercession, &c.,
and for the first time in the history of Islam produced a
systematic theology. The teaching of Ash'ari was taken up and
propagated by the Buyids soon after his death, and was developed
and perfected by Abu Bekr ul-Baqilanl, the Cadi (d. 1012), but
up to the middle of the 5th century of Islam (c. A.D. 1058) was
suspected elsewhere and confounded with Mu'tazilism. The
Ash'arlte al-Juwaini (known as Imam ul-Haramain) was perse-
cuted under Toghrul Beg (c. 1053) and exiled, but was restored
under Alp Arslan by the vizier Nizam ul-Mulk, who founded an
Ash'arite college (the Nizamiyya) . In the West, Ibn Hazm (q.v.)
fiercely opposed the system, but Ghazali established its orthodoxy

in the East, and it spread from Persia to Syria and Egypt under
the Ayyubites and Mamelukes and thence to the Almohades in
Africa under Ibn Tumart (1130). It remains the predominating
influence to the present day, its only serious rival being the
theological system of al-Mataridi, a Hanifite (d. 945), whose creed
as represented in that of an-Nasafi is still used largely by the
Turks. Since the isth century no great theological movement
has been made in Islam. The quiet of religious life has twice
been broken, once by Wahhabism (q.v.) in Arabia, once by Babism
(q.v.) in Persia.

THE SECTS

According to an early tradition Mahomet said that Islam
would be divided into seventy-three parties (sects),1 of which
seventy-two would perish and one would be saved. The orthodox
Arabian writers on heretical sects of Islam feel compelled by this
tradition to make up their number to seventy-two, and, as
different writers adopt different divisions or are familiar with
different parties, the names of sects amount to some hundreds.
Each writer, however, adopts certain main classes under which
he attempts to group the others. Abu Muti' Makhul at the
beginning of the roth century in his " Refutation " (MS. in
Bodleian Library) has six such chief classes: Harurites (i.e.
Kharijites), Rafidites (i.e. Shi'ites), Qadarites, Jabarites,
Jahmites and Murjiites. Ibn Hazm (q.v.) adopts four classes:
Mu'tazilites (Motazilites), Murjiites, Shi'ites and Kharijites.
Shahrasta.nl (q.v.) complains of the want of system in earlier
writers, and suggests as bases of classification the position of
parties with regard to the doctrines as to (i) the divine attributes,
(2) predestination and free-will (3) promises and threats, faith
and error, (4) revelation, reason, the imamate. In one part of his
preface he gives as the chief parties the Qadarites, Sifatites,
Kharijites and Shi'ites, proposing to divide these classes accord-
ing to leaders who agreed with the main doctrines of their class
but differed in some points. In another place he mentions four
opposite pairs of sects: (i) the Qadarites with their doctrine of
free-will, and the Jabarites, who are necessitarians; (2) the
Sifatites, who maintain the eternal nature of the attributes of
God, and the Mu'tazilites, who deny it; (3) the Murjiites, who
postpone judgment of actions until the Last Day, and the
Wa'idites, who condemn in this life; (4) the Kharijites, who
consider the caliphate a human institution, and the Shi'ites, who
deify their ruler. In his detailed treatment of the sects Shahra-
stani arranged them under the headings: Mu'tazilites, Jabarites,
Sifatites, Kharijites, Murjiites and Shi'ites. About the same
time as Shahrastani two other Arabian writers wrote on the sects
— Tahir ul-Isfarainl (d. 1078), whose MS. is in the Berlin library,
and 'Abd ul-Qadir ul-JIlanl (1078-1166) in his Kildb ul-Ghaniyya
li-Tdlibi Tarlq il-Haqqi (Cairo, 1871). Both adopt as main
classes Rafidites (or Shi'ites), Qadarites (or Mu'tazilites), Khari-
jites, Murjiites, Najjarites, Dirarites, Jahmites, Mushabbiha, to
which Tahir adds Bakrites, Karramites, and a class including
those sects which are not reckoned as Moslem though they have
sprung from Islam. JllanI adds to the eight the Kilabites.

The following list is not a complete list of names of sects but is
founded on that of Shahrastani.2

Afiahites. — Shi'ites of the Imamite class, who ascribe the imamate
to 'Abdallah ul-Aftahi, the son of Sadiq.

Ajarida. — Kharijites, followers of Ibn 'Ajarrad, who agreed for
the most part with the Najadat (below), considered grave sins as
equivalent to unbelief, but remained friendly with those who pro-
fessed Islam but did not fight for it. They rejected sura 7 as a fable.
Shahrastani enumerates seven divisions of this sect.

1 For the origin and significance of this number see M. Steinschnei-
der, " Die kanonische Zahl der muhammedanischen Secten und die
Symbolik der Zahl, 70-73," in Zeitschr. d. deutschen morgenl.
Gesellschaft, iv., 145-170 (1850); and I. Goldziher, " Le Denombre-
ment des sectes mohame'tanes " in Revue de I'hist. des religions,
xxvi. 129-137 (1892).

2 The names are given throughout in the anglicized form on the
analogy of Shi'ites, which is recognized in common usage. The
strict termination according to the scheme of transliteration adopted
in this work is iyya, or iya, e.g. Hishamiyya for Hishamites.
information regarding the important sects see separate articles and
the preceding portion of this article.

MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION

423

Akhnasites. — A section of the Tha'aliba not so strict in treatment
of those who fi-ar to fight for Islam.

ii'arites. — Followers of Ash'ari (q.v.) who are counted by Shah-

i among the Sitatitcs.

•afites.— A division of the ' Ajarida who agree with the H amzites
i tlKii they excuse the lower classes for inaction when they are
iiit of the law.

rtiqites. — Kharijites who followed al-Azraq in the days of Ibn
Xnbair. Thcv held 'Ali to be an unbeliever; those who did not fight
iinbelievers; the children of unbelievers were to be put to death
ami went to hell. Sin is unbelief.

^hamites. — Mu'tazilites akin to the Jubba'ites.
:hasites. — Khfirijites, followers of Abu Baihas ul-Haitham, who
!'iit to death by the caliph VValid. They asserted the necessity
iwledije for religion.

.'.— Shi'ites who followed Abu Ja'far ul-Baqir, the fifth
and looked for his return.

Bdtinites. — Isma'ilites, so called because they believe that every
;i.il has an internal (bdtin), and every passage in the Koran has
an allegoric meaning.

Bishrites. — Mu'tazilites, followers of Bishr ibn Mu'tamir, one of

nost learned men of his party. His teaching was philosophical

ami was distinguished by his doctrine of " origination " (tawallud).

Bunanites. — Kaisanites, followers of Bunan ibn Sim'an un-Nahdi,

who claimed that the imamate passed from Abu Hashim to himself

and that he had also acquired the divine element of 'All.

liutrites. — Zaidites, followers of Kathir un-Nawa ul-Abtar, who
1 with the Suleimanites (Sulaimanites) except that he suspended
lent as to whether Othman was a believer or not.

. — Jabarites who empty God of his attributes, and assert
th.it man has a sixth sense by which he will see God on the day of
resurrection. The actions of man are " created " and acquired by
him. A caliph need not be chosen from the Koreish.

Ghaliites (('.hula) are the extreme Shi'ites (q.v.) in ascribing deity

to the imams. Their heresies are said to be four in number: (l)

Making God resemble man, (2) ascribing change of mind to God,

IB for the return -of the imam, (4) metempsychosis. They

are divided by Shahrastani into ten classes.

Ghassdnites. — Murjiites, followers of Ghassan ibn ul-Kufi, who say
that faith consists of knowledge of God, his apostle, and the Koran
neral not in detail, and that faith increases but is not diminished.
:iites = l.layitites (below).

''lites tl.ludabites) are Mu'tazilites, followers of Fadl ibn
ul-l.ladathi, who agreed with the Hayitites (below).

IJaffiles. — Ibadites, followers of Hafs ibn abi-1-Miqdam, who

I I iet ween idolatry (shirk) and unbelief (kufr).
• •vs. —'Ajarida, followers of Hamza ibn Adrak in Sijistan.
They agree with the Maimunites, but condemn the children of
unbelievers to hell.

Hdrithites. — Ibadites who differ from others in holding the Mu'taz-
ilite doctrine of free-will.

•!es. — A name given to the first Kharijites, who rebelled
i 'Ali, and met in Harura near Kufa.

mites. — Shi'ites who supported Abu Hashim, son of Mahom-
med ibn ul-Hanafiyya, although they held that his father had gone
•stray.

Hashwiites. — A party who asserted the eternity even of the letters
of the Koran. They are not mentioned as a separate sect by Shah-
ai; cf. van Vloten, " Lei Hachwia et Nabita," in the Acts of the
I i//i Oriental Congress (Paris, 1899), pt. iii., pp. 99 sqq.

•tfs. --Mu'tazilites who agreed With the Nazzamites, but

added three heresies of their own: (i) the divinity of the Messiah,

!) metempsychosis, (3) the interpretation of all references to the

•isiun of God as referring to the " first Reason " or " creative

<n."

llishdmites.—-.\ name given to two sects: (i) Mu'tazilites, strong
their_assertion of man's free-will, even opposing the statement
of the Koran. (2) Shi'ites of the extreme kind, who attributed to
("id a Ixxly with quantities (measurements) and qualities.
JJudabiles.— See I.Iadathites.

Iludhailites (Hodhailites).— Mu'tazilites, followers of Abu-1 Hud-
hail Hamdan, who was a leading teacher of his party and developed
the philosophical side of its teaching. Ten of his main doctrines
are given by Shahrastani.

ir?-1'"' — Kharijites of moderate tendencies (see above).
llbdites. — Ghaliites who put 'Ali above Mahomet and blamed the
latter because he called men to himself instead of to 'All.
Imamites. — One of the chief divisions of the Shi'ites (q.v.).

lituiites.— Ghaliites agreeing with the Nusairites except that
hev incline to speak of the imams' participation in the prophetic

•her than of their divinity.

., ^l"0,'5'1'"-— This name is aPPlietl t° a" who consider Isma'H

.1 I. it the last imam, some believing that he did not die but will

rn. others, that at his death his son Mahommed became imam

--INS); it is also used as equivalent to the Batinites.
/MM 'asharites. — Imamites who accept the twelve 'imams (see

Jabarites. — Those who deny all actions and power to act to man
and ascril>c all to God (see above).

Ja'farites. — Imamites who carry the imamate no farther than
Ja'far us-Sadiq.

Jdhizites. — Mu'tazilites, followers of the celebrated writer Jahiz
(q.v.), who indulged in philosophical speculations, believed in the
eternity of matter, and was regarded as a naturalist (faba'i) rather
than a theist (allahi).

Jahmites. — Jabarites, followers of Jahm ibn Safwan, who was
put to death at Merv toward the close of the Omayyad period. He
was extreme in his denial of the attributes of God.

Jdrudites. — Zaidites who held that Mahomet designated 'All as
imam, not by name but by hisattributes, and that the Moslem sinned
by not taking sufficient trouble to recognize these attributes.

Jubba'ites. — Mu'tazilites who followed the philosophical teaching
of Abu 'All Mahommed ul-Jubba'i of Basra.

Kaisanites. — A main class of the Shi'ites (q.v.).

Kamilites. — Ghaliites, followers of Abu Kamil, who condemned
the companions (Anfdr) because they did not do allegiance to 'All,
and 'AH because he surrendered his claims.

Karramites. — Sifatites, followers of Ibn Karram, who went so
far as to ascribe a body to God, and assimilated his nature to human
nature.

Kayyalites. — Ghaliites, followers of Ahmad ibn Kayyal, who, after
supporting a propaganda for an Aliite, claimed to be the imam
himself on the ground of his power over the spheres.

Khalafites. — 'Ajarida of Kerman and Multan, who believed that
God wills good and evil, but condemned the children of unbelievers
to hell.

Kharijites. — One of the earliest sects of Islam (see above).

Kharimites. — 'Ajarida, agreeing mostly with the Shu'aibites and
teaching that the relation of God to a man depends on what he
professes at the end of his life.

Khatfdbites. — Ghaliites, followers of Abu-1 KhatJab, who was put
to death by Ibn Musa at Kufa. He was a violent supporter of Ja'far
us-Sadiq, who however disowned him.

Khayydtites. — Mu'tazilites, followers of Abu-1 Hosain ul-Khayyat,
a teacher in Bagdad, part of whose philosophical teaching was that
the non-existent is a thing.

Ma'badites. — Tha'labites who differed from the Akhnasites on the
question of the marriage of believing women and from Tha'Iab on
the question of taking alms from slaves.

Maimunites. — 'Ajarida, followers of Maimun ibn Khalid, who
believed that God wills good only and that man determines his
actions.

Majhulites. — Tha'labites, agreeing generally with the Kharimites,
but teaching that he who knows some names and attributes of God
and is ignorant of some knows God.

Ma'lumites. — Tha'labites agreeing generally with the Kharimites
but alleging that a believer must know all the names and attributes
of God.

Mans,urites. — Ghaliites, followers of Abu Mansur ul-'Ijli, who at
first supported al-Baqir, but, rejected by him, claimed th/; imamate
for himself. He was crucified by the caliph Hisham ibn 'Abd ul-
Malik (Abdalmalik).

Mu'ammariles.1 — Mu'tazilites who strongly denied the pre-
destination of God, and affirmed that God created bodies only, and
that the accidents spring naturally from them.

Mufaddalites.1 — The same as the Musaites (q.v.).

Muglnrites.' — Ghaliites, followers of Mughira ibn Sa'id ul-'Ijli,
who claimed the imamate and prophetic office and held extremely
gross views of God.

Muhakkima1 (the first). — Another name for the Harurites (above).

Mukarramites.1 — Tha'labites who taught that sin consists in
ignorance of God.

Mukhtdriles.1 — Kaisanites, followers of al-Mukhtar ibn 'Ubaid,
who held to Mahommed ibn ul-Hanafiyya but was disowned by
him. He allowed the possibility of change of mind on the part of
God.

Murjiites. — Those who postponed judgment of actions until the
Day of Judgment. See above.

Mus.dites. — Imamites who held to the imamate of Musa ibn Ja'far,
who was imprisoned by Harun al-Rashid and poisoned.

Mushabbiha.' — Sifatites who compared God's actions with human
actions. They said that the Koran was eternal with all its letters,
accents and written signs.

Mu'tazilites.1 — The rationalists of Islam. See above, cf. also H.
Steiner, Die Mu'taziliten oder die Freidenker im Islam (Leipzig,
1865).

Muzddritts.1 — Mu'tazilites, followers of al-Muzdar, a pupil of Bishr
(cf. Bishrites) whose teaching he developed further. He taught
that God has power to do evil, but, if he acted thus, would be an
evil God ; also that man can produce the equal of the Koran.

Najadat (also known as 'Adhirites). — Kharijites, who followed
Najda ibn "Amir of Yemama as he went to join the Azraqites but
withdrew from these, being more orthodox than they. He held
that fear of fighting was not sin.

Ndwisites take their name from a person or a place. They are
Ja'farites who believe in Sadiq as the mahdi.

1 All these names are alternatively spelt Mo- instead of Mu-.

424

MAHONY— MAHRATTAS

Nazzamites. — Mu'tazilites, followers of Ibrahim ibn Sayyar
un-Nazzam, who was an extremist in his teaching of man's free-will
and other philosophical doctrines.

Nu'manites.1 — Ghaliites agreeing in some points with Hishamites,
but holding that God is a light in the form of a man, yet not a body.

Nus.airites.1 — Ghaliites who agree with the Ishaqites except that
they lay more stress on the incorporation of the deity.

Qadarites. — The upholders of free-will (see above).

Qata'ites. — Musaites who regard the rank of the imams as closed
with the death of Musa.

Rafidites. — A term used by some writers to denote the Shi'ites
as a whole; by others given to a class of the Shi'ites who forsook
Zaid ibn 'All because he forbade them to abuse the Companions.

Rashidites. — Tha'labites, followers of Rashid ut-Tusi, sometimes
called 'Ushrites (" tithers ") because they differed from others on
the question of tithing the produce of land watered by rivers and
canals.

Rizamites. — Kaisanites of Khorasan at the time of Abu Muslim,
to whom they ascribed the imamate and the Spirit of God. They
also believed in metempsychosis.

Saba'ites. — Ghaliites, who followed 'Abdallah ibn Saba (see
SHI'ITES).

Salihites. — (a) Zaidites, followers of al-Hasan ibn Salili, who
agreed with the teachings of the Butrites (above); (6) Murjiites,
followers of Salih ibn Amr, who united with the doctrines of their
own party those of the Qadarites.

Sallites. — 'Ajarida who had nothing to do with the children
of believers until they had grown up and professed Islam.

Shaibanites. — Tha'labites, followers of Shaiban ibn Salama, who
was killed in the time of Abu Muslim (Moslem). They arose chiefly in
Jorjan and Armenia and agreed in doctrine with the Jahmites.

Shamlfites. — Ja'farites, followers of Yahya ibn Abu Shamit.

Shi'ites. — See separate article.

Shu'aibites. — 'Ajarida who said that God creates the actions of
men, and men appropriate them.

Sifatites are those who ascribe eternity to all the attributes of
God, whether they denote essence or action, or are of the class
called descriptive attributes.

Sifrites, the same as Ziyadites (below).

Sulaimanites (Suleimanites). — Zaidites, followers of Suleiman ibn
Jarir, who held that the appointment to the imamate was a matter
of consultation and that the imamates of Abu Bekr and Omar were
legal although 'All had a better claim.

Tha'labites. — A party of the Kharijites, followers of Tha'lab ibn
Amir, who agreed with the 'Ajarida except that he was friendly
with children until they actually denied the faith. He also took
alms from slaves when they were rich, and gave alms to poor slaves.

Thaubanites. — Murjiites who said that faith consists in the know-
ledge and confession of God and His apostle, and what the intellect
is not capable of doing. What the intellect can do (or leave) is not
of faith. ,

Thumamites. — Mu'tazilites, followers of Thumama ibn Ashras
in the days of Mamun, who taught that all non-Moslems would
become dust on the day of resurrection.

Tumanites. — Murjiites who taught that faith depends on obedience
rather to the principles than to the commands of Islam.

'Ubaidites. — Murjiites who believed that anything but idolatry
might be forgiven, and that if a man died professing the unity of
God his sins would not hurt him.

Wa'idites. — Those who, opposed to the Murjiites, pronounced
judgment in this life; they are not counted as a separate sect by
"hahrastani (see above).

Waijilites. — A name given to those who followed Wasil ibn "Ata,
the founder of Mu'tazilitism, who denied the attributes of God,
asserted the power of man over his own actions, taught the existence
of a middle place between heaven and hell, and despised the parties
of Othman and 'All alike.

Yazldites. — Ibadites who said that they followed the religion
of the Sabians in the Koran, and believed that God would send an
apostle from the Persians.

Yunusites. — Murjiites who taught that faith consists in know-
ledge of God, subjection to Him, abandonment of pride before Him,
and love in the heart. Obedience apart from knowledge is not of faith.

Zaidites. — The moderate Shi'ites (see SHI'ITES).

Ziyadites. — Kharijites, followers of Ziyad ibn ul-Asfar, who did not
regard those who abstained from fighting for Islam as unbelievers,
and did not kill the children of idolaters or condemn them to hell.

AUTHORITIES. — For the philosophy and theology of Ash'ari see
M. A. F. Mehren, Expose de la reforme de I'Islamisme par Abou-'l
Hasan Ali el-Ash'art (Leiden, 1878); W. Spitta, Zur Geschichte
Abu-l Hasan al-Ash'arls (Leipzig, 1876); M. Schreiner, Zur
Geschichte des Ash'aritenthums (Leiden, 1891); D. B. Macdonald,
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional
Theory (London, 1903). The last work contains translations of
the creeds of Ash'ari and NasafI (Mataridite). A further biblio-
graphy of works on the faith and outlook of Islam will be found
in D. B. Macdonald's Muslim Theology.

1 These names are alternatively spelt No- instead of Nu-.

I

The text of the Koran has been edited by G. Flvigel, Leipzig,
various dates; and by G. M. Redslob, Paris, 1868 and 1880. There
are also hundreds of Eastern editions. Concordances have been
published by G. Fliigel, Leipzig, 1842 (several times reprinted),
also in Egypt, Palestine and India. A dictionary and glossary were
published by J. Penrice, London, 1873. English translations have
been made by G. Sale, London, 1734 (the fullest edition is that with
notes by E. M. Wherry, 4 vols., London, 1882-1886); by J.M.Rodwell
with notes, London, 1861 and 1876; and by E. H. Palmer in
vi. and ix. of the " Sacred Books of the East," Oxford, 1880-1882.
Among the best or best-known Arabic commentaries are tho
Tabarl (q.v.), Zamakhshari (q.v.), Baidhawi (q.v.), the Jalalain
SUYUTI), and such later ones as the Mafatih ul-Ghaib of ar-Ruzi
(d. 1210). The composition and theology of the Koran are treated
in the works of Noldeke and Grimme referred to above.

On the eschatology of Islam see M. Wolff, Muhammedanische
Eschatologie (Leipzig, 1872); and on the doctrine of revelation,
Otto Pautz, Muhammeds Lehre von der Offenbarung (Leipzig, 1898).

(G.' VV. T.)

MAHONY, FRANCIS SYLVESTER (1804-1866), known as
" Father Prout," Irish priest and author, son of a woollen manu-
facturer, was born in Cork in 1804. His classical education was
chiefly obtained at a Jesuit college at Amiens, and after studying
in Paris he entered the Jesuit college at Rome and was admitted
into the Society of Jesus. He served in Switzerland and at
Clongoweswood, Ireland, where he was prefect of studies and
subsequently master of rhetoric. Here he was involved in
scandals that led to his resignation. On going to Italy he was
told at Florence that he was expelled from the Society. He
succeeded, however, in obtaining priest's orders at Rome in 1832,
and returned to Ireland, but subsequently went to London,
officiating for some time in the chapel of the Bavarian Legation.
While there he fell in with William Maginn, and about 1834
began to contribute his celebrated " Prout Papers " to Fraser's
Magazine. These consist of episodes in the life of the parish
priest " Father Prout," and dialogues after the model of " Chris-
topher North," varied by translations of well-known English
songs into Latin, Greek, French and Italian verse, which he
humorously represents as being the true originals from which the
English authors had merely plagiarized them. Mahony's trans-
lations have been universally admired for the extraordinary
command which they display of the various languages into which
his renderings are made, and for their spirit and freedom both of
thought and expression. His original verse tends chiefly to show
that with all his sarcastic and cynical wit his genius had also its
tender, serious and sentimental side. His " Bells of Shandon "
has always been greatly admired. In 1846 Mahony became
correspondent at Rome to the Daily News, and his letters from
that capital gave very vivid pictures of the first years of the reign
of Pius IX. The last twelve or fifteen years of his life were spent
in Paris, whence he supplied the Globe with a series of piquant
letters on the incidents of the day. He died in Paris on the
1 8th of May 1866.

The Reliques of Father Prout were collected from Fraser's Magazine
and published in two volumes in 1836; The Final Reliques of Father
Front, chiefly extracted from the Daily News and the Globe, were
edited by Blanchard Jerrold in 1876, and an edition of his works,
edited by Charles Kent, was published in 1881.

MAHOUT (Hind. mahawat),a.n elephant-driver. The mahout
sits on the elephant's neck and directs him by voice and by the
use of a goad called ankus.

MAHRATTAS, a people of India, inhabiting the district known
by the ancient name of Maharashtra (Sans. " great kingdom or
region"). This large tract, extending from the Arabian Sea on
the west to the Satpura mountains in the north, comprises a good
part of western and central India, including the modern provinces
of the Konkan, Khandesh, Berar, the British Deccan, part of
Nagpur, and about half the nizam's Deccan.

The etymology of the word Mahratta (Maratha) is uncertain.
The name does not indicate a social caste, or a religious sect; it
is not even tribal. Strictly, it is confined to the upper class
from whom Sivaji's generals were mostly drawn, and who some-
times claim a Rajput origin. In a wider sense it may be ex-
tended to include all who inhabit Maharashtra and speak
Mahratti as their mother-tongue. In 1901 the total number of
speakers of Mahratti in all India exceeded 18 millions.

MAHRATTAS

425

The Mahrattas have always been a separate nation or people,
and still regard themselves as such, though nowadays they are
almost all under British or Mahommedan jurisdiction; that
is, they belong either to British India or to the nizam's domi-
nions. There are indeed still three large native states nominally
Mahratta: that of Sindhia near the borders of Hindustan in the
north, that of Holkar in Malwa in the heart of the Indian con-
tinent, and that of the gaekwar in Gujarat on the western coast.
But in these states the prince, his relatives and some of his
ministers or officials only are Mahrattas; the mass of the people
belong to other sections of the Hindu ra"ce. These states then
not to be included in the Mahratta nation, though they have
a share in Mahratta history.

In general terms the Mahrattas, in the wider sense, may be
described under two main heads: first the Brahmans, and secondly
the low-caste men. The Mahratta Brahmans possess, in an intense
ee, the qualities of that famous caste, physical, intellectual and
1. They have generally the lofty brow, the regular features,
the spare upright figure, and the calm aspect which might be
expected in a race maintained in great purity yet upon a broad
In modern times they have proved themselves the most
able and ambitious of all the Brahmans in the Indian Empire.
They arc notably divided into two sections: the Konkanast, coming
from the Konkan or littoral tract on the west coast below the
Western Ghat mountains; and the Deshast, coming from the
uplands or Deccan, on the east of the mountains. Though there
have been many distinguished Deshasts, yet the most remarkable
of all have been Konkanasts. For instance, the peshwas, or heads
of the Mahratta confederation which at one time dominated nearly
all India, were "Konkanast Brahmans. The birthplaces of these
MS arc still known, and to this day there are sequestered
villages, nestling near the western base of the Ghats, which are
pointed to as being the ancestral homes of men who two centuries
ago had political control over half India.

Apart from the Brahmans, the Mahrattas may be generally
nated as Sudras, the humblest of the four great castes into
which the Hindu race is theoretically divided. But the upper
- claim to be Kshattriyas or Rajputs. They probably are
fundamentally, with a mixture of what are now called
Scythian tribes, which at a very early time overran India.
The ordinary Mahrattas, who form the backbone of the nation,
have plain features, an uncouth manner, short stature, a small but
wiry frame. Though not powerful physically as compared with the
northern races of the Punjab and Oudh, they have much activity
and an unsurpassed endurance. Born and bred in or near the
Western Cihat mountains and the numerous tributary ranges, they
all the qualities of mountaineers. In recent times they enter
military service less and less, betaking themselves mainly to culti-
"i and to the carrying business connected with agriculture.
wbandmen they are not remarkable; but as graziers, as cart-
men, as labourers, they are excellent. As artisans they have seldom

.ilized themselves, save as armourers and clothweavers.
In the Konkan there are some superior proprietors termed
With this and perhaps some other exceptions, there
are not in the Mahratta country many large landlords, nor many
of the superior tenure-holders whose position relatively to that of
the peasantry has caused much discussion h; other parts of India.
There are indeed many Mahratta chiefs still resident in the country,
members of the aristocracy which formerly enjoyed much wealth
and power. They are sometimes in the position of landlords, but
olten they ace the assignees of the land revenue, which they are
entitled under special grants to collect for themselves instead of
>vcrnment, paying merely a small sum to Government by way
of quit-rent. Under them the cultivators are by British arrangements
placed in the position of peasant proprietors. The village community
ha-- always existed as the social unit in the Mahratta territories,
though with less cohesion among its members than in the village com-
munities of Hindustan and the Punjab. Theancient offices pertaining
to the village, as those of the headmen (patel), the village accountant,
&c., are in working order throughout the Mahratta country.

The Mahratta peasantry possess manly fortitude under suffering

and misfortune. Though patient and good-tempered in the main,

hey have a latent warmth of temper, and if oppressed beyond a

certain limit they would fiercely turn upon their tormentors. As a

rule they are orderly and law-abiding, but traditions of plunder

have been handed down to them from early times, and many of

them retain the predatory instincts of their forefathers. The

ighbourhood of dense forests, steep hill-sides, and fastnesses

hard of access offers extraordinary facilities to plunderers for

screening Uwmsdvea and their booty. Thus gang robbery is apt

break out, gains head with rapidity, and is suppressed with

nculty. In times of peace it is kept under, but during war, or

whenever the bands of civil order are loosened, it becomes a cause

If anxiety and a source of danger. The women have frankness and

trcngth of character; they work hard in the fields, and as a rule

evince domestic virtue.

The peasantry preserve a grave and quiet demeanour, but they
have their humble ideas of gaiety, and hold their gatherings on
occasions of births or marriages. They frequently beguile their
toil with carols. They like the gossiping and bartering at the rural
markets and in the larger fairs, which are sometimes held in strikingly
picturesque localities. They are superstitious, and worship with
hearty veneration any being or thing whose destructive agency
they fear. They even speak of the tiger with honorific titles.
They are Hindus, but their Hinduism is held to be of a non-Aryan
type. They are sincerely devout in religion, and feel an awe
regarding the holy Brahmans," holding the life and the person
of a Brahman sacred, even though he be a criminal of the deepest
dye. They of course regard the cow as equally sacred. There
are two principal sects among modern Hindus— those who follow
Vishnu, and those who follow Siva. The Mahrattas generally
follow Siva and his wife, a dread goddess known under many names.
The Mahratta war-cry, " Har, Har, Mahadeo," referred to Siva.
All classes high and low are fond of the religious festivals, the
principal of which, the Dasahra, occurs in October, when the first
harvest of the year has been secured and the second crops sown.
This has always been held with the utmost pomp and magnificence
at every centre of Mahratta wealth and power. The people frequently
assemble in bowers and arbours constructed of leafy boughs to hear
kathas recited. These recitations are partly religious, partly also
romantic and quasi-historical. After them national resolves of just
resistance or of aggressive ambition have often been formed.

Apart from the Mahratta Brahmans, as already mentioned, the
Mahratta nobles and princes are not generally fine-looking men.
There is general truth in what was once said by a high authority
to the effect that, while there will be something dignified in the
humblest Rajput, there will be something mean in the highest
Mahratta. Bluff good-nature, a certain jocoseness, a humour
pungent and ready, though somewhat coarse, a hot or even violent
disposition, are characteristics of Mahratta chief tains. They usually
show little aptitude for business or for sedentary pursuits; but, on
the other hand, they are born equestrians and sportsmen. Mahratta
ladies and princesses have often taken a prominent part, for good or
evil, in public affairs and dynastic intrigues.

Though they have produced some poetry, the Mahrattas have
never done much for literature. Nor have they been distinguished
in industrial art. Their architecture in wood, however, was excellent ;
and the teak forests of their country afforded the finest timber for
building and for carving. They had also much skill in the con-
struction of works for the supply of drinking water on a large scale
and for irrigation.

The range of the Western Ghats enabled the Mahrattas to
rise against their Mahommedan conquerors, to reassert their
Hindu nationality against the whole power of the Mogul Empire,
and to establish in its place an empire of their own. It is often
stated that in India British conquest or annexation succeeded
Mahommedan rule; and to a considerable extent this was the
case. But, on the other hand, the principal power, the widest
sovereignty, which the British overthrew in India was that of the
Mahrattas.

During the earlier Moslem invasions in 1 100 and in subsequent
years, the Mahrattas do not seem to have made much resistance.
They submitted to several Mahommedan kings under the chang-
ing circumstances of those times. It was against the Mahom-
medan king of Bijapur in the Deccan that Sivaji, the hero of
Mahratta history, first rebelled in 1657. Sivaji and his fighting
officers were Mahrattas of humble caste, but his ministers were
Brahmans. When the Mogul Empire absorbed the Bijapur
kingdom he defied the emperor. He imparted a self-reliant
enthusiasm to his countrymen, formed them into an army, and
organized them as a political community; his mountaineer
infantry, though limited in numbers, proved desperately cour-
ageous; his cavalry was daring and ubiquitous. The Moslems,
having once overcome the Hindus in almost all parts of India,
had not for centuries met with any noteworthy uprising. Sivaji,
however, planned their expulsion, and before the end of his rest-
less life made much progress in the execution of that design.
The new state which he founded was maintained under various
vicissitudes after his death. Mahratta resistance, once aroused
by him, was never extinguished, and the imperial resources
were worn out by ceaseless though vain efforts to quell it.
The great Mogul emperor's impoverished and enfeebled successor
was fain to recognize the Mahratta state by a formal instrument.
The Mahratta king, a descendant of Sivaji, had become a rot
fain6a.nl, and the arrangement was negotiated by his Brahman
minister, whose official designation was the peshwa. The office •
of peshwa then became hereditary in the minister's family,

426

MAHRATTAS

and grew in importance as the Mahratta kingdom rose, while the
king sunk into the condition of a puppet. Thus the Mahratta
power was consolidated throughout nearly the whole of Maha-
rashtra under the Brahman peshwa as virtual sovereign, with his
capital at Poona, while the titular Mahratta raja or king had
his court at the neighbouring city of Satara. Despite his politi-
cal importance, however, the raja was still venerated as the
descendant of Sivaji.

Then several chiefs carved out principalities of their own from
among the ruins of the Mogul Empire. Thus Raghoji Bhonsla
established himself in the tracts lying underneath the southern
base of the Satpura range (namely, Nagpur and Berar), overran
Orissa and entered Bengal. Damaji Gaekwar descended from
the Western Ghats upon the alluvial plains of Gujarat around
Baroda; Tukoji Holkar subdued the uplands of Malwa beyond
the Vindhya range on the north bank of the Nerbudda; and
Mahadji Sindhia obtained possession of large tracts immediately
south of Agra and Delhi, marched into Hindustan and became
virtually the master of the Mogul emperor himself (see GWALIOR).
Sivaji's own father had founded a dominion at Tanjore in the
extreme south, which, however, never had relations with the
central power at Poona. The same may be said of the state of
Kolhapur, allotted to a younger branch of Sivaji's family.

But these principalities, though independent respecting
internal administration, and making war or peace with their
neighbours according to opportunity, owned allegiance to the
peshwa at Poona as the head of the Mahratta race. On state
occasions heads of principalities would visit Poona by way of
acknowledging the superior position of the peshwa- On the
other hand, the peshwa was careful to obtain the sanction of his
nominal sovereign at Satara to every important act of state.
Thus a confederation was formed of which the Brahman peshwa
or head was at Poona, governing the adjacent territories, while
the members, belonging to the lower castes, were scattered
throughout the continent of India. Such was the Mahratta
Empire which supplanted the Mogul Empire. The Mahratta
power grew and prospered till it embraced all western and most
of central India. Its culminating point was reached about
1750, or about a century after Sivaji first rebelled against his
Mahommedan sovereign.

Its armies drew soldiers from all parts of India. The infantry
was not of good quality; but its cavalry was really an enormous
force, numbering fully a hundred thousand in all. The horsemen
were splendidly audacious in riding for long distances into the
heart of a hostile country, without support, striking some terrific
blows, and then returning rapidly beyond reach of pursuit. They
could truly boast of having watered their horses in every Indian
river from the Cauvery to the Indus. If attacked, however, in
a competent manner, they would not stand; and afterwards, in
conflict with the British, whole masses of them behaved in a
dastardly manner. As their ambition grew the chiefs began to
organize their troops after the system learnt from the English
and French. In this way several Frenchmen — Benoit de Boigne,
Perron and others — rose in the Mahratta service to a position
dangerous to the British. But the new system was unsuited to
the Mahratta genius; it hampered the meteoric movements of
the cavalry, which was obliged to manoeuvre in combination
with the new artillery and the disciplined battalions. Mahratta
elders hence uttered predictions of military disaster which were
in the end more than fulfilled.

The rapid and amazing success of the Mahratta confederation
rendered it the largest Hindu power that ever existed in India.
But it lacked the elements of true greatness. It was founded
by plundering expeditions, and its subsequent existence was
tainted by the baseness of this predatory origin. With the
exception of the peshwas, its chiefs were little more than free-
booting warriors, for the most part rude, violent and unlettered.
Their custom was to offer their neighbours or victims the alter-
native of paying chouth, that is, one-fourth of the revenue, or
being plundered and ravaged. Thus the Mahratta chouth came
to have an ominous significance in Indian history. Desultory
efforts were made to establish a civil government, but in the

main there was no administration formed on statesmanlike
principles. The peshwas, on the other hand, as Brahmans, were
men of the highest education then possible in India. But they
were absorbed by the direction of military and political com-
binations, and by intrigues for the preservation of their own
power; and, even allowing for all this, they failed to evince the
civil capacity which might have been anticipated. While
several displayed commanding abilities, and some possessed
many virtues, one alone attempted to conduct an administration
in an enlightened manner, and he died prematurely.

There were at the same time powers existing in India to keep
the Mahrattas in check, and some parts of India were excepted
from their depredations. The English power was rising at
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. The nascent Sikh power
prevented Mahratta incursions from being permanently success-
ful in the Punjab. As the Mogul Empire broke up, some separate
Mahommedan powers rose upon its ruins. The nizam of the
Deccan established himself at Hyderabad, comparatively near
the headquarters of the peshwa. Hyder Ali was proclaimed
sultan of Mysore in the south. Ahmed Shah Abdali burst upon
India from Afghanistan. The Mahrattas bravely encountered
him at Panipat near Delhi in 1761, and were decisively defeated.
The defeat, however, did not essentially shake the Mahratta
confederation. It was collision with the English that broke that
wonderful fabric to pieces.

The first collision with the English occurred in 1775, arising
from a disputed succession to the peshwaship. The English
government at Bombay supported one of the claimants, and the
affair became critical for the English as well as for the Mahrattas.
It was at this conjuncture that Warren Hastings displayed his
political genius and rendered signal service to his country, by
succouring from Bengal the defeated Bombay army and nego-
tiating a peace (in 1782) that restored the status quo.

The next collision happened in 1803. The peshwa had fallen
into grave difficulties with some of the principal members of the
Mahratta confederation. He therefore placed himself under
British protection, and this led to the great Mahratta War, in
which the Marquis Wellesley displayed those talents for military
and political combination which rendered him illustrious. It
was during the campaigns which ensued that General Arthur
Wellesley defeated Sindhia and the Bhonsla raja at Assaye, and
General Lake won the victories of Farrukhabad, Dig and Las-
wari over Sindhia and Holkar. The three confederates, Sindhia,
Holkar and the Bhonsla, concluded peace with the British
government, after making large sacrifices of territory in favour
of the victor, and submitting to British control politically. It
was during these events that the British won the province of
Orissa, the old Hindustan afterwards part of the North-Western
Provinces, and a part of the western coast in Gujarat.

The third collision came to pass between 1816 and 1818, through
the conduct, not only of the confederates, but also of the peshwa
(Baji Bao) himself. During the previous war the peshwa had been
the protege and ally of the British ; and since the war he had fallen
more completely than before under British protection — British
political officers and British troops being stationed at his capital.
He apparently felt encouraged by circumstances to rebel.
Holkar and the Bhonsla committed hostile acts. The predatory
Pindaris offered a formidable resistance to the British troops.
So the peshwa ventured to take part in the combination against
the British power, which even yet the Mahrattas did not despair
of overthrowing. After long-protracted menaces, he attacked the
British at Kirkee, but failed utterly, and fled a ruined man.
Ultimately he surrendered to Sir John Malcolm, and was sent as
a state pensioner to Bithur, near Cawnpore. The British, how-
ever, released the raja of Satara from the captivity in which he
had been kept during the peshwa's time, and reinstated him
on the throne, with a limited territory. Owing to these
events the British government became possessed of the Konkan
and of the greater part of the Deccan.

It remains to mention briefly the fortunes of each remaining
member of the once imperial confederation. The principality
of Satara was held to have lapsed in 1848 by the death of the

MAHSEER— MAIDEN

427

raja without lineal heirs, and was annexed by the British govern-
ment. The Bhonsla raja of Nagpur died without lineal heirs in
1853, and his territory was likewise annexed. The house of
Holkar remained faithful to its engagements with the British
government, and its position as a feudatory of the empire was
maintained. In Sindhia's territory, by reason of internal feuds,
the British had to undertake measures which were successfully
terminated after the battles of Maharajpur and Panniar in 1843.
But on the whole the house of Sindhia remained faithful.
Sindhia himself wasactively loyal during the Mutiny. Thegaek-
war gradually fell under British control towards the close of the
century, and his house never engaged in hostilities with the
British government. The ex-peshwa lived to old age at Bithur,
and died in 1857. His adopted son grew up to be the Nana
Sahib, of infamous memory, who took a leading part in the
Mutiny.

J. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas (3 vols., 1826) ; T. D.
Broughton, Letters written in a Mahratta Camp (1813); M. G.
Ranade, Rise of the Maratha Power (Bombay, 1000).

(R.T.;J.S.Co.)

MAHSEER, or MAHASEER (Barbus mosal), a kind of barbel,
abundant in the rivers of India, especially in pools of the upper
and more rapid streams where they issue from the mountainous
part of the country. It is one of the largest species of the
C yprinid family, attaining to a length of 3 to 5 ft., and sometimes
exceeding a weight of 70 Ib. Its body is well-proportioned, rather
elongate, and somewhat like that of the European barbel, but
covered with very large scales, of which there are only twenty-
five or twenty-seven placed along the lateral line; the dorsal
fin is armed with a long and strong spine, and the mouth provided
with four slender and short barbels. The lips are sometimes
produced into fleshy lobes. To the fisherman in India the
mahseer affords the same kind of sport as the salmon in the
British Isles, and it rivals that fish as regards sise, strength and
activity. Its flesh is likewise much esteemed.

MAI, ANGELO (1782-1854), Italian cardinal and philologist,
was born of humble parents at Schilpario in the province of Ber-
gamo, Lombardy, on the 7th of March 1782. In 1799 he entered
the Society of Jesus, and in 1804 he became a teacher of classics
in the college of Naples. After completing his studies at the
Collegium Romanum, he lived for some time at Orvieto, where
he was engaged in teaching and palaeographical studies. The
political events of 1808 necessitated his withdrawal from Rome
(to which he had meanwhile returned) to Milan, where in 1813
he was made custodian of the Ambrosian library. He now
threw himself with characteristic energy and zeal into the task
of examining the numerous MSS. committed to his charge, and
in the course of the next six years was able to restore to the world
a considerable number of long-lost works. Having withdrawn
from the Society of Jesus, he was invited to Rome in 1819 as
chief keeper of the Vatican library. In 1833 he was transferred
to the office of secretary of the congregation of the Propaganda;
on the 1 2th of February 1838 he was raised to the dignity of
cardinal. He died at Castelgandolfo, near Albano, on the 8th of
September 1854.

It is on his skill as a reader of palimpsests that Mai's fame
chiefly rests. To the period of his residence at Milan belong:
Fragments of Cicero's Pro Scauro, Pro Tullio, Pro Flacco, In
Clodium el Curionem, De acre alieno Milonis, De rege (Alexandrino
(1814); M. Corn. Fronton is opera inedila, cum epistolis item
ineditis, Antonini Pit, Marci Aurelii, Lucii Veri et Appiani
(i8i5;newed., 1823, with more than too additional letters found
in the Vatican library); portions of eight speeches of Quintus
Aurelius Symmachus; fragments of Plautus; theorationof Isaeus
De hereditate Cleonymi; the last nine books of the Antiquities
of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and a number of other works. M.
Tullii Ciceronis de repub.'ica quae supersunt appeared at Rome
in 1822; Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, e vaticanis codicibus
edila in 1825-1838; Classici scriptores e vaticanis codicibus editi in
1828-1838; Spiciltgium romanum in 1830-1844; and Palrum
nova bibliotheca in 1845-1853. His edition of the celebrated
Codex raticanus, completed in 1838, but not published (ostensibly

on the ground of inaccuracies) till four years after his death
(1858), is the least satisfactory of his labours and was superseded
by the edition of Vercellone and Cozza (1868), which itself leaves
much to be desired. Although Mai was not as successful
in textual criticism as in the decipherment of manuscripts, he
will always be remembered as a laborious and persevering
pioneer, by whose efforts many ancient writings have been
rescued from oblivion.

See B. Prina, Biografia del cardinale Angela Mai (Bergamo, 1882),
a scientific work, which gives a full and, at the same time, a just
appreciation of his work; Cozza-Luzi, Epistolario del card. Angela
Mai (Bergamo, 1883); life by G. Poletto (Siena, 1887).

MAIA, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the Pleiades, the
seven daughters of Atlas and the Oceanid Plelone. She and her
sisters, born on Mt Cyllene in Arcadia, are sometimes called
mountain goddesses. In a cave of Cyllene Maia became by
Zeus the mother of the god Hermes. The story is told in the
Hymn to Hermes attributed to Homer. She was identified by
the Romans with Maia Majesta, an old Italian goddess of
spring, to whom a sacrifice was offered on the ist of May by
the priest of Vulcan.

M AIDA, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro,
from which it is 30 m. W.S.W. direct, and 12 m. N.N.E. of Pizzo
by rail (the station is 8 m. W. of the town). Pop. (1901), 5190.
The town gives its name to the plain of Maida, where in 1806
British troops under Sir John Stuart defeated the French under
Regnier. The names Maida Hill and Maida Vale in London are
derived from this battle.

MAIDAN, an Indian term for any open plain. The Maidan
is the name of the park in Calcutta, surrounding Fort William,
where society people drive in the afternoon. The name is also
applied to one of the valleys in the Afridi country of Tirah,
and to the plateau portion of the state of Mysore.

MAIDEN, or MAID, a young unmarried girl. " Maid" is a
shortened form of " maiden," O. Eng. maegden, which represents
a diminutive of a Teutonic word meaning " young person," of
either sex. An old English word " may," meaning a kinsman
or kinswoman, and also a virgin or girl, represents the original.
In early usage " maiden " as meaning " virgin " is frequently
applied to the male sex, thus, in Malory's Morte d' Arthur, Sir
Percyvale is called a " parfyte clene megden." Apart from the
direct applications of the word to the unmarried state, such as
" maiden name," " maiden lady," &c., the word is used adjec-
tivally, implying the preservation of the first state of an object,
or indicating a first effort of any kind. Probably a " maiden "
fortress is one which has never fallen, though the New English
Dictionary suggests that the various "maiden castles" in Eng-
land, usually ancient earthworks, may have been so called from
being so strong that they could be defended by maidens, and
points out that Edinburgh Castle, called " maiden-castle " by
William Drummond of Hawthornden (Speech for Edinburgh to
the King), is styled Castrum puellarum, the " castle of the
maidens," in Geoffrey of Monmouth. A " maiden " assize, circuit
or session is one at which there are no prisoners for trial; a
" maiden over " or " maiden " in cricket is an over from which
no runs are scored. A " maiden speech " is the first speech made
by a member of parliament in the house. In the Annual
Register for 1794 (quoted in N.E.D.) the expression, with refer-
ence to Canning's first speech, is said to be " according to the
technical language of the house." " Maiden " is applied to
several objects, to a movable framework or horse for drying and
airing of linen, to a washerwoman's " dolly " or wooden beater,
to the " kirnbaby " formed of the last sheaf of corn reaped
which formerly figured in the Scottish harvest homes, and to the
beheading instrument, known as the " Scottish maiden " (see
below). " Maid," apart from its primary sense of an unmarried
woman, is chiefly used for a domestic female servant, usually
with a qualifying word prefixed, such as " housemaid," " parlour-
maid." &c.

The title of "MAID OP HONOUR" is given to an unmarried
lady attached to the personal suite of a queen. The custom of
sending young girls of noble or good birth to the court of a

428

MAIDENHAIR— MAIDSTONE

prince or feudal superior, for the purpose, primarily, of educa-
tion, goes back to early feudal times, and is parallel with the
sending of boys to act as pages and squires to the feudal castles.
The regular establishment of maids of honour (filles d'honneur)
appears first in the royal court of France. This has usually
been attributed to Anne of Brittany, wife of Charles VIII.;
she had a group of unmarried girls of high rank at her court as
part of her household, in whom she took a lively and parental
interest, educating them and bestowing a dowry upon them on
their marriage. A slightly earlier instance, however, has been
found. When the young Margaret of Austria came to France on
her espousal to Charles VIII., broken by his marriage to Anne
of Brittany, there were in her train several filles d'honneur, whose
names appear in the Comptes d'argenterie de la reine Marguerite
d'Autriche, from 1484-1485 and 1488-1489 (Archives del' empire
K.K.. 80 and 81 quoted by A. Jal, Dictionnaire critique de
biographic et d'histoire). It is from the days of Francis I. that the
chroniques scandaleuses begin which circle round the maids of
honour of the French court. The maids of Catherine de Medici,
celebrat'ed as the " flying squadron," I'escadron volant, are
familiar from the pages of Pierre de 1'Estoile (1574-1611) and
Brantome. Among those whose beauty Catherine used in her
political intrigues, the most famous were Isabelle de Limeuil,
Mile de Montmorency-Fosseux, known as la belle Fosseuse, and
Charlotte de Baune. The filles d' honneur, as an institution, were
suppressed in the reign of Louis XIV., at the instigation of
Mme de Montespan — who had been one of them — and their place
was taken by the dames de palais. In the English court, this
custom of attaching " maids of honour " to the queen's person
was no doubt adopted from France. At the present day a queen
regnant has eight maids of honour, a queen consort four. They
take precedence next after the daughters of barons, and where
they have not by right or courtesy a title of their own, they are
styled " Honourable."

THE SCOTTISH MAIDEN was an instrument of capital punishment
formerly in use in Scotland. It is said to have been invented by
the earl of Morton, who is also said to have been its first victim.
This, however, could not have been the case, as the maiden was
first used at the execution of the inferior agents in the assassination
of Rizzio (1561) and Morton was not beheaded till 1581. The
maiden was practically an early form of guillotine. A loaded blade
or axe moving in grooves was fixed in a frame about ten feet high.
The axe was raised to the full height of the frame and then released,
severing the victim's head from his body. At least 120 suffered
death by the maiden, including the regent Morton, Sir John Gordon
of Haddo, President Spottiswpod, the marquis and earl of Argyll.
In 1710 it ceased to be used; it is now preserved in the museum of
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, in Edinburgh.

MAIDENHAIR, in botany, the common name for a fern,
Adiantum Capillus- Veneris, characterized by the spreading hair-
like branches of the frond, the ultimate pinnules of which are
5 to i in. long with a rounded crenate outer edge and repeatedly
forked veins; the sori (or masses of spore-capsules) are in the
crenatures of the pinnules, and areprotected by a kidney-shaped
involucre. The plant is widely distributed in temperate and
tropical regions, and is occasionally found in the western
counties of England, the Isle of Man, and west Ireland, growing
on damp rocks or walls especially near the sea. The genus
Adiantum is a large one containing many handsome species
both tropical and temperate, well known in greenhouse and
hothouse cultivation.

MAIDENHAIR-TREE is a popular name for Ginkgo biloba, a remark-
able and handsome gymnospermous tree, the fan-shaped leaves of
which with their forked veins recall those of the maidenhair (see
GYMNOS PERMS).

MAIDENHEAD, a market town and municipal borough in
the Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire, England;
24^ m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 12,980. Area, 2125 acres. It is pleasantly situated on
and above the west (right) bank of the Thames, and is much
in favour as a residential town and a resort of boating parties.
Though of high antiquity it is wholly modern in appearance,
and a large number of handsome houses have been built in its
vicinity. A beautiful timbered house of the isth century, how-

ever, survives in Ockwells, a short distance south of the town.
The stone bridge carrying the London road over the Thames
dates from 1772; but the crossing is of ancient importance.
Maidenhead has trade in malt and grain. The borough is
under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.

The' history of Maidenhead (Maydenhutt, Maydenhith) is
bound up with that of the ancient bridge. It is not mentioned
in Domesday. Edward I. (1297) gave a grant of pontage in aid
of the bridge, which was almost broken down; similar grants
to the " bailiffs and good men of Maydenhithe " were made by
•succeeding sovereigns. In 1451 Henry VI. incorporated the
gild of the Brethren and Sisters of Maydenhith to provide certain
necessaries for the celebration of Mass and to keep the bridge
in order: the gild, dissolved at the Reformation, was revived
by Elizabeth, who, however, later (1581) substituted for it a
corporation consisting of a warden, bridgemaster, burgesses
and commonalty: the governing charter until the igth century
was that of James I. (1685) incorporating the town under
the title of the mayor, bridgemaster and burgesses. In 1400
Thomas Holand, earl of Kent, held the bridge in the interests
of the deposed Richard II., but was eventually forced to retire.
In 1643 a meeting took place in the town between Charles I.
and three of his children. In the i8th century a considerable
trade was done in carrying malt, meal and timber in barges
to London: at that time three fairs were held which have now
practically disappeared. The Wednesday market is held under
a charter of Elizabeth (1582).

MAID MARIAN, a personage incorporated in the English
legend of Robin Hood. There is no evidence that she had
originally any connexion with the Robin Hood cycle. She seems
to have been an essential feature of the morris dance, and in
the may-game was paired sometimes with Robin-Hood, but
oftener with Friar Tuck. The well-known pastoral play of
Adam de la Hale, Jen de Robin el Marion, and the many French
songs on the subject, account for the association of the names.
In the ballads on Robin Hood her name is twice casually men-
tioned, but there is a late ballad, by a certain S. G. (F. J.
Child, English and Scottish Ballads, i. 219), which tells how
Maid Marian sought Robin in the forest disguised as a page,
and fought with him for an hour before she recognized him by
his voice. S. G. was perhaps acquainted with the two plays,
written in 1598, of The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl
of Huntingdon, by Anthony Munday and Harry Chettle. In
The Downfall Matilda Fitz Walter escapes from the persecution
of King John by following her lover to Sherwood Forest, where
they took the names of Robin Hood and Maid Marian, and
lived apart until they could be legally united. Perhaps this
tale has some connexion with the romance of the outlaw Fulk
Fitz Warin. Matilda or Mahaud, widow of Theobald Walter,
escaped from John's solicitations by marrying the outlawed Fulk
and following him to the forest. There were in semi-historical
legends three Matildas pursued by King John, of whom particu-
lars are given by H. L. D. Ward in his Catalogue of Romances
(i. 502). Their several histories were fused by the Elizabethan
dramatists, and associated with the Maid Marian of the morris
dance, who up to that time had probably only a vague connexion
with Robin Hood.

MAIDSTONE, a market town and municipal and parliamentary
borough, and the county town of Kent, England, 41 m. E.S.E. of
London by the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901),
33,516; area, 4008 acres. It lies principally on the eastern
bank of the river Medway, the modern part spreading over the
western slopes of a picturesque valley, which is intersected and
environed by orchards and hop gardens, this being the richest
agricultural district of Kent. The hop grounds form the so-
called middle growth of Kent, and the town has the principal
grain market in the county. Archbishop Boniface in 1260
established a hospital here (Newark hospital) for poor pilgrims,
the chapel of which, with modern additions, is now St Peter's
Church. The parish church of St Mary, which had existed
from Norman times, was demolished in 1395 by Archbishop
Courtenay, who erected on the site the present church of All

MAIHAR— MAIMAND

429

Saints. This fine Perpendicular building contains, besides
many excellent monuments, the richly carved sedilia and the
twenty-eight oak seats used by the collegiate priests. Courtenay
also founded a college of secular canons, the ruins of which

ii interesting specimen of 14th-century architecture. From
the reign of John until the Reformation the archbishops had a

, nee here, at which Stafford and Courtenay died. This

•mlicular building, with its Elizabethan east front, was

red by the corporation as a memorial of Queen Victoria's
Jubilee in 1887, and houses the school of science and art. The
•y, with the manor, passed into lay hands at the Reforma-
tion; and, having been a perpetual curacy for three hundred

i wenty years, the living became a vicarage in 1866. The
grammar school was founded in 1549, and endowed with the

.•s of the local Corpus Christi fraternity, then dissolved;
the hall in which the gild assembled remains, but the school is

'lished in modern buildings on a new site. There are
oil mills, rope, sacking and twine factories, and cement, lime,

lirick works. There is a considerable carrying trade on
the Mod way. A museum, with public library, was opened in
1858, in an interesting building of the early part of the i6th
century. This is the headquarters of the Kent Archaeological

ty, founded by the Rev. L. B. Larking in 1858. In 1890
an art gallery was added. The West Kent and General hospital,
the county ophthalmic hospital, county gaol and barracks may
be mentioned among other institutions. From Saxon times
down to 1830 condemned malefactors were executed, and all
the great county meetings were held, on Penenden Heath, a
common situated about a mile north-east of the town, and
-ed by the corporation as a public recreation ground.
The parliamentary borough of Maidstone returns one member.
The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
councillors.

There is evidence of a Roman settlement at Maidstone.
The name Maidstone (Medwegestun, Meddestane, Maydestan),
probably meaning Medway Town, is presumably of Saxon
origin. At the time of the Domesday Survey it belonged to the
archbishop of Canterbury, and from the reign of John the
archbishops had a residence there. Its position in the centre
of Kent gave it an early importance; the shire-moot was held
on Penenden Heath in the nth century, and Maidstone was an

c town in the reign of Edward I. In 1537 Cranmer ex-
changed the manor of Maidstone with the king, and it was
granted by Edward VI. to Sir Thomas Wyatt. Edward also
incorporated the town by the title of the mayor, jurats and
commonalty; it had formerly been governed by a portreve
and 12 "brethren." This charter was forfeited through

't's rebellion; a second charter was granted by Elizabeth
in 1559 and confirmed by subsequent sovereigns. A new
charter constituting a governing body of a mayor, 12 jurats
and 40 common councilmen was given at the petition of
the inhabitants by George II. in 1747, and remained the
governing charter until 1835. Four fairs were granted by
the charter of 1559; these are now held on the I3th of
tary. the i2th of May, the zoth of June and the I7th
of October. A Thursday market was granted by Henry III.
to Archbishop Boniface, and a market every second Tuesday
in the month by charter of George II. A corn market on Tues-
day and a cattle market on Thursday are still held. The manu-
facture of linen and woollen goods was introduced by Walloons,
who settled here in 1 567. This was succeeded by paper-making,
now the chief industry of the town. The cultivation of hops
has been carried on since the i7th century.

Maidstone has been associated with various incidents of
general history. Wat Tyler broke into the prison, liberated
John Ball the rebel preacher, and committed various depreda-
tions. Several of the leading inhabitants joined Jack Cade's
rising. The rising of the Kentish Royalists in 1648 collapsed at
Maidstone, where on the ist of June Fairfax, after five hours'
obstinate fighting, captured the town at midnight.

See Victoria County History, Kent; I. M. Russell, History of
Maidstone (1881).

MAIHAR, a native state of Central India, in the Baghelkhand
agency. Area, 407 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 63,702; estimated
revenue, £4700. The state, which is watered by the Tons river,
consists mainly of alluvial soil covering sandstone, and is fertile
except in the hilly district of the south. A large area is under
forest, the produce of which provides a small export trade. The
chief, whose title is raja, claims descent from the Kachwaha
Rajput clan. The state suffered severely from famine in 1896-
1897. The town of Maihar (pop. 6802) is on the East Indian
railway, 97 m. N. of Jubbulpore. Extensive ruins of shrines
and other buildings in its neighbourhood indicate a former
much greater extent of the place.

MAIL, (i) (Through Fr. maille, from Lat. macula, a spot
or hole, the mesh of a net), properly a metal ring or link which,
joined closely with other links, formed the fabric of body and
other armour in the middle ages, till it was superseded by plate-
armour. The word " mail," properly applied to this form of
chain-armour, is also used of armour generally, whether plate or
chain, and is also transferred to the horny defensive coverings of
animals, such as the tortoise, crab, &c. (see ARMS AND ARMOUR).
(2) (O. Eng. mdl, speech; probably the same as O. Saxon mahal,
assembly; in meaning connected with O.Norse male, stipulation),
a Scots law term meaning rent, tax. " Mails and duties " are
the rents, whether in kind or money, of an estate. In English
the word only survives in " blackmail " (?.».). (3) (Through
O. Fr. male, mod. matte, a Teutonic word surviving in Dutch
maal), properly a bag, especially one used in travelling; this
word, which appears in Chaucer, is now applied chiefly to the
despatch and delivery of postal matter. In this sense " mail"
is properly the bag in which such matter is conveyed, and hence
is applied to the contents of the mail, postal matter collectively,
and to the train, carts, or other means used in the despatch
and delivery of the same. In general usage " mail " is confined
to the " foreign " as opposed to the " inland " despatch of
letters, &c., and to which the word " post " is chiefly applied;
in official language, the word refers to the inland despatch. The
word appears also in " mail-coach," a coach used for conveying
the mails, and in " mail-cart," a cart similarly employed. This
word is also applied to a light low vehicle propelled or drawn
by hand, suitable for young children. The " mail phaeton "
is a type of phaeton with high seat for two persons and drawn
by a pair of horses.

MAILLY, LOUISE JULIE, COMTESSE DE (1710-1751),
mistress of Louis XV. of France, was the daughter of Louis,
marquis de Nesle. She was the eldest of three sisters who
succeeded one another as favourites of the king. In 1726 she
married her cousin, Louis AJexandre de Mailly. Although
Louis XV. had paid her attentions from 1 732, she did not become
titular mistress until 1738. She did not use her position either
to enrich herself or to interfere in politics. She was supplanted
by her sister, the duchess of Chateauroux, and obliged to leave
court in 1742.

See E. and J. de Goncourt, La Duchesse de Chdteauroux et ses
sceurs (1879); Toussaint, Anecdotes curieuses de ... Louis XV.
(2 vols., 1905); J. B. H. R. Capefigue, Mesdemoisettes de Nesle et la
jeunesse de Louis XV. (1864).

MAIMANA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The
town is situated 100 m. S.W. of Balkh, and only some 25 m.
from the frontier of Russian Turkestan. It is about two-thirds
the size of Herat, square built and surrounded by a ruined wall
and moat. The khanate was for long in dispute between
Bokhara and Kabul, but in 1868 Abdur Rahman laid -siege
to the town, and it was compelled to come to terms. Its
political status as an Afghan province was definitely fixed by
the Russo-Afghan boundary commission of 1885. The inhabi-
tants are chiefly Uzbegs.

MAIMAND, a town in the province of Pars, Persia, a few
miles east of Firuzabad and about 70 m. from Shiraz. It has a
population of about 5000, almost wholly occupied with the
manufacture and sale of rose-water, which is largely exported
to many parts of Persia as well as to Arabia, India and Java.
The district also produces great quantities of almonds. The

430

MAIMBOURG— MAIMONIDES

rose gardens cover several square miles. In 1349 a great part
of Maimand and of three little villages belonging to it became
wakf (pious endowment) of the shrine at Shiraz of Mir Ahmed,
surnamed Shah Chiragh, a son of Musa Kazim, the seventh imam
of the Shiahs, and the remainder of the Maimand grounds
was given to the shrine by Mir Habbib Ullah Sharifi and by
Shah Ismail in 1504; the administration of the Maimand
property as well as the guardianship of the shrine is still with
the descendants of Mir Habbib Ullah.

MAIMBOURG, LOUIS (1610-1686), French Jesuit and
historian, was born at Nancy. He entered the Society of
Jesus at the age of sixteen, and after studying at Rome became a
classical master in the Jesuit college at. Rouen. He afterwards
devoted himself to preaching, but with only moderate success.
After having taken some part in minor controversies he threw
himself with energy into the dispute which had arisen as to the
Gallican liberties; for his Traiti historique sur les prerogatives
de V&glise de Rome (1682) he was by command of Innocent XI.
expelled from the Society, but rewarded by Louis XIV. with a
residence at the abbey of St Victor, Paris, and a pension. He
died on the i3th of August 1686. His numerous works include
histories of Arianism, the iconoclastic controversy, the Greek
schism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and of the pontificates of
Leo I. and Gregory I.; they are mere compilations, written
indeed in a very lively and attractive style, but inaccurate
and untrustworthy.

The Histcry of Arianism was published in English (1728-1729) by
William Webster, with an appendix on the English writers in the
Socinian and Arian controversies.

MAIMING, mutilation, a physical injury which involves
the loss of, or incapacity to use, a bodily member. The verb
" to maim," in M. E. maynhe, mahayme, mayme, &c. was adopted
from O. Fr. mahaignier : cf. It. magagnars, Med. Lat. mahemiare,
mahennare, &c. (see Du Cange, Gloss., s.v. " Mahamium ").
Maiming or mutilation is and has been practised by many
races with various ethnical and religious significances, and
was a customary form of punishment on the principle of an
" eye for an eye " (see MUTILATION). In law " maiming "
is a criminal offence; the old law term for a special case of
maiming of persons was " mayhem " (<?.».), an Anglo-French
variant form of the word. Maiming of animals by others than
their owners is a particular form of the offences generally
grouped as " malicious damage." For the purpose of the
law as to this offence animals are divided into cattle, which
includes horses, pigs and asses, and other animals which are
either subjects of larceny at common law or are usually kept
in confinement or for domestic purposes. The punishment
for maiming of cattle is three to fourteen years' penal servitude.
Malicious injury to other animals is a misdemeanour punishable
on summary conviction. . For a second offence the penalty is
imprisonment with hard labour for over twelve months.
(Malicious Damage Act 1861.) Maiming of animals by their
owner falls under the Cruelty to Animals Acts.

MAIMON, SALOMON (1754-1800), German philosopher,
was born of Jewish parentage in Polish Lithuania, and died
at Nieder-Siegersdorf on the 22nd of November 1800. He
married at the age of twelve, and studied medicine in Berlin.
In 1770 he severed his connexion with his orthodox co-religionists
by his critical commentary on the Moreh Nebuhim of Maimonides,
and devoted himself to the study df philosophy on the lines of
Wolff and Moses Mendelssohn. After many vicissitudes he
found a peaceful residence in the house of Count Kalkreuth at
Nieder-Siegersdorf in 1790. During the ensuing ten years
he published the works which have made his reputation as a
critical philosopher. Hitherto his life had been a long struggle
against difficulties of all kinds. From his autobiography,
it is clear that his keen critical faculty was developed in great
measure by the slender means of culture at his disposal. It
was not till 1788 that he made the acquaintance of the Kantian
philosophy, which was to form the basis of his lifework, and
as early as 1790 he published the Versuch iiber die Transcendental-
philosophic, in which he formulates his objections to the system.

He seizes upon the fundamental incompatibility of a conscious-
ness which can apprehend, and yet is separated from, the
" thing-in-itself." That which is object .of thought cannot be
outside consciousness; just as in mathematics V — i is an un-
real quantity, so " things-in-themselves " are ex hypothesi outside
consciousness, i.e. are unthinkable. The Kantian paradox he
explains as the result of an attempt to explain the origin of
the " given " in consciousness. The form of things is admittedly
subjective; the mind endeavours to explain the material of the
given in the same terms, an attempt which is not only impossible
but involves a denial of the elementary laws of thought. Know-
ledge of the given is, therefore, essentially incomplete. Complete
or perfect knowledge is confined to the domain of pure thought,
to logic and mathematics. Thus the problem of the " thing-in-
itself " is dismissed from the inquiry, and philosophy is limited
to the sphere of pure thought. The Kantian categories are,
indeed, demonstrable and true, but their application to the
given is meaningless and unthinkable. By this critical scepticism
Maimon takes up a position intermediate between Kant and
Hume. Hume's attitude to the empirical is entirely supported
by Maimon. The casual concept, as given by experience,
expresses not a necessary objective order of things, but an
ordered scheme of perception; it is subjective and cannot be
postulated as a concrete law apart from consciousness. The
main argument of the Transcendentalphilosophie not only drew
from Kant, who saw it in MS., the remark that Maimon alone
of his all critics had mastered the true meaning of his philosophy,
but also directed the path of most subsequent criticism.

Maimon's chief works, in addition to the above quoted, are
PhUos. Worterbuch (1791); Streifereien im Gebiele der P kilos. (1793);
Ober die Progresse der Philos. (1793); Die Kategorien des Aristoleles
mil Anmerkungen erldulert (1794); Versuch einer neuen Logik (1794.
and 1798) ; Kritische Untersuchungen iiber den menschl. Geist (1797).
See 5. Maimons Lebensgeschichte von ihm selbst beschrieben (1792,
ed. K. P. Moritz; Eng. trans, by J. C. Murray, 1888); Wolff,
Maimoniana (1813); Witte, S. Maimon (1876).

MAIMONIDES, the common name of RABBI MOSES BEN
MAIMON (1135-1204), also known from the initials of these last
words as RAMBAM, Jewish philosopher. His life falls into
three epochs, which may be typified by the towns in which
they were passed, viz. Cordova, Fez and Cairo. He was born
in Cordova on the 2oth of, March 1135, the eve of Passover;
he had a brother, David, and one sister. His early years were
spent in his native town, which had then just passed the zenith
of its glory. The Arab rulers had fostered the development of
science, art, medicine, philosophy, literature and learning. All
these influences played their part in the education of Maimo-
nides, whose father, besides training him in all branches of
Hebrew and Jewish scholarship, implanted in the youth a sound
knowledge of these secular studies as well. In 1148 Cordova
was taken from the last Fatimite caliph by the victorious
Almohades, who had spread over Spain from N. Africa. These
militant revivalists strove to re-establish Islam in what they
considered its primitive simplicity. They laid great stress on
the unity of God, and tolerated neither schism within the faith
nor dissent without. The position of the orthodox Spanish
Jews became intolerable, and Maimon, after ten years of hard-
ships, wanderings and escapes, decided to take his family out
of the country. He settled in Fez. The years which Maimonides
spent there (1160-1165) were memorable for his friendship
with Abdul Arab Jbn Muisha — a Moslem poet and theologian —
and for the commencement of his literary activity. His energies,
were diverted towards stimulating the religious feelings of his
brethren and combating assimilation. In consequence he became
alarmed for his own safety, and in 1165 left for Egypt, where
he settled after a passing visit to the Holy Land. Cordova
taught him the humanities; Fez humanity. Cairo, besides giving
him prominence at court and in the Jewish community, was
the centre of the almost world-wide influence which he exercised
over Jewry by his monumental writings and dominant person-
ality. By 1177 Maimonides was the recognized chief of the
Cairene congregation and consulted on important matters by
communities far and wide. Here he was joined by his most

MAIN— MAINA

us disciple, Joseph Aknin. But his early life in Egypt

raught with deep sorrow. His father died soon after their
arri va 1 , mid Maimonides himself suffered severely from prostration
and sickness. His brother David, jointly with whom he carried
on a trade in gems, was shipwrecked in the Indian Ocean. With
him perished the entire fortune of the family. Forced to earn
a livelihood, Maimonides turned to medicine. The fame of
his skill eventually brought him the appointment of body
physiYian to Saladin, to whom, it is said, he was so attached
that when Richard I. wrote from Ascalon, offering him a similar
post at the English court, Maimonides refused. He married
the sister of Ibn al Mali, one of the royal secretaries. In 1186,
his son Abraham was born. His remaining years were spent
in ceaseless activity and in controversy, which he sought to
avoid. He died amidst universal sorrow and veneration.

The works of Maimonides fall into three periods: (a) To the
Spanish period belong his commentary on the whole Talmud (not
fully carried out), a treatise on the calendar (Maamar ha-ibbur), a
treatise on logic (Milloth Higgayon). and his commentary on the

nah (this was called Siraj or Maor, i.e. " Light ": begun 1158,
completed 1168 in Egypt). (6) While he was in Fez, he wrote an
essay on the Sanctification of the Name of God (Maamar Kiddush
Hashem, Iggereth Hashemad). (c) The works written in Egypt were:

r to the Yemenites (Iggereth Teman or Pethah Tiqvah); Responsa
on questions of law; Biblical and Rabbinical Code (Misnheh Torah
or Yad Hahazaka, completed 1 1 80); Sepher hamitzvoth, an ab-
breviated handbook of the preceding; and his great philosophical
work Moreh Nebuhim or "the guide of the perplexed" (1190).
To these must be added certain portions of the Mishnah commentary,
such as the " Eight Chapters," the discussion on reward and punish-
ment and immortality, the Jewish Creed, which have acquired fame
as independent works.

The influence of Moses ben Maimon is incalculable. " From
Moses unto Moses there arose not one like Moses," is the verdict
of posterity. Maimonides was the great exponent of reason
in faith and toleration in theology. One of the main services
to European thought of the " Guide" was its independent
criticism of some of Aristotle's principles. His codification of
the Talmud was equally appreciated in the study of the scholar
and in practical life. Christian Europe owed much to Maimo-
nides. Not only did his " Guide " influence scholasticism in
general, but it was from his Code that the Church derived its
medieval knowledge of the Synagogue.

A complete bibliography will be found in Maimonides, by David
Yellin and Israel Abrahams (London, 1903) ; the final chapter of
that work gives a summary of the influence of Maimonides on
Christian philosophers such as Aquinas, and Jewish such as Spinoza.
The " C'.uide " has been translated into English by M. Friedlander
(1881-1885; new ed., 1905). See also Jewish Encyclopedia, articles
s.v., and the volumes edited by Guttmann, Moses ben Maimon
(Leipzig, 1908, &c.). (H. LE.)

MAIN (Lat. Moenus), a river of Germany, and the most
important right-bank tributary of the Rhine. It has two
sources, the Weisse Main (White Main), which rises in the
Fichtelgebirge on the east side of the Ochsenkopf, and the Rote
Main (Red Main), which, rising on the eastern slope of the
Frankish Jura, flows past Bayreuth. They unite 3 m. below
Kulmbach, 920 ft. above the sea. Hence the river, already
of considerable size, pursues a north-westerly direction, skirting
the spurs of the Frankish Jura in a pleasant valley. At Lich-
tenfcls the river takes a south-westerly course, which it retains
until entering the fertile basin of Bamberg. Here it receives
from the south-east the waters of its chief tributary, the Regnitz,
and enters upon its middle course. Its direction is now again
north-west, and meandering through pleasant vales and pastures
it passes Hassfflrt and reaches Schweinfurt. Its course is
now almost due south to Ochsenfurt, when it again proceeds
north-west. Continuing in this direction amid vine-clad hills,
it washes the walls of the university city of Wurzburg, and
thence, dividing the forest-clad ranges of the Spessart and
the Odenwald, reaches Gemiinden. Here it is joined from
the right by the Frankish Saale and, turning abruptly south,
receives at Wertheim the beautiful Tauber. Feudal castles
and medieval towns now crown its banks, notably, Freudenberg
and Miltenberg. From the latter it proceeds due north to
Aschaffenburg, whence passing Frankfort it pours its yellow

waters into the green waters of the Rhine just above Mainz.
The Main has a total length of 310 m. and drains a basin of
approximately 11,000 sq. m. It is navigable from the con-
fluence of the Regnitz, 240 m. from its mouth, for barges and
other small craft, and through the Ludwig Canal is connected
with the Danube.

See Ulrici, Das Maingebiel in seiner naturlichen Beschafenheit
(Kassel, 1885); E. Faber, Zur Hydrographie des Maingebieti
(Munich, 1895), and Lill, Mainthal, Main und Mainschiffahrt
(Berlin, 1904).

MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and
" might," and Lat. magnus, great), a word meaning properly
power or strength, especially physical. This use chiefly survives
in the expression " with might and main." The word is more
common as a substantival elliptical use of the adjective, which
usually has the sense of principal or chief in size, strength,
importance, &c. Thus " the main," the high open sea, is
for " main sea," cf. " mainland," the principal part of a terri-
tory excluding islands and sometimes far-projecting penin-
sulas. The expression " the Spanish main " properly meant
that part of the main land of the N.E. coast of South America
stretching from the Orinoco to the Isthmus of Panama, and
the former Spanish possessions in Central America bordering
on the Caribbean Sea, but it is often loosely used, especially
in connexion with the buccaneers, of the Caribbean Sea itself.
The term " main " is also thus used of a principal pipe or cable
for conducting gas, water, electricity, &c. The elliptical
use does not appear, however, in such expressions as main
road, line, stream. Another use of the .word " main " has
a somewhat obscure history. It appears as a term in the game
of hazard, and also in cock-fighting. In the last it is used for
a match, and for the cocks engaged in a match. In hazard
it is the number called by the " caster " before the dice are
thrown; this may be any number from five to nine inclusive.
The usual derivation is from the French main, a hand, but
according to the New English Dictionary there is no evidence
for this, and the more probable explanation is that it is an
adaptation of " main " meaning principal or chief. From
this use of the word in hazard the expression " main chance "
is derived. " Main," a shortened form of domain or demesne,
only now survives in Scotland, usually in the plural " mains "
for a home farm.

MAINA (or MANI) and MAINOTES, a district and people
of the Peloponnesus, the modern Morea. Maina is the country
occupied by the mountain range of Taygetus from Sparta to
Cape Matapan, the ancient Taenarum. It is now divided
between the modern districts Oetylos and Gythion. Before
the organization of the present kingdom of Greece, Maina
was subdivided into "E£o> 'M.&vij, Outer Maina, from the frontier
of Kalamata, on the Gulf of Messenia, to Vitylo (Oetylos)
and inland tojthe summit of Taygetus; KarcoMajT), Lower Maina,
from Vitylo to Cape Matapan; and M«ra MA»>r/, or Inner Maina,
on the east, and on the Gulf of Laconia as far as the plain of
Elos. It contained over a hundred villages. The country
is mountainous and inaccessible, a formation to which it owes
its historical importance. The Mainotes claim to descend
from the Spartans, and probably represent the Eleuthero,
or free, Laconians who were delivered by Rome from the power
of Sparta, as is suggested by the traces of ancient Greek in
their dialect and by their physical type. Their country being
a natural fortress, they were able to defend themselves against
the Byzantine emperors, the barbarians who broke into the
empire, the Latin princes of Achaea of the house of Villehardouin,
and the Turks. As their country is also poor and maritime,
they were early tempted to take to piratical adventure. Gibbon
says that " in the time of Constantine Porphyrogenitus they
had acquired the name of Mainotes, under which they dis-
honour the claim of liberty by the inhuman pillage of all that
is shipwrecked on their rocky shore." Their neighbours gave
their country the name of " Kakaboulia " — the land of wicked
counsels. The passes of their mountains were elaborately
fortified and their villages were full of fortified towers

MAINE, DUCHESSE DU— MAINE, SIR H. J. S.

432

(pyrgoi) from which they formed their own favourite
epithet, Maina Polypyrgos — many-towered Maina. On the
western side it also contains the remains of feudal
keeps, erected by William II. de Villehardouin (1245-1278)
and other Latin princes of Achaea. The Mainotes did not
become Christians till the gth century. From the isth till
the 1 7th century they recognized a family which claimed to
belong to the Comneni of Trebizond as head chiefs. But the
real power was in the hands of the chiefs of the different families
and villages, who formed a turbulent and martial aristocracy.
Enduring and ferocious feuds were common among them.
In the course of the i8th century the family of Mavromicheli
(Black Michael), which belonged to lower Maina, established
a general headship over the Mainotes after much strife and
many murders. When Russia endeavoured to promote a
rising against the Turks in the Morea in 1770 the Mainotes
acted with her, and the strength of their country enabled them
to escape the vengeance of the Turks when the Christians
were cynically deserted by the Russians. In 1777 their prac-
tical independence was recognized by the sultan's officers.
During the Greek war of independence the Mainotes were
chiefly led by Petros (Petro Bey) Mavromicheli, known to
his countrymen as the king of Maina, who undoubtedly cher-
ished the hope of establishing a principality for himself. The
freedom of Greece, for which he had fought in his own way,
proved the ruin of his ambition. He found the new order
less compatible with his schemes than the Turkish dominion.
Petro Bey was imprisoned by the Greek president Capodistrias
(see CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT), who was in revenge murdered
by the Mavromichelis. The family were finally content to
become courtiers and officials in the reign of King Otto I.
In the iQth century Maina was but little affected by civilization,
except in so far as the efficiency of modern navies debarred
the Mainotes from their old resource of piracy.

See W. Martin Leake, Travels in the Morea (1830) ; M. E. Yemeniz,
"La Maina," in Revue des deux mondes (March I, 1865); and
Philipson, " Zur Ethnographic des Peloponnes," in Petermanns
Mittheilungen, vol. 36 (Gotha).

MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTS DE BOURBON, DUCH-
ESSE DU (1676-1753), daughter of Henri Jules de Bourbon,
prince de Conde and Anne of Bavaria, was born on the 8th of
November 1676. On the igth of March 1692 she married
Louis Auguste de Bourbon, due du Maine, son of Louis XIV.
and Mme de Montespan. The duchesse du Maine held a little
court at Sceaux, where she gave brilliant entertainments
and immersed herself in political intrigues. Displeased with
the action of the regent Orleans in degrading the illegitimate
children of Louis XIV. from their precedence above the peers
of France, she induced her husband to join in the Cellamare
conspiracy for the transference of the regency to the king of
Spain. The plot, however, was discovered, and she was im-
prisoned in 1719. The following year she returned to Sceaux,
where she resumed her salon and gathered round her a brilliant
company of wits and poets. She died in Paris on the 23rd
of January 1753.

See G6n6ral de Piapape, La Duchesse du Maine (1910).

MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822-1888), English
comparative jurist and historian, son of Dr James Maine,
of Kelso, Roxburghshire, was born on the isth of August 1822.
He was at school at Christ's Hospital, and thence went up
to Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1840. At Cambridge
he was one of the most brilliant classical scholars of his time.
He won a Craven scholarship and graduated as senior classic
in 1844, being also senior chancellor's medallist in classics.
Shortly afterwards he accepted a tutorship at Trinity Hall.
In 1847 he was appointed regius professor of civil law, and he
was called to the bar three years later; he held this chair till
1854. Even the rudiments of Roman law were not then in-
cluded in the ordinary training of English lawyers; it was
assumed at the universities that any good Latin scholar could
qualify himself at short notice for keeping up such tradition
of civilian studies as survived. Maine cannot have known

much Roman law in 1847, but in 1856 he contributed to the
Cambridge Essays the essay on Roman law and legal education
republished in the later editions of Village Communities, which
was the first characteristic evidence of his genius. Meanwhile
he had become one of the readers appointed by the Inns of Court,
in the first of their many half-hearted attempts at legal edu-
cation, in 1852. Lectures delivered by Maine in this capacity
were the groundwork of Ancient Law (1861), the book by
which his reputation was made at one stroke. Its object,
as modestly stated in the preface, was " to indicate some of
the earliest ideas of mankind, as they are reflected in ancient
law, and to point out the relation of those ideas to modern
thought." Within a year of its publication the post of legal
member of council in India was offered to Maine, then a junior
member of the bar with little practice, few advantages of con-
nexion, and no political or official claims. He declined once
on grounds of health; the very next year the office was again
vacant. This time Maine was persuaded to accept, not that
his health had improved, but that he thought India might
not make it much worse. It turned out that India suited
him much better than Cambridge or London. His work,
like most of the work done by Englishmen in India in time
of peace, was not of a showy kind — its value is shown by the
fact that he was asked to prolong his services beyond the
regular term of five years, and returned to England only in
1869. The subjects on which it was his duty to advise the
government of India were as much political as legal. They
ranged from such problems as the land settlement of the Punjab,
or the introduction of civil marriage to provide for the needs
of unorthodox Hindus, to the question how far the study of
Persian should be required or encouraged among European
civil servants. On the civil marriage question in particular,
and some years earlier on the still more troublesome one of
allowing the remarriage of native converts to Christianity,
his guidance, being not only learned but statesmanlike, was
of the greatest value. Plans of codification, moreover, were
prepared, and largely shaped, under Maine's direction, which
were carried into effect by his successors, Sir J. Fitzjames
Stephen and Dr Whitley Stokes. The results are open to
criticism in details, but form on the whole a remarkable achieve-
ment in the conversion of unwritten and highly technical
law into a body of written law sufficiently clear to be adminis-
tered by officers to many of whom its ideas and language are
foreign. All this was in addition to the routine of legislative
and consulting . work and the establishment of the legislative
department of the government of India on substantially its
present footing.

Maine's power of swiftly assimilating new ideas and appre-
ciating modes of thought and conduct remote from modern
Western life came into contact with the facts of Indian society
at exactly the right time, and his colleagues and other competent
observers expressed the highest opinion of his work. In return
Maine brought back from his Indian office a store of knowledge
which enriched all his later writings, though he took India
by name for his theme only once. This essay on India was
his contribution to the composite work entitled The Reign of
Queen Victoria (ed. T. H. Ward, 1887). Not having been
separately published, it is perhaps the least known of Maine's
writings; but its combination of just perception and large
grasp with command of detail is not easily matched outside
W. Stubbs's prefaces to some of the chronicles in the Rolls
series, and (more lately) F. W. Maitland's monographs. As
vice-chancellor of the university of Calcutta, Maine commented,
with his usual pregnant ingenuity, on the results produced
by the contact of Eastern and Western thought. Three
of these addresses were published, wholly or in part, in the
later editions of Village Communities; the substance of others
is understood to be embodied in the Cambridge Rede lecture
of 1875, which is to be found in the same volume. The practi-
cal side of Maine's experience was not long lost to India; he
became a member of the secretary of state's council in 1871,
and remained so for the rest of his life. In the same year

MAINE

433

he was gazetted a K. C.S.I. In 1869 Maine was appointed
to tlio (hair of historical and comparative jurisprudence newly
led in the university of Oxford by Corpus Christi College.
Residence at Oxford was not required, and the election amounted
to an invitation to the new professor to resume and continue
in his own way the work he had begun in Ancient Law. During
the succeeding years he published the principal matters of
his lectures in a carefully revised literary form: Village Com-
munities in the East and the West (1871) ; Early History of Institu-
tions (1875); Early Law and Custom (1883). In all these works
the phenomena of societies in an archaic stage, whether still
capable of observation or surviving in a fragmentary manner
among more modern surroundings or preserved in contemporary
records, are brought into line, often with singular felicity,
-tablish and illustrate the normal process of development
in legal and political ideas.

In 1877 the mastership of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where
Maine had formerly been tutor, became vacant. There were
two strong candidates whose claims were so nearly equal that
it was difficult to elect either; the difficulty was solved by a
unanimous invitation to Maine to accept the post. His accep-
tance entailed the resignation of the Oxford chair, though not
continuous residence at Cambridge. Ten years later con-
siderations of a somewhat similar kind led to his election to
succeed Sir William Harcourt as Whewell professor of inter-
national law at Cambridge. His all too short performance in
this office is represented by a posthumous volume which had not
received his own final revision, International Law (1888).

Meanwhile Maine had published in 1885 his one work of
speculative politics, a volume of essays on Popular Government,
designed to show that democracy is not in itself more stable
than any other form of government, and that there is no neces-
sary connexion between democracy and progress. The book
was deliberately unpopular in tone; it excited much contro-
versial comment and some serious and useful discussion.

In 1886 there appeared in the Quarterly Review (clxii. 181)
an article on the posthumous work of J. F. M'Lennan, edited
and completed by his brother, entitled " The Patriarchal
Theory." The article, though necessarily unsigned (in accor-
dance with the rule of the Quarterly as it then stood), was Maine's
reply to the M'Lennan brothers' attack on the historical recon-
struction of the Indo-European family system put forward
in Ancient Law and supplemented in Early Law and Custom.
Maine was generally averse from controversy, but showed
on this occasion that it was not for want of controversial power.
IK- < arried the war back into the invader's country, and charged
J. F. M'Lennan's theory of primitive society with owing its
plausible appearance of universal validity to genetal neglect
of the Indo-European evidence and misapprehension of such
portions of it as M'Lennan did attempt to handle.

Maine's health, which had never been strong, gave way
towards the end of 1887. He went to the Riviera under medical
advice, and died at Cannes on the 3rd of February 1888. He
left a wife and two sons, of whom the elder died soon after-
wards.

An excellent summary of Maine's principal writings may
be seen in Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff's memoir. The prompt
and full recognition of Maine's genius by continental publicists
must not pass unmentioned even in the briefest notice. France,
Germany, Italy, Russia have all contributed to do him honour;
this is the more remarkable as one or two English publicists
of an older school signally failed to appreciate him. Maine
warned his countrymen against the insularity which results
from ignorance of all law and institutions save one's own;
his example has shown the benefit of the contrary habit. His
prominent use of Roman law and the wide range of his obser-
vation have made his works as intelligible abroad as at home,
and thereby much valuable information — for example, concern-
ing the nature of British supremacy in India, and the position
of native institutions there — has been made the property of
the world of letters instead of 'the peculiar and obscure pos-
session of a limited class of British public servants. Foreign

readers of Maine have perhaps understood even better than
English ones that he is not the propounder of a system but
the pioneer of a method, and that detailed criticism, profitable
as it may be and necessary as in time it must be, will not leave
the method itself less valid or diminish the worth of the master's
lessons in its use. The rather small bulk of Maine's published
and avowed work may be explained partly by a fine literary
sense which would let nothing go out under his name unfinished,
partly by the drawbacks incident to precarious health. Maine's
temperament was averse from the labour of minute criticism,
and his avoidance of it was no less a matter of prudence. But
it has to be remembered that Maine also wrote much which
was never publicly acknowledged. Before he went to India
he was one of the original contributors to the Saturday Review,
founded in 1855, and the inventor of its name. Like his inti-
mate friend Fitzjames Stephen, he was an accomplished jour-
nalist, enjoyed occasional article-writing as a diversion from
official duties, and never quite abandoned it. The practice
of such writing probably counted for something in the freedom
and clearness of Maine's style and the effectiveness of his
dialectic. His books are a model of scientific exposition which
never ceases to be literature.

See Sir A. Lyall and others, in Law Quart. Rev. iv. 129 seq. (1888) ;
Sir F. Pollock, " Sir Henry Maine and his Work," in Oxford Lectures,
&fc. (1890); "Sir H. Maine as a Jurist," Edin. Rev. (July 1893);
Introduction and Notes to new ed. of Ancient Law (1906); Sir
M. E. Grant Duff, Sir Henry Maine: a brief Memoir of his Life, &c.
(1892); Notes from a Diary, passim; L. Stephen, "Maine" in
Diet. Nat. Bio?. (1893); Paul Vinogradoff, The Teaching of Sir
Henry Maine (1904). (F. Po.)

MAINE, an old French province, bounded N. by Normandy,
E. by Orleanais, S. by Touraine and Anjou, and W. by Brittany.
Before the Roman Conquest the region occupied by this pro-
vince was inhabited by the Aulerci Cenomanni and the Aulerci
Diablintes; under the Roman empire it consisted of two civitates
comprised in the Provincia Lugdunensis Tertia — the Civitas
Cenomannorum and the Civitas Diablintum, whose chief towns
were Le Mans and Jublains. These two civitates were united
during the barbarian period and formed a single bishopric,
that of Le Mans, suffragan to the metropolitan see of Tours.
Under the Merovingians and Carolingians the diocese of Le
Mans corresponded to the Pagus Cenomanensis, and in the
feudal period to the county of Maine. In the i6th century
the county of Maine, with the addition of Perche, formed
a military government — the province of Maine. Since 1790
this province has been represented approximately by the
departments of Sarthe and Mayenne, the respective capitals
of which are Le Mans and Laval. In 1855 the bishopric of
Laval was separated from that of Le Mans. Maine was evange-
lized in the 3rd century by St Julian. After forming part of
the kingdom of Syagrius, it was conquered by Clovis at the
end of the 5th century. Owing to the scarcity of documents
the history of Maine until the end of the gth century is merged
in the history of the bishops of Le Mans, which has come down
to us in the Aclus pontificum Cenomannis in urbe degenlium
(ed. Busson-Ledru, Le Mans, 1901), composed under the direc-
tion of Bishop Aldric (832-857). Roger (c. 892-0. 898) was
perhaps the first hereditary count of Maine; the counts whose
existence is certain are Hugh I. (c. Q3O-before 992), Hugh II.
(before 992-1015), Herbert I. (1015-1032 to 1036), Hugh III.
(1032 to 1036-1051), Herbert II. (1051-1062), William the
Bastard (1063-1087), Robert Curthose (1087-1091), Hugh IV.
(1091-1092) and Helias (1092-1110). Maine, which was
in the vassalage of Anjou as early as the 9th century, was
united to Anjou in mo by the marriage of Count Helias's
daughter to Fulk V., count of Anjou, and passed to the English
crown in 1154, when Henry Plantagenet (who was born at
Le Mans) became king of England. In 1204, after the con-
fiscation of the estates of John of England, Maine was united
to France; in 1246 it was separated from France by Louis IX.,
who handed it over to his brother Charles, count of Provence.
Again united to France in 1328, it was given in 1356 as an
apanage to Louis, second son of King John II., and did not

434

MAINE

definitely return to the French crown until 1481, after the
death of Charles II., count of Maine. During the Hundred
Years' War Maine was taken in 1425 by the English, who lost
it in 1448.

See Histoire de I'eglise du Mans, by Dom Piqlin (Paris, 1851-1858),
which is useful but out of date ; Revue historique et archeologique du
Maine (1876); La Province du Maine (1893); B. Haureau, Histoire
litteraire du Maine (1870-1877).

MAINE, a North Atlantic state of the United States of
America, the most north-easterly state in the Union, and the
largest of the New England group. It lies between 43° 4' and
47° 27' 33" N., and between 66° 56' 48" and 71° 6' 41* W. It
is bounded N.W. by the Canadian province of Quebec; N.
and E. by the Canadian province of New Brunswick, from
which it is separated in part by the natural barriers of the
Saint John River, the Grand (or Schoodic) Lakes, the Saint
Croix River, and Passamaquoddy Bay; S.S.E. by the Atlantic
Ocean; and W. by New Hampshire, the Piscataqua and Salmon
Falls rivers being the natural boundary lines at the S.W. The
area of the state is 33,040 sq. m., 3145 sq. m. being water
surface.

Maine attracts more summer visitors than any other state
in the Union. This is due to the cool and refreshing summer
climate; the picturesque coast and its many islands, which are
favourite grounds for camps and summer cottages; the moun-
tains, and the beautiful lakes and rivers, many of which afford
opportunities for good fishing and canoeing. Among the more
widely known resorts are Mount Desert Island, on which is
Bar Harbor, a fashionable summer place of great beauty;
Long Island, Orr's and other islands in Casco Bay; Old Orchard,
with a gently sloping white sand sea-beach 9 m. long, Rangeley
and Moosehead Lakes, favourite resorts of fishermen and hunters;
Mt Katahdin, in the heart of the moose country; and Poland
Springs (38 m. by rail from Portland) in Androscoggin county,
near lake Anasigunticook. About 1870, camps, summer cot-
tages, summer hotels and boarding houses began to multiply
throughout the state. The needs of this summer population
gave a new impulse and a new turn to agriculture; and the
demand for souvenirs revived among the Indians basket-
weaving, moccasin-making, and such crafts.

Physical Features. — The surface is a gently rolling upland, form-
ing a part of the " New England uplands," above which rise isolated
mountain peaks and clusters of peaks, and below which are cut
numerous river valleys.1 The highest peak is Mt Katahdin (5200
ft.), a little N.E. of the centre of the state in Piscataquis county,
which rises from a comparatively level upland. South-west of
Katahdin, in Franklin county, are most of the other high peaks
of the state: Saddleback Mountain (4000 ft.), Mt Abraham (3388
ft.), Mt Bigelow (3600 ft.), and Mt Blue (3200 ft.). A little N.
of this line of mountain peaks is the water-parting which divides
the state into a north slope and a south slope. The north slope
descends gently both to the N. and to the E. ; although quite hilly
in the middle and western portions it is so poorly drained that
swamps abound in all sections. The south slope which contains
nearly all the mountains and is generally more hilly, has a mean
descent toward the sea of about 7 ft. to the mile, the fall being
greater in the W., where the mountains are high at the N. and the
shore low at the S., and less to the E., where the water-parting is
lower and the shore high and rocky.

After the uplift which caused the rivers to cut below the general
" uplands," and develop well marked valleys for themselves, came
the period of the great continental glaciation. The glacier or ice
sheet overran all Maine, irregularly scouring out the bed rock to
produce rock basins, damming up many river valleys with glacial
deposits and completely disarranging the drainage lines. When the
ice melted, the rock basins and the dammed-up valleys filled with
water to produce lakes. This is the origin of the numerous lakes of
Maine, which give it some of its most beautiful scenery, and help to
make it a holiday resort in summer. These lakes are about 1600 in
number, are scattered in all parts of the state, are especially numerous
at high elevations, and have an aggregate area of more than
2000 sq. m. Few other regions have so many large lakes so variously

1 This condition results from the fact that Maine and the adjacent
region were worn down nearly to sea-level by stream erosion, except
certain peaks and ridges inland ; then the region was elevated and
numerous river valleys were cut down below the general erosion
surface formed before. Thus we have a general " upland surface,"
above which the mountain remnants tower, and below which the
rivers have been entrenched.

situated, and with such beauty of aspect and surroundings,
contribute largely to a constant supply of water power for
the course of the rivers of S.W. Maine are exceptionally well adapted ;
many of them abound in trout, salmon, togue, black bass and
pickerel ; and near them there is still much game. Moosehead
Lake (about 120 sq. m. ; 35 m. long and from 2 m. to 10 m. wide),
on the boundary between Piscataquis and Somerset counties, is
the largest in Maine and the largest inland body of water wholly
in New England; the Kennebec River is its principal outlet and
Mt Kineo rises abruptly to about 1760. ft. above the sea (about
700 ft. above the lake) on its eastern shore. Other lakes, such as
the Rangeley Lakes,2 Chesuncook and Twin Lakes on the Penobscot,
and the Grand or Schoodic Lakes, in the western boundary at the
head waters of the Saint Croix River, equal or surpass Moosehead in
picturesqueness. The glacier or ice sheet, above referred to, de-
posited till or boulder clay, which was compacted under the enormous
pressure of the ice sheet to form the " hard-pan " referred to later.
The glaciation is also responsible for the poor soil of most of the state,
for, although the rocks are the same crystallines which give good
soils further south in unglaciated regions, all the decayed portions
of the Maine rocks have been removed by glacial erosion, revealing
fresh, barren rock over great areas, or depositing the rather sterile
hard-pan as a thin coating in other places.

After the uplift came a period of subsidence, during which this
region sank one or more thousand feet, allowing the sea to encroach
on the land and run far inland into the previously made river
valleys. This depression probably occurred during the glacial
period, perhaps toward its close, and is responsible for the second
most important feature of Maine physiography, the embayed coast.
To this subsidence are due the picturesque coastal scenery, the
numerous islands and bays, the good harbours and the peculiar
coast-line.

The shortest distance between the N.E. and the S.W. extremiti
of the coast is only 225 m. ; but, on account of projections an
indentations, the coast-line measures not less than 2500 m. Th
headlands, the deep indentations and the numerous islands in the
bays and beyond produce a beautiful mingling of land and sea and
give to the whole ocean front the appearance of a fringed and
tasselled border; west of the mouth of the Kennebec River are a
marshy shore and many low grassy islands; but east of this river
the shore becomes more and more bold, rising in the precipitous
cliffs and rounded summits of Mt Desert and Quoddy Head, 1527
and 1000 ft. high respectively. All along the coast-line there
are capacious and well-protected harbours, Casco, Penobscot,
Frenchman's, Machias and Passamaquoddy bays being especially
noteworthy.

After the subsidence came another period of uplift, possibly still
in progress. This uplift has brought up submarine deposits of
sand, &c., to form little coastal plains at some points along the
coast, providing good land for settlement and clay for brick and
pottery. Further evidence of this uplift is found in old beach lines
now well above sea-level.

The principal river systems of Maine are the Saint John on the
north slope, and the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Androscoggin,
and the Saco on the south slope. The mean height of the basin
of the St John is exceeded only by that of the Androscoggin, but
the fall of the St John River through the greater part of its course in
Maine is only sufficient to give a sluggish or a gentle current. The
Penobscot, Kennebec, Androscoggin and Saco have numerous falls
and rapids.

Fauna. — The animal life of Maine shows a mixture of northern
and southern forms, and very little that is peculiar as compared with
surrounding regions. The state has moose, caribou and deer,
especially in the northern part. The black bear, wolf, catamount,
wolverine, wild cat, fox, beaver, racoon, marten, sable, woodchuck,
skunk, otter, mink, rabbit and squirrel are also found. Geese, ducks
and other water fowl frequent the lakes and bays in the migratory
season, and eagles, gulls, hawks, kingfishers, owls, plover, woodcock,
" partridge " (ruffed grouse), robins, orioles, bobolinks, blue birds,
swallows, sparrows, and many other insectivorous birds arc common.
In the inland waters salmon, trout, togue (Salvelinus namaycush),
pickerel and bass abound; along the shore there are lobsters,
clams and scallops (Pecten irradians) ; and off the shore are herring,
alewives, mackerel, cod, halibut, haddock, smelts, hake, menhaden,
porgies and porpoises. The game in the North Woods attracts large
numbers of sportsmen during the autumn season.

Flora. — Maine was formerly covered with forests, principally of
white pine and spruce, but mixed with these were some hemlock,
tamarack, cedar, and, on the south slope, birch, poplar, oak, maple
and beech. Chestnut and walnut are rare and are found only near

1 This name is applied to a chain of lakes (the Rangeley, or •
Oquossoc, the Cupsuptic, the Mooselookmeguntic, the Molechunka-
munk or Upper Richardson, the Welokenebacook or Lower
Richardson, and the Umbagog) in Franklin and Oxford counties,
in the western part of the state; the Umbagog extends into New
Hampshire and its outlet helps to form the Androscoggin River.
These lakes are connected by sttaits, have a total area of betwee"
80 and 90 sq. m., and are from 1200 to 1500 ft. above the sea. The
are sometimes called the Androscoggin Lakes.

MAINE

435

the south-west border. In 1900 about 21 % of the state's area was

eel, .ind much besides had once been cleared, but not being

! to agriculture had become reforested. Of fruit trees the chief

apple. The plum, cherry and pear also thrive. The peach

grows well only in the south-west near the border. Species of grape,

gooseberry and currant are native, and others are cultivated with

iitage. The blackberry, raspberry, blueberry and strawberry
grow wild in profusion throughout the state.

-The climate of the state is moist and, for its latitude,
cold. Extremes of temperature are not so great as farther inland
in the same latitude; for the summer heats are tempered by the

•nd the cool north winds, and the winter cold is so constant as

rely felt than the changing temperature of more

southern districts. The summers are short, there being only about

4J months between frosts even in the southern sections, and the mean

summer temperature is about 62° F. The mean winter temperature

proximaU'ly 20° F., and the mean annual temperature for the

state is 42" F., that for the north slope being about 5° F. less

than that for the south slope. Although the temperature remains

v steadily below the freezing point for at least three months of
the year, many of the harbours remain unobstructed; for the tides
and the prevailing off-shore winds break up and drive off the ice.
The precipitation is about 42 in. annually, and is distributed very
evenly throughout the year, ICH-II in. of rain or its equivalent in
snow falling each season. During 4i months about 44% of the
precipitation is in the form of snow; but the snow-fall varies
from about 60 in. on the coast to more than 100 in. on the north

. The winds are variable; at no season of the year is it usual

liem to blow from the same direction for many days in succession.
But, with the exception of those from the west, they are maritime and
consequently moisture-bearing. In summer, especially in the latter
part of it, the cool and moist N. or N.E. winds often cause a con-

ible part of the state to be enveloped in fog for several days in

,sion.

Agriculture. — The soil is for the most part glacial drift, containing
a large mixture of clay with sand or gravel, and the sub-soil is mostly
" hard-pan," i.e. mingled clay and boulders which have been so
much compressed by glacial action as to make the mixture hard and
like. Except in the valley of the Aroostook and along the
Kriiiu .•!><•<•, the Penobscot, and some other rivers, the soil is generally
unfit for cultivation, there being too little alluvium mixed with it
to make it fertile. In the Arroostook valley, however, is the largest
undivided area of good arable land in all New England, the soil being

•.-[>, porous, yellow loam well adapted to the growth of cereals
and to market gardening. The most sterile regions are on the
mountains and along the coast. Because of the cold climate, the
large areas in which there is little or no good arable land, the growing
demand for timber land, and the large and constant supply of water-
power afforded by the principal rivers, agriculture in Maine, as in
all the other New England states except Vermont, is a smaller
industry than manufacturing; in 1900 there were 87,932 people

4od in manufacturing and only 76,932 engaged in agriculture.
Only 32-9% of the state's land area was in that year included
in farms, only 37-9% of this farm land was improved, and
only 16-3% of the improved land was in crops other than
hay and forage. Nevertheless, as indicated by the unusually large
proportion of farmers who either own their farms or pay cash rent
for them, farming usually is profitable. The number of farms in
1900 was 59,299; of these 18,644 contained between 50 and too
and 17,191 contained between IOO and 175 acres, the average

being 106-2 acres; 54,263 -(or 91-5 %) were operated by
their owners, 775 were operated by part owners, 2030 by cash
tenants, and only 745 by share tenants. Beginning with the middle
of the igth century, the increasing competition of the more pro-
ductive soils of the West, the growth of urban population in the
state, and the number of summer visitors effected the reforesting
of much poor land and the more intensive cultivation of the better
arable land. The cultivation of cereals, for example, has given way
to a marked extent in nearly all the farming districts except in
Aroostook county to market gardening, dairying, and egg and
poultry production. The number of dairy cows increased from
157,240 in 1890 to 183,000 in 1908, and the annual production of
milk increased from 57,969,791 gallons in 1890 to 99,586,188 gallons
in 1900. The number of other neat cattle (180,878 in 1900; 151,000
in 1908) decreased during every decade from 1860 to 1900; the
number of sheep in 1900 was 427,209 (31-9% less than in 1890),
and in 1908 it was 267,000; but the number of horses in 1890
and 1900 was about the same (140,310 in 1900, but only 116,000
in 1908). Hay is still by far the largest crop, the acreage of it and
of forage in 1899 being 1,270,254 acres, or 76-5% of that of
all crops, and the yield was 1,133,932 tons; in 1907 the acreage
was 1,400,000 acres, and the crop was 2,100,000 tons. The acreage
of cereals decreased from 187,013 in 1880, when agriculture in
Aroostook county was little developed, to 166,896 in 1899, when
the cereal acreage in Aroostook county alone was 82,069. Maine
potatoes are of a superior quality, and the acreage of this crop
increased from 49,617 in 1889 to 118,000 in 1907. Sweet Indian
corn, cabbages, turnips, cucumbers and tomatoes are grown in
large quantities. The fruit crop consists very largely of
apples and strawberries (1,421,773 bushels of apples and 1,066,860

quarts of strawberries in 1899). The output of eggs increased from
9,369,534 dozen in 1889 to 13,304,150 dozen in 1899. The most
productive dairy section of the state is a belt extending from the
south-west corner N.E. entirely across the state and embracing
the whole or parts of the counties of York, Oxford, Cumberland,
Androscoggin, Kennebec, Penobscot and Aroostook.

Lumber Industry. — Except in the remote parts, the valuable white
pine, for which Maine was long noted, has been cut; but the wood-
land of the state was estimated in 1900 at 23,700 sq. m. or 79%
of its area. The tendency is for this area to increase, for the
establishment between 1890 and 1900 of large paper and pulp
mills on some of the principal rivers of the south slope greatly
increased the value of forests, especially those of spruce and poplar.
The state makes large appropriations for preventing and extinguish-
ing forest fires, and in 1903 established a department of forestry in
the university of Maine. Good spruce, which is by far the most
valuable timber in the state and is used most largely for the manu-
facture of paper and pulp, stands in large quantities in the St John,
Penobscot, Androscoggin and Kennebec basins. Poplar, also used
for the manufacture of paper, abounds in several sections of the
south slope, but is most abundant in the basin of the Kennebec.
White birch, used largely for the manufacture of spools, is found
throughout a wide belt extending across the middle of the state.
There is much cedar on the north slope. Oak, maple and beech are
rather scarce. A new growth of white pine and other timber is
gradually becoming valuable. The value of the timber product
increased from $11,849,654 in 1890 to $13,489,401 in 1900, and to
Si7.937.683 in 1905.

Fisheries. — Fishing has always been an important industry in
Maine. From 1901 to 1904 inclusive, the average annual catch,
amounted to 195,335,646 Ib, and its average value was $5,557,083.
In 1908, according to state reports, the catch was 185,476,343 ID,
valued at $3,849,900. Herrings are caught in largest quantities,
(in 1908, according to state reports, 68,210,800 Ib, valued at
$450,665),' and Maine is noted for the canning of the smaller her-
rings under the name of " sardines." In 1908, according to state
reports, the take of lobsters was 17,635,980 Ib, valued at $1,558,252.
Maine markets more clams than any other state in the Union,
and the catches of cod, hake, haddock, smelt, mackerel, swordfish,
shad, pollock, cusk, salmon, alewives, eels and halibut are of
importance. The scallop fishery is becoming more and more
valuable. For the protection and promotion of the lobster fishery
the United States government has estabjished a lobster hatchery
at Boothbay Harbor; and the state legislature enacted a law in
1895 prohibiting the taking of lobsters less than loi in. in length
(one effect of this law being to drive the lobster-canning industry
from the state) and another Taw in 1903 for the protection of lobsters,
with eggs attached. This latter law directs the state fish commis-
sioner to purchase such lobsters whenever caught and either to.
liberate them or to sell them to the United States for keeping in a
fish hatchery.

Minerals. — The principal mineral products are granite, limestone,
slate, clay products and mineral waters. In 1905 Maine held first
rank among the states of the Union as a producer of granite, the
value of the output being $2,713,795. In 1907 Maine's granite
was valued at $2,146,420, that of Massachusetts at $2,328,777,
and that of Vermont at $2,693,889. The stone is of superior
quality, and the largest part of it is used for building purposes;
much of it is used as paving blocks and some for monuments. It
abounds all along the coast east of the Kennebec and on the adjacent
islands, and is found farther inland, especially about the Rangeley
lakes in Franklin and Oxford counties, and, near Mt Katahdin,
in Penobscot and Piscataquis counties. The principal quarries,
however, are situated in positions most convenient for shipment by
water, in the vicinity of Penobscot bay and in Kennebec county,
and these have supplied the bulk of the material used in the con-
struction of many prominent buildings and monuments in the
United States. The Fox Island granite comes from the quarries on
Vinalhaven Island and the surrounding islands, and on Vinalhaven,
were quarried monolithic columns 51-5 to 54 ft. long and 6 ft.
in diameter for the Cathedral of St John the Divine in New
York City. Black granite was quarried in 1907 at 12 quarries,
in York, Lincoln, Waldo, Penobscot and Washington counties.
Limestone abounds, especially in the south-east part of the
state, but it is quarried chiefly in Knox county. As its colour
— blue and blue-black streaked with white — renders it un-
desirable for building purposes, nearly all of it is burned into
lime, which has become a very important article of manu-
facture in the city of Rockland; the industry dates back to
1733 in Knox county. In 1907 the quantity of lime burned in
Maine was 159,494 tons and its value was $747,947. Slate is
quarried chiefly in Piscataquis county, most of it being used for
roofing, but some for blackboards; in 1907 the amount quarried
in Maine was valued at $236,106. About 1896 some remarkably
white and pure feldspar began to be quarried in Androscoggin,
Oxford and Sagadahoc counties, but afterwards the spar mined
in Maine was of less excellent quality; in 1907 the production in
Maine was valued at $157,334, the total for the entire country being;
$409,069. Clay is obtained in various places, and in 1905 the total
value of the clay products was $619,294. In Oxford couaty

436

MAINE

tourmaline, spodumene (or kunzite) and beryl occur, the tourmaline
crystals being notably large and beautiful. Mineral water occurs
in many localities, particularly in Androscoggin, York, Cumberland
and Oxford counties; the most famous springs are the Poland
Springs in Androscoggin county. Most of the mineral waters
bottled in the state are chalybeate and slightly alkaline — saline;
their average temperature is about 43°. In 1908 27 springs were
reported, their aggregate sales amounting to 1,182,322 gallons.
Copper, gold alloyed with platinum, iron ore, barytes, graphite and
lead occur in small quantities in the state. In 1908 the total mineral
product of the state was valued at $7,044,678.

Manufactures. — Although Maine has no coal and only a very
small amount of iron ore within her borders for the encouragement
of manufacturing, yet the abundance of fine timber and the numerous
coves, bays and navigable streams along or near the coast pro-
moted ship-building from the first, and this was the leading industry
of the state until about the middle of the igth century, when
wooden ships began to be supplanted by those of iron and steel.
Until about the same time, when the Maine liquor law was passed,
the manufacture of rum from molasses, received in exchange for
lumber and fish in the West Indies, was also an important industry.
It was not until early in the igth century that the large and constant
supply of water power afforded by the rivers began to be used to
any considerable extent. The first cotton mill was built at Bruns-
wick on the Androscoggin about 1809. and from 1830 the develop-
ment of cotton manufacturing was rapid; woollen mills followed,
and late in the I9th century were erected some of the largest paper
and pulp mills in the country, which are run by water power from
the rivers, and use the spruce and poplar timber in the river basins.
The total value of the manufactures of the state increased from
$95,689,500 in 1890 to $127,361,485 in 1900; and in 1905 the value
of factory-made products alone was §144,020,197, or 27-5 %
greater than their value in igoo.1 Measured by the value of the
output, paper and wood pulp rose from fifth among the state's
manufactures in 1890 to third in 1900 and to first in 1905; from
$3,281,051 in 1890 to $13,223,275 in 1900, an increase of 303%
within the decade, and to $22,951,124 in 1905, a further in-
crease of 73-6% in this period. Lumber and timber products
ranked second (1905) — $11,849,654 in 1890, $13,489,401 in 1900,
and $17,937,683 in 1905. Cotton goods ranked third (1905) in
value — $15,316,909 in 1890, $14,631,086 in 1900, and $15,404,823 in
1905. Woollen goods ranked fourth (1905) — $8,737,653 in 1890,
$13,744,126 in 1900, an increase of 57-3% within the decade; and
the value of the factory-made product alone in 1905 was $13,960,600,
or 20- 1 % greater than in 1900. Boots and shoes ranked fifth (1905)
— $12,295,847 in 1900, and $12,351,293 in 1905. Fish, canned and
preserved, followed next, $1,660,881 in 1890 and $4,779,773 in
1900, an increase within the decade of 187-8%, most of which
was in one branch — the canning of small herring under the
name "sardines"; from 1900 to 1905 the increase was slight,
only 8275,358, or 5-8 /„. In the value of its manufactures as
compared with those of the other states of the Union, in wooden
ships and boats, Maine in 1900 and in 1905 was outranked by New
York only; in canned and preserved fish by Washington only (the
value of fish canned and preserved in Maine in 1900 was 21-7%
of the total for the United States, and in 1905 19-2%); in the
output of woollen mills by Massachusetts and Pennsylvania only;
in the output of paper mills by New York and Massachusetts only.
It ranked ninth in 1900 and tenth in 1905 in the value of its cotton
goods. Portland, Lewiston, Biddeford, and Auburn are the leading
manufacturing cities, and in 1905 the total value of their manu-
factures was 21-5% of those of the entire state. But from
1900 to 1905 the value of manufactures grew most rapidly in Rock-
land (especially noted for lime), the increase being from $1,243,881
to $1,822,591 (46-5%), and in Waterville, where the increase
was from $2,283,536 to $3,069,309 (34-4%). Among the largest
paper mills are those at Millinocket, in Penobscot county, at
Madison on the Kennebec river, and at Rumford Falls on the
Androscoggin river. Lewiston leads in the manufacture of cotton
goods; Auburn, Bangor and Augusta, in the manufacture of boots
and shoes; Bath, in ship and boat building; Eastport and Lubec,
in canning " sardines."

Transportation and Commerce. — The south-western part of the state,
including the manufacturing, the quarrying, and much of the older
agricultural district, early had fairly satisfactory means of trans-
portation either by water or by raij ; for the coast has many excel-
lent harbours, the Kennebec river is navigable for coast vessels to
Augusta, the Penobscot to Bangor, and railway service was soon
supplied for the villages of the south-west, but it was not until the
last decade of the igth century that the forests, the farming lands,
and the summer resorts of Aroostook county were reached by a
railway, the Bangor & Aroostook. The first railway in the state,
from Bangor to Old Town, was completed in 1836, and the state's
railway mileage increased from 12 m. in that year to 245 m. in
1850, to 1377-47 m- in '890, and to 2210-79 m January 1909.

1 The census of 1905 was taken under the direction of the United
States census bureau, but the statistics for hand trades were
omitted.

The principal railway systems are the Maine Central, which enters
every county but one, the Boston & Maine, the Bangor & Aroostook,
the Grand Trunk and the Canadian Pacific. Lines of steamboats
ply regularly between the largest cities of the state and Boston,
between Portland and New York, and between Portland and several
Canadian ports.

The foreign trade, especially that with the West Indies and with
Great Britain, decreased after 1875, and yet much trade from the
West that goes to Montreal during the warmer months passes
through Portland during the winter season. The chief exports to
foreign countries are textile fabrics, Indian corn, meat, dairy
products, apples, paraffin, boards and shooks; the chief imports
from foreign countries are sugar, molasses and wool. Fish,
canned goods, potatoes, granite, lime, paper, and boots and shoes
are also exported to foreign countries to some extent, but they
are shipped in larger quantities to other states of the Union, from
which Maine' receives in return cotton, coal, iron, oil, &c. The
ports of entry in Maine are Bangor, Bath, Belfast, Castine, Eastport,
Ellsworth, Houlton, Kennebunk, Machias, Portland, Wiscasset and
York.

Population. — The population in 1880 was 648,936; in 1890,
661,086; in 1900, 694,466; and in 1910, 742,37i.2 From 1880 to
1900 there was an increase of only 7%, a percentage which was
exceeded in every other state in the Union except Nevada
and Vermont. Of the total population of 1900, 599,291, or
86-3%, were native whites, 93,330 were foreign-born, 1,319
were negroes, 798 were Indians, 119 were Chinese, and 4 were
Japanese. Of the inhabitants born in the United States,
588,211, or 97-8%, were natives of New England and 560,506
were natives of Maine, and of the foreign-born 67,077, or 71-8%,
were natives of Canada (36,169 English and 30,908 French),
and 10,159, or 10-8%, were natives of Ireland. Of the total popu-
lation, 199,734 were of foreign parentage — i.e. either one or both
parents were foreign-born — and 89,857 were of Canadian parent-
age, both on the father's and on the mother's side (41,355 English
and 48,502 French). The Brench-speaking inhabitants probably
number considerably more than 50,000. They are of two
quite distinct classes. One, numbering about 15,000, includes
those who became citizens by the establishment of the northern
boundary in 1842 and their descendants. They are largely
of Acadian stock. The state has established among them a
well-appointed training school for teachers, conducted in the
English language, the graduates of which render excellent
service in the common schools. The other class is of French-
Canadian immigrants, who find profitable employment in the
manufacturing centres. The colony of Swedes established
by the state near its north-eastern border in 1870 has proved
in every way successful. The Indians are remnants of the
Penobscot and Passamaquoddy tribes, the Passamaquoddies
being a little the more numerous. The Penobscots' chief
gathering places are on the islands of the Penobscot river north
of Old Town; the Passamaquoddies', on the shores of Passama-
quoddy Bay and the banks of the Saint Croix river.

Roman Catholics are more numerous than all the Protestant
sects taken together, having in 1906 a membership of 113,419
out of a total of 212,988 in all denominations. In the last
decade of the igth century the urban population (i.e. popu-
lation of places having 4,000 inhabitants or more) increased
from 226,268 to 251,685, or 11-2%; the semi-urban population
(I.e. population of incorporated places, or the approximate
equivalent, having less than 4,000 inhabitants) increased from
14,221 to 26,674, °r 87'5%; while the rural population (i.e. popu-
lation outside of incorporated places) decreased from 420,597 to
416,134, or i%. The principal cities of the state are: Portland,
pop. (1910), 58,571; Lewiston, 26,247; Bangor, 24,803; Biddeford,
17,079; Auburn, 15,064; Augusta (the capital), 13,211; Water-
ville, 11,458; Bath, 9,396; Westbrook, 8,281 ; and Rockland, 8,174.

Administration. — Maine has had but one state constitution;
this was ratified in December 1819, about three months before
the admission of the state into the Union. It admits of amend-
ment by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the legislature
followed by a majority vote of the electorate at the next

'According to previous censuses the population was as follows:
(1790) 96,540; (1800) 151,719; (1810) 228,705; (1820) 298,335;
(1830) 399-455: (1840) 501,793; (1850) 583,169; (i860) 628,279;
(1870) 626,915.

MAINE

437

Sepiember election; or, as provided by an amendment adopted in
;, the legislature may by a two-thirds vote of each house
__mmon a constitutional convention. From 1819 to 1875
twelve amendments were adopted; in 1875, after nine more were
added, the twenty-one were incorporated in the text; and
in 1875 and 1899 nine more were adopted. Suffrage is
rred by the constitution on all male citizens of the United
, who are at least twenty-one years of age and have, for
some other reason than because of being in the military, naval
or marine service of the United States, or of being students at
ge, lived in the state for three months next preceding any
ion; the following classes, however, are excepted: paupers,
.nis under guardianship, Indians not taxed, and, as provided
ii amendment adopted in 1892, persons intellectually in-
>le of reading the state constitution in the English language
or of writing their names. State elections were annual until
1897 when they were made biennial; they are held on the second
lay in September in even numbered years, Maine being
one of the few states in the Union in which they are not held in

uber.

The governor is the only executive officer of the state elected by
Lir vote. There is no lieutenant-governor, the president of
nate succeeding to the office of governor in case of a vacancy,
but there is a council of seven members elected by the legislature
(not more than one from any one senatorial district), whose sole
function is to advise the governor. The governor's term of office
i- two years (before 1879 it was one year); and the constitution
further directs that he shall be at least thirty years of age at the
ining of his term, that he shall be a native-born citizen ot the
I niu.l Suites, that when elected he shall have been a resident of
:ate for five years, and that he shall reside in the state while in
. His power of appointment is unusually extensive and the
e and consent of the council (instead of that of the Senate
as in other states) are required for his appointments. He
appoints all judges, coroners and notaries public, besides
all other civil and military officers for whose appointment
neither the constitution nor the laws provide otherwise. The
rnor is commander-in-chief of the state militia. Any bill
luch he disapproves he can within five days after its
r^e prevent from becoming a law unless it is passed over his
by a two-thirds vote of each house of the legislature. He and
the council examine and pass upon election returns; he may summon
ions of the legislature, and he may grant pardons, rc-
prirvis. and commutations in all cases except impeachment, but
the manner of hearing applications for pardon is in a measure pre-
•il by statute, and he must present to the legislature an account
u h case in which he grants a pardon. His salary is $2,000 a
The seven members of the council, the secretary of state,
the tre.i-iiircr, the attorney general and the commissioner of agri-
culture are elected biennially by a joint ballot of the two houses
of the legislature, which also eljects, one every two years, the three

-.sors, whose term is six years.

The legislature meets biennially at Augusta, the capital, and is
composed of a Senate of thirty-one members and a House of Re-
presentatives of one hundred and fifty-one members. Members of
carli house are elected for a term of two years: one senator from
each senatorial district and one to seven representatives (one for
a population of 1,500, and seven for a population of 26,250) from
i-.u-h township, or, where the township or plantation has less than
1,500 inhabitants, from each representative district, according to
its population. There is a new reapportionmcnt every ten years,
counting from 1821. Every senator and every representative must
at the beginning of his term have been for five years a citizen of
the United States, for one year a resident of the state, and for three
months next preceding his election, as well as during his term of
office, a resident of the township or district which he represents;
and every senator must be at least twenty-five years of age. All
revenue bills must originate in the House of Representatives, but
to such bills the Senate may propose amendments provided they
relate solely to raising revenue. Other bills may originate in either
house. In September 1908 a constitutional amendment was
adopted providing for referendum and initiative by the people.
Any bill proposed in the legislature or passed by it must be referred
to popular vote before becoming law, if there is a referendum
petition therefor signed by 10,000 voters; and a petition signed by
12,000 voters initiates new legislation.

At the head of the department of justice is the supreme judicial
court, which consists of a chief justice and seven associate justices
appointed by the governor and council for a term of seven years.
When it sits as a law court, at least five of its justices must be present,
and it holds three such sessions annually: one at Augusta, one at
Bangor, and one at Portland. But only one of its justices is re-
quired for a trial court, and trial courts are held two or three times
a year in each county for the trial of both civil and criminal cases

which come before it in the first instance or upon appeal. In
Cumberland and Kennebec counties there is a superior court pre-
sided over by one justice and having extensive civil and criminal
jurisdiction; and in each of the counties there are a probate court
For the settlement of the estates of deceased persons and courts
of the trial justice and the justice of the peace for the trial of petty
offences and of civil cases in which the debt or damage involved
does not exceed $20.

The principal forms of local government are the town (or town-
ship), the plantation, the county and the city. As in other parts
of New England, the town is the most important of these. At the
regular town meeting held in March the electorate of the town
assembles, decides what shall be done for the town during the
ensuing year, elects officers to execute its decisions with limited
discretion, and votes money to meet the expenses. The principal
officers are the selectmen (usually three), town cleric, assessors,
collector, treasurer, school committee and road commissioner. A
populous section of a town, in order to promote certain financial
ends, is commonly incorporated as a village without however
becoming a governing organization distinct from the town. Maine
is the only state in the Union that retains what is known as the
organized plantation. This is a governmental unit organized from
an unincorporated township having at least 200 inhabitants,' and
its principal officers are the moderator, clerk, three assessors,
treasurer, collector, constable and school committee. The county
is a sort of intermediate organization between the state and the
towns to assist chiefly in the administration of justice, especially in
the custody of offenders, and in the making and care of roads. Its
officers are three commissioners, a treasurer, a register of deeds, a
judge and a register of probate, and a sheriff. They are all elected:
the commissioners for a term of six years, one retiring every two
years, the register of deeds and the judge and the register of probate
for a term of four years, and the others for two years. Among other
duties the commissioners care for county property, manage county
business and take charge of county roads. Maine has no general
law under which cities are chartered, and does not even set a mini-
mum population. A town may, therefore, be incorporated as a
city whenever it can obtain from the legislature a city charter which
a majority of its electorate prefers to a continuance under its town
government ; consequently there is much variety in the government
of the various cities of the state.

By the laws of Maine the property rights of a wife are approxi-
mately equal to those of a husband. A woman does not lose
nor a man acquire right to property by marriage, and a wife
may manage, sell, or will her property without the assent of
her husband. She may even receive as her own the wages of
her personal labour which was not performed for her own family.
In the absence of a will, bar or release, there is no legal distinc-
tion between the rights of a widower in the estate of his deceased
wife and those of a widow in the estate of her deceased husband.
The grounds for divorce in the state are adultery, impotence,
extreme cruelty, desertion for three consecutive years next
preceding the application, gross and confirmed habits of intoxi-
cation, cruel and abusive treatment, or a husband's gross or
wanton refusal or neglect to provide a suitable maintenance
for his wife.

Under the laws of Maine a householder owning and occupying
a house and lot may hold the same, or such part of it as does not
exceed $500 in value, as a homestead exempt from attachment,
except for the satisfaction of liens for labour or material, by
filing in the registry of deeds a certificate stating his desire for
such an exemption, provided he is not the owner of an exempted
lot purchased from the state; and the exemption may be con-
tinued during the widowhood of his widow or the minority
of his children. A considerable amount of personal property,
including apparel, household furniture not exceeding $100 in
value, a library not exceeding $150 in value, interest in a pew
in a meeting-house, and a specified amount of fuel, provisions,
tools or farming implements, and domestic animals, and one
fishing boat, is also exempt from attachment.

Maine was the first state in the Union to enact a law for
prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors. An act for restricting
the sale of such liquors was passed in 1846; the first prohibitory
act was passed, largely through the influence of Neal Dow, in
1851; this was frequently amended; and in 1884 an amendment

1 An unincorporated township containing less than 200 inhabitants
may, on the application of three resident voters, be organized as
a plantation, but does not pay state or county taxes unless by-
special legislative order. Other unincorporated districts, especially
islands along the coast, are called " grants," " surpluses," "gores '
or " tracts.

MAINE

to the constitution was adopted which declares the manufacture
of intoxicating liquors and their sale, except " for medicinal anc
mechanical purposes and the arts," forever prohibited. By
the law enacted for enforcing this prohibition the governor and
council appoint a state liquor commissioner from whom alone
the selectmen of a town, the mayor or aldermen of a city, are
authorized to receive the liquors which may be sold within
the exceptions named in the amendment, and the selectmen,
mayor or aldermen appoint an agent who alone is authorized to
sell any of these liquors within their jurisdiction and who is
forbidden to sell any whatever to minors, Indians, soldiers and
drunkards. But the law labours under the disadvantage of
all laws not vigorously sustained by general public sentiment,
and is grossly violated. For the most part it is executed to
the degree demanded by local sentiment in the several muni-
cipalities, thus operating in practice much the same as a " local
option " law. The law looks to checking the demand by pre-
venting the supply; and since habitual reliance on the stringency
of law tends to the neglect of other influences for the removal of
evils from the community, the citizens seem to absolve them-
selves from personal responsibility, both for the execution of
the law and for the existence of the evil itself. There has been
a strong movement for the repeal of the law, and the question
of prohibition has long been an important one in state politics.
The death penalty was abolished in Maine in 1876, restored
in 1883, and again abolished in 1887.

Penal and Charitable Institutions. — The state penal and reforma-
tory institutions consist of the state prison at Thomasfon, the state
(reform) school for boys at South Portland, and a state industrial
school for girls at Hallowell, established in 1875 and taken over by
the state in 1 899. The two schools are not places of punishment, but
reformatory schools for delinquent boys (from 8 to 16 years of
age) and girls (from 6 to 16 years), who have been committed by the
courts for violations of law, and, in the case of girls, who, by force
of circumstances or associations, are " in manifest danger of be-
coming outcasts of society." The prison is in charge of a board
of three inspectors and a warden, and each of the other two institu-
tions is in charge of a board of trustees; the inspectors, warden, and
trustees are all appointed by the governor and council. Convicts
in the prison are usually employed in the manufacture of articles
that are not extensively made elsewhere in the state, such as carri-
ages, harness, furniture and brooms. The inmates of the state
school for boys receive instruction in farming, carpentry, tailoring,
laundry work, and various other trades and occupations; and the
girls in the state industrial school are trained in housework, launder-
ing, dressmaking, &c. Paupers are cared for chiefly by the towns and
cities, those wholly dependent being placed in almshouses and those
only partially dependent receiving aid at their homes. The chari-
table institutions maintained by the state are: the military and
naval orphan asylum at Bath, the Maine institution for the blind
at Portland, the Maine school for the deaf (established in 1876, and
taken over by the state in 1897) at Portland, the Maine insane
hospital at Augusta, the Eastern Maine insane hospital at Bangor,
and a school for the feeble-minded (established in 1907) at West
Pownal, each of which is governed by trustees appointed by the
governor and council, with the exception of a part of those of the
orphan asylum, who are appointed by the corporation. Besides the
strictly state institutions, there are a number of private charitable
institutions which are assisted by state funds; among these are the
eye and ear infirmary at Portland, the Maine state sanatorium at
Hebron for the treatment of tuberculosis, and various hospitals,
orphanages, &c. The national government has a branch of the
national home for disabled volunteer soldiers at Togus, and a marine
hospital at Portland.

Education. — The school-district system was established in 1800
while Maine was still a part of Massachusetts and was maintained
by the first school law passed, in 1821, by the state legislature; but,
beginning in the next year, one town after another received the
privilege of abolishing its districts, and in 1893 the system was
abolished by act of the legislature. A state board of education,
composed of one member from each county, was established in
1846, but for this was substituted, in 1852, a commissioner of
schools for each county, appointed by the governor, and two years
later a state superintendent of schools was substituted for the
county commissioners. County supervision by county supervisors
was tried in 1869-1872. Since these several changes the common
school system has been administered by towns and cities subject
to an increasing amount of control through enactments of the state
legislature and the general supervision of the state superintendent.
The town officers are a superintending school committee of three
members and a superintendent. The members of the committee
are elected for a term of three years, one retiring every year, and
women as well as men are eligible for the office. The superintendent

may be elected by the town or appointed by the committee o
towns having not less than twenty or more than fifty schools mav
unite in employing a superintendent. In cities the committee
usually larger than in towns and is commonly elected by wards
Since 1889 each town and city has been required to furnish text'
books, apparatus and supplies, without cost to the pupils
minimum length of the school year is fixed by a statute of 1891 -
twenty weeks; the average length is about twenty-eight weeks-
A compulsory education law, enacted in 1901, requires the attend-
ance at some public or approved private school of each child between
the ages of seven and fifteen during all the time that school is in
session, except that necessary absences may be excused. For the
maintenance of the common schools each town is required (since
1905) to raise annually at least fifty-five cents per capita, exclusive
of what may be received from other sources, and to this is added
the proceeds of a state tax of one and a half mills on a dollar, one-
half the proceeds of the tax on savings banks, a 6 % income from
the permanent school fund (derived mainly from the sale of school
lands), and state appropriations for the payment in part of the
superintendence in towns that have united for that purpose. Any
section of a town may establish and maintain a high school pro-
vided there be not more than two such schools in one town, and the
state makes appropriations for the support of such schools equal
to one-half the cost of instruction, but the maximum grant to any
one such school is $250.

. The state maintains five normal schools: that at Farmington
(established 1864), that at Castine (1866), that at Gorham (1879);
that at Presque Isle (the Aroostook state normal school, 1903)]
and the Madawaska training school at Fort Kent, each of which is
under the direction of a board of trustees consisting of the governor,
the state superintendent of schools, and five other members ap-
pointed by the governor and council for not more than three years.
At the head of the public school system is the university of Maine,
near the village of Orono in Orono township (pop. in 1900, 3257)!
Penobscot county. This institution was founded in 1865' as the
state college of agriculture and the mechanic arts; in 1897 the present
name was adopted. It embraces a college of arts and sciences, a
college of agriculture, a college of technology (including a depart-
ment of forestry), a college of law (at Bangor), and a college of
pharmacy. The most conspicuous of its twenty-five buildings is
the library, built with funds contributed by Andrew Carnegie. In
1908-1909 the university had 104 instructors and 884 students, of
whom 1 13 were in the college of law at Bangor and 420 in the college
of technology. The university is maintained with the proceeds of
an endowment fund derived chiefly from public lands given by the
national government in accordance with the land grant, or Morrill,
Act of 1862 (see MORRILL, JUSTIN S.) and from the bequest ($100,000)
of Abner Coburn (1803-1885) ; by appropriations of Congress under
the second Morrill Act (1890), and under the Nelson Amendment
of 1907, by appropriations of the state legislature, and by fees paid
by the students. Connected with the university is an agricultural
experiment station, established and maintained under the Hatch
Act (1887) and the Adams Act (1906) of the national Congress.
The government of the university is entrusted, subject to inspection
of the governor and council, to a board of eight trustees. Among
the important institutions of learning which have no official con-
nexion with the state are Bowdoin College (opened in 1802), at
Brunswick; Colby College (Baptist, opened in 1818), at Waterville;
and Bates College (originally Free Baptist but now unscctarian;
opened in 1863), at Lewiston. In 1900 5-1% of the state's in-
habitants ten years of age and over were illiterate (i.e. could
neither read nor write, or could read but not write) ; of the native
whites within this age limit 2-4% were illiterate, of the foreign
whites, 19-4%. Of the foreign-born whites 15-7% were unable to
speak English.

Finance. — The chief sources of the state's revenue are a general
Droperty tax and taxes on the franchises of corporations, especially
:hose of railway and insurance companies and savings banks;
among the smaller sources are licences or fees, a poll tax, and a
:ollateral inheritance tax. The general property tax for state and
ocal purposes is assessed by local assessors, but their work is re-
viewed for the purpose of equalization among the several towns
and counties by a board of state assessors, which also assesses the
corporations. This board of three members (not more than two
)f whom may be of the same political party) is elected by a joint
jallot of the two houses of the legislature for a term of six years
one member retiring every two years. The state is prohibited by
:he constitution from creating a debt exceeding $300,000 except
or the suppression of a rebellion, for repelling an invasion, or for
war purposes; and every city and town is forbidden by an amend-
ment adopted in 1877 from creating one exceeding 5% of
:he assessed value of its property. But the state was authorized
Dy an amendment adopted in 1868 to issue bonds for the reimburse-
ment of the expenses incurred by its cities, towns, and plantations on
account of the Civil War, and these bonds, with those issued by
the state itself during the Civil War, constituted the largest part
of the state's bonded indebtedness. The bonded debt, however,
s rapidly being paid; in January 1901 it was $2,103,000, and in
[anuary 1909 only $698,000.

I

MAINE

439

History. — During the i6th century and the early part of the
17th, the coast of Maine attracted various explorers, among
them Giovanni da Verrazano (1524), Esteban Gomez (1525),
Bartholomew Gosnold (1602), Martin Pring (1603), Pierre du
t. Sicur De Monts (1604), George Weymouth (1605). and
John Smith (1614), who explored and mapped the coast and
gave to the country the name New England; but no permanent
English settlement was established within what are now the
borders of the state until some time between 1623 and 1629.
In 1603 De Monts received from Henry IV. of France a charter
for all the region between 40° and 46° N. under the name of
lie, or Acadia, and in 1604 he built a fort on Neutral Island
at the mouth of the Saint Croix river. This he abandoned in
1605, but some of his followers were in the vicinity a few years
Liter. In the same year George Weymouth explored the south-
west coast, kidnapped five Indians, and carried them to England,
where three of them lived for a time in the family of Sir Fer-
dinando Gorges, who soon became the leader in founding Maine.
In 1607 the Plymouth Company, of which he was an influential
member and which had received a grant of this region from
James I. of England in the preceding year, sent out a colony
numbering 120 under George Popham (c. 1550-1608), brother
of Sir John Popham, and Raleigh Gilbert, son of Sir Humphrey
Gilbert. The colony established itself at the mouth of the
Kennebec river in August, but, finding its supplies insufficient,
about three-fifths of its number returned to England in
December; a severe winter followed and Popham died; then
Gilbert, who succeeded to the presidency of the council for the
colony, became especially interested in his claim to the territory
under his father's charter,1 and in 1608 the colony was abandoned.
In 1609 the French Jesuits Biard and Masse established a
fortified mission station on the island of Mount Desert, and
although this as well as the remnant of De Monts' settlement
at the mouth of the Saint Croix was taken in 1613 by Sir Samuel
Argall (d. 1626), acting under the instructions of the English at
Jamestown, Virginia, some of these colonists returned later.
In 1620 the Council for New England, the successor of the
Plymouth Company, obtained a grant of the country between
latitude 40° and 48° N. extending from sea to sea, and two years
later Gorges and John Mason (1586-1635) received from the
Council a grant of the territory between the Merrimac and the
Kennebec rivers for 60 m. inland under the name of the Province
of Maine. In 1629 they( divided their possession, Gorges taking
the portion between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec. Numerous
grants of land in this vicinity followed within a few years; and
in the meantime permanent settlements at York, Saco, Bidde-
forcl, Port Elizabeth, Falmouth (now Portland) and Scarborough
were established in rapid succession. The Council for New
England surrendered its charter in 1635. In the division of its
territory Gorges retained the portion previously granted to him,
and the region between the Kennebec and the Saint Croix north
to the Saint Lawrence, though still claimed by the French as
part of Acadia, was conveyed to Sir William Alexander (1567?-
1640); later, in 1664, this was conveyed to the duke of York,
afterwards James II. of England.

Gorges named his tract the County of New Somersetshire,
and immediately began the administration of government, set-
ting up in 1635 or 1636 a court at Saco under the direction of his
kinsman William Gorges. In 1639 he procured for his province
a royal charter modelled after that of Maryland, which invested
him with the feudal tenure of a county palatine and vice-regal
powers of government. He called into existence a formidably
large number of officers to govern it, but his charter was in
conflict with the other (mutually conflicting) grants of the
Council for New England, east of the Piscataqua; and Gorges
and his agents met with a determined opposition under the
leadership of George Cleeve, the deputy-president of the Lygonia,
or " Plough " Patent, which extended along the coast from

"By this charter, issued in 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert was
entitled to all territory lying within two hundred leagues of any
colony that he might plant within six years; although it had long
since lapsed, Raleigh Gilbert seems not to have been aware of it.

Cape Porpoise to Casco, and in issuing which the Council for
New England had granted governmental as well as territorial
rights. Moreover, Puritan Massachusetts, which was naturally
hostile to the Anglicanism of Gorges and his followers, inter-
preted her charter so as to make her northern boundary run
east and west from a point 3 m. north of the source of the Merri-
mac river, and on this basis laid claim to practically the whole
of Maine then settled. The factional quarrels there, together
with the Commonwealth government in England, made it easy
for Massachusetts to enforce this claim at the time, and between
1652 and 1658 Maine was gradually annexed to Massachusetts.
In 1672 Massachusetts extended her boundary eastward as far as
Penobscot Bay. Ferdinando Gorges, a grandson of the original
proprietor, brought before parliament his claim to Maine and
in 1664 a committee of that body decided in his favour; but
Massachusetts successfully resisted until 1677, when the king
in council decided against her. She then quietly purchased
the Gorges claim for £1,250 and held the province as a proprietor
until 1691, when by the new Massachusetts charter Maine was
extended to the Saint Croix river, and was made an integral
part of Massachusetts.

The French still claimed all territory east of the Penobscot,
and not only was Maine an exposed frontier and battleground
during the long struggle of the English against the Indians and
the French, but its citizens bore a conspicuous part in the
expeditions beyond its borders. Port Royal was taken in May
1690 by Sir William Phipps and Louisburg in June 1745 by Sir
William Pepperell, both these commanders being from Maine.
These expeditions were such a drain on Maine's population that
Massachusetts was called upon to send men to garrison the little
forts that protected the homes left defenceless by men who had
gone to the front. During the War of Independence, the town
of Falmouth (now Portland), which had ardently resisted the
claims of the British, was bombarded and burned, in 1775; in
the same year Benedict Arnold followed the course of the Kenne-
bec and Dead rivers on his expedition to Quebec; and from 1779
to 1783 a British force was established at Castine. The embargo
and non-intercourse laws from 1807 to 1812 were a severe blow
to Maine's shipping, and in the War of 1812 Eastport, Castine,
Hampden, Bangor and Machias fell into the hands of the
British.

Maine was in general well governed as a part of Massachusetts,
but a geographical separation, a desire to be rid of the burden
of a large state debt, and a difference of economic interests as well
as of politics (Maine was largely Democratic and Massachusetts
was largely Federalist) created a desire for an independent
commonwealth. This was felt before the close of the War of
Independence and in 1785-1787 conventions were held at
Falmouth (Portland) to consider the matter, but the opposition
prevailed. The want of protection during the War of 1812
revived the question, and in 1816 the General Court inresponseto
a great number of petitions submitted to a vote in the towns
and plantations of the District the question: " Shall the legis-
lature be requested to give its consent to the separation of
the District of Maine from Massachusetts, and the erection of
said District into a separate state? " The returns showed 10,393
yeas to 6501 nays, but they also showed that less than one-half
the full vote had been cast. Acting upon these returns the
legislature passed a bill prescribing the terms of separation, and
directed another vote of the towns and plantations upon the
question of separation and the election of delegates to a con-
vention at Brunswick which should proceed to frame a constitu-
tion in case the second popular vote gave a majority of five to
four for separation; but as that vote was only 11,969 yeas to
10,347 nays the advocates of separation were unsuccessful.
But a large source of opposition to separation was removed in
1819 when Congress, dividing the east coast of the United States
into two great districts, did away with the regulation which,
making each state a district for entering and clearing vessels,
would have required coasting vessels from the ports of Maine
as a separate state to enter and clear on every trip to or from
Boston; as a consequence, the separation measures were carried

44°

MAINE

by large majorities this year, a constitution was framed by a
convention which met at Portland in October, this was ratified
by town meetings in December, and Maine applied for admis-
sion into the Union. Owing to the peculiar situation at the
time in Congress, arising from the contest over the admission
of Missouri, the question of the admission of Maine became an
important one in national politics. By an Act of the 3rd of
March 1820, however, Maine was finally admitted into the
Union as a separate state, her admission being a part of the
Missouri compromise (q.v.).

The boundary on the north had not yet been ascertained,
and it had long been a subject of dispute between the United
States and Great Britain. The treaty of 1783 (Article II.) had
defined the north-east boundary of the United States as extend-
ing along the middle of the river St Croix " from its mouth in the
bay of Fundy to its source " and " due north from the source of
St Croix river to the highlands; along the said highlands which
divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river St
Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to the
north-westernmost head of Connecticut river; thence down
along the middle of that river to the forty-fifth degree of north
latitude." Great Britain claimed that the due north line was
40 m. long and ran to Mars Hill in Aroostook county, and that
the highlands ran thence westerly 115 m. to the source of the
Chaudiere; the United States, on the other hand, claimed that
the northerly line was 140 m. long, running to highlands dividing
the Ristigouche and the tributaries of the Metis; and there was
a further disagreement with regard to the side of the highlands
on which the boundary should be, and as to what stream was
the " north-westernmost head of Connecticut river." The
fifth article of the Jay treaty of 1794 provided for a commission
to decide what the St Croix river actually was, and this com-
mission in 1798 defined the St Croix, saying that its mouth
was in Passamaquoddy bay and that the boundary ran up this
river and the Cheputnatecook to a marked monument. The
treaty of Ghent in 1814 (Article IV.) referred the question of
the ownership of the islands in Passamaquoddy bay to a com-
mission which gave Moose, Dudley and Frederick islands to
the United States; and the same treaty by Article V. provided
for the survey (which was made in 1817-1818) of a part of
the disputed territory, and for a general commission. The
general commissioners met at St Andrews, N.B., in 1816, and
in New York City in 1822, only to disagree; and when the king
of the Netherlands, chosen as arbitrator in 1829 (under the
Convention of 1827) rendered in 1831 a decision against which
the state of Maine protested, the Federal Senate withheld its
assent to his decision. In 1838-1839 the territory in dispute
between New Brunswick and Maine became the scene of a border
" war," known as the " Aroostook disturbance "; Maine erected
forts along the line she claimed, Congress authorized the president
to resist any attempt of Great Britain to enforce exclusive
jurisdiction over the disputed territory, and an armed conflict
seemed imminent. General Winfield Scott was sent to take
command on the Maine frontier, and on the 2ist of March 1839
he arranged a truce and a joint occupancy of the territory in
dispute until a satisfactory settlement should be reached by
the United States and Great Britain. The Webster-Ashburton
treaty of 1842 was a compromise, which allowed Maine about
5500 sq. m. less than she had claimed and allowed Great Britain
about as much less than her claim; all grants of land previously
made by either party within the limits of the territory which
by this treaty fell within the dominions of the other party were
to be " held valid, ratified and confirmed to the persons in
possession under such grants, to the same extent as if such
territory had . . . fallen within the dominions of the party by
whom such grants were made " ; and the government of the
United States agreed to pay to Maine and Massachusetts1 "in

1 An article in the Act relating to the separation of Maine from
Massachusetts stipulated that the lands within the District of Maine
which prior to the separation had belonged to Massachusetts should
after the separation belong one-half to Maine and one-half to Mas-
sachusetts. In 1826 the wild lands of Maine were surveyed and
divided between the two states; and in 1853 Maine acquired from

equal moieties " the sum of $300,000 as compensation for the
lands which they had claimed and which under the treaty they
were called upon to surrender. The long controversy, which
is known in American history as " The North-East boundary
dispute," was not finally settled however until 1910.

It was the Democratic majority in the district of Maine that
effected the separation from Massachusetts, and from the date
of that separation until 1853 Maine was classed as a Democratic
state, although it elected a Whig governor in 1838 and in 1840,
and cast its electoral vote for John Quincy Adams in 1824 and
1828 and for W. H. Harrison in 1840. As a result of the slavery
question, there was a party disintegration between 1850 and
1855, followed by the supremacy of the Republican party from
1856 to 1878. In 1878, of the 126,169 votes cast in the election
for governor, Selden Connor (b. 1839), re-nominated by the
Republicans, received 56,554; Joseph L. Smith (" National " or
"Greenback"), 41,371; Alonzo Garcelon (1813-1906) (Demo-
cratic), 28,218; as no candidate received a majority of the votes,
the election was left to the legislature.2 The vote of the House
eliminated Connor, and Garcelon was chosen in the Senate by
a Democratic-National fusion. Again there was no election
by popular vote in 1879, and Garcelon and his council, to secure
the election of a fusion government, counted-in a fusion majority
in the legislature by evident falsification of the returns. On
the 3rd of January 1880 the Supreme Court declared the
governor and council in error in counting in a fusion majority,
but on the 7th the governor swore in a legislature with 78 fusion
and only two Republican members, and, the governor's term
having expired, the president of the Senate, James D. Lamson,
became governor, ex-officio. On the i2th the legislative
chambers were seized by the Republicans, whose Organized
legislature was declared legal by the Supreme Court, and who
chose as governor Daniel Franklin Davis (1843-1897); where-
upon, on the 1 7th, Joshua L. Chamberlain, to whom the peaceful
solution of the difficulty had largely been due, retired from the
task assigned him by Garcelon on the 5th of January " to protect
the public property and institutions of the state " until Garcelon's
successor should be duly qualified. In 1880 the Democrats
and Greenbacks united and elected their candidate, but after
1883 Maine was strongly Republican until 1910.

The governors of the state have been as follows: —

William King Democrat

William Durkee Williamson (acting)
Benjamin Ames (acting) .
Albion Keith Parris
Enoch Lincoln ....
Nathan Cutler (acting)
Jonathan G. Hunton
Samuel Emerson Smith
Robert Pinckney Dunlap .

Edward Kent Whig

John Fairfield Democrat

Edward Kent Whig

John Fairfield Democrat

Edward Kavanagh (acting) ... ,,

Hugh J. Anderson ,,

John Winchester Dana ,,

John Hubbard ....
William George Crosby
Anson Peaslee Morrill .
Samuel Wells ....
Hannibal Hamlin .
Joseph H. Williams (acting)
Lot Myrick Morrill .
Israel Washburn . ...
Abner Coburn ....

Whig and Free Soil

Republican

Democrat

Republican

1820
1821
1821
1822
1827
1829
1830
1831
1834
1838
1839
1841
1842

1843
1844
1847
1850
1853
1855
1856
1857
1857
1858
1 861
1863

Massachusetts, for $362,500, all of this land still remaining in posses-
sion of the latter state.

2 According to Art. V. of the constitution a majority of the ti
number of votes cast was required for election ; in case no candidate
should receive a majority, it was prescribed that the " House of
Representatives shall, by ballot, from the persons having the four
highest numbers of votes on the lists, if so many there be, elect 1
persons and make returns of their names to the Senate, of whom the
Senate shall, by ballot, elect one, who shall be declared the governor.
An amendment, which became a part of the constitution on
9th of November 1880, provided that a plurality of the total numbei
of votes cast should be sufficient for election.

MAINE DE BIRAN— MAINE-ET-LOIRE

441

Republican

1864
1867
1871

Democrat

Republican

Democrat-Greenback

Republican

1876
1879
1880
1 88 1
1883
1887
1887
1889

Democrat

1897
1901

1905
1909
1911

Samuel Cony

M Lawrence Chamberlain

, Perham

NYUon Dinjjley

SeMen Connor

Alon/i) ('..ireelon ....
1 F. Davis ...

Merrill Plaisted .

! ick Robie ....

ih R. Bodwell ....

i.ui S. Marble (acting) .

i C. Burleigh ...

M. Cleavi-s ....

Llewellyn Powers ....

|<>hn Fremont Hill ....

William T. Cobb ....

1. Kernald ....
•ick W. Plaisted . . .

See S. L. Buardman, Climate, &c., of Maine (Washington, 1884);
W.iltnn Wells, The Water Power of Maine (Augusta, 1869); G. H.
Ilitehcock, General Report on the Geology of Maine (Augusta, 1861);
(•. 11. Stone, The Glacial Gravels of Maine and their Associated
Deposits (Washington, 1899); T. Nelson Dale, The Granites of Maine

jiington, 1907), being Bulletin 313 of the U. S. Geological
: B. F. De Costa, Sketches of the Coast of Maine and Isle of

.'? (New York, 1869) ; H. D. Thoreau, The Maine Woods (Boston,

1881); L. L. Hubbard, Woods and Lakes of Maine (Boston, 1883);

•Meelc, Canoe and Camera, a Two Hundred Mile Tour through

the Maine Forests (New York, 1882); William MacDonald, The

Government of Maine, Its History and Administration (New York,

; Maine Historical Society Collections (Portland, 1831- );
W. 1). Williamson, History of the State of Maine (Hallowell, 1832);
.1 . P. Baxter, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of Maine (Boston,
1890) and George Cleeve of Casco Bay (Portland, 1885); George

in, History of Saco and Biddeford, with notices of other Early

ments and of the Proprietary Governments in Maine (Saco,
1830) ; J. L. Chamberlain, Maine, Her Place in History (Augusta,
1877) ; E. S.Whitin, Factory Legislation in Maine (New York, 1908).

MAINE DE BIRAN, FRANQOIS-PIERRE-GONTHIER (1766-
1824), French philosopher, was born at Bergerac, on the 291)1 of
mber, 1766. The name Maine he assumed (some time
re 1787) from an estate called Le Maine, near Mouleydier.
After studying with distinction under the doctrinaires of Peri-
gueux, he entered the life-guards of Louis XVI., and was present
at Versailles on the memorable 5th and 6th of October 1789.
On the breaking up of the gardes du corps Biran retired to his
patrimonial inheritance of Grateloup, near Bergerac, where his
retired life preserved him from the horrors of the Revolution.
It was at this period that, to use his own words, he " passed
per saltum from frivolity to philosophy." He began with
tiology, which he made the study of his life. After the
Reign of Terror Maine de Biran took part in political affairs.
Having been excluded from the council of the Five Hundred
on suspicion of royalism, he took part with his friend Laine
in the commission of 1813, which gave expression for the first
time to direct opposition to the will of the emperor. After the
Restoration he held the office of treasurer to the chamber of
deputies, and habitually retired during the autumn recess to
his native district to pursue his favourite study. He died on
the 20th (i6th, or 23rd, according to others) of July 1824.

Maine de Biran's philosophical reputation has suffered from
two causes — his obscure and laboured style, and the fact that
only a few, and these the least characteristic, of his writings
appeared during his lifetime. These consisted of the essay on
habit (Sur I' influence de I'habitude, 1803), a critical review of
P. Laromiguiere's lectures (1817), and the philosophical portion
of the article " Leibnitz " in the Biographic universelle (1819).
A treatise on the analysis of thought (Sur la decomposition de
la pensfe), although sent to press, was never printed. In 1834
these writings, together with the essay entitled NouveUes con-
siderations sur les rapports du physique et du moral de I'homnic,
were published by Victor Cousin, who in 1841 added three
volumes, under the title (Euvres philosophiqucs de Maine de
Biran. But the publication (in 1850) by E. Naville (from MSS.
placed at his father's disposal by Biran's son) of the (Euvres
inedites de Maine de Biran, in three volumes, first rendered
possible a connected view of his philosophical development.
At first a sensualist, like Condillac and Locke, next an intel-
lect ualist, he finally shows himself a mystical theosophist. The

Essai sur les fondements de la psychologic represents the second or
completest stage of his philosophy, the fragments of the Nouveaux
essais d'anthropologie the third.

Maine de Biran's first essays in philosophy were written avowedly
from the point of view of Locke and Condillac, but even in them he
was brought to signalize the essential fact on which his later specu-
lation turns. Dealing with the formation of habits, he is compelled
to note that passive impressions, however transformed, do not
furnish a complete or adequate explanation. With Laromiguiere
he distinguishes attention as an active effort, of no less importance
than the passive receptivity of sense, and with Butler distinguishes
passively formed customs from active habits. He finally arrived
at the conclusion that Condillac's notion of passive receptivity as
the one source of conscious experience was not only an error in fact
but an error of method — in short, that the mechanical mode of
viewing consciousness as formed by external influence was fallacious
and deceptive. For it he proposed to substitute the genetic method,
whereby human conscious experience might be exhibited as growing
or developing from its essential basis in connexion with external
conditions. The essential basis he finds in the real consciousness,
of self as an active striving power, and the stages of its development,
corresponding to what one may call the relative importance of the
external conditions and the reflective clearness of self-consciousness
he designates as the affective, the perceptive and the reflective.
In connexion with this Biran treats most of the obscure problems
which arise in dealing with conscious experience, such as the mode
by which the organism is cognized, the mode by which the organism
is distinguished from extra-organic things, and the nature o? those
general ideas by which the relations of things are known to us —
cause, power, force, &c.

In the latest stage of his speculation Biran distinguishes the
animal existence from the human, under which the three forms above
noted are classed, and both from the life of the spirit, in which
human thought is brought into relation with the supersensible,
divine system of things. This stage is left imperfect. Altogether
Biran's work presents a very remarkable specimen of deep meta-
physical thinking directed by preference to the psychological aspect
of experience.

The (Euvres inedites of Maine de Biran by E. Naville contain an
introductory study; in 1887 appeared Science et psychologie: nouvel-
les auvres inedites, with introduction by A. Bertrand. See also
O. Merton, ILtiule critique sur Maine de Biran (1865); E. Naville,
Maine de Biran, sa vie et ses pensees (1874); J. Gerard, Maine de
Biran, essai sur sa philosophic (1876); Mayonade, Pensees et pages
inedites de Maine de Biran (Pdrigueux, 1896); G. Allievo, " Maine
de Biran e la sua dottrina antropologica " (Turin, 1896, in Memorie
dell' accademia delle scienze, 2nd ser., xlv, pt. 2); A. Lang, Maine
de Biran und die neuere Philosophie (Cologne, 1901); monographs
by A. Kiihtmann (Bremen, 1901) and M. Couailhac (1905); N. E.
Truman in Cornell Studies in Philosophy, No. 5 (1904) on Maine de
Biran's Philosophy of Will.

MAINE-ET-LOIRE, a department of western France, formed in
1790 for the most part out of the southern portion of the former
province of Anjou, and bounded N. by the departments of
Mayenne and Sarthe, E. by Indre-et-Loire, S.E. by Vienne, S.
by Dcux-Sevres and Vendee, W. by Loire-Inferieure, and N.W.
by Ille-et-Vilaine. Area, 2786 sq. m. Pop. (1906), 513,490.
Maine-et-Loire is made up of two distinct regions, the line of
demarcation running roughly from north to south along the
valley of the Sarthe, then turning south-west and passing
Brissac and Dou6; that to the west consists of granites, felspars,
and -a continuation of the geological formations of Brittany
and Vendee; to the east, schists, limestone and chalk prevail.
The department is traversed from east to west by the majestic
valley of the Loire, with its rich orchards, nurseries and market-
gardens. The highest altitudes are found in the south-west,
where north-east of Cholet one eminence reaches 689 ft. Else-
where the surface is low and undulating in character. The
department belongs entirely to the basin of the Loire, the bed
of which is wide but shallow, and full of islands, the depth of
the water in summer being at some places little more than 2 ft.
Floods are sudden and destructive. The chief affluent of the
Loire within the department is the Maine, formed a little above
Angers by the junction of the Mayenne and the Sarthe, the
latter having previously received the waters of the Loire. All
three are navigable. Other tributaries of the Loire aretheThouet
(with its tributary the Dive), the Layon, the Evre, and the
Divatte on the left, and the Authion on the right. The Mayenne
is joined on the right by the Oudon, which can be navigated
below Segre1. The Erdre, which joins the Loire at Nantes,
and the Moine, a tributary of the Sevre-Nantaise, both rise

442

MAINPURI— MAINTENON, MADAME DE

within this department. The climate is very mild. The mean
annual temperature of Angers is about 53°, slightly exceeding
that of Paris; the rainfall (between 23 and 24 in. annually)
is distinctly lower than that of the rest of France. Notwith-
standing this deficiency, the frequent fogs, combined with the
peculiar nature of the soil in the south-east of the department,
produce a degree of moisture which is highly favourable to
meadow growths. The winter colds are never severe, and
readily permit the cultivation of certain trees which cannot be
reared in the adjoining departments.

The agriculture of the department is very prosperous. The
produce of cereals, chiefly wheat, oats and barley, is in excess
of its needs, and potatoes and mangels also give good returns.
Extensive areas in the valley of the Loire are under hemp,
and the vegetables, melons and other fruits of that region are
of the finest quality.' Good wine is produced at Serrant and
other places near Angers, and on the right bank of the Layon
and near .Saumur, the sparkling white wine of which is a rival
of the cheaper brands of champagne. Cider is also produced,
and the cultivation of fruit is general. Forests and woodland
in which oak and beech are the chief trees cover large tracts.
The fattening of cattle is an important industry round Cholet,
and horses much used for light cavalry are reared. Several
thousand workmen are employed in the slate quarries in the
vicinity of Angers, tufa is worked in the river valleys, and
freestone and other stone, mispickel, iron and coal are also found.
Cholet, the chief industrial town, and its district manufacture
pocket-handkerchiefs, as well as linen cloths, flannels, cotton
goods, and hempen and other coarse fabrics, and similar indus-
tries are carried on at Angers, which also manufactures liqueurs,
rope, boots and shoes and parasols. Saumur, besides its pro-
duction of wine, makes beads and enamels. The commerce of
Maine-et-Loire comprises the exportation of live stock and of the
various products of its soil and industries, and the importation
of hemp, cotton, and other raw materials. The department
is served by the railways of the state and the Orleans and
Western companies. The Mayenne, the Sarthe and the Loir,
together with some of the lesser rivers, provide about 130 m. of
navigable waterway. In the south-east the canal of the Dive
covers some 10 m. in the department.

There are five arrondissements — Angers, Bauge, Cholet,
Saumur and Segre, with 34 cantons and 381 communes. Maine-
et-Loire belongs to the academic (educational division) of
Rennes, to the region of the VIII. army corps, and to the ecclesi-
astical province of Tours. Angers (q.v.), the capital, is the seat
of a bishopric and of a court of appeal. Other principal places
are Cholet, Saumur, and Fontevrault, which receive separate
treatment. For architectural interest there may also be men-
tioned the chateaux of Brissac (iyth century), Serrant (isth and
i6th centuries), Montreuil-Bellay (i4th and i$th centuries), and
Ecuille (isth century), and the churches of Puy-Notre-Dame
(i3th century) and St Florent-le-Vieil (i3th, I7th, and I9th
centuries), the last containing the fine monument to Charles
Bonchamps, the Vendean leader, by David d'Angers. Gennes
has remains of a theatre and other ruins of the Roman period,
as well as two churches dating in part from the loth century.
Ponts-de-Ce, an interesting old town built partly on islands in
the Loire, is historically important, because till the Revolution
its bridges formed the only way across the Loire between
Saumur and Nantes.

MAINPURI, or MYNPOOREE, a town and district of British
India, in the Agra division of the United Provinces. The town
has a station on a branch of the East Indian railway recently
opened from Shikohabad. Pop. (1901), 19,000. It consists
of two separate portions, Mainpuri proper and Mukhamganj.
Holkar plundered and burned part of the town in 1804, but was
repulsed by the local militia. Since the British occupation the
population has rapidly increased and many improvements have
been carried out. The Agra branch of the Grand Trunk road
runs through the town, forming a wide street lined on both sides
by shops, which constitute the principal bazaar. Mainpuri has
a speciality in the production of carved wooden articles inlaid

with brass wire. The American Presbyterian mission manages
a high school.

The DISTRICT or MAINPURI lies in the central Doab. Area,
1675 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 829,357, an increase of 8-8% in the
decade. It consists of an almost unbroken plain, intersected
by small rivers, with a few undulating sand ridges. It is wooded
throughout with mango groves, and isolated clumps of babul trees
occasionally relieve the bareness of its saline ttsar plains. On the
south-western boundary the Jumna flows in a deep alluvial bed,
sometimes sweeping close to the high banks which overhang its
valley, and elsewhere leaving room for a narrow strip of fertile
soil between the river and the upland plain. From the low-
lying lands thus formed a belt of ravines stretches inland for
some 2 m., often covered with jungle, but affording good
pasturage for cattle. The district is watered by two branches
of the Ganges canal, and is traversed by the main line of the
East Indian railway.

Mainpuri anciently formed part of the great kingdom of Kanauj,
and after the fall of that famous state it was divided into a number
of petty principalities, of which Rapri and Bhongaon were the chief.
In 1194 Rapri was made the seat of a Moslem governor. Mainpuri
fell to the Moguls on Baber's invasion in 1526, and, although tempor-
arily wrested from them by the short-lived Afghan dynasty of
Shere Shah, was again occupied by them on the reinstatement of
Humayun after the victory of Pampat. Like the rest of the lower
Doab, Mainpuri passed, towards the end of the i8th century, into
the power of the Mahrattas, and finally became a portion of the
province of Oudh. When this part of the country was ceded to
the British, in 1801, Mainpuri town became the headquarters of
the extensive district of Etawah, which was in 1856 reduced by the
formation of Etah and Mainpuri into separate collcctorates. On
the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 the regiment stationed at Main-
puri revolted and attacked the town, which was successfully
defended by the few Europeans of the station for a week, until
the arrival of the Jhansi mutineers made it necessary to abandon
the district.

MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from mainlenir, to main-
tain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand). The action
of giving support, supplying means of subsistence, keeping
efficient or in working order. In English law maintenance is an
officious intermeddling in an action that in no way belongs to one
by maintaining or assisting either party, with money or otherwise,
to prosecute or defend it. It is an indictable offence, both at
common law and by statute, and punishable by fine and imprison-
ment. It invalidates all contracts involving it. It is also
actionable. There are, however, certain cases in which mainten-
ance is justifiable, e.g. any one who has an interest, even if it
be only contingent, in the matter at variance can maintain
another in an action concerning the matter; or several parties
who have a common interest in the same thing may maintain
one another in a suit concerning the same. Neither is it reckoned
maintenance to assist another in his suit on charitable grounds,
or for a master to assist his servant, or a parent his son, or a
husband his wife. The law with regard to the subject is con-
sidered at length in Bradlaugh v. Newdegate, 1883, n Q.B.D. i.
See also CHAMPERTY. For the practice of " livery and mainten-
ance " see ENGLISH HISTORY, §§ v. and vi.

A CAP OF MAINTENANCE, i.e. a. cap of crimson velvet turned up
with ermine, is borne, as one of the insignia of the British sovereign,
immediately before him at his coronation or on such state occasions
as the opening of parliament. It is carried by the hereditary
bearer, the marquess of Winchester, upon a white wand. A similar
cap is also borne before the lord mayor of London. The origin of
this symbol of dignity is obscure. It is stated in the New English
Dictionary that it was granted by the pope to Henry VII. and
Henry VIII. It is probably connected with the " cap of estate "
or " dignity," sometimes also styled " cap of maintenance," similar
to the royal symbol with two peaks or horns behind, which is borne
as a heraldic charge by certain families. It seems originally to
have been a privilege of dukes. Where it is used the crest is placed
upon it, instead of on the usual wreath.

MAINTENON, FRANCHISE D'AUBIGN& MARQUISE DE
(1635-1719), the second wife of Louis XIV., was born in a prison
at Niort, on the 27th of November 1635. Her father, Constant
d'Aubigne, was the son of Agrippa d'Aubigne, the famous friend
and general of Henry IV., and had been imprisoned as a Huguenot
malcontent, but her mother, a fervent Catholic, had the child

MAINTENON, MADAME DE

443

£

baptized in her religion, her sponsors being the due de la Roche-
foucauld, father of the author of the Maxims, and the comtesse de
\YuilhuH. In 1639 Constant d'Aubigne was released from
prison and took all his family with him to Martinique, where he

in 1645, after having lost what fortune remained to him at
•cards. Mme d'Aubigne returned to France, and from sheer

-ly unwillingly yielded her daughter to her sister-in-law,
Mme de Villette, who made the child very happy, but converted
or pretended to convert her to Protestantism. When this was
known an order of state was issued that she should be entrusted
to Mme de Ncuillant, her godmother. Every means was now
used to convert her back to Catholicism, but at the last she only
yielded on the condition that she need not believe that the soul
of M me de Villette was lost. Once reconverted, she was neglected
and sent home to live with her mother, who had only a small
pension of 200 livres a year, which ceased on her death in 1650.
The chevalier de Mer6, a man of some literary distinction, who
hud made her acquaintance at Mme de Neuillant's, discovered
her penniless condition, and introduced his " young Indian," as
he called her, to Scarron, the famous wit and comic writer, at
whose house all the literary society of the dayassembled. Scarron
took a fancy to the friendless girl, and offered either to pay for
her admission to a convent, or, though he was deformed and an
invalid, to marry her himself. She accepted his offer of marriage,
and became Mme S'carron in 1651. For nine years she was not
only his most faithful nurse, but an attraction to his house,
where she tried to bridle the licence of the conversation of the
time. On the death of Scarron, in 1660, Anne of Austria con-
tinued his pension to his widow, and even increased it to 2000
livres a year, which enabled her to entertain and frequent the
literary society her husband had made her acquainted with; but
on the queen-mother's death in 1666 the king refused to continue
her pension, and she prepared to leave Paris for Lisbon as lady
attendant to the queen of Portugal. But before she started
she met Mme de Montespan, who was already, though not
avowedly, the king's mistress, and who took such a fancy to her
that she obtained the continuance of her pension, which put off
for ever the question of going to Portugal. Mme de Montespan
did yet more for her, for when, in 1669, her first child by the king
was born, Mme Scarron was established with a large income and
a large staff of servants at Vaugirard to bring up the king's
children in secrecy as they were born. In 1674 the king deter-
mined to have his children at court, and their governess, who had
now made sufficient fortune to buy the estate of Maintenon,
accompanied them. The king had now many opportunities of
seeing Mme Scarron, and, though at first he was prejudiced
against her, her even temper contrasted so advantageously with
the storms of passion and jealousy exhibited by Mme de Monte-
span, that she grew steadily in his favour, and had in 1678 the
gratification of having her estate at Maintenon raised to a marqui-
sate and herself entitled Mme de Maintenon by the king. Such
favours brought down the fury of Mme de Montespan's jealousy,
and M me de Maintenon 's position was almost unendurable, until,
in 1680, the king severed their connexion by making the latter
second lady in waiting to the dauphiness, and soon after Mme de
Montespan left the court. The new amie used her influence on
the side of decency, and the queen openly declared she had never
been so well treated as at this time, and eventually died in Mme
de Maintenon's arms in 1683. The queen's death opened the
way to yet greater advancement; in 1684 Mme.de Maintenon was
made first lady in waiting to the dauphiness, and in the winter of
1685-1686 she was privately married to the king by Harlay,
archbishop of Paris, in the presence, it is believed, of Pere la
Chaise, the king's confessor, the marquis de Montchevreuil, the
chevalier de Forbin, and Bontemps. No written proof of the
marriage is extant, but that it took place is nevertheless certain.
Her life during the next thirty years can be fully studied in her
letters, of which many authentic examples are extant. As a wife
she was wholly admirable; she had to entertain a man who would
not be amused, and had to submit to that terribly strict court
etiquette of absolute obedience to the king's inclination, which
Saint-Simon so vividly describes, and yet be always cheerful

and never complain of weariness or ill-health. Her political
influence has probably been exaggerated, but it was supreme in
matters of detail. The ministers of the day used to discuss and
arrange all the business to be done with the king beforehand with
her, and it was all done in her cabinet and in her presence, but
the king in more important matters often chose not to consult
her. Such mistakes as, for instance, the replacing of Catinat by
Villeroi may be attributed to her, but not whole policies —
notably, according to Saint-Simon, not the policy with regard to
the Spanish succession. Even the revocation of the edict of Nantes
and the dragonnades have been laid to her charge, but recent
investigations have tended to show that in spite of ardent
Catholicism, she at least opposed, if not very vigorously, the
cruelties of the dragonnades, although she was pleased with the
conversions they procured. She was apparently afraid to imperil
her great reputation for devotion, which had in 1692 obtained for
her from Innocent XII. the right of visitation over all the con-
vents in France. Where she deserves blame is in her use of her
power for personal patronage, as in compassing the promotions
of Chamillart and Villeroi, and the frequent assistance given to
her brother Comte Charles d'Aubigne. Her influence was on
the whole a moderating and prudent force. Her social influence
was not as great as it might have been, owing to her holding no
recognized position at court, but it was always exercised on the
side of decency and morality, and it must not be forgotten that
from her former life she was intimate with the literary people
of the day. Side by side with this public life, which wearied her
with its shadowy power, occasionally crossed by a desire to be
recognised as queen, she passed a nobler and sweeter private
existence as the foundress of St Cyr. Mme de Maintenon was
a born teacher; she had so won the hearts of her first pupils that
they preferred her to their own mother, and was similarly
successful later with the young and impetuous duchess of Bur-
gundy, and she had always wished to establish a home for poor
girls of good family placed in such straits as she herself had ex-
perienced. As soon as her fortunes began to mend she started a
small home for poor girls at Ruel, which she afterwards moved to
Noisy, and which was the nucleus of the splendid institution of
St Cyr, which the king endowed in 1686, at her request, out of
the funds of the Abbey of St Denis. She was in her element
there. She herself drew up the rules of the institution; she
examined every minute detail; she befriended her pupils in
every way; and her heart often turned from the weariness of
Versailles or of Marly to her " little girls " at St Cyr. It was for
them that Racine wrote his Esther and his Athalie, and it was
because he managed the affairs of St Cyr well that Michel
Chamillart became controller-general of the finances. The later
years of her power were marked by the promotion of her old
pupils, the children of the king and Mme de Montespan, to high
dignity between the blood royal and the peers of the realm, and
it was doubtless under the influence of her dislike for the duke of
Orleans that the king drew up his will, leaving the personal care
of his successor to the duke of Maine, and hampering the duke of
Orleans by a council of regency. On or even before her husband's
death she retired to St Cyr, and had the chagrin of seeing all her
plans for the advancement of the duke of Maine overthrown by
means of the parliament of Paris. However, the regent Orleans
in no way molested her, but, on the contrary, visited her at St Cyr
and continued her pension of 48,000 livres. She spent her last
years at St Cyr in perfect seclusion, but an object of great interest
to all visitors to France, who, however, with the exception of
Peter the Great, found it impossible to get an audience with her.
On the 1 5th of April 1719 she died, and was buried in the choir at
St Cyr, bequeathing her estate at Maintenon to her niece, the
only daughter of her brother Charles and wife of the marechal de
Noailles, to whose family it still belongs.

L. A. la Beaumelle published the Lettres de Madame de Maintenon,
but much ipirbled, in 2 vols. in 1752, and on a larger scale in 9 vols.
in 1756. He also, in 1755, published Memoires de Madame de Main-
tenon, in 6 vols., which caused him to be imprisoned in the Bastille.
All earlier biographies were superseded by Th6ophile LavalleVs
Histoire de St Cyr, reviewed in Causcries du lundi, vol. viii., and by
his edition of her Lettres historiques et edifiantes, &c., in 7 vols.

444

MAINZ

and of her Corresponda.net generate, in 4 vols. (1888), which latter
must, however, be read with the knowledge of many forged letters,
noticed in P. Grimblot's Faux autographes de Madame de Main-
tenon. Saint-Simon's fine but biased account of the court in her
day and of her career is contained in the twelfth volume of Cheruel
and Regnier's edition of his Memoires. See also Mademoiselle
d'Aumale's Souvenirs sur Madame de Maintenon, published by the
Comte d'Haussonville and G. Hanotaux (Paris, 3 vols., 1902-
1904); an excellent account by A. Geffroy, Madame de Maintenon
dapres sa correspondance authentique (Paris, 2 vols., 1887); P. de
Noailles, Histoire de Madame de Maintenon et des principaux evene-
ments du regne de Louis XIV. (4 vols., 1848-1858); A. de Boislisle,
Paul Scarron et Franc,oise d'Aubigne d'apres des documents nouveaux
(1894) ; £. Pilastre, Vie et caractere de Madame de Maintenon d'apres
les xuvres du due de Saint-Simon et des documents anciens ou recents
(1907); A. Rosset, Madame de Maintenon et la revocation de I'edit
de Nantes (1897). (H. M. S.)

MAINZ (Fr. Mayence) a city, episcopal see and fortress of
Germany, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite
the influx of the Main, at the junction of the important main
lines of railway from Cologne to Mannheim and Frankfort -on-
Main, 25 m. W. of the latter. Pop. (1905), 91,124 (including a
garrison of 7500 men), of whom two-thirds are Roman Catholic.
The Rhine, which here attains the greatest breadth of its upper
course, is crossed by a magnificent bridge of five arches, leading
to the opposite town of Castel and by two railway bridges.
The old fortifications have recently been pushed farther back,
and their place occupied by pleasant boulevards. The river
front has been converted into a fine promenade, commanding
extensive views of the Taunus range of mountains, and the
" Rheingau," the most favoured wine district of Germany.
Alongside the quay are the landing-places of the steamboats
navigating the Rhine. The railway, which formerly incommoded
the bank, has been diverted, and now, following the ceinture of
the new line of inner fortifications, runs into a central station
lying to the south of the city. The interior of the old town
consists chiefly of narrow and irregular streets, with many quaint
and picturesque houses. The principal street of the new town
is the Kaiserstrasse, leading from the railway station to the
river.

The first object of historical and architectural interest in
Mainz is the grand old cathedral, an imposing Romanesque
edifice with numerous Gothic additions and details (for plan, &c.
see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and Gothic in Germany). It
was originally erected between 975 and 1009, but has since been
repeatedly burned down and rebuilt, and in its present form
dates chiefly from the 1 2th, i3th and I4th centuries. Thelargest
of its six towers is 300 ft. high. The whole building was restored
by order of Napoleon in 1814, and another thorough renovation
was made more recently. The interior contains the tombs of
Boniface, the first archbishop of Mainz, of Frauenlob, the Minne-
singer, and of many of the electors. Mainz possesses nine other
Roman Catholic churches, the most noteworthy of which are
those of St Ignatius, with a finely painted ceiling, of St Stephen,
built 1257-1328, and restored after an explosion in 1857, and
of St Peter. The old electoral palace (1627-1678), a large build-
ing of red sandstone, now contains a valuable collection of Roman
and Germanic antiquities, a picture gallery, a natural history
museum, the Gutenberg Museum, and a library of 220,000
volumes. Among the other principal buildings are the palace
of the grand duke of Hesse, built in 1737-1739 as a lodge of the
Teutonic order, the theatre, the arsenal, and the government
buildings. A handsome statue of Gutenberg, by Thorwaldsen,
was erected at Mainz in 1837. Mainz still retains many relics
of the Roman period, the most important of which is the
Eigelstein, a monument believed to have been erected by the
Roman legions in honour of Drusus. It stands within the
citadel, which occupies the site of the Roman castrum. A little
to the south-west of the town are the remains of a large Roman
aqueduct, of which upwards of sixty pillars are still standing.
The educational and scientific institutions of Mainz include an
episcopal seminary, two gymnasia and other schools, a society for
literature and art, a musical society, and an antiquarian society.
The university, founded in 1477, was suppressed by the French
in 1798.

The site of Mainz would seem to mark it out naturally as
great centre of trade, but the illiberal rule of the archbishops and
its military importance seriously hampered its commercial and
industrial development, and prevented it from rivalling its neigh-
bour Frankfort. It is now, however, the chief emporium of the
Rhenish wine traffic, and also carries on an extensive transit trade
in grain, timber, flour, petroleum, paper and vegetables. The
natural facilities for carriage by water are supplemented by the
extensive railway system. Large new harbours to the north of
the city were opened in 1887. The principal manufactures are
leather goods, furniture, carriages, chemicals, musical instru-
ments and carpets, for the first two of which the city has attained
a wide reputation. Other industries include brewing and print-
ing. Mainz is the seat of ths administrative and judicial
authorities of the province of Rhein-Hessen, and also of a Roman
Catholic bishop.

History. — Mainz, one of the oldest cities in Germany, was
originally a Celtic settlement. Its strategic importance was
early recognized by the Romans, and about 13 B.C. Drusus, the
son-in-law of Augustus, erected a fortified camp here, to which
the castellum Matliacorum (the modern Castel) on the opposite
bank was afterwards added, the two being connected with a
bridge at the opening of the Christian era. The Celtic name be-
came latinized as M agiintiacum, or Moguntiacum, and a town
gradually arose around the camp, which became the capital of
Germania Superior. During the Volkerwanderung Mainz suffered
severely, being destroyed on different occasions by the Alamanni,
the Vandals and the Huns. Christianity seems to have been intro-
duced into the town at a very early period, and in the 6th century
a new Mainz was founded by Bishop Sidonius. In the middle
of the 8th century under Boniface it became an archbishopric,
and to this the primacy of Germany was soon annexed. Charle-
magne, who had a palace in the neighbourhood, gave privileges to
Mainz, which rose rapidly in wealth and importance, becoming
a free city in 1118. During the later middle ages it was the seat
of several diets, that of 1184 being of unusual size and splendour.
In 1160 the citizens revolted against Archbishop Arnold, and in
1163 the walls of the city were pulled down by order of the
emperor Frederick I. But these events did not retard its pro-
gress. In 1244 certain rights of self-government were given to
the citizens; and in 1254 Mainz was the centre and mainspring
of a powerful league of Rhenish towns. Owing to its commercial
prosperity it was known as goldene Mainz, and its population
is believed to have been as great as it is at the present day. But
soon a decline set in. In 1462 there was warfare between two
rival archbishops, Diether or Dietrich II. of Isenburg (d. 1463)
and Adolph II. of Nassau (d. 1475). The citizens espoused the
cause of Diether, but their city was captured by Adolph; it was
then deprived of its privileges and was made subject to the arch-
bishop. Many of the inhabitants were driven into exile, and
these carried into other lands a knowledge of the art of printing,
which had been invented at Mainz by Johann Gutenberg in 1450.
During the Thirty Years' War Mainz was occupied by the Swedes
in 1631 and by the French in 1644, the fortifications being
strengthened by the former under Gustavus Adolphus; in 1688 it
was captured again by the French, but they were driven out in
the following year. In 1792 the citizens welcomed the ideas of
the French Revolution; they expelled their archbishop, Friedrich
Karl Joseph d'Erthal, and opened their gates to the French
troops. Taken and retaken several times during the next few
years, Mainz was ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio
in 1797, and again by the Treaty of Luneville in 1801. In 1814
it was restored to Germany and in 1816 it was handed over to
the grand duke of Hesse; it remained, however, a fortress of the
German confederation and was garrisoned by Prussian and
Austrian troops. Since 1871 it has been a fortress of the German
Empire. There were disturbances in the city in 1848.

See Bruhl, Mainz, geschichtlich, topographisch und malerisch
(Mainz, 1829); C. A. Schaab, Geschichte der Stadt Mainz (Mainz,
1841-1845); K. Klein, Mainz und seine Umgebungen (1868);
C. G. Bockenheimer, Beitrage zur Geschichte der Stadt Mainz (1874);
Neeb, Fuhrer durch Mainz und Umgebung (Stuttgart, 1903); and
O. Beck, Mainz und sein Handel (Mainz, 1881).

MAIRET- -MAISTRE, JOSEPH DE

445

The ARCHBISHOPRIC OF MAINZ, one of the seven electorates of
tin Holy Roman Empire, became a powerful state during the
middle ages and retained some of its importance until the dis-
solution of the empire in 1806. Its archbishop was president of
the electoral college, arch-chancellor of the empire and primate of
Germany. Its origin dates back to 747, when the city of Mainz
made the seat of an archbishop, and a succession of able
and ambitious prelates, obtaining lands and privileges from
emperors and others, made of the district under their rule a strong
and vigorous state. Among these men were Hatto I. (d. 913),
iegfried III. of Eppstein (d. 1249), Gerhard of Eppstein
1305), and Albert of Brandenburg (d. 1545), all of whom
,yed important parts in the history of Germany. There were
several violent contests between rivals anxious to secure so
splendid a position as the electorate, and the pretensions of the
archbishops occasionally moved the citizens of Mainz to revolt.
The lands of the electorate lay around Mainz, and were on both
banks of the Rhine; their area at the time of the French Revo-
lution was about 3200 sq. m. The last elector was Karl Theodor
von Dalberg. The archbishopric was secularized in 1803, two
years after the lands on the left bank of the Rhine had been
seized by France. Some of those on the right bank of the river
were given to Prussia and to Hesse; others were formed into a
grand duchy for Dalberg. The archbishopric itself was trans-
ferred to Regensburg.

For the history of the electorate see the Scriptures rerum mogun-
tuiianim, edited by G. C. Joannis (Frankfort, 1722-1727); Schunk,
Beilrdge zur Mainzer Geschichte (Frankfort, 1788-1791); Hennes,
Die Erzbischofe von Mainz (Mainz, 1879); Ph. JarT6, Monumenla
moguntina (Berlin, 1866), and J. F. Bohmer and C. Will, Regesta
archiepiscoporum moguntinensium (Innsbruck, 1877-1886).

MAIRET, JEAN DE (1604-1686), French dramatist, was born
at Besancon, and baptized on the loth of May 1604. His own
statement that he was born in 1610 has been disproved. He
went to Paris to study at the College des Grassins about 1625,
in which year he produced his first piece Chrisiide el Arimand,
followed in 1626 by Sylvie, a " pastoral tragi-comedy." In 1634
appeared his masterpiece, Sophonisbe, which marks, in its obser-
vance of the rules, the beginning of the " regular " tragedies.
Mairet was one of the bitterest assailants of Corneille in the con-
troversy over The Cid. It was perhaps his jealousy of Corneille
that made him give up writing for the stage. He was appointed
in 1648 official representative of the Franche-Comte in Paris,
but in 1653 he was banished by Mazarin. He was subsequently
allowed to return, but in 1668 he retired to Besancon, where he
died on the 3ist of January 1686. His other plays include
•Hire on la Morte-vive, published in 1631 with an elaborate
preface on the observance of the unities, Les Galanleries du
dm d'Orsonne (1632), Virginie (1633), Marc-Antoine (1635),
and Le Grand el dernier Solyman (1637).

See G. Bizos, £tude sur la vie et les ceuvres de Jean de Mairet
(1877). Sophonisbe was edited by K. Vollmoller (Heilbronn, 1888),
and Silvanire by R. Otto (Bamberg, 1890).

MAISTRE, JOSEPH DE (1754-1821), French diplomatist and
polemical writer, was born at Chambery on the ist of April 1754.
His family was an ancient and noble one, enjoying the title of
count, and is said to have been of Languedocian extraction. The
father of Joseph was president of the senate of Savoy, and held
other important offices. Joseph himself, after studying at Turin,
received various appointments in the civil service of Savoy,
finally becoming a member of the senate. In 1786 he married
Francoise dc Morand. The invasion and annexation of Savoy by
the French Republicans made him an exile. He did not take
refuge in that part of the king of Sardinia's domains which was
for the time spared, but betook himself to the as yet neutral
territory of Lausanne. There, in 1796, he published his first
important work (he had previously written certain discourses,
pamphlets, letters, &c.), Considerations sur la France. In this
he developed his views, which were those of a Legitimist, but a
Legitimist entirely from the religious and Roman Catholic point
of view. The philosophism of the i8th century was Joseph de
Maistre's lifelong object of assault.

After the still further losses which, in the year of the publica-
tion of this book, the French Revolution inflicted on Sardinia,
Charles Emmanuel summoned Joseph de Maistre to Turin, and
he remained there for the brief space during which the king
retained a remnant of territory on the mainland. Then he went
to the island of Sardinia, and held office at Cagliari. In 1802 he
was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary
at St Petersburg, and journeyed thither the next year. Although
his post was no sinecure, its duties were naturally less engrossing
than the official life, with intervals of uneasy exile and travelling,
which he had hitherto known, and his literary activity was great.
He only published a single treatise, on the Principe gtnerateur des
Constitutions; but he wrote his best and most famous works, Du
Pape, De L'eglise gatticane and the Soirees de St Pttersbourg, the
last of which was never finished. Du Pape, which the second-
named book completes, is a treatise in regular form, dealing with
the relations of the sovereign pontiff to the Church, to temporal
sovereigns, to civilization generally, and to schismatics, especially
Anglicans and the Greek Church. It is written from the highest
possible standpoint of papal absolutism. The Soirees de St
Pilersbourg, so far as it is anything (for the arrangement is some-
what desultory), is a kind of thiodicie, dealing with the fortunes
of virtue and vice in this world. It contains two of De Maistre's
most famous pieces, his panegyric on the executioner as the
foundation of social order, and his acrimonious, and in part unfair,
but also in part very damaging, attack on Locke. The Du Pape
is dated May 1817; on the Soirees the author was still engaged
at his death. Besides these works he wrote an examination of
the philosophy of Bacon, some letters on the Inquisition (an
institution which, as may be guessed from the remarks just
noticed about the executioner, was no stumbling-block to him),
and, earlier than any of these, a translation of Plutarch's " Essay
on the Delay of Divine Justice," with somewhat copious notes.
After iSishe returned to Savoy, and was appointed to high office,
while his Du Pape made a great sensation. But the world to
which he had returned was not altogether in accordance with his
desires. He had domestic troubles; and chagrin of one sort and
another is said to have had not a little to do with his death by
paralysis on the 26th of February 1821 at Turin. Most of the
works mentioned were not published till after his death, and it
was not till 1851 that a collection of Letlres et opuscules
appeared, while even since that time fresh matter has been
published.

Joseph de Maistre was one of the most powerful, and by far
the ablest, of the leaders of the neo-Catholic and anti-revolution-
ary movement. The most remarkable thing about his stand-
point is that, layman as he was, it was entirely ecclesiastical.
Unlike his contemporary Bonald, Joseph de Maistre regarded
the temporal monarchy as an institution of altogether inferior
importance to the spiritual primacy of the pope. He was by no
means a political absolutist, except in so far as he regarded
obedience as the first of political virtues, and he seldom loses an
opportunity of stipulating for a tempered monarchy. But the
pope's power is not to be tempered at all, either by councils or
by the temporal power or by national churches, least of all by
private judgment. The peculiarity of Joseph de Maistre is that
he supports his conclusions, or if it be preferred his paradoxes,
by the hardest and heaviest argument. Although a great
master of rhetoric, he never makes rhetoric do duty for logic.
Every now and then it is possible to detect fallacies in him, but
for the most part he has succeeded in carrying matters back to
those fundamental differences of opinion which hardly admit of
argument, and on which men take sides in consequence chiefly
of natural bent, and of predilection for one state of things rather
than for another. The absolute necessity of order may be said
to have been the first principle of this thinker, who, in more ways
than one, will invite comparison with Hobbes. He could not
conceive such order without a single visible authority, reference
to which should settle all dispute. He saw that there could be no
such temporal head, and in the pope he thought that he saw a
spiritual substitute. The anarchic tendencies of the Revolution
in politics and religion were what offended him. It ought to be

44-6

MAISTRE, XAVIER DE— MAITLAND, SIR R.

added that he was profoundly and accurately learned in history
and philosophy, and that the superficial blunders of the i8th-
century philosophes irritated him as much as-their doctrines. To
Voltaire in particular he shows no mercy.

Of the two works named as his masterpieces, Du Pape and the
Soirees de St Petersbourg, editions are extremely numerous. No
complete edition of his works appeared till 1884—1887, when one
was published at Lyons in 14 volumes. This had been preceded,
and has been followed, by numerous biographies and discussions:
C. Barthe'lemy, L' Esprit de Joseph de Maistre (1859) ; R. de Sezeyal,
Joseph de Maistre (1865), and J. C. Glaser, Graf Joseph Maistre
(same year); L. I. Moreau, Joseph de Maistre (1879); F. Paulhan,
Joseph de Maistre et sa philosophic (1893); L. Cogordan, " Joseph
de Maistre " in the Grands ecrivains fran$ ais (1894); F. Descostes,
Joseph de Maistre avant la revolution (1896), and other works by
the same writer; J. Mandoul, Un Homme d'etat italien : Joseph de
Maistre et la politique de la maison de Saiioie (1900) ; and E. Grasset,
Joseph de Maistre (1901). (G. SA.)

MAISTRE, XAVIER DE (1763-1852), younger brother of
Joseph de Maistre, was born at Chambery in October 1763. He
served when young in the Piedmontese army, and wrote his
delightful fantasy, Voyage autour de ma chambre (published 1794)
when he was under arrest at Turin in consequence of a duel.
Xavier shared the politics and the loyalty of his brother, and on
the annexation of Savoy to France, he left the service, and took
a commission in the Russian army. He served under Suvarov
in his victorious Austro-Russian campaign and accompanied the
marshal to Russia. He shared the disgrace of his general, and
supported himself for some time in St Petersburg by miniature
painting. But on his brother's arrival in St Petersburg he was
introduced to the minister of marine. He was appointed to
several posts in the capital, but also saw active service, was
wounded in the Caucasus, and attained the rank of major-general.
He married a Russian lady and established himself in his adopted
country, even after the overthrow of Napoleon, and the con-
sequent restoration of the Piedmontese dynasty. For a time,
however, he lived at Naples, but he returned to St Petersburg
and died there on the i2th of June 1852. He was only once in
Paris (in 1839), when Sainte-Beuve, who has left some pleasant
reminiscences of him, met him. Besides the Voyage already
mentioned, Xavier de Maistre's works (all of which are of very
modest dimensions) are Le Lepreux de la cite d'Aoste (1811), a
touching little story of human misfortune; Les ' Prisonniers du
Caucase, a powerful sketch of Russian character, La Jeune
SMrienne, and the Expedition nocturne, a sequel to the Voyage
autour de ma chambre (1825). His style is of remarkable ease
and purity.

His works, with the exception of some brief chemical tractates,
are included in the collections of Charpentier, Gamier, &c. See
Sainte-Beuve's Portraits contemporains, vol. iii.

MAITLAND, EDWARD (1824-1897), English humanitarian
writer, was born at Ipswich on the 27th of October 1824, and
was educated at Caius College, Cambridge. The son of Charles
David Maitland, perpetual curate of St James's Chapel, Brighton,
he was intended for the Church, but his religious views did
not permit him to take holy orders. For some years he lived
abroad, first in California and then as a commissioner of Crown-
lands in Australia. After his return to England in 1857 he
took up an advanced humanitarian position, and claimed to
have acquired a new sense by which he was able to discern
the spiritual condition of other people. He was associated with
Mrs Anna Kingsford (1846-1888), the lady-doctor and supporter
of vegetarianism and anti-vivisectionism, who, besides being
one of the pioneers of higher education for women, had become
a devotee of mystical theosophy; with her he brought out
Keys of the Creeds (1875), The Perfect Way: or the Finding
of Christ (1882), and founded the Hermetic Society in 1884.
After her death he founded the Esoteric Christian Union in
1891, and wrote her Life and Letters (1896). He died on the
2nd of October 1897. •

MAITLAND, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1850-1906), English
jurist and historian, son of John Gorham Maitland, was born
on the 28th of May 1850, and educated at Eton and Trinity,
Cambridge, being bracketed at the head of the moral sciences

tripos of 1872, and winning a Whewell scholarship lor inter-
national law. He was called to the bar (Lincoln's Inn) in
1876, and made himself a thoroughly competent equity lawyer
and conveyancer, but finally devoted himself to comparative
jurisprudence and especially the history of English law. In
1884 he was appointed reader in English law at Cambridge,
and in 1888 became Downing professor of the laws of England.
Though handicapped in his later years by delicate health, his
intellectual grasp and wide knowledge and research gradually
made him famous as a jurist and historian. He edited numerous
volumes for the Selden Society, including Select Pleas for the
Crown, 1200-1225, Select Pleas in Manorial Courts and The
Court Baron; and among his principal works were Gloucester
Pleas (1884), Justice and Police (1885), Bracton's Note-Book
(1887), History of English Law (with Sir F. Pollock, 1895;
new ed. 1898; see also his article ENGLISH LAW in this encyclo-
paedia), Domesday Book and Beyond (1897), Township and
Borough (1898), Canon Law in England (1898), English Law
and the Renaissance (1901), the Life of Leslie Stephen (1906),
besides important contributions to the Cambridge Modern
History, the English Historical Review, the Law Quarterly
Review, Harvard Law Review and other publications. His
writings are marked by vigour and vitality of style, as well
as by the highest qualities of the historian who recreates the
past from the original sources; he had no sympathy with either
legal or historical pedantry; and his death at Grand Canary
on the igth of December 1906 deprived English law and
letters of one of their most" scholarly and most inspiring repre-
sentatives, notable alike for sweetness of character, acuteness
in criticism, and wisdom in counsel.

See P. Vinogradoff's article on Maitland in the English Historical
Review (1907); Sir F. Pollock's in the Quarterly Review (1907);
G. T. Lapsley's in The Green Bag (Boston, Mass., 1907) ; A. L. Smith,
F. W. Maitland (1908); H. A. L. Fisher, F. W. Maitland (1910).

MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD (LORD LETHINGTON) (1496-
1586), Scottish lawyer, poet, and collector of Scottish verse,
was born in 1496. His father, Sir William Maitland of
Lethington and Thirlestane, fell at Flodden; his mother was
a daughter of George, Lord Seton. He studied law at the
university of St Andrews, and afterwards in Paris. His castle
at Lethington was burnt by the English in 1549. He was
in 1552 one of the commissioners to settle matters with the
English about the debateable lands. About 1561 he seems to
have lost his sight, but this did not render him incapable of
attending to public business, as he was the same year admitted
an ordinary lord of session with the title of Lord Lethington,
and a member of the privy council; and in 1562 he was appointed
keeper of the Great Seal. He resigned this last office in 1567,
in favour of John, prior of Coldingham, his second son, but
he sat on the bench till he attained his eighty-eighth year.
He died on the 2oth of March 1586. His eldest son, by his
wife Mary Cranstoun of Crosbie, was William Maitland (?.».) :
his second son, John (c. 1545-1595), was a lord of session,
and was made a lord of parliament in 1590, with the title of
Lord Maitland of Thirlestane, in which he was succeeded by
his son John, also for some time a lord of session, who was
created earl of Lauderdale in 1624. One of Sir Richard's
daughters, Margaret, assisted her father in preparing his
collection of old Scots verse.

The poems of Sir Richard Maitland, none of them lengthy,
are for the most part satirical, and are principally directed
against the social and political abuses of his time. He is chiefly
remembered as the industrial collector and preserver of many
pieces of Scots poetry. These were copied into two large
volumes, one in folio and another in quarto, the former written
by himself, and the latter by his daughter. After being in
the possession of his descendant the duke of Lauderdale, these
volumes were purchased at the sale of the duke's library by
Samuel Pepys, and have since been preserved in the Pepysian
Library, Magdalene College, Cambridge. They lay there un-
noticed for many years till Bishop Percy published one of
the poems in his Reliques of English Poetry. Several of the

MAITLAND, W.— MAIWAND

447

pieces were then transcribed by John Pinkerton, who after-
wards published them under the title of Ancient Scottish Poems

•Is., 1786.)

I'.ir .111 account of the Maitland Folio MS. see Gregory Smith's

•iHi-iis of Middle Scots, 1902 (p. Ixxiii.). The Scottish Text

•iy lias undertaken an edition of the entire manuscript.

hind's own poems were reprinted, by Sibbald in his Chronicle

nttish Poetry (1802), and in 1830 by the Maitland Club, named

him, and founded for the purpose of continuing his efforts to

ivf the remains of early Scots literature. Sir Richard left in

inamiM-ript a history of the family of Seton, and a volume of legal

ions collected by him between the years 1550 and 1565. Both

M served in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; the former was

published by the Maitland Club, in 1829.

MAITLAND (MAITLAND OF LETHINGTON), WILLIAM (c.
1528-1573), Scottish statesman, eldest son of the preceding,
educated at St Andrews. At an early age he entered
public life and began in various ways to serve the regent, Mary
of Lorraine, becoming her secretary of state in 1558. In 1559,
however, he deserted her and threw in his lot with the lords
he congregation, to whom his knowledge of foreign, and
' ially of English, politics and his general ability were
' s of the highest value. The lords sent him to England
-k for assistance from Elizabeth, and his constant aim
throughout his political career was to bring about a union
between the two crowns. He appears to have feared the
return of Mary Queen of Scots to Scotland, but after her
arrival in 1561 he was appointed secretary of state, and for
about six years he directed the policy of Scotland and enjoyed
the confidence of the queen. His principal antagonist was
John Knox; there were several tussles between them, the
most famous, perhaps, being the one in the general assembly
of 1564, and on the whole Maitland held his own against the
preachers. He was doubtless concerned in the conspiracy
against David Rizzio, and after the favourite's murder he
obliged to leave the court and was himself in danger of
•sination. In 1567, however, he was again at Mary's side,
lie was a consenting party to the murder of Darnley, although
he had favoured his marriage with Mary, but the enmity
between Bothwell and himself was one of the reasons which
drove him into the arms of the queen's enemies, among whom
he figured at Langside. He was one of the Scots who met
Elizabeth's representatives at York in 1568; here he showed
a desire to exculpate Mary and to marry her to the duke of
Norfolk, a course of action probably dictated by a desire to
avoid all revelations about the Darnley murder. But this
did not prevent him from being arrested in September 1569
on account of his share in the crime. He was, however, delivered
from his captors by a ruse on the part of his friend, Sir William
Kirkcaldy of Grange, and was brought into Edinburgh Castle,
while his trial was put off because the city was thronged with
his adherents. Maitland now became the leader of the remnant
which stood by the cause of the imprisoned queen. Already
a physical wreck, he was borne into Edinburgh Castle in April
1571 and with Kirkcaldy he held this fortress against the
regent Morton and his English auxiliaries. The castle sur-
rendered in May 1573 and on the 7th or the 9th of June follow-
ing Maitland died at Leith, there being very little evidence for
the theory that he poisoned himself. " Secretary Maitland "
was a man of great learning with a ready wit and a caustic
tongue. He was reputed to be the most versatile and accom-
plished statesman of his age, and almost alone among his
Scottish contemporaries he placed his country above the claims
of either the Roman Catholic or the Protestant religions.
Among the testimonies to his great abilities are those of Queen
Elizabeth, of William Cecil and of Knox. By his second wife,
Mary Fleming, one of Queen Mary's ladies, whom he married
in 1567, he had a son and daughter. His son James died
without issue about 1620.

See John Skelton, Maitland of Lethington (1894); A. Lang, History
of Scotland, vol. ii. (1902).

MAITLAND, EAST and WEST, adjoining municipalities
in Northumberland county, New South Wales, Australia,
120 m. by rail N. of Sydney. Pop. (1001), West Maitland,

6798; East Maitland, 3287. These towns are situated in a
valley on the Hunter River, which is liable to sudden floods,
to guard against which the river is protected by stone embank-
ments at West Maitland, while there are flood-gates at East
Maitland. Maitland is the centre of the rich agricultural
district of the Hunter valley, which produces maize, wheat
and other cereals, lucerne, tobacco, fruit and wine; excellent
coal also is worked in the vicinity. East Maitland is the see
of a Roman Catholic bishop, whose cathedral (St John's),
however, is situated in the larger town. Besides this, West
Maitland contains several handsome public and commercial
buildings.

MAITREYA, the name of the future Buddha. In one of
the works included in the Pali canon, the Digha Nikaya, a
prophecy is put into the Buddha's mouth that after the decay
of the religion another Buddha, named Metteyya, will arise
who will have thousands of followers instead of the hundreds
that the historical Buddha had. This is the only mention
of the future Buddha in the canon. For some centuries we
hear nothing more about him. But when, in the period just
before and after the Christian era, some Buddhists began to
write in Sanskrit instead of Pali, they composed new works
in which Maitreya (the Sanskrit form of Metteyya) is more
often mentioned, and details are given as to his birthplace
and history. These are entirely devised in imitation of the
details of the life of the historical Buddha, and have no inde-
pendent value. Only the names differ. The document in
which the original prophecy occurs was put together at some
date during the ist century after the Buddha's death (see
NIKAYA). It is impossible to say whether tradition was, at
that time, correct in attributing it to the Buddha. But whoever
chose the name (it is a patronymic or family, not a personal
name), had no doubt regard to the etymological connexion
with the word for " love," which is Metta in Pali. This would
only be one of those punning allusions so frequent in Indian
literature.

Long afterwards, probably in the 6th or 7th century, a
reformer in south India, at a time when the incoming flood
of ritualism and superstition threatened to overwhelm the
simple teaching of the earlier Buddhism, wrote a Pali poem,
entitled the Anagata, Varnsa. In this he described the golden
age of the future when, in the time of Metteyya, kings, ministers
and people would vie one with the other in the maintenance
of the original simple doctrine, and in the restoration of the
good times of old. The other side also claimed the authority
of the future Buddha for their innovations. Statues of Maitreya
are found in Buddhist temples, of all sects, at the present
day; and the belief in his future advent is universal among
Buddhists.

AUTHORITIES.— Digha Nikaya, vol. iii., edited by J. E. Carpenter,
(London, 1908) ; " Anagata Varpsa," edited by J. Minayeff in Journal
of the Pali Text Society (1886); Walters on Yuan Chwang, edited by
Rhys Davids and S. W. Bushell (London, 1904-1905).

(T. W. R. D.)

MAIWAND, a village of Afghanistan, 50 m. N.W. of Kanda-
har. It is chiefly notable for the defeat inflicted on a British
brigade under General Burrows by Ayub Khan on the 27th of
July 1880 during the second Afghan War (see AFGHANISTAN).
Ayub Khan, Shere AJi's younger son, who had been holding
Herat during the British operations at Kabul and Kandahar,
set out towards Kandahar with a small army in June 1880, and
a brigade under General Burrows was detached from Kandahar
to oppose him. Burrows advanced to the Helmund, opposite
Girishk, to oppose Ayub Khan, but was there deserted by the
troops of Shere AJi, the wali of Kandahar, and forced to retreat
to Kushk-i-Nakhud, half way to Kandahar. In order to
prevent Ayub passing to Ghazni, Burrows advanced to Maiwand
in the 27th of July, and attacked Ayub, who had already
seized that place. The Afghans, who numbered 25,000, out-
flanked the British, the artillery expended their ammunition,
and the native portion of the Brigade got out of hand and
pressed back on the few British infantry. The British were

MAIZE

completely routed, and had to thank the apathy of the Afghans
for escaping total annihilation. Of the 2476 British troops
engaged, 934 were killed and 175 wounded or missing. This
defeat necessitated Sir Frederick Roberts' famous march from
Kabul to Kandahar.

See Lord Roberts, Forty-one Years in India (1896).
MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN, Zea Mays (from fea or fad,
which appears to have been " spelt," Triticum spelta, accord-
ing to the description of Theophrastus), a plant of the tribe
Maydeae of the order Gramineae or grasses (see fig. i). It is

unknown in the native state,
but is most probably indi-
genous to tropical America.
Small grains of an unknown
variety have been found in
the ancient tombs of Peru,
and Darwin found heads of
maize embedded on the shore
in Peru at 85 ft. above the
present sea-level. Bonafous,
however (Histoire naturdle
du ma'is), quotes authorities
(Bock, 1532, Ruel and Fuchs)
as believing that it came
from Asia, and maize was said
by Santa Rosa de Viterbo to
have been brought by the
Arabs into Spain in the I3th
century. A drawing of maize
is also given by Bonafous from
a Chinese work on natural
history, Li-chi-tchin, dated
1562, a little over sixty years
after the discovery of the New
World. It is not figured on
Egyptian monuments, nor was
any mention made of it by
Eastern travellers in Africa or
Asia prior to the ,16th cen-
been cut and drawn aside, revealing tury. Humboldt, Alphonse de
the spike of fruit which bears the Candolle and others, however,
long silky styles. One-third nat. do not hesitate to say that it

originated solely in America,

where it had been long and extensively cultivated at the period
of the discovery of the New World; and that is the generally
accepted modern view. Some hold the view that maize
originated from a common Mexican fodder grass, Euchlaena
mexicana, known as Teosinte, a closely allied plant which when
crossed with maize yields a maize-like hybrid.

The plant is monoecious, producing the staminate (male)
flowers in a large feathery panicle at the summit, and the
(female) dense spikes of flowers, or " cobs," in the axils of
•the leaves below, the long pink styles hanging out like a silken
tassel. They are invested by the sheaths of leaves, much
used in packing oranges in south Europe, and the more delicate
ones for cigarettes in South America. Fig. 2 shows a branch
of the terminal male inflorescence. Fig. 3 is a single spikelet
of the same, containing two florets, with the three stamens of
one only protruded. Fig. 4 is a spike of the female inflores-
cence, protected by the sheaths of leaves — the blades being
also present. Usually the sheaths terminate in a point, the
blades being arrested. Fig. 5 is a spikelet of the female inflores-
cence, consisting of two outer glumes, the lower one ciliated,
which enclose two florets — one (a) barren (sometimes fertile),
consisting of a flowering glume and pale only, and the other (b)
fertile, containing the pistil with elongated style. The mass
of styles from the whole spike is pendulous from the summit
of the sheaths, as in fig. 4. Fig. 6 shows the fruit or grain.
More than three hundred varieties are known, which differ
more among themselves than those of any other cereal. Some
come to maturity in two months, others require seven months;
some are as many feet high as others are inches; some have

FIG. i.

kernels eleven times larger than others. They vary similarly
in shape and size of ears, colour of the grain, which may be
white, yellow, purple, striped, &c., and also in physical char-
acters and chemical composition. Dr E. Lewis Sturtevant,
who has made an extended study of the forms and varieties
classes into seven groups those grown primarily for the grain^

FIG. 2. — Spike of Male Flowers.

FIG. 3. — Male Spikelet.

the distinguishing characters of which are based on the grains
or kernels; there are, in addition, forms of horticultural interest
grown for ornament. Pod corn (var. tunicata) is characterized
by having each kernel enclosed in a husk. Pop corn (var.
everta) has a very large proportion of the " endosperm " — the
nutritious matter which with the small embryo makes up the
grain — of a horny consistency, which causes the grain to pop
when heated, that is to say, the kernel becomes turned inside
out by the explosion of the contained moisture. It is also
characterized by the small size of the grain and ear. Flint

FIG. 4. — Female Spike.

corn (var. indurata) has a starchy endosperm enclosed in a
horny layer of varying thickness in the different varieties.
The colour of the grain is white, yellow, red, blue or variegated.
It is commonly cultivated in Canada and northern United States,
where the seasons are too short for Dent corn, and has been
grown as far north as 50° N. lat. Dent or field corn (var.
indentata) has the starchy endosperm extending to the summit
of the grain, with horny endosperm at the sides. The top of
the grain becomes indented, owing to the drying and shrinkage
of the starchy matter; the character of the indented surface
varies with the height and thickness of the horny endosperm.
This is the form commonly grown in the United States; the
varieties differ widely in the size of the plants and the appear-
ance of the ear.

MAJESTY- -M AJLATH

449

The colour of the grain varies greatly, being generally white,
yellow, mottled red, or less commonly red. Soft corn (var.
amylacea) has no horny endosperm, and hence the grains shrink
uniformly. It is cultivated only to a limited extent in the
United States, but seems to have been commonly grown by
the Indians in many localities in North and South America.
t corn (var. saccharata) is characterized by the translucent
horny appearance of the grains and
their more or less wrinkled condition.
It is pre-eminently a garden veget-
able, the ear being used before the
grain hardens, when it is well filled
but soft and milky. It is often cooked
and served in the cob; when canned
it is cut from the cob. Canned sweet
corn is an important article of do-
mestic commerce in Canada and the
Female Spikelet. Unltej States In starchy sweet corn

(var. amylea-saccharata) the grain has the external appearance of
sweet corn, but examination shows the lower half to be starchy,
the upper horny and translucent. A form of flint corn, with
variegated leaves, is grown for ornament under the name Zea
japonica or Japanese striped corn.

Chemical analysis, like common experience, shows that
Indian corn is a very nutritious article of food, being richer
in albuminoids than any other cereals when ripe (calculated
in the dry weight). It can be grown in the tropics from the
level of the sea to a height equal to that of the Pyrenees and
in the south and middle of Europe, but it cannot be grown
in England with any chance of profit, except perhaps as fodder.
Frost kills the plant in all its stages and all its varieties; and
the crop does not flourish well if the nights are cool, no matter
how favourable the other conditions.
Consequently it is the first Crop to
disappear as one ascends into the moun-
tain regions, and comparatively little
is grown west of the great plains of
North America. In Brittany, where it

scarcely ripens the grain, it furnishes a strong crop in the autumn
upon sandy soil where clover and lucerne will yield but a poor
produce. It prefers a deep, rich, warm, dry and mellow soil,
and hence the rich bottoms and fertile prairies of the Mississippi
basin constitute the region of its greatest production. It is
extensively grown throughout India, both for the ripe grain
and for use of the unripe cob as a green vegetable. It is the
most common crop throughout South Africa, where it is known
as mealies, being the staple food of the natives. It is also
largely used for fodder and is an important article of export.

As an article of food maize is one of the most extensively
used grains in the world. Although rich in nitrogenous matter
and fat, it does not make good bread. A mixture of rye and
corn meal, however, makes an excellent coarse bread, formerly
much used in the Atlantic states, and a similar bread is now
the chief coarse bread of Portugal and some parts of Spain.
It is either baked into cakes, called tortilla by the Indians of
Yucatan, or made into a kind of porridge, as in Ireland. When
deprived of the gluten it constitutes oswego, maizena or corn
flour. Maize contains more oil than any other cereal, ranging
from 3-5 to 9-5% in the commercial grain. This is one of
the factors in its value for fattening purposes. In distilling
and some other processes this oil is separated and forms an
article of commerce. When maize is sown broadcast or closely
planted in drills the ears may not develop at all, but the stalk
is richer in sugar and sweeter; and this is the basis of growing
" corn-fodder." The amount of forage that may be produced
in this way is enormous; 50,000 to 80,000 Ib of green fodder are
grown per acre, which makes 8000 to 12,000 Jb as field-cured.
Sugar and molasses have from time to time been manufactured
from the corn stalks.

See articles on corn and Zea Mays in L. H. Bailey's Cyclopaedia
of American Horticulture (1900-1902); and for cultivation in India,
Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, vi. (1893).
xvii. 15

FIG. 6. — Grain.

MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majeslas, grandeur, greatness,
from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.),
dignity, greatness, a term especially used to express the dignity
and power of a sovereign. This application is to be traced
to the use of majestas in Latin to express the supreme sovereign
dignity of the Roman state, the majestas reipublicae or populi
Romani, hence majestatem laedere or minuere, was to commit
high treason, crimen majestatis. (For the modem law and
usage of laesa majestas, lese majeste, Majestatsbeleidigung,
see TREASON.) From the republic majestas was transferred
to the emperors, and the majeslas populi Romani became the
majestas imperil, and augustalis majestas is used as a term
to express the sovereign person of the emperor. Honorius
and Theodosius speak of themselves in the first person as
nostra majestas. The term " majesty " was strictly confined
in the middle ages to the successors of the Roma,n emperors
in the West, and at the treaty of Cambrai (1529) it is reserved
for the emperor Charles V. Later the word is used of kings
also, and the distinction is made between imperial majesty
(caesareana majeslas) and kingly or royal majesty. From
the i6th century dates the application of " Most Christian
and Catholic Majesty " to the kings of France, of " Catholic
Majesty " to the kings of Spain, of " Most Faithful Majesty "
to the kings of Portugal, and " Apostolic Majesty " to the
kings of Hungary. In England the use is generally assigned
to the reign of Henry VIII., but it is found, though not in
general usage, earlier; thus the New English Dictionary quotes
from an Address of the Kings Clerks to Henry II. in 1171
(Materials for the History of Archbishop Becket, vii. 471, Rolls
Series, 1885), where the king is styled vestra majestas, and
Selden (Titles of Honour, part i. ch. 7, p. 98, ed. 1672) finds
many early uses in letters to Edward I., in charters of creation
of peers, _&c. The fullest form in English usage is " His Most
Gracious'.Majesty "; another form is " The King's Most Excellent
Majesty," as in the English Prayer-book. " His Sacred
Majesty " was common in the I7th century; and of this form
Selden says: " It is true, I think, that in our memory or the
memory of our fathers, the use of it first began in England."
" His Majesty," abbreviated H.M., is now the universal Euro-
pean use in speaking of any reigning king, and " His Imperial
Majesty," H.I.M., of any reigning emperor.

From the particular and very early use of " majesty " for
the glory and splendour of God, the term has been used in
ecclesiastical art of the representation of God the Father
enthroned in glory, sometimes with the other persons of the
Trinity, and of the Saviour alone, enthroned with an aureole.

MAJLAlH, JANOS, or JOHN, COUNT (1786-1855), Hungarian
historian and poet, was born at Pest on the sth of October 1786.
First educated at home, he subsequently studied philosophy at
Eger (Erlau) and law at Gyor (Raab), his- father, Count Joseph
Majlith, an Austrian minister of state, eventually obtaining for
him an appointment in the public service. Majlith devoted
himself to historical research and the translation into German
of Magyar folk-tales, and of selections from the works of the best
of his country's native poets. Moreover, as an original lyrical
writer, and as an editor and adapter of old German poems,
Majlith showed considerable talent. During the greater part
of his life he resided either at Pest or Vienna, but a few years
before his death he removed to Munich, where he fell into a
state of destitution and extreme despondency. Seized at last
by a terrible infatuation, he and his daughter Henriette, who had
long been his constant companion and amanuensis, drowned
themselves in the Lake of Starnberg, a few miles south-west of
Munich, on the 3rd of January 1855.

Of his historical works the most important are the Geschichte der
Magyaren (Vienna, 1828-1831, 5 vols. ; 2nd ed., Ratisbon, 1852-1853)
and his Geschichte des osterreichischen Kaiserstaats (Hamburg, 1834-
'850, 5 vols.). Specially noteworthy among his metrical translations
from the Hungarian are the Magyarische Gedichte (Stuttgart and
Tubingen, 1825); and Himfy's auserlesene Liebeslieder (Pest, 1829;
2nd ed., 1831). A valuable contribution to folk-lore appeared in
the Magyarische Sagen, Mdrchen und Erzahlungen (Brunn, 1825;
2nd ed., Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1837, 2 vols.).

45°

MAJOLICA, a name properly applied to a species of Italian
ware in which the body is coated with a tin-enamel, on which
is laid and fired a painted decoration. It is also applied to
similar wares made in imitation of the Italian ware in other
countries. The word in Italian is maiolica. Du Cange (Gloss,
s.ii. "Majorica") quotes from a chronicle of Verona of 1368,
in which the form majolica occurs for the more usual Latin form
majorica. It has usually been supposed that this type of pottery
was first made in the island of Majorca, but it is more probable
that the name was given by the Italians to the lustred Spanish
ware imported by ships hailing from the Balearic Islands. (See
CERAMICS: Medieval and Later Italian.)

MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550), Scottish theological
and historical writer, was born at the village of Gleghornie,
near North Berwick, Scotland, in the year 1470. He was edu-
cated at the school of Haddington, where John Knox was later
a pupil. After a short period spent at Cambridge (at God's
House, afterwards Christ's College) he entered the university of
Paris in 1493, studying successively at the colleges of St Barbe,
Montaigu and Navarre, and graduating as master of arts in 1496.
Promoted to the doctorate in 1505, he lectured on philosophy
at Montaigu College and on theology at Navarre. He visited
Scotland in 1515 and returned in 1518, when he was appointed
principal regent in the university of Glasgow, John Knox being
among the number of those who attended his lectures there.
In 1522 he removed to St Andrew's University, where in 1525
George Buchanan was one of his pupils. He returned to the
college of Montaigu in 1525, but was once more at St Andrew's
in 1531, where he was head of St Salvator's College from 1534
until his death.

Major's voluminous writings may be grouped under (a) logic
and philosophy, (b) Scripture commentary, and (c) history. All
are in Latin, all appeared between 1503 and 1530, and all were
printed at Paris. The first group includes his Exponabilia
(1503), his commentary on Petrus Hispanus (1505-1506), his
Inclilarum artium libri (1506, &c.), his commentary on Joannes
Dorp (1504, &c.), his Insolubilia (1516, &c.), his introduction
to Aristotle's logic (1521, &c.), his commentary on the ethics
(1530), and, chief of all, his commentary on Peter Lombard's
Sentences (1509, &c.); the second consists of a commentary on
Matthew (1518) and another on the Four Gospels (1529); the
last is represented by his famous Historia Majoris Britanniae tarn
Angliae quant Scotiae per J. M. (1521). In political philosophy
he maintained the Scotist position, that civil authority was
derived from the popular will, but in theology he was a scholastic
conservative, though he never failed to show his approbation
of Gallicanism and its plea for the reform of ecclesiastical
abuses. He has left on record that it was his aim and hope to
reconcile realism and nominalism in the interests of theological
peace. He had a world-wide reputation as a teacher and writer.
Buchanan's severe epigram, perhaps the only unfriendly words
in the flood of contemporary praise, may be explained as a
protest against the compromise which Major appeared to offer
rather than as a personal attack on his teacher. Major takes
a more independent attitude in his History, which is a remark-
able example of historical accuracy and insight. He claims
that the historian's chief duty is to write truthfully, and he
is careful to show that a theologian may fulfil this condition.

The History, on which his fame now rests, was reprinted by Free-
bairn (Edinburgh, 1740), and was translated in 1892 by Archibald
Constable for the Scottish History Society. The latter volume
contains a full account of the author by Aeneas J. G. Mackay and a
bibliography by Thomas Graves Law.

MAJOR (Lat. for " greater "), a word used, both as a sub-
stantive and adjective, for that which is greater than another in
size, quality, degree, importance, &c., often opposed correlatively
to that to which " minor " is applied in the same connotation.
In the categorical syllogism in logic, the major term is the term
which forms the predicate of the conclusion, the major premise
is that which contains the major term. (For the distinction
between major and minor intervals, and other applications in
music, see Music and HARMONY.)

MAJOLICA— MAJORCA

The use of Major as part of an official title in Med. Lat.
has given the Span, mayor, Fr. maire, and Eng. " mayor "
(q.v.). In English the unadapted form "major" is the title of
a military officer now ranking between a captain and a lieutenant-
colonel. Originally the word was used adjectivally in the title
" sergeant-major," an officer of high rank (third in command of
an army) who performed the same duties of administration, drill
and encampments on the staff of the chief commander as the
sergeant in a company performs as assistant to the captain. This
was in the latter half of the i6th century, and very soon after-
wards the " sergeant-major " became known as the " sergeant-
major-general " — hence the modern title of major-general. By
the time of the English Civil War " majors " had been introduced
in each regiment of foot, who corresponded in a lesser sphere
to the " major-general " of the whole army. The major's
sphere of duties, precedence and title have since varied but little,
though he has, in the British service, taken the place of the
lieutenant-colonel as second in command — the latter officer
exercising the command of the cavalry regiment, infantry
battalion or artillery brigade, and the colonel being, save for
certain administrative functions, little more than the titular
chief of his regiment. Junior majors command companies of
infantry; squadrons of cavalry and batteries of artillery are also
commanded by majors. In most European armies, however,
and of late years in the army of the United States also, the
major has become a battalion commander under the orders of a
regimental commander (colonel or lieutenant-colonel) . The word
appears also in the British service in " brigade-major " (the
adjutant or staff officer of a brigade). "Town-majors"
(garrison staff officers) are now no longer appointed. In the
French service up to 1871 the " major-general " was the chief
of the general staff of a field army, and thus preserved the
tradition of the former " sergeant-major " or " sergeant-major-
general."

MAJORCA (Mallorca), the largest of the group of Spanish
islands in the Mediterranean Sea known as the Balearic Islands
(q.v.). Pop. (1900), 248,191; area, 430 sq. m. Majorca has the
shape of a trapezoid, with the angles directed to the cardinal
points; and its diagonal, from Cape Grozer in the west to Cape
Pera in the east, is about 60 m. On the north-west the coast
is precipitous, but on the other sides it is low and sloping. On
the north-east there are several considerable bays, of which
the chief are those of Alcudia and Pollensa; while on the south-
west is the still more important bay of Palma. No fewer than
twelve ports or harbours are enumerated round the island,
of which may be mentioned Andraitx and Seller. In the north-
west Majorca is traversed by a chain of mountains running
parallel with the coast, and attaining its highest elevation in
Silla de Torrellas (5154 ft.). Towards the south and east the
surface is comparatively level, though broken by isolated peaks
of considerable height. The northern mountains afford great
protection to the tfst of the island from the violent gales to which
it would otherwise be exposed, and render the climate remarkably
mild and pleasant. The scenery of Majorca has all the pictur-
esqueness of outline that usually belongs to a limestone formation.
Some of the valleys, such as those of Valdemosa and Seller,
with their luxuriant vegetation, are delightful resorts. There
are quarries of marble of various grains and colours — those near
Santafiy, in the district of Manacor, being especially celebrated;
while lead, iron and cinnabar have also been obtained. Coal of a
jet-like character is found at Benisalem, where it was first worked
in 1836; at Selva, where it has been mined since 1851; near
Santa Maria and elsewhere. It is used in the industrial estab-
lishments of Palma, and in the manufacture of lime, plaster and
bricks near the mines. A considerable quantity is also exported
to Barcelona.

The inhabitants are principally devoted to agriculture, and
most of the arable land is cultivated. The mountains are ter-
raced; and the old pine woods have in many places given way
to the olive, the vine and the almond tree, to fields of wheat and
flax, or to orchards of figs and oranges. For the last-mentioned
fruits the valley of S611er is one of the most important districts,

MAJORIAN— MAKART

the produce being largely transmitted to France. The yield
of oil is very considerable, and Inca is the centre of the oil dis-
•ii t. The wines are light but excellent, especially the Muscadel
ind Montona. During the summer there is often great scarcity
at water; but, according to a system handed down by the Moors,
the niins of autumn and winter are collected in enormous
reservoirs, which contain sufficient water to last through the
dry season; and on the payment of a certain rate, each land-
holder has his fields flooded at certain intervals. Mules are used

i the agriculture and traffic of the island. The cattle are small,
but the sheep are large and well fleeced. Pigs are reared for
export to Barcelona, and there is abundance of poultry and small
game. Brandy is made and exported in large quantities.
Excellent woollen and linen cloths are woven; the silk-
worm is reared and its produce manufactured; and canvas,
rope and cord are largely made, from both native and foreign
materials.

The roads are excellent, the four principal being those from
Alcudia, Manacor, Seller and Andraitx to the capital. Forty-
eight miles of railway were open at the beginning of the 2oth
century. The main line runs from Palma to Manacor and
Alcudia. The telegraphic system is fairly complete, and there
is regular steam communication with Barcelona and Alicante.
The principal towns include — besides Palma (63,937), Felanitx
(11,294) and Manacor (12,408), which are described in separate
articles— Andraitx (6516), Inca (7579), Llummayor (8859),
Pollensa (8308), Santany (6692) and Seller (8026).

MAJORIAN (JULIUS VALERIUS MAJORIANUS), emperor of the
West from 457 to 461. He had distinguished himself as a
general by victories over the Franks and Alemanni, and six
months after the deposition of Avitus he was declared emperor
by the regent Ricimer. After repelling an attack by the Vandals
upon Campania (458) he prepared a large force, composed chiefly
of barbarians, to invade Africa, which he previously visited in
disguise. Having during his stay in Gaul defeated and concluded
an alliance with Theodoric the Visigoth, at the beginning of 460
he crossed the Pyrenees for the purpose of joining the powerful
fleet which he had collected at Carthagena. The Vandal king
Genseric, however, after all overtures of peace had been rejected,
succeeded through the treachery of certain officers in surprising
the Roman fleet, most of the ships being either taken or de-
stroyed. Majorian thereupon made peace with Genseric. But
his ill-success had destroyed his military reputation; his efforts
to put down abuses and improve the condition of the people had
roused the hatred of the officials; and Ricimer, jealous of his
fame and influence, stirred up the foreign troops against him. A
mutiny broke out in Lombardy, and on the 2nd of August 461
Majorian was forced to resign. He died five days afterwards,
either of dysentery or by violence. Majorian was the author of
a number of remarkable laws, contained in the Theodosian
Code. He remitted all arrears of taxes, the collection of which
was for the future placed in the hands of the local officials. He
revived the institution of defensores, defenders of cities, whose
duty it was to protect the poor and inform the emperor of abuses
committed in his name. The practice of pulling down the ancient
monuments to be used as building material, which was connived
at by venal officials, was strictly prohibited. He also passed
laws against compulsory ordination and premature vows of
celibacy.

See Sidonius Apollinaris, Panegyric of Majorian ; Gibbon, Decline
and Fall, ch. xxxvi. (where an outline of the " novels " of Majorian
is given) ; J. B. Bury, Later Roman Empire, bk. iii.

MAJORITY (Fr. majoriU; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major,
greater), a term signifying the greater number. In leeislative
and deliberative assemblies it is usual to decide questions by a
majority of those present at a meeting and voting. In law,
majority is the state of being of full age, which in the United
Kingdom is twenty-one years of age. A person attains his
majority at twelve o'clock at night of the day preceding his
twenty-first birthday (see INFANT; AGE).

MAJUBA (properly AMAJUBA, Zulu for "the hill of doves"),
a mountain in northern Natal, part of the Drakensberg range,

| rising about 7000 ft. above the sea and over 2000 ft. above the
level of the surrounding country. It overlooks the pass through
the Drakensberg known as Laing's Nek, is 8 m. S. of the Trans-
vaal border and 18 m. N. of the town of Newcastle. The railway
from Durban to Johannesburg skirts the base of the mountain.
During the Boer War of 1 880-81 Majuba was occupied on the
night of the 26th of February 1881 by some 600 British troops
under Sir George Pomeroy Colley. On the following morning
the hill was stormed by the Boers under Piet Joubert and the
British routed, Colley being among the slain.

MAKALAKA, a general designation used by the Bechuana,
Matabele and kindred peoples, for conquered or slave tribes.
Thus many of the tribes subjugated by the Makololo chief,
Sebituane, about 1830 were called Makalaka (see David Living-
stone's Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa,
London, 1857). By early writers on south-central Africa certain
of the inhabitants of Barotseland were styled Makalaka; the
name is more frequently used to designate the Makalanga, one
of the tribes now classed as Mashonas (q.v.), who were brought
into subjection by the Matabele.

MAKARAKA, or IDDIO (" Cannibals "), a negroid people of
Central Africa, closely related to the powerful Azandeh or Niam-
Niam race, occupying the Bahr-el-Ghazal west of Lado. They
came originally from the country of the Kibas, north of the
Welle. Dr W. Junker described them as among the most trust-
worthy, industrious and intelligent people of the Bahr-el-Ghazal.
They are a reddish-black, with nose less flat and cheek-bones
less prominent than the ordinary negroes, and, unlike the latter,
do not extract the incisors. Their long silky hair is built up in
the most fantastic form by means of vegetable substances. They
are well-known for strength and staying power.

See W. Junker, Travels in Africa (1890-1892).

MAKART, HANS (1840-1884), Austrian painter, born at
Salzburg, was the son of an inspector of the imperial castle.
He has been aptly called the first German painter of the ipth
century. When he, as a youth, entered the Vienna Academy
German art was under the rule of Cornelius's cold classicism.
It was entirely intellectual and academic. Clear and precise
drawing, sculpturesque modelling, and pictorial erudition were
the qualities most esteemed; and it is not surprising that Makart,
poor draughtsman to the very last, with a passionate and sensual
love of colour, and ever impatient to escape the routine of art-
school drawing, was found to be "devoid of all talent" and
forced to leave the Vienna Academy. He went to Munich, and
after two years of independent study attracted the attention of
Piloty, under whose guidance he made rapid and astonishing
progress. The first picture he painted under Piloty, " Lavoisier
in Prison," though timid and conventional, attracted attention
by its sense of colour. In the next, " The Knight and the Water
Nymphs," he first displayed the decorative qualities to which he
afterwards sacrificed everything else in his work. With the
" Cupids " and " The Plague in Florence " of the next year
his fame became firmly established. " Romeo and Juliet " was
soon after bought by the Austrian emperor for the Vienna
Museum, and Makart was invited to come to Vienna, where a
large studio was placed at his disposal. In Vienna Makart
became the acknowledged leader of the artistic life of the city,
which in the 'seventies passed through a period of feverish
activity, the chief results of which are the sumptuously decorated
public buildings of the Ringstrasse.

The enthusiasm of the time, the splendour of the fetes over
which Makart presided, and the very obvious appeal of his huge
compositions in their glowing richness of colour, in which he tried
to emulate Rubens, made him appear a very giant to his contem-
poraries in Vienna, and indeed in all Austria and Germany.
The appearance of each of his ambitious historical and allegorical
paintings was hailed with enthusiasm — the " Catherina Cor-
naro," " Diana's Hunt," " The Entry of Charles V. into Antwerp,"
" Abundantia," " Spring," " Summer," " The Death of Cleo-
patra " and the " Five Senses." He reached the zenith of his
fame when, in 1879, he designed, single-handed, the costumes,
scenic setting, and triumphal cars of the grand pageant with

452

MAKING-UP PRICE— MALABAR

which the citizens of Vienna celebrated the silver wedding of
their rulers. Some 15,000 people participated in the pageant,
all dressed in the costumes of the Rubens and Rembrandt period.
Makart died in Vienna in October 1884.

Unfortunately Makart was in the habit of using such villainous
pigments and mediums that in the few decades which have passed
since his death, the vast majority of his large paintings have prac-
tically perished. The blues have turned into green ; the bitumen has
eaten away the rich glow of the colour harmonies; the thickly applied
paint has cracked and in some instances crumbled away. And this
loss of their chief quality has accentuated the weaknesses of these
pictures — the faulty drawing, careless and hasty execution, lack of
deeper significance and prevalence of glaring anachronisms. Impor-
tant examples of his work are to be found at the galleries of Vienna,
Berlin, Hamburg and Stuttgart. For the Vienna Museum he also
executed a series of decorative lunettes.

MAKING-UP PRICE, a term used in the London end other
British Stock Exchanges, to denote the price at which specula-
tive bargains are carried over from one account to the next.
The carrying over of a "bull" position in Eries, for example,
implies a sale for cash and a simultaneous repurchase for the new
account, both bargains being done at the making-up price.
This is fixed at noon on carry-over day, in accordance with the
market price then current (see ACCOUNT; STOCK EXCHANGE).
The term is also used in New York, where the making-up prices
are fixed at the end of a day's business, in accordance with the
American system of daily settlements.

MAKO, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Csanad
135 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 33,701. It is
situated near the right bank of the Maros, and is a typical
Hungarian town of the Alfold. The most noteworthy building
is the palace of the bishop of Csanad, whose usual residence is
in Temesvar. The town possesses numerous mills, and the
surrounding country is fertile. The communal lands are exten-
sive; they afford excellent pasturage for horses and sheep and
also for large herds of horned cattle, for the size and quality of
which Mako has obtained a high repute.

MAKRAN, or MEKRAN, a province of Baluchistan, fringing the
Arabian Sea from Persia almost to Sind for about 200 m. It is
subject to the khan of Kalat under British political supervision.
Estimated area, 26,000 sq. m.; estimated pop. (1903), 78,000.
The long lateral valley of Kej is usually associated with Makran
in early geographical records. The Kej-Macoran of Marco
Polo is the Makran of to-day.

The long stretch of sandy foreshore is broken on the coast-
line by the magnificent cliffs of Malan, the hammer-shaped
headlands of Ormarah and Gwadar, and the precipitous cliffs of
Jebel Zarain, near Pasni. Within them lies the usual frontier band
of parallel ridges, alternating with narrow valleys. Amongst
them the ranges called Talana and Talur arc conspicuous by
their height and regular configuration. The normal conformation
of the Baluchistan frontier is somewhat emphasized in Makran.
Here the volcanic action, which preceded the general upheaval
of recent strata and the folding of the edges of the interior
highlands, is still in evidence in occasional boiling mud volcanoes
on the coast-line. It is repeated in the blazing summit of the
Kuh-i-taftan (the burning mountain of the Persian frontier) which
is the highest active volcano in Asia (13,000 ft.), and probably
the farthest inland. Evidence of extinct mud volcanoes exists
through a very wide area in Baluchistan and Seistan. Probably
the miri, or fort, at Quetta represents one of them. The coast
is indented by several harbours. Ormarah, Khor Kalmat, Pasni
and Gwadar are all somewhat difficult of approach by reason
of a sand-bar which appears to extend along the whole coast-
line, and which is very possibly the last evidence of a submerged
ridge; and they are all subject to a very lively surf under certain
conditions of wind. Of these the port of Gwadar (which belongs
to Muscat and is therefore foreign territory) is the most important.
They all are (or were) stations of the Indo-Persian telegraph
system which unites Karachi with Bushire. With the exception
of the Kej valley, and that of the Bolida, which is an affluent of
the Kej, there are no considerable spaces of cultivation in
Makran. These two valleys seem to concentrate the whole
agricultural wealth of the country. They are picturesque, with

thick groves of date palms at intervals, and are filled with crops
and orchards. They are indeed exceedingly beautiful; and yet
the surrounding waste of hills is chiefly a barren repetition of
sun-cracked crags and ridges with parched and withered valleys
intersecting them, where a trickle of salt water leaves a white and
leprous streak amongst the faded tamarisk or the yellow stalks of
last season's grass. Makran is the home of remnants of an in-
numerable company of rnj.ved people gathered from the four
corners of Asia and eastern Africa. The ancient Dravidians, of
whom the Brahui is typical, still exist in many of the districts
which are assigned to them in Herodotus. Amongst them there
is always a prominent Arab element, for the Arabs held Makran
even before they conquered Sind and made the Kej valley their
trade highway to India. There are negroes on the coast, bred
from imported slaves. The Meds of the Indus valley still form
the greater part of the fishing population, representing the
Ichthyophagi of Arrian. The old Tajik element of Persia is not
so evident in Makran as it is farther north; and the Karak
pirates whose depredations led to the invasion of India and the
conquest of Sind, seem to have disappeared altogether. The
fourth section includes the valleys formed by the Rakshan and
Mashkel, which, sweeping downwards from the Kalat highlands
and the Persian border east and west, unite to break through the
intervening chain of hills northward to form the Mashkel
swamps, and define the northern limits of Makran. In these
valleys are narrow strips of very advanced cultivation, the dates
of Panjgur being generally reckoned superior even to those of
the Euphrates. The great Mashkel swamp and the Kharan
desert to the east of it, mark the flat phase of southern Baluchi-
stan topography. It is geologically part of an ancient inland
lake or sea which included the present swamp regions of the
Helmund, but not the central depression of the Lora. The latter
is buttressed against hills at a much higher elevation than the
Kharan desert, which is separated from the great expanse of the
Helmund desert within the borders of Afghanistan by a trans-
verse band of serrated hills forming a distinct watershed from
Nushki to Seistan. Here and there these jagged peaks appear
as if half overwhelmed by an advancing sea of sand. They are
treeless and barren, and water is but rarely found at the edges
of their foot-hills. The Koh-i-Sultan, at the western extremity
of the northern group of these irregular hills, is over 6000 ft.
above sea-level, but the general level of the surrounding deserts
is only about 2000 ft., sinking to 1500 ft. in the Mashkel Hamun
and the Gaod-i-Zirreh.

The whole of this country has been surveyed by Indian sur-
veyors and the boundary between Persian and British Baluchis-
tan was demarcated by a commission in 1895-1896. In 1898 a
column of British troops under Colonel Mayne was despatched
to Makran by sea, owing to a rebellion against the authority
of the khan of Kalat, and an attack made by some Makran
chiefs on a British survey party. The campaign was short and
terminated with the capture of the Kej citadel. Another similar
expedition was required in 1901 to storm the fort at Nodiz.
The headquarters of the native governor, under the khan of
Kalat, are at Turbat, with deputies at Tump, Kolwa, Pasni and
Panjgur. A levy corps, with two British officers, is stationed
along the western frontier. The port of Gwadur forms an
enclave belonging to the sultan of Muscat.

Baluchistan District Gazetteer, vol. vii. (Bombay, 1907).

(T. H. H.*)

MAKSOORA, the term in Mahommedan architecture given
to the sanctuary or praying-chamber in a mosque, which was
sometimes enclosed with a screen of lattice-work; the word is
occasionally used for a similar enclosure round a tomb.

MALABAR, a district of British India, in the Madras Presi-
dency. Geographically the name is sometimes extended to the
entire western coast of the peninsula. Properly it should
apply to the strip below the Ghats, which is inhabited by people
speaking the Malayalam language, a branch of the Dravidian
stock, who form a peculiar race, with castes, customs and
traditions of their own. It would thus be coextensive with
the old kingdom of Chera, including the modern states of

MALABARI— MALACCA

453

Travancore and Cochin, and part of Kanara. In 1901 the
total number of persons speaking Malayalam in all India was
,020,304.

The district of Malabar extends for 145 m. along the coast,

nning inland to the Ghats with a breadth varying from
to 25 m. The administrative headquarters are at Calicut.
5795 sq. m. Malabar is singularly diversified in its
configuration ; from the eastward, the great range of the Western
Ghats, only interrupted by the Palghat gap, looks down on a

untry broken by long spurs, extensive ravines, dense forests
tangled jungle. To the westward, gentler slopes and downs,
and gradually widening valleys closely cultivated, succeed the
forest uplands, till, nearer the seaboard, the low laterite table-
lands shelve into rice plains and backwaters fringed with coco-
nut palms. The coast runs in a south-easterly direction, and
forms a few headlands and small bays, with a natural harbour
in the south at Cochin. In the south there is considerable
extent of table-land. The mountains of the Western Ghats run
almost parallel to the coast, and vary from 3000 to 7000 ft.
in height. One of the most characteristic features of Malabar
is an all but continuous chain of lagoons or backwaters lying
parallel to the coast, which have been formed by the action
of the waves and shore currents in obstructing the waters of
the rivers. Connected by artificial canals, they form a cheap
means of transit; and a large local trade is carried on by inland
navigation. Fishing and fishcuring is an important industry.
The forests are extensive and of great value, but they are almost
entirely private property. The few tracts which are conserved
have come into government hands by escheat or by contract.
Wild animals include the elephant, tiger, panther, bison,
sambhar, spotted deer, Nilgiri ibex, and bear. The population
in 1901 was 2,800,555, showing an increase of 5-6% in the
decade.

The staple crop is rice, the next most important product
being coco-nuts. Coffee is grown chiefly in the upland tract
known as the Wynaad, where there are also a few acres under
tea. The Madras railway crosses the district and has been
extended from Calicut to Cannanore along the coast. There
are eleven seaports, of which the principal are Calicut, Telli-
cherry, Cannanore and Cochin. The principal exports are coffee,
coco-nut products and timber. There are factories for cleaning
coffee, pressing coir and making matting, making tiles, sawing
timber and weaving cotton.

See Malabar District Gazetteer (Madras, 1908).

MALABARI, BEHRAMJI (1853- ), Indian journalist and
social reformer, was born in 1853 at Baroda, the son of a
poor Parsi in the employment of the state, who died shortly
after his birth. His mother took him to Surat, where he was
educated in a mission school, but he never succeeded in gaining
an academical degree. Coming to Bombay, he fell under the
influence of Dr John Wilson, principal of the Scottish College.
As early as 1875 he published a volume of poems in Gujarati,
followed in 1877 by The Indian Muse in English Garb, which
attracted attention in England, notably from Tennyson, Max
Miiller, and Florence Nightingale. His life work began in
1880 when he acquired the Indian Spectator, which he edited
for twenty years until it was merged in the Voice of India.
In 1901 he became editor of East and West. Always holding
aloof from politics, he was an ardent and indefatigable advocate
of social reform in India, especially as regards child marriage
and the remarriage of .widows. It was largely by his efforts,
both in the press and in tours through the country, that the Age
of Consent Act was passed in 1891. His account of his visits
to England, entitled The Indian Eye on English Life (1893),
passed through three editions, and an earlier book of a somewhat
satirical nature, Gujarat and the Gujaratis (1883), was equally
popular.

See R. P. Karkaria, India, Forty Years of Progress and Reform,
(London, 1896).

MALABON, a town of the province of Rizal, Luzon, Philippine
.slands, i m. inland from the shore of Manila Bay and 3 m. N.
of the city of Manila, with which it is connected by an electric

tramway. Pop. (1903), 20,136. The leading industries are
the refining of sugar, fishing, trade, the weaving of jusi cloth,
the making of cigars, and the cultivation of ilang-ilang-trees
(Cananga odorata) for their flowers, from which a fine perfume
is distilled; ilang-ilang is one of the principal exports, mostly
to France. Tagalog and Spanish are the principal languages.
Malabon was formerly known as Tamb6bong.

MALACCA, a town on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, in
2° 14' N., 102° 1 2' E., which, with the territory lying immediately
around and behind it forms one of the Straits Settlements, and
gives its name to the Straits which divide Sumatra from the
Malay Peninsula. Its name, which is more correctly transliter-
ated mtldka, is that of a species of jungle fruit, and is also borne
by the small river on the right bank of which the old Dutch
town stands. The Dutch town is connected by a bridge with
the business quarter on the left bank, which is inhabited almost
exclusively by Chinese, Eurasians and Malays.

Malacca, now a somnolent little town, a favourite resort of
rich Chinese who have retired from business, is visited by few
ships and is the least important of the three British settlements
on the Straits which give their name to the colony. It has,
however, a remarkable history. The precise date of its
foundation cannot be ascertained, but there is strong reason
to believe that this event took place at the earliest in the i4th
century. The Roman youth Ludovigo Barthema is believed to
have been the first European to visit it, some time before 1503;
and in 1509 Diogo Lopez de Siqueira sailed from Portugal for
the express purpose of exploiting Malacca. At first he was
hospitably received, but disagreements with the natives ensued
and word was brought to Siqueira by Magellan, who was one
of his company, that a treacherous attack was about to be made
upon his ships. Siqueira then sent a native man and woman
ashore " with an arrow passed through their skulls " to the
sultan, " who was thus informed," says de Barros, " through
his subjects that unless he kept a good watch the treason which
he had perpetrated would be punished with fire and sword."
The sultan retaliated by arresting Ruy de Araujo, the factor,
and twenty other men who were ashore with him collecting
cargo for the ships. Siqueira immediately burned one of his
vessels and sailed direct for Portugal. In 1510 Mendez de
Vasconcellos with a fleet of four ships set out from Portugal
" to go and conquer Malacca," but d'Alboquerque detained
him at Goa, and it was not until 1511 that d'Alboquerque himself
found time to visit Malacca and seek to rescue the Portuguese
prisoners who all this time had remained in the hands of the
sultan. An attack was delivered by d'Alboquerque on the
25th of July 1511, but it was only partially successful, and it
was not until the 4th of August, when the assault was repeated,
that the place finally fell. Since that time Malacca has continued
to be the possession of one or another of the European Powers.
It was a Portuguese possession for 130 years, and was the head-
quarters of their trade and the base of their commercial explora-
tions in south-eastern Asia while they enjoyed, and later while
they sought to hold, their monopoly in the East. It was from
Malacca, immediately after its conquest, that d'Alboquerque
sent d'Abreu on his voyage of discovery to the Moluccas, or
Spice Islands, which later were the objective of Magellan's
voyage of circumnavigation. During the Portuguese tenure of
Malacca the place was attacked at least twice by the Achinese;
its shipping was harried by Lancaster in 1592, when the first
British fleet made its way into these seas; it was besieged by
the Dutch in 1606, and finally fell to a joint attack of the Dutch
and the Achinese in 1641. It was under the Portuguese govern-
ment that St Francis Xavier started a mission in Malacca, the
first Christian mission in Malayan lands.

The Dutch held Malacca till 1795, when it was taken from
them by Great Britain, and the Dutch system of monopoly in
the straits was forthwith abolished. The colony was restored
to the Dutch, however, in 1818, but six years later it came
finally into the hands of Great Britain, being exchanged by a
treaty with Holland for the East India Company's settlement
of Benkulcn and a few other unimportant places on the western

454

MALACHI

coast of Sumatra. By this treaty the Dutch were precluded
from interference in the affairs of the Malay Peninsula, and
Great Britain from similar action in regard to the States of
Sumatra, with the sole exception of Achin, the right to protect
that state being maintained by Great Britain until 1872 when it
was finally abandoned by a treaty concluded with Holland
in that year. The Dutch took advantage of this immediately
to invade Achin, and the strife begun in 1873 still continues
and is now a mere war of extermination. It was not until
1833 that the whole territory lying at the back of Malacca was
finally brought under British control, and as late as 1887 the
Negri Sembilan, or Nine States, which adjoin Malacca territory
on the east and north-east, were completely independent. They
to-day form part of the Federated Malay States, which are under
the protection of Great Britain, and are governed with the
assistance and by the advice of British officers.

Malacca, in common with the rest of the Straits Settlements,
was administered by the government of India until 1867,
when it became a crown colony under the control of the Colonial
Office. It is to-day administered by a resident councillor,
who is responsible to the governor of the Straits Settlements,
and by a number of district officers and other officials under
his direction. The population of the town and territory of
Malacca in 1901 was 94,487, of whom 74 were Europeans and
Americans, 1598 were Eurasians, the rest being Asiatics (chiefly
Malays with a considerable sprinkling of Chinese). The popula-
tion in 1891 was 92,170, and the estimated population for 1905
was 97,000. The birth-rate is about 35 per thousand, and the
death-rate about 29 per thousand. The trade of this once
flourishing port has declined, most of the vessels being merely
coasting craft, and no large line of steamers holding any com-
munication with the place. This is due partly to the shallowness
of the harbour, and partly to the fact that the ports of Penang
and Singapore, at either entrance to the straits, draw all the trade
and shipping to themselves. The total area of the settlement
is about 700 sq. m. The colony is wholly agricultural, and the
land is almost entirely in the hands of the natives. About 50,000
acres are under tapioca, and about 9000 acres are under rubber
(hevea). This cultivation is rapidly extending. There are still
considerable areas unoccupied which are suitable for rubber and
for coco-nuts. The settlement is well opened up by roads;
and a railway, which is part of the Federated Malay States
railway system, has been constructed from the town of Malacca
to Tampin in the Negri Sembilan. There is a good rest-house
at Malacca and a comfortable seaside bungalow at Tanjong Kling,
seven miles from the town. Malacca is 1 18 m. by sea from Singa-
pore and 50 m. by rail from Seremban, the capital of the Negri
Sembilan. There is excellent snipe-shooting to be had in the
vicinity of Malacca.

See The Commentaries of d'Alboguerque (Hakluyt Society) ; The
Voyages and Adventures of Fernand Mendez Pinto (London, 1653);
An Account of the East Indies, by Captain Alexander Hamilton
(Edinburgh, 1727); Valentyn's History of Malacca, translated by
Dudley Hervey; Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society; " Our Tropical Possessions in Malayan India," by the same
author, ibid. ; Further India, by Hugh Clifford (London, 1904) ;
British Malaya, by Sir Frank Swettenham (London, 1906).

(H. CL.)

MALACHI, the name assigned to the last book of the Old
Testament in English (the last of the " prophets " in the Hebrew
Bible), which according to the title (Mai. i. i) contains the
" word of Yahweh to Israel by the hand of Malachi." In form
the word means " my messenger." It could be explained as
a contraction of Malachiah, " messenger of Yahweh "; but the
Septuagint is probably right in not regarding it as a proper
name (" by the hand of His messenger "). Not only do we
know nothing from internal or external evidence of the existence
of a prophet of this name,1 but the occurrence of the word in
the title is naturally explained as derived from iii. i : " Behold,
I send my messenger " (cf. ii. 7). The prophecy must, therefore,
be regarded as anonymous; the title was added by the compiler

1 A Hebrew tradition given in the Targum of Jonathan, and
approved by Jerome, identifies Malachi with Ezra the priest and
scribe.

who wrote similar editorial titles to the anonymous prophecies
beginning Zech. ix. i, xii. i.

The contents of the prophecy fall into a series of clearly marked
sections, as in the paragraph division of the Revised Version.
These apply, in various ways, the truth emphasized at the
outset: Yahweh's love for Israel in contrast with his treatment
of Edom (i. 2-5). Israel's response should be a proper regard
for the ritual of His worship; yet any offering, however imperfect,
is thought good enough for Yahweh's altar (i. 6-14). Let the
priests, who are responsible, take warning, and return to their
ancient ideals (ii. 1-9) . Again, the common Fatherhood of God
should inspire a right relation among fellow Israelites, not
such conduct as the divorce of Israelite wives in order to marry
non-Israelite women (ii. io-i6).2 The prevalence of wrong-
doing has provoked scepticism as to righteous judgment ; but the
messenger of Yahweh is at hand to purge away indifferentism
from worship and immorality from conduct (ii. i7-iii. 6). The
payment of tithes now withheld will be followed by the return
of prosperity (iii. 7-12). Religion may seem useless, but
Yahweh remembers His own, and will soon in open judgment
distinguish them from the irreligious (iii. I3~iv. 3). The book
closes with an appeal to observe the law of Moses, and
with a promise that Elijah shall come before the threatened
judgment.3

The topics noticed clearly relate the prophecy to the period
of Ezra and Nehemiah, when the Temple had been rebuilt
(i. 10; iii. i, 10), the province of Judah was under a Persian
governor (i. 8), and there had been time enough for the loss of
earlier enthusiasm. The majority of modern scholars are agreed
that the prophet prepares for the work of those reformers (Ezra,
458; Nehemiah, 444, 432 B.C.). The abuses of which he parti-
cularly complains are such as were found rampant by Ezra and
Nehemiah — marriage with foreign women (ii. ii; cf. Ezra ix.;
Neh. xiii. 23 seq. ; Deut. vii. 3) and failure in payment of sacred
dues (iii. 8 seq. ; cf . Neh. x. 34 seq. ; xiii. 10 seq. ; Deut. xxvi. 1 2 seq.).
The priests have fallen into contempt (ii. 9) and have neglected
what is still one of their chief trusts, the oral law (ii. 6 seq.). The
priestly code of written law was not promulgated until 444 B.C.
(Neh. viii.-x.) ; " Malachi " writes under the influence of the earlier
Code of Deuteronomy only,4 and must therefore belong to a date
prior to 444. The independent character of the attack on
current abuses also suggests priority to the work of Ezra in
458. The prophecy affords an interesting and valuable glimpse
of the post-exilic community, with its various currents of thought
and life. The completion of the second Temple (516 B.C.) has
been followed by disillusionment as to the anticipated prosperity,
by indifference to worship, scepticism as to providence, and
moral laxity.6 In view of these conditions, the prophet's message
is to reassert the true relation of Israel to Yahweh, and to call
for a corresponding holiness, especially in regard to questions
of ritual and of marriage. He saw that " the disobedience of

1 Torrey (Ency. Bib. c. 2908) holds that the reference here is purely
figurative; "Judah has dealt falsely with the wife of his youth,
the covenant religion, and is wedding a strange cult." But he
assigns the book to the 4th century.

3 This closing prophecy may possibly be a later addition (so Marti)
rounding off the prophetic canon by reference to the two great names
of Moses and Elijah, and their characteristic activities. In this case,
" Elijah " will represent an early interpretation (cf. Ecclus. xlviii.
10) of the " messenger," originally conceived as a purely ideal figure.
The only other passage in the book whose originality is not generally
accepted is that referring to mixed marriages (ii. II, 12).

4 ft is the Deuteronomic law that is most familiar to him, as
appears from his use of the name Horeb for the mountain of the law,
and the Deuteronomic phrase " statutes and judgments " (iv. 4),
from his language as to tithes and offerings (iii. 8, 10; cf. Deut.
xii. II ; xxvi. 12), and especially from his conception of the priesthood
as resting on a covenant with Levi (ii. 4 seq.). Malachi indeed
assumes that the " whole tithe " — the Deuteronomic phrase for the
tithe in which the Levites shared — is not stored in each township,
but brought into the treasury at the Temple. But this was a modifi-
cation of the Deuteronomic law naturally called for under the cir-
cumstances of the return from Babylon, and Neh. x. and xiii. produce
the impression that it was not introduced for the first time by Ezra
and Nehemiah, though the collection of the tithe was enforced by
them. See further, W.R.S. in O.T.J.C. ii. 425-427.

6 Cf. Stade's reconstruction, G.V.I, ii. 128-138.

MALACHITE

455

his time was the outcome of a lowered morality, not of a clearer
spiritual vision."1 A strong sense of the unique privileges
of the children of Jacob, the objects of electing love (i. 2), the
children of the Divine Father (ii. 10), is combined with an equally
strong assurance of Yahweh's righteousness notwithstanding
the many miseries that pressed on the unhappy inhabitants of
Judaea. At an earlier date the prophet Haggai had taught
that the people could not expect Yahweh's blessing while the
Temple lay in ruins. In Malachi's time the Temple was built
(i. 10) and the priests waited in their office, but still a curse

:med to rest on the nation's labours (iii. 9). To Malachi the
n of this is plain. The " law of Moses " was forgotten
[iii. 22]); let the people return to Yahweh, and He will
return to them. It was in vain to complain, saying, " Every
one that doeth evil is good in the eyes of Yahweh," or " Where
is the God of judgment?" — vain to ask "Wherein shall we
return?" Obedience to the law is the sure path to blessing
(ii. i7-iii. 12).

He calls the people to repentance, and he enforces the call
by proclaiming the approach of Yahweh in judgment against
the sorcerers, the adulterers, the false swearers, the oppressors
of the poor, the orphan and the stranger. Then it shall be seen
that He is indeed a God of righteous judgment, distinguishing
between those that serve Him and those that serve Him not.
The Sun of Righteousness shall shine forth on those that fear
Yahweh's name; they shall go forth with joy, and tread the
wicked under foot. The conception of the day of final decision,
when Yahweh shall come suddenly to His temple (iii. i) and
confound those who think the presumptuous godless happy
(,iii. is), is taken from earlier prophets, but is applied wholly
within the Jewish nation. The day of Yahweh would be a
curse, not a blessing, if it found the nation in its present state:
the priests listlessly performing a fraudulent service (i. y-ii. 9),
the people bound by marriage to heathen women, while the
tears of the daughters of Israel, thrust aside to make way for
strangers, cover the altar (ii. 11-16), all faith in divine justice
gone (ii. 17; iii. 14 seq.), sorcery, uncleanness, falsehood and
oppression rampant (iii. 5), the house of God deprived of its
dues (iii. 8), and the true fearers of God a little flock gathered
together in private exercises of religion (perhaps the germ of
the later synagogue) in the midst of a godless nation (iii. 16).
That the day of Yahweh is delayed in such a state of things is
but a new proof of His unchanging love (iii. 6), which refuses
to consume the sons of Jacob. Meantime He is about to send
His messenger to prepare His way before Him. The prophet
Elijah must reappear to bring back the hearts of fathers and
children before the great and terrible day of Yahweh come.
Elijah was the advocate of national decision in the great concerns
of Israel's religion; and it is such decision, a clear recognition
of what the service of Yahweh means, a purging of His professed
worshippers from hypocritical and half-hearted service (iii. 3)
that Malachi with his intense religious earnestness sees to be
the only salvation of the nation. In thus looking to the return
of the ancient prophet to do the work for which later prophecy
is too weak, Malachi unconsciously signalizes the decay of the
order of which he was one of the last representatives; and the
somewhat mechanical measure which he applies to the people's
sins, as for example when he teaches that if the sacred dues were
rightly paid prosperous seasons would at once return (iii. 10),
heralds the advent of that system of formal legalism which
thought that all religious duty could be reduced to a system of
set rules. Yet Malachi himself is no mere formalist. To him,
as to the Deuteronomic legislation, the forms of legal observance
are of value only as the fitting expression of Israel's peculiar
sonship and service, and he shows himself a true prophet when
he contrasts the worthless ministry of unwilling priests with the
pure offering of prayer and praise that rises from the implicit
monotheism of even Gentile worship2 (i. ii), or when he asserts

1 Welch in D.B. iii. 220.

This remarkable utterance is sometimes (as by W.R.S.) inter-
preted of the worship of Jews scattered in the Dispersion : reasons
lor the above view are given by Driver.

the brotherhood of all Israelites under their one Father (ii. 10),
not merely as a ground of separation from the heathen, but as
inconsistent with the selfish and cruel freedom of divorce current
in his time.3 The book is a significant landmark in the religious
history of Israel. Its emphasis on the observance of ritual
finds fullest development in the Priestly Code, subsequently
promulgated; its protest against foreign marriages is made
effective through the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah;4 the
influence of its closing words on later expectation is familiar
to every reader of the new Testament.4

The style of Malachi, like his argument, corresponds in its
generally prosaic character to that transformation or decay of
prophecy which began with Ezekiel; and Ewald rightly called
attention to the fact that the conduct of the argument already
shows traces of the dialectic manner of the schools. Yet there
is a simple dignity in the manner not unworthy of a prophet,
and rising from time to time to poetical rhythm.

LITERATURE. — Nowack, Die kleinen Propheten (1897; 2nd ed.,
1004); Wellhausen, id. (iii. 1898); G. A Smith, The Book of the
Twelve (ii. 1898) ; A. C. Welch, art. " Malachi " in Hastings's Diet, of
the Bible, iii.2l8-222 (1900); C. C. Torrey, id. in Ency. Bib. iii. c. 2907-
2910 (1902); Marti, Dodekapropheton (1904); Stade, Biblische
Theologie des Allen Test. § 141 (1905); Driver, The Minor Prophets,
ii. (Century Bible, 1906). (W. R. S. ; H. W. R.*)

MALACHITE, a copper-ore of fine green colour, sometimes
polished as an ornamental stone. The name is derived from
Gr. /iaXaxJ), the mallow, in allusion to the colour of the
mineral being rather like that of the mallow-leaf. Malachite
was perhaps one of the green minerals described by Theophrastus
under the general name of o-p.apo.y5os; and according to the
late Rev. C. W. King it was probably the smaragdus medicus
of Pliny, whilst his malachites seems to have been a different
stone from our malachite and may have been a green jasper.
It is suggested by'J. L. Myres (Ency. Bib.) that malachite may
have been the Heb. soham, of the high priest's breastplate.

Malachite is a basic cupric carbonate, represented by the
formula CuCO3Cu(HO)2, and has usually been formed by the
action of meteoric agencies on other copper-minerals; hence
it is found in the upper part of ore-deposits, often as an incrus-
tation, and occasionally as a pseudomorph after cuprite, chalco-
cite, &c. When formed, as commonly happens, by the alteration
of copper-pyrites the iron of this mineral usually takes the form
of limonite, which may remain associated with the malachite.
Occasionally, though but rarely, malachite occurs in small dark-
green prismatic crystals of the monoclinic system. Its usual
mode of occurrence is in nodular or stalagmitic forms, with
a mammillated, reniform or botryoidal surface, whilst in other
cases it forms fibrous, compact or even earthy masses. The
nodules, though commonly dull on the outside, may display on
fracture a beautiful zonary structure, the successive layers often
succeeding each other as curved deposits of light and dark tints.
The colours include various shades of apple-green, grass-green,
emerald-green and verdigris-green. Certain varieties exhibit a
finely fibrous structure, producing <jn the fractured surface a
soft silky sheen.

• Whilst malachite is found in greater or less quantity in most
copper-mines, the finer varieties useful for ornamental purposes
are of very limited occurrence, and the lapidary has generally
drawn his supply from Russia and Australia. The principal
source in recent years has been the Medno-Rudiansk mine near
Nizhne Tagilsk, on the Siberian side of the Urals, but it was
formerly obtained from mines near Bogoslovsk to the north
and Gumishev to the south of this locality. A mass from
Gumishev, preserved in the museum of the Mining Institute
of St Petersburg weighs 3240 Ib, and still larger masses have
been found near Nizhne Tagilsk. The mineral is prized in

* In ii. 16 the Targum renders " If thou hatest her put her away."
It is characteristic ot later Judaism that an arbitrary exegesis trans-
formed the above anticipation of the doctrine of marriage laid down
in the gospel into an express sanction of the right of the husband to
put away his wife at will.

4 " The permanence of Judaism depended on the religious separate-
ness of the Jews " (Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, p. 143).

5 Matt. xvii. 3, 4, 10-13; xxvii. 47, 49; John i. 21, 25.

456

MALACHOWSKI— MALACHY, ST

Russia for use in mosaic-work, and for the manufacture of vases,
snuff-boxes and various ornamental objects. Even folding
doors, mantelpieces, table-tops and other articles of furniture
have been executed in malachite, the objects being veneered
with thin slabs cleverly fitted together so as to preserve the
pattern, and having the interspaces filled up with fragments
and powder of malachite applied with a cement. The malachite
is sawn into slabs, ground with emery and polished with tripoli.
Its hardness is less than 4, but it takes a good polish like marble:
it is rather denser than marble, having a specific gravity of
3-7 to 4, but it is more difficult to work, in consequence of a
tendency to break along the curved planes of deposition.
Exceptionally fine examples of the application of malachite
are seen in some of the columns of St Isaac's Cathedral in
St Petersburg, which are hollow iron columns encrusted with
malachite. Large masses of ornamental malachite have been
found in Australia, especially at the old Burra Burra copper-
mine in South Australia. The Copper Queen and other mines
in Arizona have yielded fine specimens of malachite associated
with azurite, and polished slabs of the mixed minerals some-
times show the vivid green and the deep blue carbonate in
very striking contrast. This natural association, cut as an
ornamental stone, has been named, by Dr G. F. Kunz, azur-
malachite. Malachite is occasionally used for cameo-work,
and some fine antique examples are known. It was formerly
worn as an amulet to preserve the wearer from lightning,
contagion and witchcraft.

The mineral, when ground, has been used as a pigment under the
name of " mountain green." The coarser masses are extensively
used, with other minerals, as ores of copper, malachite containing
about 57 % of metal. " Blue malachite " is a name sometimes given
to azurite (q.v.), whilst " siliceous malachite " is a term inappro-
priately applied to chrysocolla (q.v.). (F. W. R.*)

MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1736-1809), Polish states-
man, the younger son of Stanislaw Malachowski, palatine of
Posen, the companion in arms of Sobieski. From his youth
Malachowski laboured zealously for the good of his country, and
as president of the royal court of justice won the honourable
title of the " Polish Aristides." He was first elected a deputy
to the Coronation Diet of 1764, and the great Four Years' Diet
unanimously elected him its speaker at the beginning of its
session in 1788. Accurately gauging the situation, Malachowski
speedily gathered round him all those who were striving to
uphold the falling republic and warmly supported every promis-
ing project of reform. He was one of the framers of the consti-
tution of the 3rd of May 1791, exceeding in liberality all his
colleagues and advocating the extension of the franchise to
the towns and the emancipation of the serfs. He was the first
to enter his name as a citizen of Warsaw in the civic register and
to open negotiations with his own peasantry for their complete
liberation. Disappointed in his hopes by the overthrow of
the constitution, he resigned office and left the country in 1792,
going first to Italy and subsequently to his estates in Galicia,
where he was imprisoned for a time on a false suspicion of con-
spiracy. In 1807 Malachowski was placed at the head of the
executive committee appointed at Warsaw after its evacuation
by the Prussians, and when the grand duchy of Warsaw was
created Malachowski became president of the senate under
King Frederick Augustus of Saxony. In the negotiations with
the Austrian government concerning the Galician salt-mines
Malachowski came to the assistance of the depleted treasury
by hypothecating all his estates as an additional guarantee.
In 1809 he died at Warsaw. His death was regarded as a
public calamity, and multitudes followed his remains to their
last resting-place in the Church of the Holy Cross. In all the
other towns of the grand duchy funeral services were held
simultaneously as a tribute of the respect and gratitude of the
Polish nation.

See August Sokolowski, Illustrated History of Poland (Pol.), vol. iv.
(Vienna, 1900); Life and Memoirs of S. Malachowski, edited by
Lucyan Siemienski (Pol; Cracow, 1853). (R. N. B.)

MALACHY, ST (c. 1094-1148), otherwise known as Maol-
Maodhog (or Maelmaedhog) Ua Morgair, archbishop of Armagh

and papal legate in Ireland, was born at Armagh. His father
an Irish clergyman, the Fearleighlinn, or lector, at the university'
was said to have been of noble family. Having been ordained
to the priesthood, he for some time acted as vicar of Archbishop
Celsus or Ceallach of Armagh, and carried out many reforms
tending to increase conformity with the usage of the Church of
Rome. In order to improve his knowledge of the Roman
ritual he spent four years with Malchus, bishop of Lismore (in
Munster), a strong advocate of Romanism. Here he became
acquainted with Cormac MacCarthy, king of Desmond, who had
sought refuge with Malchus, and, when he subsequently regained
his kingdom, rendered great services to Malachy. On his
return from Lismore, Malachy undertook the government of
the decayed monastery of Bangor (in Co. Down), but very
soon afterwards he was elected bishop of Connor (now a small
village near Ballymena). After the sack of that place by the
king of Ulster he withdrew into Munster; here he was kindly
received by Cormac MacCarthy, with whose assistance he built
the monastery of Ibrach (in Kerry). Meanwhile he had been
designated by Celsus (in whose family the see of Armagh had
been hereditary for many years) to succeed him in the arch-
bishopric; in the interests of reform he reluctantly accepted the
dignity, and thus became involved for some years in a struggle
with the so-called heirs. Having finally settled the diocese, he
was permitted, as had been previously stipulated by himself, to
return to his former diocese, or rather to the smaller and poorer
portion of it, the bishopric of Down. Although the Roman
party had by this time obtained a firm hold in the north of Ire-
land, the organization of the Church had not yet received the
sanction of the pope. Accordingly, in 1 139, Malachy set out from
Ireland with the purpose of soliciting from the pope the pallium
(the token of archiepiscopal subjection to Rome) for the arch-
bishop of Armagh. On his way to Rome he visited Clairvaux,
and thus began a lifelong friendship with St Bernard. Malachy
was received by Innocent II. with great honour, and made papal
legate in Ireland, though the pope refused to grant the pallium
until it had been unanimously applied for " by a general council
of the bishops, clergy and nobles." On his way home Malachy
revisited Clairvaux, and took with him from there four members
of the Cistercian order, by whom the abbey of Mellifont (in the
county of Louth) was afterwards founded in 1141. For the next
eight years after his return from Rome Malachy was active in
the discharge of his legatine duties, and in 1148, at a synod of
bishops and clergy held at Inis-Patrick (St Patrick's Island, near
Skerries, Co. Dublin), he was commissioned to return to Rome
and make fresh application for the pallium; he did not, however,
get beyond Clairvaux, where he died in the arms of St Bernard
on the 2nd of November 1 148. The object of his life was realized
four years afterwards, in 1152, during the legateship of his suc-
cessor. Malachy was canonized by Clement III. in 1190.

The influence of Malachy in Irish ecclesiastical affairs has been
compared with that of Boniface in Germany. He reformed and
reorganized the Irish Church and brought it into subjection to
Rome ; like Boniface, he was a zealous reformer and a promoter
of monasticism. But perhaps his chief claim to distinction is
that of having opened the first Cistercian monastery in Ireland,
five more being soon afterwards established. Several works
are attributed to him, but are all probably spurious. The most
curious of these is a Prophecy concerning the Future Roman
Pontiffs, which has produced an extensive literature. It is now
generally attributed to the year 1590, and is supposed to have
been forged to support the election of Cardinal Simoncelli to the
papal chair.

St Bernard's Life of Malachy, and two sermons on his death
will be found in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina, clxxxii., clxxxiii. ;
see also Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters,
ed. J. O'Donovan (Dublin, 1851); G. Germano, Vita, gesti e pre-
ditlioni del padre san Malachia (Naples, 1670) ; the ecclesiastical
histories of Ireland by J. Lanigan (1829) and W. E>. Killcn (1875);
A. Bellesheim, Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Irland, Bd. I.
(Mainz, 1890) ; G. T. Stokes, Ireland and the Celtic Church (6th ed.,
1907); J. O'Hanlon, Life of Saint Malachy (Dublin, 1859); articles
in Dictionary of National Biography and Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie. On the Prophecy, see the

MALACOSTRACA

457

: treatise by C. F. Menetrier (Paris, 1689) ; Marquis of Bute in Dublin
Review (1885); A. Harnack in Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte,
Bd. III.

MALACOSTRACA. Under this zoological title are included
several groups of Crustacea (<?.».), united by characters which
attest their common origin, though some, and probably all of
them, were already separated in distant geological ages, and
some have now attained a peculiar isolation. Throughout the
whole, the researches made since 1860 have not only added a
great throng of new species, genera and families, but have thrown
a flood of light upon questions of their phylogeny, systematic
arrangement, horizontal and bathymetric distribution, organiza-
tion, habits of b'fe and economic importance. There are at
least seven orders: the stalk-eyed Brachyura, Macrura, Schizo-
poda, Stomatopoda, and the sessile-eyed Sympoda, Isopoda,
Amphipoda. An ocular segment claimed by the former division
is not present or in no case demonstrable in the latter. In
neither docs the terminal segment or telson, whether large or
obsolescent, whether articulated or coalescent, carry appendages,
unless occasionally in fusion with itself. Between the eyes and
the tail-piece in all the orders nineteen segments are counted,
the proof of a segment's existence depending on its separateness,
complete or partial, or on a sutural indication, or else on the pair
of appendages known to belong to it. All these marks may fail,
and then the species must be proved to be Malacostracan by
other evidence than the number of its segments; but if some
exceptions exhibit fewer, none of the Malacostraca exhibits more
than 19 (+ i or + 2) segments, unless the Nebaliidae be included.
Of the corresponding pairs of appendages thirteen belong to the
head and trunk, two pairs of antennae, one pair of mandibles,
two pairs of maxillae, followed by three which may be all
maxillipeds or may help to swell the number of trunk-legs to
which the next five pairs belong. The abdomen or pleon carries
the remaining six pairs, of which from three to five are called
pleopods and the remainder uropods. Underlying the diversity
of names and functions and countless varieties of shape, there is a
common standard to which the appendages in general can be
referred. In the maxillipeds and the trunk-legs it is common
to find or otherwise easy to trace a seven-jointed stem, the endo-
pod, from which may spring two branches, the epipod from the
first joint, the exopod from the second.1 The first antennae are
exceptional in branching, if at all, at the third joint. In the
mandibles and maxillae some of the terminal joints of the stem
are invariably wanting. In the rest of the appendages they may
cither be wanting or indistinguishable. The latter obscurity
results either from coalescence, to which all joints and segments
are liable, or from subdivision, which occasionally affects joints
even in the trunk-legs. The carapace, formerly referred only
to the antennar-mandibular segments, may perhaps in fact
contain elements from any number of other segments of head
and trunk, Huxley, Alcock, Bouvier giving support to this
opinion by the sutural or other divisional lines in Potamobius,
Nephrops, Thalassina, and various fossil genera. Not all ques-
tions of classification internal to this division are yet finally
settled. Between the Brachyura and Macrura some authors
uphold an order Anomura, though in a much restricted sense,
the labours of Huxley, Boas, Alcock and conjointly Alphonse
Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, having resulted in restoring the
Dromiidea and Raninidae to the Brachyura, among which
de Haan long ago placed them. The French authors argue that
from the macruran lobsters (Nephropsidae) anciently diverged
two lines: one leading through the Dromiidea to the genuine
Brachyura; or crabs, the other independently to the Anomura
proper, which may conveniently be named and classed as
Macrura anomala. Spence Bate maintained that the Schizopoda
ought not to form a separate order, but to be ranged as a macru-
ran tribe, " more nearly allied to the degraded forms of the
Penaeidea than to those of any other group " (" Challenger "
Reports, " Macrura," p. 472, 1888). According to Sars, the

1 In Huxley's terminology the first two or three joints of the
stem constitute a " protopodite," from which spring the "endo-
podite " and " exopodite."

Sympoda (or Cumaceans), in spite of their sessile eyes, have
closer affinities with the stalk-eyed orders. H. J. Hansen and
others form a distinct order Tanaidea for the decidedly anoma-
lous group called by Sars Isopoda chelifera.

1. BRACHYURA. — For the present, as of old, the true Brachyura
are divided into four tribes: Cyclometopa, with arched front as
in the common eatable crab; Catometopa, with front bent down as in
the land-crabs and the little oyster-crab; Oxyrkyncha, with sharp-
ened beak-like front as in the various spider-crabs; Oxystomata,
including the Raninidae, and named not from the character of the
front but from that of the buccal frame which is usually narrowed
forwards. In these tribes the bold and active habits, the striking
colours, or the fantastic diversities of structure, have so long attracted
remark that recent investigations, while adding a multitude of new
species and supplying the specialist with an infinity of new details,
have not materially altered the scientific standpoint. New light,
however, has been thrown upon the " intellectual " capacity of
Crustacea by the proof that the spider-crabs deliberately use changes
of raiment to harmonize with their surroundings, donning and doffing
various natural objects as we do our manufactured clothes. Others
have the power of producing sounds, one use to which they put this
faculty being apparently to signal from their burrow in the sand
that they are " not at home " to an inopportune visitor. Deep-sea
exploration has shown that some species have an immensely extended
range, and still more, that species of the same genus, and genera
of the same family, though separated by great intervals of space,
may be closely allied in character. A cunous effect of parasitism,
well illustrated in crabs, though not confined to them, has been
expounded by Professor Giard, namely, that it tends to obliterate
the secondary sexual characters. Modern research has discovered
no crab to surpass Macrocheira kdmpferi, De Haan, that can span
between three and four yards with the tips of its toes, but at the
other end of the scale it has yielded Collodes malabaricus, Alcock,
" of which the carapace, in an adult and egg-laden female, is less
than one-sixth of an inch in its greatest diameter." The most
abyssal of all crabs yet known is Ethusina abyssicola, Smith, or
what is perhaps only a variety of it, E. challengeri, Miers. Of
the latter the " Albatross " obtained a specimen From a depth of
2232 fathoms (Faxon, 1895), of the former from 2221 fathoms,
and of this S. I. Smith remarks that it has " distinctly faceted black
eyes," although in them " there are only a very few visual elements
at the tips of the immobile eye-stajks.'

The Brachyura anomala, or Dromiidea, " have preserved the exter-
nal characters and probably also the organization of the Brachyura
of the Secondary epoch ' (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, 1901).
They agjee with the true crabs in not having appendages (uropods)
to the sixth segment of the pleon, the atrophy being complete in the
Homolidae and Homolodromiidae, whereas in the Drpmiidae and
Dynomenidae a pair of small plates appear to be vestiges of these
organs. In the family Homolidae stands the strange genus Lalreillia,
Roux, with long slender limbs and triangular carapace after the
fashion of oxyrhynch spider-crabs. In Homola the carapace is
quadrilateral. Between these two a very interesting link was
discovered by the " Challenger " in the species Latreittopsts bispinosa,
Henderson. Bouvier (1896) has shown that Palaeinachus longipes,
Woodward, from the Forest Marble of Wiltshire, is in close relation-
ship, not to the oxyrhynch Inachidae, but to the genera Homolo-
dromia and Dicranodromia of the Homolodromiidae, and that the
Jurassic crabs in general, of the family Prosoponidae (Meyer),
are Dromiidea.

2. MACRURA. — The Macrura anomala, or Anomura in restricted
sense, are popularly known through the hermit-crabs alone. These
only partially represent one of the three main divisions, Paguridea,
Gafatheidea, Hippidea. The first of these is subdivided into Paguri-
nea, Lithodinea, Lomisinea, each with a literature of its own. Among
the Pagurinea is the Birgus lalro, or robber-crab, whose expertness in
climbing the coco-nut palm need no longer be doubted, since in
recent years it has been noted and photographed by trustworthy
naturalists in the very act. Alcock observed one of these crabs
drinking from a runnel of rain-water, by dipping the fingers of one
of its chelipeds into the water and then carrying the wet fingers to
its mouth." Hermits of the genus Coenobita he found feeding'
voraciously on nestling sea-terns. That pagurids must have the
usually soft pleon or abdomen protected by the shell of a mollusc
is now known to be subject to a multitude of exceptions. Birgus
dispenses with a covering; Coenobita can make shift with half the
shell of a coco-nut; CUaenopagurus wraps itself up in a blanket
of colonial polyps; Cancettus tanneri, Faxon, was found in a piece
of dead coral rock; Xyhpagurus rectus, A. Milne- Edwards, lodges
in tubes of timber or bits of hollow reed. The last-named species
has a straight symmetrical abdomen, with the penultimate segment
expanded and strongly calcified to form a back-door to the very
unconventional habitation. This it enters head-foremost from
the rear, while " hermits " in general are forced to go backwards
into their spiral or tapering shelters by the front. Some of the
species can live in the ocean at a depth of two or three miles. Some
can range inland up to a considerable height on mountains. The
advantage that this group has derived from the adoption of mollusc

45*

MALACOSTRACA

shells as houses or fortresses, ready built and light enough for easy
transport, is obviously discounted by a twofold inconvenience.
There is nothing to ensure that the supply will be equal to the demand,
and Nature has not arranged that the borrowed tenement shall
continue to grow with the growth of its new tenant. To meet these
defects it is found that numerous species encourage or demand the
companionship of various zoophytes, simple or colonial. These
sometimes completely absorb the shell on which they are settled,
but then act as a substitute for it, and in any case by their out-
growth they extend the limits of the dwelling, so that the inmate
can grow in comfort without having to hunt or fight for a larger
abode. Among the Lithodinea, or stone crabs, besides important
readjustments of classification (Bouvier, 1895, 1896), should be

FIG. I. — Neolithodes grimaldii, A. Milne- Edwards and Bouvier.

noticed the evidence of their cosmopolitan range, and the species
Neolithodes agassizii (Smith) and N. grimaldii, Milne-Edwards and
Bouvier, which carry to an extreme the spinosity characteristic of
the group (fig. i). S. I. Smith's investigations on the early stages
of Hippo, talpoida. Say, were published in 1877.

With regard to the accessions to knowledge in the enormous
group of the genuine Macrura, reference need only be made to the
extensive reports in which Spence Bate, S. I. Smith, Faxon, Wood-
Mason, Alcock, and others have made known the results of celebrated
explorations. Various larval stages have been successfully investi-
gated by Sars. Alcock (1901) describes from his own observation
the newly hatched Phyllosoma larva of Thenus orientalis, Fabricius.
An admirable discrimination of the larval and adult characters of
the genus Sergestes has been given by H. J. Hansen (Proc. Zool. Soc.,
London, 1896). Singularity excites our wonder in Thaumastocheles
zaleucus, v. Willempes Suhm, which makes up for its vanished eyes
by its extraordinarily elongate and dentated claws; in Psalidopus
huxleyi, Wood-Mason and Alcock (1892), bristling with spikes from
head to tail; in the Nematocarcinidae, with their long thread-like
limbs and longer antennae ; in species of Aristaeopsis reported by Chun
from deep water off the east coast of Africa, bright red prawns nearly
a foot long, with antennae about five times the length of the body.
That certain species, particularly many from deep water, have
disproportionately large eggs, is explained by the supposition that
the young derive the advantage of being hatched in an advanced
stage of development.

3. SCHIZOPODA. — This order of animals for the most part
delicately beautiful, has for the moment five families — Lopho-
gastridae, Eucopiidae, Euphausiidae,
Mysidae and Anaspididae. In the
Euphausiidae the digitiform-arbor-
escent branchiae, as if conscious of
their own extreme elegance, remain
wholly uncovered. In the two pre-
ceding families they are partially
covered. In theMysidae the branchiae
are wanting, and some would form
this family into a separate order,
Mysidacea. In Anaspides, a pecu-
liar fresh-water genus discovered in
1892 by G. M. Thomson on Mount
Wellington, in 'Tasmania, the gills
are not arborescent, and there are
seven segments of the trunk free of FIG. 2. — Anaspides tasmaniae,
the carapace (fig. 2). A membrana- Thomson,

cepus carapace separates the Euco-
piidae from the more solidly invested Lophogastridae. Among many
papers that the student will find it necessary to consult may be
mentioned the " Challenger " Report on Schizopoda, by Sars, 1885,

Zool. Soc. (London, 1900); Mysidae of the Russian Empire, by
Czerniavski (1882-1883); and Mysidae of the Caspian, by Sars
(1893-1895-1897).

4. STOMATOPODA. — This order, at one time a medley of hetero-
geneous forms, is now confined to the singularly compact group of
the Squillidae. Here the articulation of the ocular segment is un-
usually distinct, and here two characters quite foreign to all the
preceding groups come into view. The second maxillipeds are
developed into powerful prehensile organs, and the branchiae, instead
of being connected with the appendages of head and trunk, are
developed on the pleopods, appendages of the abdomen. At least
three segments of the trunk are left uncovered by the carapace.
The developing eggs are not carried about by the mother, but
deposited in her subaqueous burrow, " where they are aerated by the
currents of water produced by the abdominal feet of the parent."
An excellent synopsis of the genera and species is provided by
R. P. Bigelow (Proc. U.S. Mus. vol. xvii., 1894). For the habits and
peculiarities of these and many other Crustaceans, A. E. Verrill
and S. I. Smith on the Invertebrates of Vineyard Sound should be con-
sulted (1874). The general subject has been illuminated by the
labours of Claus, Miers, Brooks (" Challenger " Report, 1886), and the
latest word on the relationship between the various larvae and
their respective genera has been spoken by H. J. Hansen (Plankton-
Expedition Report, 1895). The striking forms of Alima and Erich-
thus, at one time regarded as distinct genera, are now with more
or less certainty affiliated to their several squillid parents.

5. SYMPODA. — This order of sessile-eyed decapods was absolutely
unknown to science till 1779. A species certainly belonging to it
was described by Lepekhin in 1780, but the obscure Gammarus esca,
" food Gammarus " beloved of herrings, described by J. C. Fabricius
in the preceding year, may also be one of its members. Nutritious
possibilities are implied m Diastylis rathkii, Kroyer, one of the
largest forms, which, though slender and rarely an inch long, in its
favourite Arctic waters is found " in incalculable masses, in thousands
of specimens " (Stuxberg, 1880). Far on in the 1 9th century

FIG. 3. — Pseudocuma pectinatum, Sowinsky.

eminent naturalists were still debating whether in this group there
were eyes or no eyes, whether the eyes were stalked or sessile, whether
the animals observed were larval or adult. The American T. Say in
1818 gave a good description of a new species and founded the pre-
mier genus Diastylis, but other investigators derived little credit
from the subject till more than sixty years after its introduction by
the Russian Lepekhin. Then Goodsir, Kroyer, Lilljeborg, Spence
Bate and one or two others made considerable advances, and in
1865 a memorable paper by G. O. Sars led the way to the great
series of researches which he has continued to the present day.
The name Cumacea, however, which he uses cannot be retained,
being founded on the preoccupied name Cuma (Milne-Edwards,
1828). The more recent name Sympoda (see Willey, Results, pt. v.
p. 609, 1900) alludes to the huddling together of the legs, which is con-
spicuous in most of the species. Ten families are now distinguished —
Diastylidae, Lampropidae, Platyaspidae, Pseudocumidae, all with
an articulated telson ; without one, the Bodotriidae (formerly called
Cumidae), Vaunthompsoniidae, Leuconidae, Nannastacidae, Campyl-
aspidae, Procampylaspidae. All the Leuconidae and Procampyl-
aspidae are blind, and some species in most of the other families.
Usually the sides of the carapace are strangely produced into a mock
rostrum in front of the ocular lobe, be it oculiferous or not. The
last four or five segments of the trunk are free from the carapace.
The slender pleon has always six distinct segments, the sixth carrying
two-branched uropods, the preceding five armed with no pleopods
in the female, whereas in the male the number of pairs varies from
five to none. The resemblance of these creatures to miniature
Macrura is alluded to in the generic name Nannastacus, meaning
dwarf-lobster. In this genus alone of the known Sympoda the eyes
sometimes form a pair, in accordance with the custom of all other
malacostracan orders except this and of this order itself in the
embryo (Sars, 1900). The most but not the only remarkable char-
acter lies in the first maxillipeds. These, with the main stem more
or less pediform, have the epipod andexopod modified for respiratory
purposes. The backward-directed epipods usually carry branchial
vesicles. The forward-directed exopods either act as valves or
form a tube (rarely two tubes), protensile and retractile, for regulat
ing egress of water from the branchial regions. This mechanism
as a whole is unique, although, as Sars observes, the epipod oftflj
first maxillipeds has a respiratory function also in the Lophogastridae
and Mysidae and in the cheliferous isopods. As a rule armature of

MALAGA

459

the carapace is much more developed in the comparatively sedentary
female than in the usually more active male. Only in the male
do the second antennae attain considerable length, with strong
resemblance to what is found in some of the Amphipoda. About
150 species distributed among thirty-four genera are now known,
many from shallow water and from between tide-marks, some from
very great depths. H. J. Hansen concludes that " they are all
typically ground animals, and as yet no species has been taken under
such conditions that it could be reckoned to the pelagic plankton."
As they have been found in all zones and chiefly by a very few
observers, it is probable that a great many more species remain to
be discovered. In recent years thirteen species, all belonging to
the same genus Pseudocuma (fig. 3), have been recorded by Sars from
the Caspian Sea. A bibliography of the order is given in that
author's Crustacea of Norway, vol. iii. (1899-1900).

6. ISOPODA. — This vast and populous order can be traced far
back in geological time. It is now represented in all seas and
lands, in fresh-water lakes and streams, and even in warm springs.
It adapts itself to parasitic life not only in fishes, but in its own
class Crustacea, and that in species of every order, its own included.
In this process changes of structure are apt to occur, and sometimes
unimaginable sacrifices of the normal appearance. The order
has been divided into seven tribes, of which a fuller summary than
can here be given will be found in Stebbing, History of Crustacea
(1893). The first tribe, called Chelifera, from the usually chelate
or claw-bearing first limbs, may be regarded as Isopoda anomala,
of whieh some authors would form a separate order, Tanaidea.
Like the genuine isopods, they have seven pairs of trunk-legs, but
instead of having seven segments of the middle body (or peraeon)

FIG. 4. — Rhabdosoma piratum, Stebbing.

normally free, they have the first one or two of its segments coalesced
with the head. Instead of the breathing organs being furnished by
the appendages of the pleon with the heart in their vicinity, the
respiration is controlled by the maxillipeds, with the heart in the
peraeon (see Delage, Arch. Zool. exper. et gen., vol. ix., 1881). There
are two families, Tanaidae and Apseudidae. Occasionally the ocular
lobes are articulated.

The genuine Isopoda are divided among the Flabellifera, in which
the terminal segment and uropods form a flabellum or swimming
fan ; the Epicarfdea, parasitic on Crustaceans; the Valvifera, in which
the uropods fold valve-like over the branchial pleopods; the Asellota,
in which the first pair of pleopods of the female are usually trans-
formed into a single opercular plate; the Phreatoicidea, a fresh-water
tribe, known as yet only from subterranean waters in New Zealand
and an Australian swamp nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level ; and lastly,
the Oniscidea, which are terrestrial. Only the last of these, under
the contemptuous designation of wood-lice, has established a feeble
claim to popular recognition. Few persons hear without surprise
that England itself possesses more than a score of species in this air-
breathing tribe. Those known from the world at large number
hundreds of species, distributed among dozens of genera in six
families. That a wood-louse and a land-crab are alike Malacostra-
cans, and that they have by different paths alike become adapted
to terrestrial life, are facts which even a philosopher might con-
descend to notice. Of the other tribes which are aquatic there is
not space to give even the barest outline. Their swarming multi-
tudes are of enormous importance in the economy of the sea. If in
their relation to fish it must be admitted that many of them plague
the living and devour the dead, in return the fish feed rapaciously
upon them. Among the most curious of recent discoveries is that
relating to some of the parasitic Cymothoidae, as to which Bullar
as shown that the same individual can be developed first as a male
and then as a female. Of lately discovered species the most striking
is one of the deep-sea Cirolanidae, Bathynomus giganteus, A. M.
idwards (1879), which is unique in having supplementary ramified
branchiae developed at the bases of the pleopods. Its eyes are
to contain nearly 4000 facets. The animal attains what in
s order is the monstrous size of 9 in. by 4. A general uniformity
the trunk-limbs in Isopoda justifies the ordinal name, but the
valviferous Astacillidae, and among the Asellota the Munnopsidae,
offer some remarkable exceptions to this characteristic. Among

many essential works on this group may be named the Monogr.
Cymothoarum of Schiodte and Meinert (1879-1883); " Challenger "
Report, Beddard (1884-1886); Cirolanidae, H. J. Hansen (1890!;
Isopoda Terrestria, Budde-Lund (1885); Bopyridae, Bonnier (1900);
Crustacea of Norway, vol. ii. (Isopoda), Sars (1896-1899), while their
multitude precludes specification of important contributions by
Benedict, Bovallius, Chilton, Dohrn, Dollfus, Fraisse, Giard and
Bonnier, Harger, Haswell, Kossmann, Miers, M'Murrich, Norman,
Harriet Richardson, Ohlin, Studer, G. M. Thomson, A. O. Walker,
Max Weber and many others.

7. AMPHIPODA. — As in the genuine Isopoda, the eyes of Amphi-
poda are always sessile, and generally paired, and, in contrast to
crabs and lobsters, these two groups have only four pairs of mouth-
organs instead of six, but seven pairs of trunk-legs instead of five.
From the above-named isopods the present order is strongly differ-
entiated by having heart and breathing organs not in the pleon,
but in the peraeon, or middle body, the more or less simple branchial
vesicles being attached to some or all of the last six pairs of trunk-
legs. Normally the pleon carries six pairs of two-branched append-
ages, of which the first three are much articulated flexible swimming
feet, the last three few-jointed comparatively indurated uropods.
There are three tribes, Gammaridea, Caprellidea, Hyperiidea. The
middle one contains but two families, the cylindrical and often
thread-like skeleton shrimps, Caprellidae, and their near cousins,
the broad, flattened, so-called whale-lice, Cyamidae. This tribe
has the pleon dwindled into insignificance, whereas in the other two
tribes it is powerfully developed. The Hyperiidea are distinguished
by having their maxillipeds never more than three-jointed. In the
companion tribes these appendages have normally seven joints, and
always more than three. The order thus sharply divided is united
by an intimate interlacing of characters, and forms a compact whole
at present defying intrusion from any other crustacean group.
Since 1775, when J. C. Fabricius instituted the genus Gammarus
for five species, of which only three were amphipods, while he left
five other amphipods in the genus Oniscus, from this total of eight
science has developed the order, at first very slowly, but of late by
great leaps and bounds, so that now the Gammaridea alone comprise
more than 1300 species, distributed among some 300 genera and 39
families. They burrow in the sands of every shore; they throng
the weeds between tide-marks; they ascend all streams; they are
found in deep wells, in caverns, in lakes ; in Arctic waters they swarm
in numbers beyond computation; they find lodgings on crabs, on
turtles, on weed-grown buoys; they descend into depths of the ocean
down to hundreds or thousands of fathoms; they are found in moun-
tain streams as far above sea-level as some of their corlgeners live
below it. The Talitridae, better known as sandhoppers, can forgo
the briny shore and content themselves with the damp foliage of
inland forests or casual humidity in the crater of an extinct volcano.
Over the ocean surface, as well as at various depths, float and swim
innumerable Hyperiidea — the wonderful Phrontma, glass-like in its
glassy barrel hollowed out of some Tunicate ; the Cystisoma, 4 or 5 in.
long, with its eye-covered head; the Rhabdosoma, like a thin rod
of glass, with needle-like head and tail, large eyes, but limbs and
mouth-organs all in miniature, and the second antennae of the male
folding up like a carpenter's rule (fig. 4). On jelly-fishes are to be
found species of Hyperia and their kindred, so fat and wholesome
that they have been commended to shipwrecked men in open boats
as an easily procurable resource against starvation. Many of the
Amphipoda are extremely voracious. Some of them are even
cannibals. The Cyamidae afflict the giant whale by nibbling away
its skin; the Chelura terebrans is destructive to submerged timber.
But, on the other hand, they largely help to clear the sea and other
waters of refuse and carrion, and for fishes, seals and whales they are
food desirable and often astoundingly copious. From the little
flea-like species, scarcely a tenth of an inch long, up to the great and
rare but cosmopolitan Eurythenes gryllus, Lichtenstein, and the
still larger Alicetla gigantea, Chevreux, nearly half a foot long, cap-
tured by the prince of Monaco from a depth of 2936 fathoms, not
one of these ubiquitous, uncountable hordes has ever been accused
of assailing man. For the naturalist they have the recommendation
that many are easy to obtain, that most, apart from the very minute,
are easy to handle, and that all, except as to the fleeting colours, are
easy to preserve.

A nearly complete bibliography of the order down to 1888 will be
found in the " Challenger " Reports, vol. xxviii., and supplementary
notices in Delia Valle's Monograph of the Gammarini (1893), the scope
of his work, however, not covering the Hyperiidea and Oxycephalidae
of Bovallius (1889, 1890); but since these dates very numerous
additions to the literature have_ been made by Birula, Bonnier,
Norman, Walker and others, especially the Crustacea of Norway, vol. i.
(Amphipoda), Sars (1890-1895), demanding attention, and the quite
recent Amphipoda of the Hirondette, Chevreux (1900), and Hyperiidea
of the Plankton-Expedition, Vosseler (1901). (T. R.'R. S.)

MALAGA, a maritime province of southern Spain, one of
the eight modern subdivisions of Andalusia; bounded on the
W. by Cadiz, N. by Seville and Cordova, E. by Granada, and
S. by the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1000), 511,989; area, 2812
sq. m. The northern half of Malaga belongs to the great

460

MALAGA— MALAKAND PASS

Andalusian plain watered by the Guadalquivir, the southern is
mountainous, and rises steeply from the coast. Of the numerous
sierras may be mentioned that of Alhama, separating the province
from Granada, and at one point rising above 7000 ft. ; its west-
ward continuation in the Sierra de Abdalajis and the Axarquia
between Antequera and Malaga; and not far from the Cadiz
boundary the Sierras de Ronda, de Mijas, de Tolox and Bermeja,
converging and culminating in a summit of nearly 6500 ft.
The rivers which rise in the watershed formed by all these ranges
reach the sea after a short and precipitous descent, and in rainy
seasons are very liable to overflow their banks. In 1907 great
loss of life and destruction of property were caused in this manner.
The principal river is the Guadalhorce, which rises in the Sierra de
Alhama, and, after a westerly course past the vicinity of Ante-
quera, bends southward through the wild defile of Penarrubia
and the beautiful vega or vale of Malaga, falling into the sea near
that city. The only other considerable stream is the Guadiaro,
which has the greater part of its course within the province
and flows past Ronda. There is an extensive salt lagoon near
the northern boundary. The mountains are rich in minerals,
lead, and (in the neighbourhood of Marbella) iron, being
obtained in large quantities. There are warm sulphurous springs
and baths at Carratraca. Though the methods of agriculture
are for the most part rude, the yield of wheat in good seasons is
considerably in excess of the local demand; and large quantities
of grapes and raisins, oranges and lemons, figs and almonds,
are annually exported. The oil and wines of Malaga are also
highly esteemed, and after 1870 the manufacture of beet and cane
sugar developed into an important industry. In 1905 there were
about 500 flour mills and 230 oil factories beside 95 stills and 100
wine-presses in the province. Malaga has suffered severely
from the agricultural depression prevalent throughout southern
Spain, but its manufacturing industries tend to expand. The
fisheries are important; a fleet of about 300 boats brings in
1 8,000,000 Ib annually, of which 2 5 % is exported. The internal
communications are in many parts defective, owing to the
broken nature of the surface; but the province is traversed from
north to south by the Cordova-Malaga railway, which sends off
branches from Bobadilla to Granada and Algeciras. A branch
line along the coast from Malaga to Velez Malaga was opened in
1908.

Malaga, the capital (pop. 130,109), Antequera (31,609), Vdlez
Malaga (23,586), Ronda (20,995), Coin (12,326), and Alora (10,325),
are described in separate articles. Other towns with more than
7000 inhabitants are Marbella (9629), Estepona (9310), Archidona
(8880) and Nerja (7112). The population of the province tends
gradually to decrease, as many families emigrate to South America,
Algeria and Hawaii.

MALAGA, the capital of the province of Malaga, an episcopal
see, and, next to Barcelona, the most important seaport of Spain,
finely situated on the Mediterranean coast, at the southern base
of the Axarquia hills and at the eastern extremity of the fertile
vega (plain) of Malaga in 36° 43' N. and 4° 25' W. Pop. (1900),
130,109. From the clearness of its sky, and the beautiful
sweep of its bay, Malaga has sometimes been compared with
Naples. The climate is one of the mildest and most equable in
Europe, the mean annual temperature being 66-7° Fahr. The
principal railway inland gives access through Bobadilla to all
parts of Spain, and a branch line along the coast to Velez-Malaga
was opened in 1 908. Malaga lies principally on the left bank of a
mountain torrent, the Guadalmedina (" river of the city ") ; the
streets near the sea are spacious and comparatively modern,
but those in the older part of the town, where the buildings are
huddled around the ancient citadel, are narrow, winding and
often dilapidated. Well-built suburbs have also spread on all
sides into the rich and pleasant country which surrounds Malaga,
and several acres of land reclaimed from the sea have been con-
verted into a public park. There are various squares or plazas
and public promenades; of the former the most important are the
Plaza de Riego (containing the monument to General Jose Maria
Torrijos, who, with forty-eight others, was executed in Malaga
on the nth of December 1831, (or promoting an insurrection
in favour of the constitution) and the Plaza de la Constitucion;

adjoining the quays is the fine Paseo de la Alameda. The
city has no public buildings of commanding architectural or
historical importance. The cathedral, on the site of an ancient
mosque, was begun about 1528; after its construction had
been twice interrupted, it was completed to its present state
in the i8th century, and is in consequence an obtrusive record
of the degeneration of Spanish architecture. The woodwork of
the choir, however, is worthy of attention. The church of El
Cristo de la Victoria contains some relics of the siege of 1487.
There are an English church and an English cemetery, which
dates from 1830; up to that year all Protestants who died in
Malaga were buried on the foreshore, where their bodies were
frequently exposed by the action of wind and sea. Of the old
Moorish arsenal only a single horse-shoe gateway remains, the
rest of the site being chiefly occupied by an iron structure used
as a market; the Alcazaba, or citadel, has almost disappeared.
The castle of Gibralfaro, on a bold eminence to the north-
east dates from the I3th century, and is still in fairly good
preservation.

During the igth century so much silt accumulated in the har-
bour that vessels were obliged to lie in the roads outside, and
receive and discharge cargo by means of lighters; but new harbour
works were undertaken in 1880, and large ships can now again
load or discharge at the quays, which are connected with the main
railway system by a branch line. About 2150 ships of 1,750,000
tons enter at Malaga every year. Iron, lead, wine, olive oil,
almonds, fresh and dried fruit, palmetto hats and canary seed are
exported in large quantities, while the imports include grain,
codfish, fuel, chemicals, iron and steel, machinery, manures and
staves for casks. Although trade was impeded during the early
years of the 2oth century by a succession of bad harvests and
by the disastrous floods of September 1907, the number of indus-
tries carried on in and near Malaga tends steadily to increase.
There are large cotton mills, iron foundries, smelting works and
engineering works. Pottery, mosaic, artificial stone and tiles
are produced chiefly for the home market, though smaller
quantities are sent abroad. There is a chromo-lithographic
establishment, and the other industries include tanning, distilling
and the manufacture of sugar, chocolate, soap, candles, artificial
ice, chemical products, white lead and pianos. Foreign capital
has played a prominent part in the development of Malaga; a
French syndicate owns the gas-works, and the electric lighting
of the streets is controlled by British and German companies.

Malaga is the MaXa/ca of Strabo (iii. 1 56) and Ptolemy (ii. 4, 7)
and the Malaca foederatorum of Pliny (iii. 3). The place
seems to have been of some importance even during the Cartha-
ginian period; under the Romans it became a municipium, and
under the Visigoths an episcopal see. In 711 it passed into the
possession of the Moors, and soon came to be regarded as one
of the most important cities of Andalusia. It was attached to
the caliphate of Cordova, but on the fall of the Omayyad dynasty
it became for a short time the capital of an independent kingdom ;
afterwards it was dependent on Granada. In 1487 it was taken
and treated with great harshness by Ferdinand and Isabella
after a protracted siege. In 1810 it was sacked by the French
under General Sebastiani. The citizens of Malaga are noted
for their opposition to the Madrid government; they took a
prominent part in the movements against Espartero (1843),
against Queen Isabella (1868) and in favour of a republic (1873).

MALAKAND PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West
Province of India, connecting the British district of Peshawar
with the Swat Valley. It is now a military post and the head-
quarters of a political agency. It came into prominence for the
first time in 1895 during the Chitral campaign, when 7000
Pathans held it against Sir Robert Low's advance, but were
easily routed. After the campaign was over a fortified camp was
formed on the Malakand to guard the road to Chitral. During
the frontier risings of 1897 the Swatis made a determined attack
on the Malakand, where 700 were killed, and on the adjacent
post of Chakdara, where 2000 were killed. This was the
origin of the Malakand Expedition of the same year. (See
SWAT.)

MALALAS— MALARIA

461

MALALAS (or MALELAS) (Syriac for " orator "), JOHN (c. 491-
578), Byzantine chronicler, was born at Antioch. He wrote a
povoy pacfrla in 18 books, the beginning and the end of which
•e lost. In its present state it begins with the mythical history
Egypt and ends with the expedition to Africa under Marcianus,
e nephew of Justinian. Except for the history of Justinian
id his immediate predecessors, it possesses little historical
alue; it is written without any idea of proportion and contains
tonishing blunders. The writer is a supporter of Church and
tate, an upholder of monarchical principles. The work is rather
chronicle written round Antioch, which he regarded as the
tre of the world, and (in the later books) round Constanti-
ople. It is, however, important as the first specimen of a
ronicle written not for the learned but for the instruction of
,e monks and the common people, in the language of the vulgar,
with an admixture of Latin and Oriental words. It obtained
great popularity, and was conscientiously exploited by various
writers until the nth century, being translated even into the
Slavonic languages. It is preserved in an abridged form in a
single MS. now at Oxford.

For the authorities consulted by Malalas, the influence of his
work on Slavonic and Oriental literature, the state of the text, the
original form and extent of the work, the date of its composition,
the relation of the concluding part to the whole, and the literature
of the subject, see C. Krumbacher's Geschichte der byzantinischen
Litteratur (1897). See also the editio princeps, by E. Chilmead
(Oxford, 1691), containing an essay by Humphrey Hody and
Bentley's well-known letter to Mill; other editions in the Bonn
Corpus scriptorum hist, byz., by L. Dindorf (1831), and in J. P.
Migne Palrologia graeca, xcvii. ,

MALAN, SOLOMON CAESAR (1812-1894), British divine
and orientalist, was by birth a Swiss descended from an exiled
French family, and was born at Geneva on the 22nd of April
1812, where his father, Dr Henry Abraham Caesar Malan
(1787-1864) enjoyed a great reputation as a Protestant divine.
From his earliest youth he manifested a remarkable faculty for
the study of languages, and when he came to Scotland as tutor
in the marquis of Tweeddale's family at the age of 18 he had
already made progress in Sanskrit, Arabic and Hebrew. In 1833
he matriculated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford; and English being
almost an unknown tongue to him, he petitioned the examiners
to allow him to do his paper work of the examination in French,
German, Spanish, Italian, Latin or Greek, rather than in English.
But his request was not granted. After gaining the Boden and
the Pusey and Ellerton scholarships, he graduated 2nd class in
Lit. hum. in 1837. He then proceeded to India as classical
lecturer at Bishop's College, Calcutta, to which post he added
the duties of secretary to the Bengal branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society; and although compelled by illness to return in 1840,
laid the foundation of a knowledge of Tibetan and Chinese.
After serving various curacies, he was presented in 1845 to the
living of Broadwindsor, Dorset, which he held until 1886.
During this entire period he continued to augment his linguistic
knowledge, which he carried so far as to be able to preach in that
most difficult language, Georgian, on a visit which he paid to
Nineveh in 1872. His translations from the Armenian, Georgian
and Coptic were numerous. He applied his Chinese learning to
the determination of important points connected with Chinese
religion, and published a vast number of parallel passages illus-
trative of the Book of Proverbs. In 1880 the university of
Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.D.
No modern scholar, perhaps, has so nearly approached the
linguistic omniscience of Mezzofanti; but, like Mezzofanti, Dr
Malan was more of a linguist than a critic. He made himself con-
spicuous by the vehemence of his opposition to Westcott and
Hort's text of the New Testament, and to the transliteration
of Oriental languages, on neither of which points did he in general
obtain the suffrages of scholars. His extensive and valuable
library, some special collections excepted, was presented by him
in his lifetime to the Indian Institute at Oxford. He died at
Bournemouth on the 2$th of November 1894. His life has been
written by his son.

MALAR, a lake of Sweden, extending 73 m. westward from

Stockholm, which lies at its junction with the Saltsjo, an arm of
the Baltic Sea. The height of the lake is normally only from 1 1 in.
to 2 ft. above sea-level, and its outflow is sometimes reversed.
The area is 449 sq. m. The bottom consists of a series of basins
separate by ridges from which rise numerous islands. The
deepest sounding is 210 ft. The outline is very irregular, the
mean breadth being about 15 m., but an arm extends northward
for 30 m. nearly to the city of Upsala with many ramifications.
The area of the drainage basin is 8789 sq. m., of which 1124
are occupied by lakes. The navigable connexions with the lake
are — (i) with lake Hjelmar to the south-west by the Arboga
river and the Hjelmar canal; and by the Eskilstuna river and
the Thorshalla canal; (2) with the Baltic southward through
the Sodertelge canal, the route followed by the Gota canal
steamers; (3) with the Baltic by two channels at Stockholm.
The more important towns, besides Stockholm, are Vesteras on
the north, Sodertelge and Eskilstuna near the south shore.
The lake offers a field for recreation fully appreciated by the
inhabitants of the capital, and many of those whose business
lies at Stockholm have their residences on the shores of Malar.
On Drottningholm (Queen's Island, named from Catherine, wife
of John III.) is a palace with a fine park and formal gardens.
John III. built a palace at the close of the i6th century, but the
existing building, by Nicodemus Tessin and his son Nicodemus,
dates from the second half of the I7th century. At Mariefred
on the south shore there is the castle of Gripsholm (1537), built
by Gustavus Vasa, a picturesque erection with four towers,
richly adorned within, and containing a large collection of
portraits. Strengnas, on the same shore, became an episcopal
see in 1291, when the fine cathedral, much altered since, was
consecrated. In the episcopal palace, a building of the isth
century now used as a school, Gustavus Vasa was elected to the
throne of Sweden in 1523. On the northward arm of the lake
is the palace of Rosenberg, used as a school of gunnery, in a well-
wooded park. On a branch of the same arm is Sigtuna, a village
whose ruined churches are a memorial of its rank among the
principal towns of Sweden after its foundation in the nth cen-
tury. Remains prove that on Bjorko, an island in the eastern
part of the lake, there was a large settlement of earlier importance
than Sigtuna. Here a cross commemorates the preaching of
Christianity by St Ansgar in 829. Finally, on the northern arm
about 10 m. south of Upsala, there is the chateau of Skokloster,
occupying the site of a monastery, and presented by Gustavus
Adolphus to Marshal Herman Wrangel, whose son Charles
Gustavus Wrangel stored it with a remarkable collection of
trophies from Germany, taken during the Thirty Years' War;
including a library, an armoury, and a great accumulation of
curios.

MALARIA, an Italian colloquial word (from mala, bad,
and aria, air), introduced into English medical literature by
Macculloch (1827) as a substitute for the more restricted terms
" marsh miasm " or " paludal poison." It is generally applied to
the definite unhealthy condition of body known by a variety of
names, such as ague, intermittent (and remittent) fever, marsh
fever, jungle fever, hill fever, " fever of the country " and " fever
and ague." A single paroxysm of simple ague may come upon
the patient in the midst of good health or it may be preceded
by some malaise. The ague-fit begins with chills proceeding as if
from the lower part of the back, and gradually extending until
the coldness overtakes the whole body. Tremors of the muscles
more or less violent accompany the cold sensations, beginning
with the muscles of the lower jaw (chattering of the teeth), and
extending to the extremities and trunk. The expression has
meanwhile changed: the face is pale or livid; there are dark rings
under the eyes; the features are pinched and sharp, and the
whole skin shrunken; the fingers are dead white, the nails
blue.

All those symptoms are referable to spasmodic constriction of
the small surface arteries, the pulse at the wrist being itself
small, hard and quick. In the interior organs there are indica-
tions of a compensating accumulation of blood, such as swelling
of the spleen, engorgement (very rarely rupture) of the heart,

462

MALARIA

with a feeling of oppression in the chest, and a copious flow of
clear and watery urine from the congested kidneys. The body
temperature will have risen suddenly from the normal to 103° or
higher. This first or cold stage of the paroxysm varies much in
length; in temperate climates it lasts from one to two hours,
while in tropical and subtropical countries it may be shortened.
It is followed by the stage of dry heat, which will be prolonged in
proportion as the previous stage is curtailed. The feeling of
heat is at first an internal one, but it spreads outwards to the
surface and to the extremities; the skin becomes warm and red,
but remains dry; the pulse becomes softer and more full, but
still quick; and the throbbings occur in exposed arteries, such as
the temporal. The spleen continues to enlarge; the urine is now
scanty and high-coloured; the body temperature is high, but the
highest temperatures occur during the chill; there is consider-
able thirst; and there is the usual intellectual unfitness, and it
may be confusion, of the feverish state. This period of dry heat,
having lasted three or four hours or longer, comes to an end in
perspiration, at first a mere moistness of the skin, passing into
sweating that may be profuse and even drenching. Sleep may
overtake the patient in the midst of the sweating stage, and he
awakes, not without some feeling of what he has passed through,
but on the whole well, with the temperature fallen almost or
altogether to the normal, or it may be even below the normal;
the pulse moderate and full; the spleen again of its ordinary size;
the urine that is passed after the paroxysm deposits a thick
brick-red sediment of urates. The three stages together will
probably have lasted six to twelve hours. The paroxysm is
followed by a definite interval in which there is not only no
fever, but even a fair degree of bodily comfort and fitness; this
is the intermission of the fever. Another paroxysm begins at
or near the same hour next day (quotidian ague), which results
from a double tertian infection, or the interval may be forty-
eight hours (tertian ague), or seventy-two hours (quartan
ague). It is the general rule, with frequent exceptions, that the
quotidian paroxysm comes on in the morning, the tertian about
noon, and the quartan in the afternoon. Another rule is that
the quartan has the longest cold stage, while its paroxysm is
shortest as a whole; the quotidian has the shortest cold stage and
a long hot stage, while its paroxysm is longest as a whole. The
point common to the various forms of ague is that the
paroxysm ceases about midnight or early morning. Quotidian
intermittent is on the whole more common than tertian in
hot countries; elsewhere the tertian is the usual type, and
quartan is only occasional.

If the first paroxysm should not cease within the twenty-four
hours, the fever is not reckoned as an intermittent, but as a
remittent.

Remittent js a not unusual form of the malarial process in tropical
and subtropical countries, and in some localities or in some seasons
it is more common than intermittent. It may be said to arise out
of that type of intermittent in which the cold stage is shortened while
the hot stage tends to be prolonged. A certain abatement or re-
mission of the fever takes place, with or without sweating, but
there is no true intermission or interval of absolute apyrexia. The
periodicity shows itself in the form of an exacerbation of the still
continuing fever, and that exacerbation may take place twenty-
four hours after the first onset, or the interval may be only half
that period, or it may be double. A fever that is to be remittent
will usually declare itself from the outset : it begins with chills, but
without the shivering and shaking fit of the intermittent; the hot
stage soon follows, presenting the same characters as the prolonged
hot stage of the quotidian, with the frequent addition of bilious
symptoms, and it may be even of jaundice and of tenderness over
the stomach and liver. Towards morning the fever abates; the
pulse falls in frequency, but does not come down to the normal;
headache and aching in the loins and limbs become less, but do not
cease altogether; the body temperature falls, but does not touch the
level of apyrexia. The remission or abatement lasts generally
throughout the morning ; and about noon there is an exacerbation,
seldom ushered in by chills, which continues till the early morning
following, when it remits or abates as before. A patient with
remittent may get well in a week under treatment, but the fever
may go on for several weeks; the return to health is often announced
by the fever assuming the intermittent type, or, in other words, by
the remissions touching the level of absolute apyrexia. Remittent
fevers (as well as intermittents) vary considerably in intensity;
some cases are intense from the outset, or pernicious, with aggrava-

tion of all the symptoms — leading to stupor, delirium, collapse,
intense jaundice, blood in the stools, blood and albumen in the
urine, and, it may be, suppression of urine followed by convulsions.
The severe forms of intermittent are most apt to occur in the very
young, or in the aged, or in debilitated persons generally. Milder
cases of malarial fever are apt to become dangerous from the
complications of dysentery, bronchitis or pneumonia. Severe
remittents (pernicious or bilious remittents) approximate to the
type of yellow fever (q.v.), which is conventionally limited to epi-
demic outbreaks in western longitudes and on the west coast of
Africa.

"'Of the mortality due to malarial disease a small part
only is referable to the direct attack of intermittent, and chiefly
to the fever in its pernicious form. Remittent fever is much
more fatal in its direct attack. But probably the greater
part of the enormous total of deaths set down to malaria is
due to the malarial cachexia. The dwellers in a malarious
region like the Terai (at the foot of the Himalayas) are miserable,
listless and ugly, -with large heads and particularly prominent
ears, flat noses, tumid bellies, slender limbs and sallow com-
plexions; the children are impregnated with malaria from
their birth, and their growth is attended with aberrations
from the normal which practically amount to the disease of
rickets. The malarial cachexia that follows definite attacks
of ague consists in a state of ill-defined suffering, associated
with a sallow skin, enlarged spleen and liver, and sometimes
with dropsy.

Causation. — From the time of Hippocrates onwards the
malarial or periodical fevers have engaged the attention of
innumerable observers, who have suggested various theories
of causation, and have sometimes anticipated — vaguely,
indeed, but with surprising accuracy — the results of modern
research; but the true nature of the disease remained in doubt
until the closing years of the igth century. It has now been
demonstrated by a series of accurate investigations, contributed
by many workers, that malaria is caused by a microscopic
parasite in the blood, into which it is introduced by the bites,
of certain species of mosquito. (See PARASITIC DISEASES
and MOSQUITOES.)

The successive steps by which the present position has been
reached form an interesting chapter in the history of scientific
progress. The first substantial link in the actual HMo gf
chain of discovery was contributed in 1880 by Discovery.
Laveran, a French army surgeon serving in Algeria.
On the 6th of November in that year he plainly saw the living
parasites under the microscope in the blood of a malarial patient,
and he shortly afterwards communicated his observations to the
Paris Academic de Medecine. They were confirmed, but met with
little acceptance in the scientific world, which was preoccupied
with the claims of a subsequently discredited Bacillus malariae.
In 1885 the Italian pathologists came round to Laveran's views,
and began to work out the life history of his parasites. The
subject has a special interest for Italy, which is devastated by
malaria, and Italian science has contributed materially to
the solution of the problem. The labours of Golgi, Marchiafava,
Celli and others established the nature of the parasite and
its behaviour in the blood; they proved the fact, guessed by
Rasori so far back as 1846, that the periodical febrile paroxysm
corresponds with the development of the organisms; and they
showed that the different forms of malarial fever have their
distinct parasites, and consequently fall into distinct groups,
defined on an etiological as well as a clinical basis — namely,
the mild or spring group, which includes tertian and quartan
ague, and the malignant or " aestivo-autumnal " group, which
includes a tertian or a semi-tertian and the true quotidian
type. Three distinct parasites, corresponding with the tertian,
quartan and malignant types of fever, have been described
by Italian observers, and the classification is generally accepted;
intermediate types are ascribed to mixed and multiple infections.
So far, however, only half the problem, and from the practical
point of view the less important half, had been solved. The
origin of the parasite and its mode of introduction into
the blood remained to be discovered. An old popular belief
current in different countries, and derived from common

MALARIA

463

observation, connected mosquitoes with malaria, and from time
to time this theory found support in more scientific quarters
on general grounds, but it lacked demonstration and attracted
little attention. In 1894, however, Sir Patrick Manson, arguing
with greater precision by analogy from his own discovery of
the cause of filariasis and the part played by mosquitoes,
suggested that the malarial parasite had a similar intermediate
host outside the human body, and that a suctorial insect,
which would probably be found to be a particular mosquito,
was required for its development. Following up this line
of investigation, Major Ronald Ross in 1895 found that if a
mosquito sucked blood containing the parasites they soon
began to throw out flagellae, which broke away and became
free; and in 1897 he discovered peculiar pigmented cells, which
afterwards turned out to be the parasites of aestivo-autumnal
malaria in an early stage of development, within the stomach-
wall of mosquitoes which had been fed on malarial blood.
He further found that only mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles
had these cells, and that they did not get them when fed on
healthy blood. Then, turning his attention to the malaria
of birds, he worked out the life-history of these cells within
the body of the mosquito. " He saw that they increased in
size, divided, and became full of filiform spores, then ruptured
and poured out their multitudinous progeny into the body-
cavity of their insect host. Finally, he saw the spores accumu-
late within the cells of the salivary glands, and discovered
that they actually passed down the salivary ducts and along
the grooved hypopharynx into the seat of puncture, thus
causing infection in a fresh vertebrate host " (Sambon). To
apply these discoveries to the malaria of man was an obvious
step. In working out the details the Italian school have again
taken a prominent part.

Thus we get a complete scientific demonstration of the
causation of malaria in three stages: (i) the discovery of the
parasite by Laveran; (2) its life-history in the human host and
connexion with the fever demonstrated by the Italian observers;
(3) its life-history in the alternate host, and the identification
of the latter with a particular species of mosquito by Ross
and Manson. The conclusions derived from the microscopical
laboratory were confirmed by actual experiment. In 1898
Experiment *l was conclusively shown in Italy that if a mosquito
of the Anopheles variety bites a person suffering
from malaria, and is kept long enough for the parasite to develop
in the salivary gland, and is then allowed to bite a healthy
person, the latter will in due time develop malaria. The con-
verse proposition, that persons efficiently protected from
mosquito bites escape malaria, has been made the subject of
several remarkable experiments. One of the most interesting
was carried out in 1900 for the London School of Tropical
Medicine by Dr Sambon and Dr Low, who went to reside in
one of the most malarious districts in the Roman Campagna
during the most dangerous season. Together with Signer
Terzi and two Italian servants, they lived from the beginning
of July until the igth of October in a specially protected hut,
erected near Ostia. The sole precaution taken was to confine
themselves between sunset and sunrise to their mosquito-
proof dwelling. All escaped malaria, which was rife in the
immediate neighbourhood. Mosquitoes caught by the experi-
menters, and sent to London, produced malaria in persons
who submitted themselves to the bites of these insects at the
London School of Tropical Medicine. Experiments in pro-
tection on a larger scale, and under more ordinary conditions,
have been carried out with equal success by Professor Celli
and other Italian authorities. The first of these was in 1899,
and the subjects were the railwaymen employed on certain
lines running through highly malarious districts. Of 24 pro-
tected persons, all escaped but four, and these had to be out
at night or otherwise neglected precautions; of 38 unprotected
persons, all contracted malaria except two, who had apparently
acquired immunity. In 1900 further experiments gave still
better results. Of 52 protected persons on one line, all escaped
except two, who were careless; of 52 protected on another

line, all escaped; while of 51 unprotected persons, living in
alternate houses, all suffered except seven. Out of a total of
207 persons protected in these railway experiments, 197 escaped.
In two peasants' cottages in the Campagna, protected with
wire netting by Professor Celli, all the inmates — 10 in number
— escaped, while the neighbours suffered severely; and three
out of four persons living in a third hut, from which protection
was removed owing to the indifference of the inmates, con-
tracted malaria. In the malarious islet of Asmara a pond
of stagnant water was treated with petroleum and all windows
were protected with gauze. The result was that the houses
were free from mosquitoes and no malaria occurred throughout
the entire season, though there had been 40 cases in the pre-
vious year. Eight Red Cross ambulances, each with a doctor
and attendant, were sent, into the most malarious parts of the
Campagna in 1900. By living in protected houses and wearing
gloves and veils at night all the staff escaped malaria except
one or two attendants. These and other experiments, de-
scribed by Dr Manson in the Practitioner for March 1900, con-
firming the laboratory evidence as they do, leave no doubt
whatever of the correctness of the mosquito-parasitic theory
of malaria.

It is possible, though not probable, that malaria may also
be contracted in some other way than by mosquito bite, but
there are no well-authenticated facts which require any other
theory for their explanation. The alleged occurrence of the
disease in localities free from mosquitoes or without their
agency is not well attested; its absence from other localities
where they abound is accounted for by their being of an innocent
species, or — as in England — free from the parasite. The old
theory of paludism or of a noxious miasma exhaled from the
ground is no longer necessary. The broad facts on which it is
based are sufficiently accounted for by the habits of mosquitoes.
For instance, the swampy character of malarial areas is explained
by their breeding in stagnant water; the effect of drainage,
and the general immunity of high-lying, dry localities, by the
lack of breeding facilities; the danger of the night air, by their
nocturnal habits; the comparative immunity of the upper
storeys of houses, by the fact that they fly low; the confinement
of malaria to well-marked areas and the diminution of danger
with distance, by their habit of clinging to the breeding-grounds
and not flying far. Similarly, the subsidence of malaria during
cold weather and its seasonal prevalence find an adequate
explanation in the conditions governing insect life. At the
same time it should be remembered that many points await
elucidation, and it is unwise to assume conclusions in advance
of the evidence.

With regard to the parasites, which are the actual cause
of malaria in man, an account of them is given under the heading
of PARASITIC DISEASES, and little need be said about pj^^y^
them here. They belong to the group of Protozoa,
and, as already explained, have a double cycle of existence:
(i) a sexual cycle in the body of the mosquito, (2) an asexual
cycle in the blood of human beings. They occupy and destroy
the red corpuscles, converting the haemoglobin into melanin;
they multiply in the blood by sporulation, and produce acces-
sions of fever by the liberation of a toxin at the time of sporula-
tion (Ross). The number in the blood in an acute attack is
reckoned by Ross to be not less than 250 millions. A more
general and practical interest attaches to the insects which
act as their intermediate hosts. These mosquitoes or gnats —
the terms are synonymous — belong to the family Ctdicidae
and the genus Anopheles, which was first classified by Meigen
in 1818. It has a wide geographical distribution, being found
in Europe (including England), Asia Minor, Burma, Straits
Settlements, Java, China, Formosa, Egypt; west, south
and Central Africa; Australia, South America, West Indies,
United States and Canada, but is generally confined to local
centres in those countries. About fifty species are recognized
at present. It is believed that all of them may serve as hosts
of the parasite. The species best known in connexion with
malaria are A. macidipennis (Europe and America), A.funestus

MALARIA

and A. costales (Africa). In colour Anopheles is usually brownish
or slaty, but sometimes buff, and the thorax frequently has
a dark stripe on each side. The wings in nearly all species
have a dappled or speckled appearance, owing to the occurrence
of blotches on the front margin and to the arrangement of
the scales covering the veins in alternating light and dark
patches (Austen). The genus with which Anopheles is most
likely to be confounded is Culex, which is the commonest of
all mosquitoes, has a world-wide distribution, and is generally
a greedy blood-sucker. A distinctive feature is the position
assumed in resting; Culex has a humpbacked attitude, while
in Anopheles the proboscis, head and body are in a straight
line, and in many species inclined at an angle to the wall, the
tail sticking outwards. In the female of Culex the palpi are
much shorter than the proboscis; in Anopheles they are of the
same length. The wings in Culex have not the same dappled
appearance. Anopheles is also a more slender insect, with a
smaller head, narrower body and thinner legs. There are
further differences in the other stages of life. Mosquitoes
go through four phases: (i) ovum, (2) larva, (3) nympha, (4)
complete insect. The ova of Anopheles are tiny black rod-
shaped objects, which are deposited on the water of natural
puddles, ponds, or slowly moving streams, by preference those
which are well supplied with vegetation; they float, singly
or attached to other objects or clustered together in patterns.
They can live in brackish and even in sea water. The larva
has no breathing-tube, and floats horizontally at the surface,
except when feeding; it does not frequent sewage or foul water.
The ova of Culex, on the other hand, are deposited in any
stagnant water, including cesspools, drains, cisterns, or water
collected in any vessel; they float in boat-shaped masses on
the surface. The larva has a breathing-tube, and floats head
downwards; when disturbed it wriggles to the bottom (Christy).
Some observers maintain that Anopheles does not " sing,"
like the common mosquito, and its bite is much less irritating.
Only the females suck blood; the act is believed to be neces-
sary for fertilization and reproduction. Anopheles rarely bites
by day, and then only in dark places. In the daytime " the
gorged females rest motionless on the walls and ceilings of
rooms, choosing always the darkest situations for this purpose "
(Austen). In temperate climates the impregnated females
hibernate during the winter in houses, cellars, stables, the
trunks of trees, &c., coming out to lay their eggs in the spring.
The four phases are passed in thirty days in a favourable
season, and consequently there are ordinarily four or five
generations from April to September (Celli).

The most important question raised by the mosquito-
parasitic theory of malaria is that of prevention. This may
be considered under two heads: (i) individual prophylaxis;
(2) administrative prevention on a large scale.

(i) In the first place, common sense suggests the avoidance,
in malarious countries, of unhealthy situations, and particu-
larly the neighbourhood of stagnant water. Among

Pro-

elements of unhealthiness is next to be reckoned

phylaxls.

the proximity of native villages, the inhabitants
of which are infected. In the tropics " no European house
should be located nearer to a native village than half a mile "
(Manson), and, since children are almost universally infected,
" the presence of young natives in the house should be abso-
lutely interdicted" (Manson). When unhealthy situations
cannot be avoided, they may be rendered more healthy by
destroying the breeding-grounds of mosquitoes in the neigh-
bourhood. All puddles and collections of water should be
filled in or drained; as a temporary expedient they may be
treated with petroleum, which prevents the development
of the larvae. When a place cannot be kept free from mos-
quitoes the house may be protected, as in the experiments in
Italy, by wire gauze at the doors and windows. The arrange-
ment used for the entrance is a wire cage with double doors.
Failing such protection mosquito curtains should be used.
Mosquitoes in the house may be destroyed by the fumes of
burning sulphur or tobacco smoke. According to the experi-

ments of Celli and Casagrandi, these are the most effective
culicides; when used in sufficient quantity they kill mosquitoes
in one minute. The same authorities recommend a powder
composed of larvicide (an aniline substance), chrysanthemum
flowers, and valerian root, to be burnt in bedrooms. Anoint-
ing the skin with strong-smelling substances is of little use
in the open air, but more effective in the house; turpentine
appears to be the best. Exposure at night should be avoided.
All these prophylactic measures are directed against mos-
quitoes. There remains the question of protection against
the parasite. Chills are recognized as predisposing both to
primary infection and to relapses, and malnutrition is also
believed to increase susceptibility; both should therefore be
avoided. Then a certain amount of immunity may be acquired
by the systematic use of quinine. Manson recommends five
to ten grains once or twice a week; Ross recommends the same
quantity every day before breakfast. There is some evidence
that arsenic has a prophylactic effect. An experiment made
on the railway staff at Bovino, a highly malarious district
on the Adriatic, gave a striking result. The number of persons
was 78, and they were divided into two equal groups of 39 each.
One group was treated with arsenic, and of these 36 escaped
altogether, while three had mild attacks; the remaining 39
who were not treated, all had fever. In a more extended
experiment on 657 railway-men 402 escaped. This was in
1889; but in spite of the encouraging results the use of arsenic
does not appear to have made any further progress. Experi-
ments in immunizing by sero-therapeu tic methods have not
as yet met with success.

(2) Much attention has been directed in scientific circles
to the possibility of " stamping out " epidemic malaria by
administrative measures. The problem is one Adminis-
of great practical importance, especially to the trative
British Empire. There are no data for estimating Me»sul
the damage inflicted by malaria in the British colonies.
It is, indeed, quite incalculable. In Italy the annual mor-
tality from this cause averages 15,000, which is estimated
to represent two million cases of sickness and a consequent
loss of several million francs. In British tropical possessions
the bill is incomparably heavier. There is not only the
heavy toll in life and health exacted from Europeans, but
the virtual closing of enormous tracts of productive country
which would otherwise afford scope for British enterprise.
The " deadly " climates, to which so much dread attaches,
generally mean malaria, and the mastery of this disease would
be equivalent to the addition of vast and valuable areas to
the empire. The problem, therefore, is eminently one for the
statesman and administrator. A solution may be sought
in several directions, suggested by the facts already explained.
The existence of the parasite is maintained by a vicious inter-
change between its alternate hosts, mosquitoes and man,
each infecting the other. If the cycle be broken at any point
the parasite must die out, assuming that it has no other origin
or mode of existence. The most effective step would obviously
be the extermination of the Anopheles mosquito. A great
deal may be done towards this end by suppressing their breed-
ing-places, which means the drying of the ground. It is a
question for the engineer, and may require different methods
in different circumstances. Put comprehensively, it involves
the control of the subsoil and surface waters by drainage,
the regulation of rivers and floods, suitable agriculture, the
clearing of forests or jungles, which tend to increase the rainfall
and keep the ground swampy.

The city of Rome is an example of what can be done by
drainage; situated in the midst of malaria, it is itself quite
healthy. Recent reports also show us how much may be
done in infected districts. At Ismailia malaria was reduced
from 1551 cases in 1902 to 37 cases in 1905. The cost of opera-
tions amounted to an initial expenditure of 6-25 francs, and
an annual expenditure of about 2-3 francs per head of the
population. " The results are due to mosquito reduction
together with cinchonization." The following is a tabulated

MALATIA

465

list of the cases. The population of Ismailia is about 6000.

Year

1900

1901

1902'

1903

1904

i9<'5

Cases of Malaria .

2250

1990

1548

214

90

37 2

Klang and Port Swettenham are contiguous towns in the
Federated Malay States, having a population of 4000 and a
rainfall of 100 in. a year. At Klang the expenditure has been
£3100, with an annual expenditure of £270, devoted to clearing
and draining 332 acres. At Port Swettenham £7000, with
an annual upkeep of £240, has been devoted to treating no
acres. In Hong-Kong similar measures were carried out,
with the result that the hospital admissions for malaria dimin-
ished from 1294 in 1901, the year when operations were begun,
to 419 in 1905.

Klang and Port Swettenham.

Year

1900

1901 '

1902

1903

1904

1905

Cases of Malaria .

5io

610

199

69

32

23

A systematic campaign for the destruction of breeding-
places has been inaugurated in the British West African colonies,
with encouraging results. The planting of eucalyptus trees
is out of favour at present, but it appears to have been successful
in Portugal, not from any prophylactic virtues in the plant,
but through the great absorption of moisture by its deep roots,
which tends to dry the subsoil. Treating the breeding-ponds
with petroleum or similar preparations seems to be hardly
applicable on a large scale, and in any case can only be a tempo-
rary expedient. H. Ziemann advocates the destruction of
mosquito larvae by the growing of such plants as the water-
pest (Anacharis alsinatrum) which covers the surface of the
water and suffocates larvae and nymphae. Short of suppress-
ing mosquitoes, the parasitic cycle may theoretically be broken
by preventing them from giving the infection to man or taking
it from him. The means of accomplishing the former have
been already pointed out, but they are obviously difficult
to carry out on a large scale, particularly in native communities.
It is one thing to protect individuals from mosquito bites,
another to prevent the propagation of the parasite in a whole
community. Perhaps the converse is more feasible in some
circumstances — that is to say, preventing mosquitoes from
having access to malarial persons, and so propagating the
parasite in themselves. It could be carried out where the
infected persons are few, by isolating and protecting them,
but not where many are infected, as in native villages. Koch
has suggested that the disinfection of malarial persons by
quinine would have the desired effect, but other authorities
of greater experience do not consider it practicable. In spite
of the difficulties, however, there is no doubt that a great
deal can be done to reduce, if not stamp out, malaria by the
methods indicated, which should be applied according to
circumstances. An encouraging example is afforded by the
remarkable fact that malaria, which was once rife in certain
districts of England, has now died out, although the Anopheles
macidipennis mosquito still exists there. The parasitic cycle
has been broken, and the insect is no longer infected. The
suggested causes are (i) reduction of insects by drainage, (2)
reduced population, (3) the use of quinine. Sir Patrick Manson
has suggested that the problem of stamping out malaria may
be assisted by the discovery of some at present unknown factors.
He has pointed out that certain areas and certain islands are
entirely free from the disease, while neighbouring areas and
islands are devastated. This immunity is apparently not
due to the absence of favourable conditions, but rather to the
presence of some inimical factor which prevents the develop-
ment of the parasite. If this factor could be discovered it
might be applied to the suppression of the disease in malarious
localities.

1 Drainage works begun.

* Nearly all were relapses of previous infection.

A few other points may be noted. The pathological changes
in malaria are due to the deposition of melanin and the detritus
of red corpuscles and haemoglobin, and to the congregation of
parasites in certain sites (Ross). In chronic cases the eventual
effects are anaemia, melanosis, enlargement of the spleen and
liver, and general cachexia. Apparently the parasites may
remain quiescent in the blood for years and may cause relapses
by fresh sporulation. Recent discoveries have done little
or nothing for treatment. Quinine still remains the one
specific. "In serious cases it should not be given in solid form,
but in solution by the stomach, rectum, or — better — hypo-
dermically (Manson). According to Ross, it should be given
promptly, in sufficient doses (up to 30 grains), and should be
continued for months. Euquinine is by some preferred to
quinine, but it is more expensive. Nucleogen and Aristochin
have also been recommended instead of quinine. The nature
of immunity is not known. Some persons are naturally abso-
lutely immune (Celli), but this is rare; immunity is also some-
times acquired by infection, but as a rule persons once infected
are more predisposed than others. Races inhabiting malarious
districts acquire a certain degree of resistance, no doubt through
natural selection. Children are much more susceptible than
adults.

Malaria in the Lower Vertebrates. — Birds are subject to
malaria, which is caused by blood parasites akin to those in
man and having a similar life-history. Two species, affecting
different kinds of birds, have been identified. Their alternate
hosts are mosquitoes of the Culex genus. Oxen, sheep, dogs,
monkeys, bats, and probably horses also suffer from similar
parasitic diseases. In the case of oxen the alternate host
of the parasite is a special tick (Smith and Kilborne). In
the other animals several parasites have been described by dif-
ferent observers, but the alternate hosts are not known.

AUTHORITIES. — Celli, Malaria; Christy, Mosquitoes and Malaria',
Manson, Tropical Diseases; Allbutt's System of Medicine; Ross,
" Malaria," Quain's Dictionary of Medicine, 3rded. ; The-Praclitioner,
March, 1901 (Malaria Number) ; Lancet (Sept. 29, 1907) ; British
Medical Journal (Oct. 19, 1907) ; Indian Medical Gazette (February
1908). (A. SL.; H. L. H.)

MALATIA (MALATIEH or ASPUZU) the chief town of a sanjak
of the same name in the Mamuret el-Aziz vilayet of Asia
Minor, and a military station on the Samsun-Sivas-Diarbekr
road, altitude 2900 ft., situated about 10 m. S.W. of the junction
of the Tokhma Su (med. Kubakib) with the Euphrates, near
the south end of a fertile plain, and at the northern foot of the
Taurus. Pop. about 30,000, including, besides many Armenian
Christians, bodies of Kurds and " Kizilbash." It is a wholly
modern place, rebuilt since the earthquake of 1893, contains
fine public buildings, and is noted for its fruit orchards. There
are Protestant (American) and Roman Catholic missions, and
an Armenian Catholic archbishop has his seat here. Eski-
shehr or Old Malatia (Melilene), 5 m. N.E. and 3 m. from the
great medieval bridge (Kirkgeuz) over the Tokhma Su, is said
to owe its present desolation largely to its occupation by Hafiz
Pasha as his headquarters in 1838 before his advance to fight
the disastrous battle of Nizib with the Egyptian, Ibrahim.
But it has still many inhabitants and large gardens and many
ruinous mosques, baths, &c., relics of Mansur's city. It was
the residence of von Moltke for some months, while attached
to Hafiz's army. The earliest site was possibly Arslan Tepe
about 2 m. south of Eskishehr were two " Hittite " stelae,
representing hunting scenes, now in the Constantinople and
Paris museums, were found in 1894.

In the time of Strabo (xii. 537) there was no town in the district
of Melitene, which was reckoned part of Cappadocia. Under Titus
the place became the permanent station of the I2th (" Thundering ")
legion; Trajan raised it to a city. Lying in a very fertile country
at the crossing point of important routes, including the Persian
" Royal Road, and two imperial military highways from Caesarea
and along the Euphrates bank, it grew in size and importance, and
was the capital of Armenia Minor or Secunda. Justinian, who
completed the walls commenced by Anastasius, made it the capital
of Armenia Tertia ; it was then a very great place (Procop., De aed.,
iii. 4). The town was burnt by Chosroes on his retreat after his

MALAYALAM— MALAY ARCHIPELAGO

great defeat there in 577. Taken by the Saracens, retaken and
destroyed by Constantme Copronymus, it was presently recovered
to Islam, and rebuilt under Mansur (A.D. 756). It again changed
hands more than once, being reckoned among the frontier towns of
Syria (Istakhry, pp. 55, 62). At length the Greeks recovered it in
934, and Nicephorus II., finding the district much wasted, encouraged
the Jacobites to settle in it, which they did in great numbers. A
convent of the Virgin, and the great church which bears his name,
were erected by the bishop Ignatius (Isaac the Runner). From
this time Malatia continued to be a great seat of the Jacobites, and
it was the birthplace of their famous maphrian Barhebraeus (or
Abulfaragius). At the commencement of the nth century the
population was said to number 60,000 fighting men (Assem., Bib.
Or., ii. 149; cf. Barheb., Chr. Red., \. 411, 423). At the time of
the first crusade, the city, being hard pressed by the Turks under
Ibn Danishmend, was relieved by Baldwin, after Bohemund had
failed and lost his liberty in the attempt. But the Jacobites had
no cause to love Byzantium, and the Greek governor Gabriel was
so cruel and faithless that the townsmen were soon glad to open
their gates to Ibn Danishmend (1102), and the city subsequently
became part of the realm of Kilij Arslan, sultan of Iconium.

See H. C. B. v. Moltke, Briefe iiber Zustdnde, &c. in der Ttirkei
(1835-1839). (D- G. H.)

HALAYALAM, a language of the Dravidian family, spoken
on the west coast of southern India. It is believed to have
developed out of Tamil as recently as the Qth century. It
possesses a large literature, in which words borrowed from
Sanskrit are conspicuous. In 1901 the total number of speakers
of Malayalam in all India was just about six millions.

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO1 (variously called Malaysia, the
Indian Archipelago, the East Indies, Indonesia, Insulinde), the
largest group of islands in the world, lying south-east of Asia and
north and north-west of Australia. It includes the Sunda Islands,
the Moluccas, New Guinea, and the Philippine Islands, but
excludes the Andaman-Nicobar group. The equator passes
through the middle of the archipelago; it successively cuts
Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes and Halmahera, four of the most
important islands. A. R. Wallace (who includes the Solomon
Islands as well as New Guinea in the group) points out that the
archipelago "includes two islands larger than Great Britain;
and in one of them, Borneo, the whole of the British Isles might
be set down, and would be surrounded by a sea of forests.
Sumatra is about equal in extent to Great Britain; Java, Luzon,
and Celebes are each about the size of Ireland. Eighteen more
islands are on the average as large as Jamaica; and more than
a hundred are as large as the Isle of Wight."

Area.

Estimated Population.

Sunda Islands ....
Moluccas, with Celebes
New Guinea ....
Philippine Islands .

459,578
"5.334
312,329
115,026

32,632,400
3,000,000
800,000
7,635,400

The islands of the archipelago nearly all present bold and
picturesque profiles against the horizon, and at the same time the
character of the scenery varies from island to island and even
from district to district. The mountains are arranged for the
most part in lines running either from north-west to south-east
or from west to east. In Sumatra and in the islands between
Sumatra and Borneo the former direction is distinctly marked,
and the latter is equally noticeable in Java and the other southern
islands. The mountains of Borneo, however, rise rather in short
ridges and clusters. Nothing in the general physiognomy of the
islands is more remarkable than the number and distribution of
the volcanoes, active or extinct. Running south-east through
Sumatra, east through Java and the southern islands to Timor,
curving north through the Moluccas, and again north, from
the end of Celebes through the whole line of the Philippines, they
follow a line roughly resembling a horseshoe narrowed towards
the point. The loftiest mountain in the archipelago would
appear to be Kinabalu in Borneo (13,698 ft.). An important
fact in the physical geography of the archipelago is that Java,
Bali, Sumatra and Borneo, and the lesser islands between them

1 For more detailed information respecting the several islands
and groups of the archipelago, see the separate articles BORNEO ;
JAVA; PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; SUMATRA, &c.

and the Asiatic mainland, all rest on a great submerged bank,
nowhere more than 100 fathoms below sea-level, which may be
considered a continuation of the continent; while to the east the
depth of the sea has been found at various places to be from 1000
to 2500 fathoms. As the value of this fact was particularly
emphasized by Wallace, the limit of the shallow water, which is
found in the narrow but deep channel between Bali and Lombok,
and strikes north to the east of Borneo, has received the name of
" Wallace's Line." The Philippines on the other hand, " are
almost surrounded by deep sea, but are connected with Borneo by
means of two narrow submarine banks " (A. R. Wallace, Island
Life). The archipelago, in effect, is divided between two great
regions, the Asiatic and the Australian, and the fact is evident
in various branches of its geography — zoological, botanical,
and even human. It is believed that there was a land-
connexion between Asia and Australia in the later part of the
Secondary epoch, and that the Australian continent, when
separated, became divided into islands before the south-eastern
part of the Asiatic did so.

The most notable fact in the geological history of the archipelago
is the discovery in Java of the fossil remains of Pithecanthropus
erectus, a form intermediate between the higher apes and man.
In its structure and cranial capacity it is entitled to a higher place
in the zoological scale than any anthropoid, for it almost certainly
walked erect; and, on the other hand, in its intellectual powers it
must have been much below the lowest of the human race at present
known. The strata in which it was found belong to the Miocene or
Upper Pliocene. Among the rocks of economic importance may
be mentioned granite of numerous kinds, syenite, serpentine,
porphyry, marble, sandstones and marls. Coal is worked in
Sumatra, Borneo and Labuan. Diamonds are obtained in Borneo,
garnets in Sumatra, Bachian and Timor, and topazes in Bachian,
antimony in Borneo and the Philippines; lead in Sumatra, Borneo
and the Philippines; copper and malachite in the Philippines,
Timor, Borneo and Sumatra; and, most important of all, tin in
Banka, Billiton and Singkep. Iron is pretty frequent in various
forms. Gold is not uncommon in the older ranges of Sumatra,
Banka, Celebes, Bachian, Timor and Borneo. Manganese could be
readily worked in Timor, where it lies in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone. Platinum is found in Landak and other parts of Borneo.
Petroleum is a valuable product of Sumatra and Java, and is also
found in Borneo.

Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The most striking general fact as
regards climate in the archipelago is that wherever that part of
the south-east monsoon which has passed over Australia strikes,
the climate is comparatively dry, and the vegetation is less
luxuriant. The east end of Java, e.g. has a less rainfall than the
west; the distribution of the rain on the north coast is quite
different from that on the south, and a similar difference is
observed between the east and the west of Celebes. The north-
west monsoon, beginning in October and lasting till March, brings
the principal rainy season in the archipelago.

Most of the islands of the archipelago belong to the great equatorial
forest-belt. In its economical aspect the vegetation, whether
natural or cultivated, is of prime interest. The list of fruits is very
extensive, though few of them are widely known. These, how-
ever, include the orange, mango, mangosteen, shaddock, guava
and the durian. The variety of food-plants is equally notable.
Not only are rice and maize, sugar and coffee, among the widely
cultivated crops, but the coco-nut, the bread-fruit, the banana
and plantain, the sugar-palm, the tea-plant, the sago-palm, the
coco-tree, the ground-nut, the yam, the cassava, and others besides,
are of practical importance. The cultivation of sugar and coffee
owes its development mainly to the Dutch ; and to them also is due
the introduction of tea. They have greatly encouraged the cultiva-
tion of the coco-nut among the natives, and it flourishes, especially
in the coast districts, in almost every island in their territory.
The oil is largely employed in native cookery. Pepper, nutmegs
and cloves were long the objects of the most important branch of
Dutch commerce; and gutta-percha, camphor, dammar, benzoin
and other forest products have a place among the exports.

To the naturalist the Malay Archipelago is a region of the highest
interest ; and from an early period it has attracted the attention of
explorers of the first rank. The physical division between the
Asiatic and Australian regions is clearly reflected in the botany
and zoology. The flora of the Asiatic islands (thus distinguished)
" is a special development of that prevailing from the Himalayas
to the Malay Peninsula and south China. Farther east this
flora intermingles with that of Australia " (F. H. H. Guillemard,
Australasia). Similarly, in the Asiatic islands are found the
great mammals of the continent— the elephant, tiger, rhinoceros.

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MALAY ARCHIPELAGO

467

anthropoid ape, &c., which are wanting in the Australian region,
with which the eastern part of the archipelago is associated. (For
details concerning flora and fauna, see separate articles, especially
JAVA.)

Inhabitants. — The majority of the native inhabitants of the
Malay Archipelago belong to two races, the Malays and the
Melanesians (Papuans). As regards the present racial distribu-
tion, the view accepted by many anthropologists, following A. H.
Keane, is that the Negritos, still found in the Philippines, are
the true aborigines of Indo-China and western Malaysia, while
the Melanesians, probably their kinsmen, were the earliest
occupants of eastern Malaysia and western Polynesia. At some
date long anterior to history it is supposed that Indo-China was
occupied first by a fair Caucasian people and later by a yellow
Mongolian race. From these two have come all the peoples —
other than Negrito or Papuan — found to-day from the Malay
Peninsula to the farthest islands of Polynesia. The Malay
Archipelago was thus first invaded by the Caucasians, who
eventually passed eastward and are to-day represented in the
Malay Archipelago only by the Mentawi islanders. They were
followed by an immigration of Mongol-Caucasic peoples with a
preponderance of Caucasic blood— the Indonesians of some, the
pre-Malays of other writers— who are to-day represented in the
archipelago by such peoples as the Dyaks of Borneo and the Battas
of Sumatra. At a far later date, probably almost within historic
times, the true Malay race, acombination of Mongol and Caucasic
elements, came into existence and overran the archipelago, in
time becoming the dominant race. A Hindu strain is evident in
Java and others of the western islands; Moors and Arabs (that
is, as the names are used in the archipelago, Mahommedans from
various countries between Arabia and India) are found more or
less amalgamated with many of the Malay peoples; and the
Chinese form, from an economical point of view, one of the most
important sections of the community in many of the more
civilized districts. Chinese have been established in the archi-
pelago from a very early date: the first Dutch invaders found
them settled at Jacatra; and many of them, as, for instance, the
colony of Ternate, have taken so kindly to their new home that
they have acquired Malay to the disuse of their native tongue.
Chinese tombs are among the objects that strike the traveller's
attention at Amboyna and other ancient settlements.

There is a vast field for philological explorations in the archi-
pelago. Of the great number of distinct languages known to
exist, few have been studied scientifically. The most widely
distributed is the Malay, which has not only been diffused by the
Malays themselves throughout the coast regions of the various
islands, but, owing partly to the readiness with which it can be
learned, has become the common medium between the Europeans
and the natives. The most cultivated of the native tongues is the
Javanese, and it is spoken by a greater number of people than
any of the others. To it Sundanese stands in the relation that
Low German holds to High German, and the Madurese in the
relation of a strongly individualized dialect. Among the other
languages which have been reduced to writing and grammatically
analysed are the Balinese, closely connected with the Javanese,
the Batta (with its dialect the Toba), the Dyak and the Macassarese.
Alfurese, a vague term meaning in the mouths of the natives little
else than non-Mahommedan, has been more particularly applied
by Dutch philologists to the native speech of certain tribes in Celebes.
The commercial activity of the Buginese causes their language to
be fairly widely spoken — little, however, by Europeans.

Political Division. — Politically the whole of the archipelago,
except British North Borneo, &c. (see BORNEO), part of Timor
(Portuguese), New Guinea east of the 14151 meridian (British
and German), and the Philippine Islands, belongs to the Nether-
lands. The Philippine Islands which had been for several
centuries a Spanish possession, passed in 1898 by conquest to the
United States of America. For these several political units
see the separate articles; a general view, however, is here
given of the government, economic conditions, &c., of the Dutch
possessions, which the Dutch call Nederlandsch-Indie.

NETHERLANDS INDIA

Administration. — The Dutch possessions in Asia lie between
t N. and 11° S. and 95° E. and 141° E. Politically they are
divided into lands under the direct government of the Netherlands

vassal lands and confederated lands. Administratively they are
further divided into residencies, divisions, regencies, districts, and
dessas or villages. In the principal towns and villages there are
parish councils, and in some provinces county councils have been,
established. Natives, Chinese and Arabs, are given seats, and in
certain instances some of the members are elected, but more gener-
ally they are appointed by government. The islands are often
described as of two groups, Java and Madura forming one, and the
other consisting of Sumatra, Borneo, Riouw-Lingga Archipelago,
Banka, Billiton, Celebes, Molucca Archipelago, the small Sunda
Islands, and a part of New Guinea — the Outposts as they are collec-
tively named. The Outposts are divided into 20 provinces. A
governor-general holds the superior administrative and executive
authority, and is assisted by a council of five members, partly of a
legislative and partly of an advisory character, but with no share
in the executive work of the government. In 1907 a Bill was.
introduced to add four extraordinary members to the council, but
no immediate action was taken. The governor-general not only
has supreme executive authority, but can of his own accord pass-
laws and regulations, except in so far as these, from their nature,
belong of right to the home government, and as he is bound by the
constitutional principles on which, according to the Regulations for
the Government of Netherlands India, passed by the king and States-
General in 1854, the Dutch East Indies must be governed. There-
are nine departments, each under a director: namely, justice;
interior; instruction, public worship and industry; agriculture
(created in 1905); civil public works; government works (created
iniox>8); finance; war; marine. The administration of the larger
territorial divisions (gpuvernement, residentie) is in the hands of
Dutch governors, residents, assistant residents and controleurs.
In local government a wide use is made of natives, in the appoint-
ment of whom a primary consideration is that if possible the people-
should be under their own chieftains. In Surakarta and Jokjakarta
in Java, and in many parts of the Outposts, native princes preserve
their positions as vassals ; they have limited power, and act generally
under the supervision of a Dutch official. In concluding treaties
with the vassal princes since 1905, the Dutch have kept in view
the necessity of compelling them properly to administer the revenues-
of their states, which some of them formerly squandered in their
personal uses. Provincial banks have been established which
defray the cost of public works.

Population. — The following table gives the area and population
of Java (including Madura) and of the Outposts: —

Area:

Pop.

I' iiij 1 1 ~h

sq. m.

1900.

'90S-

Java and Madura ....

50,970

28,746,688

30,098,008

(Sumatra, West Coast

3«.649

1,527.297

Sumatra, East Coast

35.312

421,090

Lanfpong Districts'

9.399

11,284

162,396
142,426

4.029,505

Palembang .

53.497

804,299

Achin ....

20,471

1 10,804

Riouw-Lingga Archipelago

16,301

86,186

112,216

Banka

4.446

106,305

115.189

Billiton

1,863

43.386

36,858

Borneo, West Coast .

55,825

4«3.o67

1

Borneo, South and East

f«. 233,655

Districts

156,912

716,822

*- i i ( Celebes ....
Celebes { Menad6 ....

49.390
22,080

454.368
429.773

415.499
436,406

Molucca Islands ....

43.864

410,190

407.419

Timor Archipelago

17.698

"9.239

308,600

Bali and Lombok ....

4,065

1,041,696

523.535

New Guinea to 141° E.

I5L789

200,000

Total ....

736,815

36,000,000

37.7i7.3771

In no case are the above figures for population more than fairly
accurate, and in some instances they are purely conjectural. The
population is legally divided into Europeans and persons assimilated
to them, and natives and persons assimilated to them. The first
class includes half-castes (who are numerous, for the Dutch are in
closer relationship with the natives than is the case with most
colonizing peoples), and also Armenians, Japanese, &c. The total
number of this class in 1900 was 75,833; 72,019 of these were called
Dutch, but 61,022 of them were born in Netherlands India; there
were also 1382 Germans, 441 British and 350 Belgians. Among
the natives and persons assimilated to them were about 537,000
Chinese and 27,000 Arabs. In the decade 1890-1900 the increase
of the European population was 30-9 %, of the Arabs 26-6 %, and of
the Chinese 16-5%. A large proportion of the Europeans are-
government officials, or retired officials, for many of the Dutch,
once established in the colonies, settle there for life. The remaining
Europeans are mostly planters and heads of industrial establish-

1 Including 487 in Merauke, the capital of Dutch New Guinea.

468

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO

ments; the Arabs are nearly all traders, as are some of the Chinese
but a large number of the latter are labourers in the Sumatn
tobacco plantations and the tin mines of Banka, Billiton, &c. Th
bulk of the natives are agriculturists.

Religion and Instruction. — Entire liberty is granted to the member
of all religious confessions. The Reformed Church has about 41
ministers and 30 assistants, the Roman Catholic 35 curates am
20 priests, not salaried out of the public funds. There are abou,
170 Christian missionaries, and the progress of their work may b
illustrated by showing that the number of Christians among the
natives and foreign Orientals was : —

In 1873.

In 1896.

In 1903.

In Java and Madura
In the Outposts ....

5,673
148,672

19,193
290,065

About 34,000
„ 390,000

About 10,000 natives go annually to Mecca on pilgrimage.

Both the government and private enterprise maintain vernacular
schools. Large sums have been voted in Holland for the establish-
ment of primary and secondary schools, and the government has
undertaken to assist in the establishment of parochial schools, the
object being that every village, at least in Java, should possess one.
There are schools for higher education at Batavia, Surabaya anc
Semarang; at the first two of these towns are government schools
for mechanical engineering, and at Batavia a crafts school and a
medical school for natives. There are five colleges for native
schoolmasters and four for sons of native officials. Government
schools for the European education of Chinese children are estab-
lished in the principal towns. Private mechanical and crafts
schools are established at Jokjakarta, Surabaya and Semarang, and
there is an agricultural school at Buitenzorg.

Justice. — As regards the administration of justice, the distinction
is maintained between (l) Europeans and persons assimilated with
them (who include Christians and Japanese), and (2) natives,
together with Chinese, Arabs, &c. The former are subject to laws
closely resembling those of the mother country, while the customs
and institutions of natives are respected in connexion with the
administration of justice to the latter. In 1906 a bill was passed
somewhat modifying the existing status of the classes above men-
tioned, and especially directing new ordinances with regard to the
judicial treatment of Christian natives. A general judicial revision
being also in contemplation, this bill did not immediately come into
force. Justice for Europeans is administered by European judges,
but, as with administration at large so in judicial matters, native
chiefs have extensive powers in native affairs. For European
justice the High Court of Justice is established at Batavia; there
are councils of justice at Batavia, Semarang and Surabaya, with
authority not only over Java but over parts of the Outposts; there
is a resident court of justice in each residency. For native justice
there are courts in the districts and regencies; residents act as
police judges; provincial councils have judicial powers, and there
are councils of priests with powers in matrimonial disputes, questions
of succession, &c.

As regards pauperism, the government subsidizes Protestant and
Catholic orphan houses.

Finance. — The revenue of Netherlands India has been derived
mainly from customs, excise, ground-tax, licences, poll-tax, &c.,
from monopolies — opium, salt and pawn-shops (the management of
which began to be taken over by the government in 1903, in place
of the previous system of farming-out), coffee, &c., railways, tin
mines and forests, and from agricultural and other concessions.
But attempts have been made, and have been largely successful,
to make the revenue dependent to a less extent on monopolies and
the products (especially agricultural) of the land; and to abolish
licences and substitute direct taxes. There is a progressive income-
tax for Europeans, and the system has also been applied in the case
of natives.

The following table affords comparisons in the revenue and
expenditure : —

Year.

Revenue.

Expenditure.

1880
1890
1900
1905

£12,236,500
11,482,457
11,832,417
12,951,497

£12,244,666
10,644,728

12,313,854
13,844,173

The monetary system is similar to that of Holland (the unit
being the guilder), but there are also certain silver and copper coins
of small value bearing Malay or Javanese inscriptions. The Java
Bank, established in 1828, with headquarters at Batavia, is the only
bank issuing notes, two-fifths of the amount of which must be
covered by specie or bullion. The government has a control over
the administration of this bank.

Defence. — The army is purely colonial, i.e. distinct from that
of the_ Netherlands. Its strength is a little under 40,000, about
one-third being Europeans of various nationalities and two-thirds
natives of various races. No portion of the regular army of the

Netherlands is allowed to be sent on colonial service, but individual
soldiers are at liberty to enlist, by permission of their commanding
officers, in the army of Netherlands India, and they form its nucleus
Native and European soldiers are generally mixed together in the
same battalions, though in separate companies. The officers were
all Dutch till 1908, when a trial was made of native officers from
noble Javanese families. The artillery is composed of European
gunners, with native riders, while the cavalry are Europeans and
natives. A military academy is established at Meester Cornelis
near Batavia. Schools for soldiers are attached to every battalion!
There are certain local forces outside the regular army — militia in
some of the large towns, native infantry in Madura, and guards of
some of the vassal princes. Unlike the army, which is purely
colonial, the navy in Netherlands India is partly colonial, partly
belonging to the royal navy of the Netherlands, and its expenses
are therefore borne partly by the mother country and partly by the
colony. About six ironclads and twenty smaller vessels of the royal
navy are stationed in colonial waters; the vessels of the colonial
marine number about twenty-four, and undertake police supervision
prevention of slave trading, &c. .

Trade and Industries. — The principal articles of export are sugar,
tobacco, copra, forest products (various gums, &c.), coffee, petroleum,
tea, cinchona, tin, rice, pepper, spices and gambier. The average
annual value of exports during 1900-1905 was £22,496,468, and of
imports £17,050,338. A great proportion of the exports goes to
the mother country, though a considerable quantity of rice is
exported to China. An indication of the mineral products has
already been given; as regards the export trade, tin is the most
important of these, but the Ombilin coalfields of Sumatra, connected
by a railway with the coast, call for mention here also. Agricultural
labour is very carefully regulated by law, in the enforcement of
which the residents and lower officials have wide powers. One
day's gratuitous labour out of seven or more can be demanded of
labourers either on private or on government estates; but in 1882
this form of labour was for the most part abolished as far as govern-
ment estates were concerned, each labourer so exempted paying
one guilder per year. The principal private agricultural estates
are in the west of Java, in which island the greater part of the soil
is government property. Such estates have increased greatly in
number and extent, not only in Java but elsewhere, since the
agrarian law of 1870, under which it became possible for settlers to
obtain waste lands on hereditary lease for 75 years. In 1899 the
total acreage of land ceded was 1,002,766 acres; in 1903 it was
I>°77>295- The government ceased to cultivate sugar in 1891, but
coffee, and to some extent cinchona, are cultivated on government
alantations, though not in equal quantity to that grown on land
leld on emphyteusis. The average annual yield of sugar in 1900-
1905 was 852,400 tons, but it increased steadily during that period.
The average annual yield of coffee during the same period was
101,971,132 ft; it fluctuates greatly. The average annual pro-
duction of tobacco is about fifty million pounds from each of the
'stands of Java and Sumatra. The total annual yield of the tin mines
s about 15,000 tons, and of the coal mines 240,000 tons. The average
output of petroleum annually in 1900-1905 was 120,000,000
gallons; this, again, has fluctuated greatly. There are upwards of
3000 miles of railways and steam tramways in Netherlands India,
)ut these are almost entirely in Java; elsewhere only Sumatra has
a few short lines. The principaf steamship company in the archi-
pelago is the Royal Packet (Koninklyke Paketvaart) Company.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See Aardrijkskundig en statistisch Woordenboek

<an Nederl. Indie (Amsterdam, 1869), to which P. J. Veth and

other specialists were contributors. A general survey of the people,

administration and resources of the Dutch colony is provided in

Twentieth Century Impressions of Netherlands India, ed. by Arnold

iVright (London, 1910). See also A. R. Wallace, Malay Archipelago

London, 1869, and later editions, notably for zoological distribu-

ion) and Island Life (London, 1880, notably for ornithology).

-I. 0. Forbes, A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago

London, 1885); P. van der Lith, Nederlandsch Oostindie (2nd ed.,

^eiden, 1893-1895); F. H. H. Guillemard, Australasia, vol. ii., in

Stamford's Compendium (London, 1894); Encyclopaedie van Neder-

andsch-Indie (the Hague, 1895-1904); Guide a travers la section

',es Indes nterlandaises, Paris Exhibition (the Hague, 1900);

A. R. Colquhoun, The Mastery of the Pacific (London, 1902) ; M.

Weber, Der indo-australische Archipel und die Geschichte seiner

Tierwelt (Jena, 1902); G. Karsten and H. Schenck, Vegetationsbildcr ,

vol. ii. (Jena, 1903); J. van Bemmelen and G. B. Hooyer, Guide

hrough Netherlands India (London, 1903); D. Bezemer, Neder-

andsch Oast-Indie (the Hague, 1904) ; H. Blink, Nederlandsch Oost-

n West-Indie, geographisch, ethnologisch, en economisch beschreven

Leiden, 1904, sqq.). Among Dutch official publications may be

icntioned Jaarcijfers door het Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek;

'aarboek van het Mijnwezen in Nederlandsch Oast-Indie (Amsterdam) ;

(oloniale-Economische Bijdragen (the Hague); Koloniaal Verslag

the Hague) ; Regeerings-Almanak voor Nederlandsch-Indie (Batavia).

V number of important periodicals (Tijdschrift) of various institu-

ions are issued at Batavia, &c. Languages: P. J. Veth in De

Gids (1864); R. N. Cust, Sketch of the Modern Languages of the

last Indies (London, 1878); and for bibliography, Boele van Neus-

roek, De Beoefening der oostersche talen . . . (Leiden, 1875).

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO

469

HISTORY

Portuguese and Spanish Ascendancy, 7577-7595. — Ptolemy and
other ancient geographers describe the Malay Archipelago, or
part of it, in vague and inaccurate terras, and the traditions they
preserved were supplemented in the middle ages by the narratives
of a few famous travellers, such as Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo,
Odoric of Pordenone and Niccolo Conti. Malay and Chinese
records also furnish material for the early history of individual
islands, but the known history of the archipelago as a whole
begins in the i6th century. At this period a civilization, largely
of Hindu origin, had flourished and decayed in Java, where, as in
all the more important islands, Mahommedanism had afterwards
become the dominant creed. But the smaller islands and the
remoter districts, even of Java and Sumatra, remained in a
condition of complete savagery.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to colonize any part
of the archipelago. A Portuguese squadron under Diogo Lopes
de Sequeira arrived off Sumatra in 1509, explored the north coast
for some distance, and noted that the inhabitants of the interior
were cannibals, while those of the littoral were civilized and
possessed a gold coinage. The main object of the Portuguese
was to obtain a share in the lucrative spice trade carried on by
the Malays, Chinese and Japanese; the trade-routes of the archi-
pelago converged upon Malacca, which was the point of departure
for spice merchants trading with every country on the shores
of the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. In 1511 the Portuguese
under Alphonso d'Albuquerque occupied Malacca, and in
November of that year an expedition under Antonio de Abreu
was despatched to find a route to the Moluccas and Banda
Islands, then famous for their cloves and nutmegs. The ex-
plorers reached Amboyna and Ternate, after gaining some know-
ledge of Java, Madura, Sumbawa and other islands, possibly
including New Guinea. During the return voyage the second-in-
command, Francisco Serrao, was shipwrecked, but succeeded in
making his way in a native boat to Mindanao. Thus the Philip-
pines were discovered. In 15143 second Portuguese fleet arrived
at Ternate, which during the next five years became the centre
of Portuguese enterprise in the archipelago; regular traffic with
Malacca and Cochin was established, and the native raja became
a vassal of Portugal.

Meanwhile the Spanish government was considering whether
the Moluccas did not fall within the Spanish sphere of influence
as defined by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494; and in August
1519 an expedition commanded by Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.)
sailed from Seville to seek a westward passage to the archipelago.
After losing the commander in the Philippines and discovering
Borneo, the two surviving ships reached the Moluccas late in
1520. One vessel returned to Seville by the Cape route, thus
completing the first voyage round the world; the other
attempted to return by the Pacific, but was driven back to
Tidore and there welcomed by the natives as a useful ally
against the Portuguese. Reinforcements from Spain arrived
in 1325 and 1528; but in 1529 a treaty was concluded between
the emperor Charles V. and John III. of Portugal, by which,
in return for 350,000 gold ducats, the Spanish claim to the
Moluccas was withdrawn. The boundary between the Spanish
and Portuguese spheres was fixed at 17° E. of the Moluccas,
but by a geographical fiction the Philippines were included
within the Spanish sphere. Further disputes occurred from
time to time, and in 1542 a Spanish fleet came into conflict
with the Portuguese off Amboyna; but after 1529 the supremacy
of each power in its own sphere was never seriously endangered.
Though the Portuguese traders frequented the coast of Java,
they annexed no territory either there or in Sumatra; but farther
east they founded numerous forts and factories, notably in
Amboyna, the Banda Island, Celebes and Halmahera. Ternate
remained the seat of the governor of the Moluccas, who was the
highest official in the archipelago, though subordinate to the vice-
roy or governor of Portuguese India. The first attempt to enter
into relations with the states of Borneo was made by D.. Jorge
de Menezes, who visited Brunei in 1526, and in 1528 sent an
envoy to its raja. The embassy failed in a curious manner.

Among the gifts sent by Menezes was a piece of tapestry repre-
senting the marriage of Catherine of Aragon to Arthur, prince of
Wales. The raja was persuaded that these mysterious figures
were demons under a spell, which might come to life and kill him
as he slept. The envoy was therefore dismissed.

In 1536, after a period of war and anarchy caused by the
tyrannical rule of Menezes, Antonio Galvao, the historian, was
appointed governor of the Moluccas. He crushed the rebellion
and won the affection of the natives by his just and enlightened
administration, which had no parallel in the annals of Portuguese
rule in the archipelago. He returned to Europe in 1540. (see
PORTUGAL: Literature), after inaugurating an active missionary
movement, which was revived in 1 546-1 547 by Francis Xavier
(q.v.). At this period the Portuguese power in the East was
already beginning to wane; in the archipelago it was weakened
by administrative corruption and by incessant war with native
states, notably Bintang and Achin; bitter hostility was aroused
by the attempts which the Portuguese made to establish a com-
mercial monopoly and to force Christianity upon their native
subjects and allies (see PORTUGAL: History). From 1580 to 1640
Portugal was itself united to Spain — a union which differed from
annexation in little but name.

The English and Dutch, 1595-1674. — Pirates from Dieppe
visited the archipelago between 1527 and 1539. It is possible
that they reached Australia1 — more than sixty years before the
first voyage thither of which there is any clear record; but their
cruise had no political significance, and the Spaniards and
Portuguese remained without European competitors until the
appearance of Sir Francis Drake in 1579. An English squadron
under Sir James Lancaster came into conflict with the Portuguese
in 1591, and an expedition under Sir Henry Middleton traded in
the archipelago in 1604. But the English were simple traders or
explorers; far more formidable were the Dutch, who came to the
East partly to avenge the injuries inflicted on their country by
the Spaniards, partly to break the commercial monopoly of the
peninsular states. As middlemen they already possessed a large
interest in the spice trade, for the Portuguese, having no direct
access to the principal European markets, had made a practice
of sending cargo to the Netherlands for distribution by way of
the Scheldt and Rhine. The Dutch now sought to monopolize
not only the distribution but the production of spices— an enter-
prise facilitated by the co-operation of many exiled Portuguese
Jews who had settled in Holland.

The first Dutch fleet sailed from Texel, under the command of
Cornelis Houtman, on the and of April 1 595 and reached Sumatra
on the ist of January 1 596. It visited Madura, and came into
conflict with the Portuguese at Bantam in Java, returning to
Holland in 1597. Though not a commercial success, the ex-
pedition had demonstrated the weakness of the Portuguese. In
1602 the Dutch East India Company (q.v.) was incorporated, and
for nearly two centuries this organization played the chief part in
the history of the archipelago. By 1604 the Dutch could already
claim to be the stronger power at sea. They had attacked the
Portuguese in Ceylon (1601), established friendly relations with
Achin (1602), and defeated a powerful fleet off Banda (1602). In
1606 they concluded a treaty of alliance with the sultan of Johor,
and in 1608 they forced the Portuguese to assent to an armistice
for twelve years. On the 29th of November 1609 Pieter Both
was chosen by the states-general, on the nomination of the Dutch
East India Company, as first governor-general of Netherlands
India. In 1611 the headquarters of the Dutch was changed from
Bantam to Jakatra, which in 1619 was renamed Batavia, and
was thenceforward the Dutch capital. Meanwhile the English
East India Company, chartered in 1600, had also extended its
operations to the archipelago. After 161 1 the commercial rivalry
between the Dutch and British became acute, and in 1613, 1615
and 1618 commissioners met in London to discuss the matters
in dispute. The result of their deliberations was the Treaty of
Defence, signed on the and of June 1619 and modified on the 24th
of January 1620, which arranged for co-operation between the
Dutch and British companies, and especially for the maintenance

1 See The Geographical Journal, ix. 80 seq. (London, 1897).

470

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO

of a joint fleet. But neither company could restrain its agents
in the East from aggressive action, and many fresh causes of
dispute arose, the chief being the failure of the British to provide
the naval forces required for service against the Portuguese,
and the so-called " massacre of Amboyna " (q.v.) in 1623. The
Treaty of Defence lapsed in 1637, but as early as 1634 the British
made peace with Portugal. Even without allies, however, the
Dutch continued to extend their trade and to annex fresh
territory, for the British were weakened by civil war at home,
while, after 1640, the Portuguese were struggling to maintain
their independence against Spain. The Dutch company opened
up a profitable trade with Japan and China, and prosecuted the
war against Portugal with great vigour, invading Portuguese
India and capturing Point de Galle in 1640, Malacca in 1641,
Cochin and Cannanore in 1663. The war with England in
1652-54 and the renewal of the Anglo-Portuguese alliance by the
marriage of Charles II. to Catherine of Braganza in 1661 were
unable to check the growth of Dutch power; more serious was
the resistance offered by some of the native states. Rebellions in
Java (1629) and the Moluccas (1650) were suppressed with great
severity, but in 1662 the company suffered a heavy reverse in
Formosa, all its colonists being expelled from the island. A new
war between Great Britain and Holland broke out in 1672 and
was terminated by the Treaty of Westminster (February 17,
1674), by which the points at issue between the two companies
were referred first to commissioners and finally to an arbitrator.
The full details of the settlement are unknown, but thenceforward
the British company devoted its energies chiefly to the develop-
ment of its Indian possessions, while the Dutch were left supreme
in the archipelago. In 1684 the British even evacuated Bantam,
their chief settlement, and retired to Benkulen in Sumatra, which
remained for more than a century their sole territorial possession
in the archipelago.

Dutch Ascendancy, 1674-1749. — The weakness of Spain and
Portugal and the withdrawal of the British left the Dutch com-
pany free to develop its vast colonial and commercial interests.
In 1627 the so-called Dutch " colonial system " had been in-
augurated by the fourth governor-general, Jan Pieterszoon
Coen (q.v.). Under this system, which was intended to provide
Netherlands India with a fixed population of European descent,
Dutch girls were sent to the archipelago to be married to
white settlers, and subsequently marriages between Dutchmen
and captive native women were encouraged. As early as 1624
vast fortunes had been acquired by trade: two members of the
company who died in that year were stated to possess seven
and eight tons of gold respectively, an amount approximately
equivalent, in the aggregate, to £2,000,000. The use of slave
labour, and the application of the conie system to natives who
were nominally free, enabled the company to lower the cost of
production, while the absence of competition enabled it to raise
prices. The hardship inflicted on the native races provoked
an insurrection throughout Java, in which the Chinese settlers
participated; but the Dutch maintained naval and military
forces strong enough to crush all resistance, and a treaty between
the company and the Susuhunan in November 1749 made them
practically supreme throughout the island.

Decline of Dutch Power, 1749-1811. — In the second half of the
1 7th century the monopoly system and the employment of slaves
and forced labour gave rise to many abuses, and there was a rapid
decline in the revenue from sugar, coffee and opium, while the
competition of the British East India Company, which now
exported spices, indigo, &c. from India to Europe, was severely
felt. The administration was corrupt, largely because of the vast
powers given to officials, who were invariably underpaid; and the
financial methods of the company precipitated its ruin, large
dividends being paid out of borrowed money. The burden of
defence could no longer be sustained; piracy and smuggling
became so common that the company was compelled to appeal
to the states-general for aid. In 1798 it was abolished and its
authority vested in a " Council of the Asiatic Possessions." In
1803 a commission met to consider the state of]the Dutch colonies,
and advocated drastic administrative and commercial reforms,

notably freedom of trade in all commodities except firearms,
opium, rice and wood — with coffee, pepper and spices, which
were state monopolies. Some of these reforms were carried out
by H. W. Daendels (1808-1811), who was sent out as governor-
general by Louis Bonaparte, after the French conquest of Hol-
land. Daendels, however, maintained the existing restrictions
upon trade and even made rice a state monopoly. His harsh
rule aroused great antagonism; in 1811 he was recalled and
J. W. Janssens became governor-general.

British Occupation, 1811-1816. — Netherlands India was at
this time regarded as a part of the Napoleonic Empire, with
which Great Britain was at war. A British naval squadron
arrived in the Moluccas in February 1810 and captured Amboyna,
Banda, Ternate and other islands. In 1811 a strong fleet was
equipped by Lord Minto, then governor-general of India, for
the conquest of Java; a British force was landed on the 4th
of August; Batavia was captured on the 26th, and on the
1 8th of September Janssens and the remnant of his army sur-
rendered. Lord Minto had issued a proclamation establishing
British rule on the nth of September, and Thomas (afterwards
Sir Thomas) Stamford Raffles was appointed lieutenant-governor.
Raffles (q.v.) held office until March 1816, and introduced many
important changes in the departments of revenue, commerce and
judicature. He was succeeded by John Fendall, who in 1816
carried out the retrocession of Netherlands India to the Dutch,
in accordance with the Treaty of Vienna (1814).

Restoration and Reform of Dutch Power, 1816-1910. — Various
disputes between Great Britain and the Netherlands, arising
chiefly out of the transfer of power in Java and the British
occupation of Singapore (1819), were settled by treaty between
the two powers in 1824. By this treaty the Dutch were given
almost entire freedom of action in Sumatra, while the Malay
Peninsula was recognized as within the British sphere of influ-
ence. In 1825-30 a serious rebellion in Java involved the
despatch of a large military force from the Netherlands, and
was with difficulty suppressed. An outbreak of Mahommedan
fanaticism in Sumatra also gave much trouble.

The reform movement inaugurated by the commission of 1803
was resumed in 1830, when Governor-General Johannes van den
Bosch endeavoured to improve the conditions of land-tenure
and agriculture by introducing the so-called " culture system."
The native cultivators were to be exempted from the ground-tax,
but were to cultivate one-fifth of their land as the govern-
ment might direct, the government taking the produce. This
culture-system worked fairly during Van den Bosch's tenure of
office, but gave rise to many abuses between 1833 and 1844,
involving, as it did, a combination of the metayer and corvee
systems.

In 1848 the Grondivet, or fundamental law of the Netherlands,
recognized for the first time the responsibility of the Dutch nation
for its colonial dependencies. The Grondwet involved certain
important changes, which were embodied in an act passed in 1854
and commonly known as the Regulations for the Government of
Netherlands India. The Regulations substituted statute law for
administrative and military despotism, and made the governor-
general in council responsible to the minister of the colonies at
the Hague. They reformed the judicature, introduced elementary
education for the natives, and abolished slavery in Java as from
the ist of January 1860. They also prepared the way for further
legislation tending towards the gradual emancipation of the
natives from the culture system, and from semi-feudal servitude
to their native rulers. That servitude existed in many forms
all over the archipelago, but among the most curious must be
reckoned the pandelingschap or " pledgedom," which originated
in Borneo, and according to which a man had the power to
make his debtors his serfs until their debts were paid.

The reform movement was aided by the publication in 1860 of
Max Havelaar, a romance by E. Douwes Dekker (q.v.), which
contained a scathing indictment of the colonial system. Many
important financial and agrarian measures were carried between
1860 and 1890. In 1863 Fransen van de Putte, minister for the
colonies, introduced the first of the annual colonial budgets for

MALAYIR— MALAY PENINSULA

which the Regulations had provided, thus enabling the states-
general to control the revenue and expenditure of Netherlands
India; in 1865 he reduced and in 1872 abolished the differentia-
tion of customs dues in favour of goods imported from Holland,
substituting a uniform import duty of 6% and establishing a
number of free ports throughout the archipelago. The import
duty was considered so moderate that an increase required for
revenue purposes was readily conceded in 1886. In 1876 the
practice of paying a yearly surplus (batig slot) from the revenues
of Netherlands India to the treasury at the Hague was discon-
tinued. The chief reforms in the land system were those intro-
duced by De Waal, then minister for the colonies, in 1870. The
cultivation of pepper, cochineal, cinnamon and indigo for the
government had already ceased; De Waal restricted the area of
the sugar plantations (carried on by forced native labour) as
from 1878, and provided for their abolition after 1890. He also
enabled natives to secure proprietary rights over the land they
cultivated, and legalized the leasing of Crown forest-lands to
Europeans.

The extension of Dutch political power — notably in Java,
Sumatra, Celebes, the Moluccas, Borneo, the Sunda Islands and
New Guinea — proceeded simultaneously with the reform move-
ment, and from time to time involved war with various native
states. A large expedition was sent to Lombok in 1894, and
almost the whole of that island was incorporated in the Dutch
dominions. The long and costly war with Achin (q.v.) began in
1873 and reached its climax in the military occupation of the
country after 1905, when the native sultan surrendered and was
deported. A guerrilla war was still carried on by his subjects, but
their principal leader, the chief Panglima Polim, was captured in
1907 ; in 1908-1910 the condition of Achin under the military rule
of General Swart was one of almost unbroken peace, and taxes
were regularly paid.

While the Dutch were thus consolidating their authority, other
countries were acquiring new commercial or colonial interests in
the archipelago. Immigration from China and Japan steadily
increased, especially towards the end of the period 1816-1910.
The enterprise of Sir James Brooke (q.v.) led, after 1838, to the
establishment of British sovereignty in North Borneo; in 1895
New Guinea was divided between Great Britain, Germany and
the Netherlands; and the Spanish-American War of 1898 resulted
in the cession of the Philippines, Sulu Island and the largest of the
Mariana Islands to the United States, and the sale of the Caroline
group to Germany. Australian and Japanese trade in the archi-
pelago was stimulated by the establishment of the Australian
Commonwealth (1901) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5).
In 1910 the nations most directly interested in the future of the
archipelago were the Netherlands, Great Britain, the United
States, Germany, Japan, China and Portugal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the period 1511-1595, the chief Portuguese
authorities are the chronicles of Barros, CorrSa, Castanheda and
Couto (see PORTUGAL: History), with the letters of Xavier (q.v.),
and the Tratado of A. Galvao (Lisbon, 1563 and 1731), of which a
translation entitled Discoveries of the World was made for Richard
Hakluyt and reprinted by the Hakluyt Society (London, 1862).
See also M. F. de Navarette, Coleccion de los viages (vols. 4 and 5,
Madrid, 1837). For later history see John Crawfurd, History of the
Indian Archipelago (Edinburgh, 1820), which quotes from native
as well as European records, and Twentieth-Century Impressions of
Netherlands India (ed. A. Wright, London, 1910), which gives
references to the principal English and Dutch authorities. Further
bibliography will be found in J. A. van der Chijs, Promt eener neder-
landsch-indische Bibliografie, 1659-1870 (Batavia, 1875).

(K. G. J.)

MALAYIR, a small province of Persia, situated between
Hamadan and Burujird. It has a population of about 70,000,
and, together with the district Tusirkhan, pays a yearly revenue
of about £13,000. It produces much corn and fruit; a great
quantity of the latter, dried, is exported. Its capital and seat of
government is Doletabad (Dowletabad) , a thriving little city, with
a population of about 5000, situated at an elevation of 5680 ft.,
38 m. from Hamadan and 32 m. from Burujird. It has post and
telegraph offices.

MALAY PENINSULA (called by the Malays Tanah Malayu,
i.e. the Malay Land), a lozenge-shaped strip of land projecting

into the China Sea, and forming the most southerly portion of the
continent of Asia. Geographically, the peninsula begins at the
isthmus of Kra, 10° N., at which point it is only between 60 and
70 m. in width, and the distance from sea to sea is further
diminished by a large irregular salt-water inlet. Politically and
anthropologically, however, this upper portion must be regarded
as a continuation of the kingdom of Siam rather than as a section
of Malaya. From the isthmus of Kra the peninsula extends
south with a general inclination towards the east, the most
southerly point being Tanjong Bulus in i° i6J' N. A line drawn
diagonally down the centre from the isthmus of Kra to Cape
Romania (Ramunya) gives the extreme length at about 750 miles.
The breadth at the widest point, from Tanjong Pen-unjut in
Trengganu to Tanjong Hantu in the Dindings territory, is about
200 m. The area is estimated at about 70,000 sq. m. The
peninsula is bounded on the N. by Siam, on the S. by the
island and strait of Singapore, on the E. by the China Sea, and
on the W. by the Strait of Malacca.

Physical Characteristics. — A range of granite mountains forms a
backbone which divides the peninsula into two unequal portions, the
larger of which lies to the east and the smaller to the west of the
chain. Smaller ranges run parallel to the main mountain chain in
many places, and there are numerous isolated spurs which have no
connexion with either. The country is covered with limestone in
many parts, and large isolated bluffs of this formation stand up in
the plains both on the eastern and the western slopes. The descent
from the summits of the range into the plain is somewhat less abrupt
on the western than it is on the eastern side, and between the foot
of the mountains and the Strait of Malacca the largest known alluvial
deposits of tin are situated. On the eastern side of the range, after
a steep descent, the granite formation speedily gives place to slates
of vast depth, intersected here and there by fissures of quartz contain-
ing gold, and in many places covered by limestone which has been
superimposed upon the slates. The highest known peak in the
main range is that of Gunong Korbu, 7217 ft. above sea-level.
The highest mountain is believed to be Gunong Tahan, which forms
part of an isolated range on the eastern side, between Pahang and
Kelantan, and is estimated at about 8000 ft. The west coast
throughout its whole length is covered to a depth of some miles
with mangrove swamps, with only a few isolated stretches of sandy
beach, the dim foliage of the mangroves and the hideous mud flats
presenting a depressing spectacle. On the east coast the force of
the north-east monsoon, which beats upon the shores of the China
Sea annually from November to February, has kept the land for
the most part free from mangroves, and the sands, broken here
and there by rocky headlands thickly wooded, and fringed by
casuarina trees, stretch for miles without interruption. The islands
on each coast present the features of the shore to which they are
adjacent. On both the east and the west coast the islands are
thickly wooded, but whereas the former are surrounded by beautiful
sands and beaches, the latter are fringed by mangrove-swamps.
The whole peninsula may be described as one vast forest, inter-
sected in every direction by countless streams and rivers which
together form the most lavish water-system in the world. Only
an insignificant fraction of these forests has ever been visited by
human beings, the Malays and even the aboriginal tribe having
their homes on the banks of the rivers, and never, even when travel-
ling from one part of the country to another, leaving the banks of
a stream except for a short time when passing from one river-system
to another. The bulk of the jungle, therefore, which lies between
stream and stream, has never been trodden by the foot of man.
The principal rivers on the west coast are the Perak, the Bernam and
the Muar. The first-named is far finer than its fellows, and is
navigable for steamers for about 40 m. from its mouth, and for
native craft for over 250 m. It is exceedingly shallow, however,
and is not of much importance as a waterway. The Bernam runs
through flat swampy country for the greater part of its course, and
steam-launches can penetrate to a distance of over 100 m. from
its mouth, and it is therefore probably the deepest river. The
country which it waters, however, is not of any value, and it is not
much used. The Muar waters a very fertile valley, and is navigable
for native boats for over 150 m. On the east coast the principal
streams are the Petani, Telubin, Kelantan, Besut, Trengganu,
Dungun, Kmamun, Kuantan, Pahang, Rompin, Endau and Sedeli,
all guarded by difficult bars at their mouths, and dangerous during
the continuance of the north-east monsoon. The deepest rivers
are the Kuantan and Rompin; the largest are the Kelantan and
the Pahang, both of which are navigable for native boats for a
distance of over 250 m. The Trengganu river is obstructed by
impassable rapids at a distance of about 30 m. from its mouth.
The rivers on the east coast are practically the only highways, the
Malays always travelling by boat in preference to walking, but
they serve their purpose very indifferently, and their great beauty
is their chief claim to distinction. Magnificent caves are found on
both slopes of the peninsula, those at Batu in Selangor being the

472

MALAY PENINSULA

finest on the west coast, while those of Chadu and Koto Glanggi
in Pahang are the most extensive yet visited by Europeans on the
east coast. They are all of limestone formation. So far as is known,
the Malay Peninsula consists of an axial zone of crystalline rocks,
flanked on each side by an incomplete band of sedimentary deposits.
Granite is the most widely spread of the crystalline rocks; but
dikes of various kinds occur, and gneiss, schist and marble are also
met with. These rocks form the greater part of the central range,
and they are often — especially the granite— decomposed and rotten
to a considerable depth. The sedimentary deposits include slate,
limestone and sandstone. Impure coal has also been recorded.
The limestone has yielded Proetus, Chonetes and other fossils, and
is believed to be of Carboniferous age. In the sandstone Myophoria
and other Triassic fossils have been found, and it appears to belong
to the Rhaetic or Upper Trias.1 The minerals produced are tin,
gold, iron, galena and others, in insignificant quantities.

The tin occurs in the form of cassiterite, and is found chiefly in
or near the crystalline rocks, especially the granite. As stream tin
it occurs abundantly in some of the alluvial deposits derived from
the crystalline area, especially on the west coast. Only two tin
lodes are worked, however, and both are situated on the east coast,
the one at Kuantan in Pahang, the other at Bandi in Trengganu
territory. On the west coast no true lode has yet been discovered,
though the vast alluvial deposits of tin found there seem to make
such a discovery probable in the future. Since 1890 the tin
produced from these alluvial beds has supplied between 50% and
75 % of the tin of the world. Gold is worked with success in
Pahang, and has been exploited from time immemorial by the
natives of that state and of Kelantan. Small quantities have also
been found on the western slope in Perak.

Climate, &c. — It was formerly the custom to speak of the Malay
Peninsula as an unhealthy climate, and even to compare it with the
west coast of Africa. It is now generally admitted, however, that,
though hot, it compares favourably with that of Burma. The chief
complaint which Europeans make concerning it is the extreme
humidity, which causes the heat to be more oppressive than is the
case where the air is dry. On the other hand, the thermometer,
even at Singapore on the southern coast, which is the hottest portion
of the peninsula, seldom rises above 98° in the shade, whereas the
mean for the year at that place is generally below 80°. On the main-
land, and more especially on the eastern slope, the temperature
is cooler, the thermometer seldom rising above 93° in the shade,
and falling at night below 70°. On an average day in this part of the
peninsula the temperature in a European house ranged from 88° to
68°. The number of rainy days throughout the peninsula varies
from 160 to over 200 in each year, but violent gusts of wind, called
" Sumatras," accompanied by a heavy downpour of short duration,
are more common than persistent rain. The rainfall on the west
coast varies from 75 to 120 in. per annum, and that of the east coast,
where the north-east monsoon breaks with all its fury, is usually
about 155 in. per annum. Malarial fevers make their appearance
in places where the forest has been recently felled, or where the sur-
face earth has been disturbed. It is noticed that labourers employed
in deep mines worked by shafts suffer less from fever than do those
who are engaged in stripping the alluvial deposits. This, of course,
means that a new station, where clearing, digging, and building are
in progress, is often unhealthy for a time, and to this must be
attributed the evil reputation which the peninsula formerly enjoyed.
To Europeans the climate is found to be relaxing and enervating,
but if, in spite of some disinclination for exertion, regular exercise
is taken from the beginning, and ordinary precautions against chills,
more especially to the stomach, are adopted, a European has almost
as good a chance of remaining in good health in the peninsula as in
Europe. A change of climate, however, is imperatively necessary
every five or six years, and the children of European parents should
not be kept in the peninsula after they have attained the age of
four or five years. The Chinese immigrants suffer chiefly from fever
of a malarial type, from beri-beri, a species of tropical dropsy, and
from dysentery. The Malays formerly suffered severely from small-
pox epidemics, but in the portion of the peninsula under British
rule vaccination has been introduced, and the ravages of the disease
no longer assume serious dimensions. Occasional outbreaks of
cholera occur from time to time, and in the independent states
these cause terrible loss of life, as the -natives fly from the disease
and spread the infection in every direction. As a whole, the Malays
are, however, a remarkably healthy people, and deformity and heredi-
tary diseases are rare among them. There is little leprosy in the
peninsula, but there is a leper hospital near Penang on Pula Deraja
and another on an island on the west coast for the reception of lepers
from the Federated Malay States.

Flora and Fauna. — The soil of the peninsula is remarkably fertile
both in the plains and on the mountain slopes. In the vast forests
the decay of vegetable matter during countless ages has enriched

1 See R. B. Newton, " Notes on Literature bearing upon the
Geology of the Malay Peninsula; with an Account of a Neolithic
Implement from that Country " (Geol. Mag., 1901, pp. 128-134).
See also the various reports by J. B. Scrivenor in Suppl. Perak
Cot. Gazette, 1905.

the soil to the depth of many feet, and from it springs the most
marvellous tangle of huge trees, shrubs, bushes, underwood, creepers,
climbing plants and trailing vines, the whole hung with ferns, mosses,
and parasitic growths, and bound together by rattans and huge
rope-like trailers. In most places the jungle is so dense that it is
impossible to force a way through it without the aid of a wood-knife,
and even the wild beasts use well-worn game-tracks through the
forest. In the interior brakes of bamboos are found, many of which
spread for miles along the river banks. Good hard-wood timber
is found in plenty, the best being the merabau, penak, rasok and
chengal. Orchids of countless varieties abound. The principal
fruit trees are the duri-an, mangosteen, custard-apple, pomegranate,
rambut-an, pulas-an, langsat, rambai, jack-fruit, coco-nut, areca-nut,
sugar-palm, and banana. Coffee, tobacco, sugar-cane, rice, pepper,
gambler, cotton and sago are cultivated with success. Great
developments have been made of recent years in the cultivation of
rubber in British Malaya. The principal jungle products are gutta
and rubber of several varieties, and many kinds of rattan. The man-
grove grows on the shores of the west coast in profusion. Agila-
wood, the camphor tree, and ebony are also found in smaller
quantities.

The fauna of the peninsula is varied and no less profuse than is
the vegetable life. The Asiatic elephant; the seladang, a bison of
a larger type than the Indian gaur; two varieties of rhinoceros; the
honey bear (bruang), the tapir, the sambhur (rusa); the speckled
deer (kijang), three varieties of mouse-deer (napoh, plandok and
kanchil) ; the gibbon (ungka or wawa'), the siamang, another species
of anthropoid ape, the brok or coco-nut monkey, so called because
it is trained by the Malays to gather the nuts from the coco-nut
trees, the lotong, kra, and at least twenty other kinds of monkey;
the binturong (arcticlis binturong), the lemur; the Asiatic tiger, the
black panther, the leopard, the large wild cat (harimau akar), several
varieties of jungle cat; the wild boar, the wild dog; the flying squirrel,
the flying fox; the python, the cobra, and many other varieties of
snake, including the hamadryad; the alligator, the otter and the
gavial, as well as countless kinds of squirrel, rat, &c., are found
throughout the jungles of the peninsula in great numbers. On the
east coast peafowl are found, and throughout the interior the argus
pheasant, the firebacked pheasant, the blue partridge, the adjutant-
bird, several kinds of heron and crane, duck, teal, cotton-teal,
snipe, wood-pigeon, green-pigeon of several varieties, swifts, swallows
pied-robins, hornbills, parakeets, fly-catchers, nightjars, and many
other kinds of bird are met with frequently. A few specimens of
solitary goose have been procured, but the bird is rarely met with.
The forests literally swarm with insects of all kinds, from cicadae
to beautiful butterflies, and from stick- and leaf-insects to endless
varieties of ants. The scorpion and the centipede are both common.
The study of the insect life of the peninsula opens a splendid field
for scientific research, and the profusion and variety of insects found
in these forests probably surpass those to be met with anywhere else
in the world.

Political Divisions and Population. — Politically the Malay
Peninsula is divided into four sections: the colony of the Straits
Settlements and the Federated Malay States; the independent
Malay State of Johor, which is within the British sphere of in-
fluence; the non-federated states under British protection; and
the groups of states to the north of Perak and Pahang, which are
now recognized as lying within the sphere of influence of Siam.
The colony of the Straits Settlements consists of the islands of
Singapore, Penang and the Bindings, the territory of Province
Wellesley, on the mainland opposite to Penang, the insignificant
territory of the Bindings, and the town and territory of Malacca.
The Federated Malay States under British protection consist of
the sultanates of Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sambilan on the
west coast, and the sultanate of Pahang on the east coast. Johor
is the only Malay state in the southern portion of the peninsula,
the whole of which is within the British sphere, which has been
suffered to remain under native rule. The non-federated states
under British protection (since 1909) are Kelantan, Trengganu,
Kedah and Perils (Palit). The population of the peninsula num-
bers about 2,000,000, of whom about 600,000 inhabit the colony
of the Straits Settlements, about 900,000 the Federated Malay
States, about 200,000 the Malay State of Johor, and about
250,000 to 300,000 the remainder of the peninsula. The popula-
tion of the peninsula includes about 850,000 Chinese, mostly
immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the southern
provinces of China, of whom about 300,000 reside in the colony
of the Straits Settlements, 365,000 in the Federated Malay States,
150,000 in Johor, and the remainder in smaller communities or
as isolated traders scattered throughout the villages and small
towns of the peninsula. The Malay population of the peninsula,
including immigrants from the eastern archipelago, number

MALAY PENINSULA

473

some 750,000 to 800,000, while the Tamils and other natives of
India number about 100,000, the aboriginal natives of the pen-
insula perhaps 20,000, Europeans and Americans about 6500, and
Eurasians about 9000. The colony of the Straits Settlements,
and to a lesser extent the towns of the Federated Malay States,
carry a considerable heterogenous population, in which most of
the races of Asia find their representatives.

98°

MALAY 4r

PENINSULA

Scale. 1:8.000,000

English Mites
o 10 50 100

Railways

Brit/th Possessions - C3

federated Malay States

under British Protection. ift'f

Siamese Malay States -..1V3

Capitals
apitals of Provinces in Slam

Races of the Peninsula. — Excluding the Tai, or Siamese, who are
undoubtedly recent intruders from the north, there are three races
which for an extended period of time have had their home in the
Malay Peninsula. These are the Semang or Pangan, the Sakai or
Jakun, and the Malays. The Semang, as they are most usually
called by the Malays, are Negritos — a small, very dark people, with
features of the negroid type, very prognathous, and with short,
woolly hair clinging to the scalp in tiny crisp curls. These people
belong to the race which would seem to be the true aboriginal stock
of southern Asia. Representatives of it are found scattered about
the islands from the Andaman group southwards. The state of
civilization to which they have attained is very low. They neither
plant nor have they any manufactures except their rude bamboo
and rattan vessels, the fish and game traps which they set with much
skill, and the bows, blow-pipes and bamboo spears with which they

are armed. They are skilful hunters, however, catch fish by in-
geniously constructed traps, and live almost entirely on jungle-roots
and the produce of their hunting and fishing. The most civilized
of these people is found in Upper Perak, and the members of this clan
have acquired some knowledge of the art of planting, &c. They
cannot, however, be taken as typical of their race, and otner specimens
of this people are seldom seen even by the Sakai. From time to time
they have been raided by the latter, and many Negritos are to be
found in captivity in some of the Malayan villages on the eastern
side of the peninsula. The mistake of speaking
of the Sakai tribes as practically identical with
the Semang or Pangan has very frequently been
made, but as a matter of fact the two races are
absolutely distinct from one another. It has
also been customary to include the Sakai in the
category of Malayan races, but this too is un-
doubtedly incorrect. The Sakai still inhabit in
greatest numbers the country which forms the
interior of Pahang, the Plus and Kinta districts
of Perak, and the valley of Nenggiri in Kelantan.
Representatives of their race are also found
scattered among the Malayan villages through-
out the country, and also along the coast, but
these have intermixed so much with the Malays,
and have acquired so many customs, &c., from
their more civilized neighbours, that they can no
longer be regarded as typical of the race to which
they belong. The pure Sakai in the interior
have a good knowledge of planting rice, tapioca,
&c., fashion pretty vessels from bamboos, which
they decorate with patterns traced by the aid of
fire, make loin-cloths (their only garment) from
the bark of the trap and ipoh trees; are very
musical, using a rude lute of bamboo, and a nose-
flute of a very sweet tone, and singing in chorus
very melodiously; and altogether nave attained
in their primitive state to a higher degree of
civilization than have the Semang. They are
about as tall as the average Malay, are slimly
buijt, light of colour, and have wavy fine hair. In
their own language they usually have only three
numerals, viz. na-nun, one; nar, two; and ne\
three, or variants of these; all higher arithmetical
ideas being expressed by the word kerpn, which
means " many." A few cases have been re-
corded, however, of tribes who can count in their
own tongue up to four and five. Among the
more civilized, however, the Malay numerals up
to ten are adopted by the Sakai. An examina-
tion of their language seems to indicate that it
belongs to the Mon-Khmer group of languages,
and the anthropological information forthcoming
concerning the Sakai points to the conclusion
that they show a greater affinity to the people of
the Mon-Khmer races than to the Malayan stock.
Though they now use metal tools imported by
the Malays, it is noticeable that the names
which they give to those weapons which most
closely resemble in character the stone imple-
ments found in such numbers all over the penin-
sula are native names wholly unconnected with
their Malay equivalents. On account of this, it
has been suggested that in a forgotten past the
Sakai were themselves the fashioners of the
stone implements, and certain it is that all tools
which have no representatives among the stone
kelts are known to the Sakai by obvious corrup-
tions of their Malayan names. The presence of
the Sakai, a people of the Mon-Khmer stock, in
the interior of the peninsula has also been con-
sidered as one of many proofs that the Malays
intruded from the south and approached the
peninsula by means of a sea-route, since had
they swept down from the north, being driven
thence by the people of a stronger breed, it
might be expected that the fringe of country dividing the two
contending races would be inhabited by men of the more feeble
stock. Instead, we find the Sakai occupying this position, thus
indicating that they have been driven northward by the Malays, and
that the latter people has not been expelled by the Mon-Khmer
races from the countries now represented by Burma, Siam and French
Indo-China. The Sakai population is dying out, and must even-
tually disappear. (With regard to the Malay, see MALAYS.)

Archaeology. — The only ancient remains found in the peninsula
are the stone implements, of which mention has already been made,
and some remarkable ancient mines, which are situated in the Jelai
valley in Pahang. The stone implements are generally of one or
two types : a long rectangular adze or wedge rudely pointed at one
end, and i sed in conjunction with a mallet or flat stone, and a
roughly triangular axe-head, which has evidently been fixed in the

474

MALAY PENINSULA

cleft of a split stick. A few stones, which might perhaps be arrow-
heads, have been found, but they are very rare. The mines, which
have been constructed for the purpose of working quartz lodes
containing gold, are very extensive, and argue a high stage of civiliza-
tion possessed by the ancient miners. They consist of a number of
circular or rectangular pits sunk from the cap of a hill, and going
down to a depth of in some cases as much as 120 ft., until in fact
the miners have been stopped by being unable to cope with the
quantity of water made when the level of the valley was reached.
The shafts are placed so close together that in many instances they
are divided by only a couple of feet of solid ground, but at their bases
a considerable amount of gallery work has been excavated, though
it is possible that this was done by miners who came after the people
who originally sank the shafts. Native tradition attributes these
mines to the Siamese, but no importance can be attached to this,
as it is very general for the Malays to give this explanation for any-
thing which is obviously not the work of their own ancestors. A
theory, which seems to have some probability in its favour, is that
these mines were worked by the Khmer people during the period of
power, energy and prosperity which found its most lofty expression
in the now ruined and deserted city of Angkor Thorn; while another
attributes these works to the natives of India whose Hindu remains
are found in Java and elsewhere, whose influence was at one time
widespread throughout Malayan lands, and of whose religious
teaching remnants still linger in the superstitions of the Malays and
are preserved in some purity in Lombok and Bali. In the absence,
however, of any relics of a kind which might lead to the identification
of the ancient miners, their nationality and origin are matters which
must continue to be mere questions of speculation and conjecture.

History. — The first hint to reach Europe concerning the exist-
ence of habitable lands to the eastward of the Ganges is to be
found in the writings of Pomponius Mela (A.D. 43) which speak
of Chryse, or the Golden Isle, as lying off Cape Tamus — supposed
to be the most easterly point in Asia — and over against the
estuary of the Ganges. Thereafter there occur vague references
to Chryse in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, &c., but the earliest
trace of anything resembling first-hand knowledge concerning
the peninsula of Indo-China and Malaya is revealed in the
writings of Ptolemy, whose views were mainly derived from those
of his predecessor Marinus of Tyre, who in his turn drew his
deductions from information supplied to him by the mariner
Alexander who, there is every reason to think, had himself
voyaged to the Malay Peninsula and beyond. In the light of
present knowledge concerning the trade-routes of Asia, which
had been in existence for thousands of years ere ever Europeans
attempted to make use of them, it is safe to identify Ptolemy's
Sinus Perimulicus with the Gulf of Siam, the Sinus Sabaricus
with the Straits of Malacca from their southern portals to the
Gulf of Martaban, the Aurea Chersonesus with the Malay Penin-
sula, and the island of labadius or Sabadius — the reading of the
name is doubtful — with Sumatra, not as has often been mis-
takenly attempted with Java. Although the first definite
endeavour to locate the Golden Chersonese thus dates from the
middle of the 2nd century of our era, the name was apparently
well known to the learned of Europe at a somewhat earlier period,
and in his Antiquities of the Jews, written during the latter half
of the ist century, Josephus says that Solomon gave to the pilots
furnished to him by Hiram of Tyre commands " that they should
go along with his stewards to the land that of old was called
Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, which belongs to India,
to fetch gold." After the time of Ptolemy no advance in know-
ledge concerning the geography of south-eastern Asia was made
until Cosmas Indicopleustes, a monk and an Alexandrian Greek,
wrote from personal knowledge between A.D. 530 and 550. His
primary object was to prove that the world was built after the
same shape and fashion as the Ark made by the Children of Israel
in the desert; but he was able to show that the Malay Peninsula
had to be rounded and thereafter a course steered in a northerly
direction if China was to be reached. Meanwhile inter-Asiatic
intercourse by means of sea-routes had been steadily on the
increase since the discovery of the way to utilize the monsoons
and to sail directly to and fro across the Indian Ocean (attributed
to the Greek pilot Hippalus) had been made. After the decline
of the power of Rome, the dominant force in Asiatic commerce
and navigation was Persia, and from that time onward, until the
arrival of the Portuguese upon the scene early in the i6th century
the spice trade, whose chief emporia were in or near the Malay

Peninsula, was in Persian or Arab hands. There is considerable
reason to think, however, that the more frequent ports of call in
the Straits of Malacca were situated in Sumatra, rather than on
the shores of the Malay Peninsula, and two famous medieval
travellers, Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta, both called and
wintered at the former, and make scant mention of the latter.

The importance of the Malay Peninsula, as has been noted,
consisted in the privilege which its locality conferred upon it of
being the distributing centre of the spices brought thither from
the Moluccas en route for India and Europe. As early as the
3rd century B.C. Megasthenes makes mention of spices brought
to the shores of the Ganges from " the southern parts of India,"
and the trade in question was probably one of the most ancient
in the world. So long, however, as India held the monopoly
of the clove, the Malay Peninsula was ignored,'the Hindus spread-
ing their influence through the islands of the archipelago and
leaving traces thereof even to this day. The Mahommedan
traders from Persia and Arabia, following the routes which had
been prepared for them by their forebears, broke down the Hindu
monopoly and ousted the earlier exploiters so effectually that
by the beginning of the i6th century the spice trade was almost
exclusively in their hands. These traders were also missionaries
of their religion, as indeed is every Mahommedan, and to them
is due the conversion of the Malays from rude pantheism, some-
what tinctured by Hindu mythology, to the Mahommedan creed.
The desire to obtain the monopoly of the spice trade has been
a potent force in the fashioning of Asiatic history. The Moluccas
were, from the first, the objective of the Portuguese invaders,
and no sooner had the white men found their way round the Cape
of Good Hope and established themselves successively upon the
coast of East Africa, in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Aden
and the Malabar coast, than Malacca, then the chief trading
centre of the Malayan Archipelago, became the object of their
desire. The first Portuguese expedition sent out to capture
Malacca was under the command of Diogo Lopez de Siqueira
and sailed from Portugal in 1 508. At Cochin Siqueira took on
board certain adherents of Alphonso d'Alboquerque who were
in bad odour with his rival d'Almeida, among them being
Magellan, the future circumnavigator of the world, and Francisco
Serrao, the first European who ever lived in the Spice Islands.
Siqueira's expedition ended in failure, owing partly to the
aggressive attitude of the Portuguese, partly to the very justifi-
able»suspicions of the Malays, and he was presently forced to
destroy one of his vessels, to leave a number of his men in cap-
tivity, and to sail direct for Portugal. In 1510 a second expedi-
tion against Malacca was sent out from Portugal under the
command of Diogo Mendez de Vasconcellos, but d'Alboquerque
retained it at Cochin to aid him in the retaking of Goa, and it
was not until 1511 that the great viceroy could spare time to
turn his attention to the scene of Siqueira's failure. After some
futile negotiations, which had for their object the recovery of the
Portuguese captives before hostilities should begin, an assault
was delivered upon Malacca, and though the first attempt to
take the city failed after some hard fighting, a second assault
made some days later succeeded, and Malacca passed for ever
into European hands. The Portuguese were satisfied with the
possession of Malacca itself and did not seek further to extend
their empire in Malaya. Instead they used every endeavour
to establish friendly relations with the rulers of all the neighbour-
ing kingdoms, and before d'Alboquerque returned to India he
despatched embassies to China, Siam, and several kingdoms of
Sumatra, and sent a small fleet, with orders to assume a highly
conciliatory attitude toward all natives, in search of the Moluccas.
Very soon the spice trade had become a Portuguese monopoly,
and Malacca was the great headquarters of the trade. It should
moreover be noted that Magellan's famous expedition had for
its object not the barren feat of circumnavigation but the break-
ing down of this monopoly, without violating the terms of the
papal bull which gave to Spain the conquest of the West, to
Portugal the possession of the East. In 1328 a French expedi-
tion sailed from Dieppe, penetrated as far as Achin in Sumatra,
but returned without reaching the Malay Peninsula. It was,

MALAYS

475

however, the first attempt ever made to defy the papal bull.
In 1591, three years after the defeat of the Armada, Raymond
and Lancaster rounded the Cape, and after cruising off Penang,
decided to winter in Achin. They subsequently hid among the
Pulau Sambilan near the mouth of the Perak river, and thence
captured a large Portuguese vessel which was sailing from
Malacca in company with two Burmese ships. In 1595 the first
Dutch expedition sailed from the Texel, but it took a more
southerly course than its predecessors and confined its operations
to Java and the neighbouring islands. During this period Achin
developed a determined enmity to the Portuguese, and more
than one attempt was made to drive the strangers from Malacca.
Eventually, in 1641, a joint attack was made by the Achinese
and the Dutch, but the latter, not the people of the sturdy little
Sumatran kingdom, became the owners of the coveted port.
Malacca was taken from the Dutch by the British in 1795; was
restored to the latter in 1818; but in 1824 was exchanged for
Benkulen and a few more unimportant places in Sumatra. The
first British factory in the peninsula was established in the native
state of Patani on the east coast in 1613, the place having been
used by the Portuguese in the i6th century for a similar purpose;
but the enterprise came to an untimely end in 1620 when Captain
Jourdain, the first president, was killed in a naval engagement
in Patani Roads by the Dutch. Penang was purchased from
Kedah in 1 786, and Singapore from the then sultan of Johor in
1819. The Straits Settlements — Singapore, Malacca and Penang
— were ruled from India until 1867, when they were erected into
a crown colony under the charge of the Colonial Office. In 1874
the Malay state of Perak was placed under British protection
by a treaty entered into with its sultan; and this eventually led
to the inclusion in a British protectorate of the neighbouring
Malay States of Selangor, Sungei Ujong, the cluster of small
states called the Negri Sembilan and Pahang, which now form
the Federated Malay States. By a treaty made between Great
Britain and Siam in 1902 the northern Malay states of the penin-
sula were admitted to lie within the Siamese sphere of influence,
but by a treaty of 1909 Siam ceded her suzerain rights over the
states of Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis to Britain.

Singapore is the political, commercial and administrative
headquarters of the colony of the Straits Settlements, and the
governor for the time being is ex officio high commissioner of the
Federated Malay States, British North Borneo, Sarawak, the
Cocos- Keeling and Christmas Islands, and governor of Labuan.

See Sir F. Swettenham, British Malaya (1906); H. Clifford,
Further India (1904); Journal of the Malay Archipelago, Logan
(Singapore) ; Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
(Singapore) ; Weld, Maxwell, Swettenham and Clifford in the Journal
of the Koyal Colonial Institute (London) ; Clifford in the Journal of
the Royal Geographical Society (London). (H. CL.)

MALAYS, the name given by Europeans to the people calling
themselves Orang Malayu, i.e. Malayan folk, who are the domi-
nant race of the Malay Peninsula and of the Malay Archipelago.
Broadly speaking, all the brown races which inhabit the portion
of Asia south of Siam and Indo-China, and the islands from
the Philippines to Java, and from Sumatra to Timor, may be
described as belonging to the Malayan family, if the aboriginal
tribes, such as the Sakai and Semang in the Malay Peninsula,
the Bataks in Sumatra, and the Muruts in Borneo, be excepted.
For the purposes of this article, however, only those among these
races which bear the name of Orang Malayu, speak the Malayan
language, and represent the dominant people of the land, can
be included under the title of Malays. These people inhabit
the whole of the Malayan Peninsula to the borders of lower
Siam, the islands in the vicinity of the mainland, the shores of
Sumatra and some portions of the interior of that island, Sarawak
and Brunei in Borneo, and some parts of Dutch Borneo,
Batavia and certain districts in Java, and some of the smaller
islands of the archipelago. Though in these lands they have
for not less than a thousand years enjoyed the position of the
dominant race, they all possess a tradition that they are not
indigenous, and that their first rulers " came out of the sea," with
a large band of Malayan warriors in their train. In the peninsula

especially, where the presence of the Malays is more recent than
elsewhere, many traditions exist which point to a comparatively
recent occupation of the country. It has been remarked that there
is evidence that the Malays had attained to a certain stage of
civilization before ever they set foot in Malaya. For instance,
the names which they give to certain fruits, such as the duri-an,
the rambut-an and the pulas-an, which are indigenous in the
Malayan countries, and are not found elsewhere, are all com-
pound words meaning respectively the thorny, the hairy and
the twisted fruit. These words are formed by the addition of the
substantial affix " -an," the use of which is one of the recognized
methods by which the Malays turn primitive words into terms
of more complex meaning. This may be taken to indicate
that when first the Malays became acquainted with the fruits
which are indigenous in Malayan lands they already possessed
a language in which most primary words were represented, and
also that their tongue had attained to a stage of development
which provided for the formation of compound words by a
system sanctioned by custom and the same linguistic instinct
which causes a Malay to-day to form similar compounds from
European and other foreign roots. For any aboriginal race
inhabiting these countries, such important articles of diet as the
duri-an, &c., could not fail to be among the first natural objects
to receive a name, and thus we find primary terms in use among
the Sakai and Semang, the aborigines of the Peninsula, to de-
scribe these fruits. The use by the Malays of artificially con-
structed terms to denote these things may certainly be taken to
strengthen the opinion that the Malays arrived in the lands they
now inhabit at a comparatively late period in their history, and
at a time when they had developed considerably from the original
state of primitive man.

In the Malay Peninsula itself there is abundant evidence,
ethnological and philological, of at least two distinct immigra-
tions of people of the Malayan stock, the earlier incursions, it is
probable, taking place from the eastern archipelago to the south,
the later invasion spreading across the Straits of Malacca from
Sumatra at a comparatively recent date. The fact that the
semi-wild tribes, which are ethnologically Malayan and distinct
from the aboriginal Semang and Sakai, are met with almost
invariably in the neighbourhood of the coast would seem to
indicate that they reached the peninsula by a sea, not by a land
route, a supposition which is strengthened by their almost
amphibious habits. Many of these tribes have retained their
pristine paganism, but many others it is certain have adopted
the Mahommedan religion and have been assimilated by the
subsequent and stronger wave of Sumatran immigrants. A
study of the local dialects to be met with in some of the districts
of the far interior, e.g. the Tembeling valley in Pahang, whose
people are now Mahommedans and in many respects indis-
tinguishable from the ordinary Malays of the peninsula, reveals
the fact that words, current in the archipelago to the south but
incomprehensible to the average peninsula Malays, by whom
these more ancient populations are now completely surrounded,
have been preserved as local words, whereas they really belong
to an older dialect once spoken widely in the peninsula, as to-day
it is spoken in the Malayan islands. This would seem to show
that in some instances the earlier Malay immigrants fell or were
driven by the later invaders back from the coast and sought
refuge in the far interior.

Until recently many eminent scientists held the theory that
the Malayan peoples were merely an offspringof theMongolstock,
and that their advance into the lands they now in-
habit had taken place from the cradle of the Mon- or'g"ia"
golian race — that is to say, from the north. In the
fifth edition of his Malay Archipelago, A. R. Wallace notes the
resemblance which he traced between the Malays and the
Mongolians, and others have recorded similar observations as
to the physical appearance of the two races. To-day, however,
fuller data are available than when Wallace wrote, and the more
generally accepted theory is that the Malayan race is distinct,
and came from the south, until it was stayed by the Mongolian
races living on the mainland of southern Asia. The cranial

476

MALAYS

measurements of the Malays and an examination of their hair
sections seem to bear out the theory that they are distinct from
the Mongolian races. Their language, which is neither mono-
syllabic nor tonic, has nothing in common with that of the Mon-
Annam group. It has, moreover, been pointed out that had
the Malays been driven southwards by the stronger races of the
mainland of Asia, it might be expected that the people inhabiting
the country nearest to the border between Siam and Malaya
would belong to the Malayan and not to the Mon-Annam or
Mon- Khmer stock. As a matter of fact the Sakai of the interior
of the peninsula belong to the latter race. It might also be
anticipated, were the theory of a southward immigration to be
sustained, that the Malays would be new-comers in the islands
of the archipelago, and have their oldest settlements on the
Malayan Peninsula. The facts, however, are in exact contradic-
tion to this; and accordingly the theory now most generally held
by those who have studied the question is that the Malays form
a distinct race, and had their original home in the south. Where
this home lay it is not easy to say, but the facts recorded by
many writers as to the resemblance between the Polynesian and
the Malayan races, and the strong Malayan element found in
the languages of the former (see Tregear's Maori and Comparative
Polynesian Dictionary, London, 1891), have led some students
to think that the two races may have had a common origin.
John Crawfurd, in the Dissertation to his Dictionary of the Malay
Language, published in 1840, noted the prevalence of Malayan
terms in the Polynesian languages, and attributed the fact to
the casting away of ships manned by Malays upon the islands
of the Polynesian Archipelago. The appearance of the same
Malayan words in localities so widely separated from each other,
however, cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by any such
explanation, and the theory is now more generally held that the
two races are probably allied and may at some remote period
of history have shared a common home. It has been suggested
that their separation did not take place until after the continent
which once existed in the north Pacific had become submerged,
and that the Malays wandered northward, wrjile the Polynesian
race spread itself over the islands of the southern archipelago.
All this, however, must necessarily be of the nature of the purest
speculation, and the only facts which we are able to deduce in
the present state of our knowledge of the subject may be summed
up as follows: (a) That the Malays ethnologically belong to a
race which is allied to the Polynesians; (6) that the theory
formerly current to the effect that the Sakai and other similar
races of the peninsula and archipelago belonged to the Malayan
stock cannot be maintained, since recent investigations tend to
identify them with the Mon-Annam or Mon-Khmer family of
races; (c) that the Malays are, comparatively speaking, new-
comers in the lands which they now inhabit; (d) that it is almost
certain that their emigration took place from the south; (e) and
that, at some remote period of their history, they came into close
contact with the Polynesian race, probably before its dispersion
over the extensive area which it now occupies.

The Malays to-day are Sunni Mahommedans of the school of
Shafi'i, and they habitually use the terms Orang Malayu, i.e. a Malay,
and Orang Islam, i.e. a Mahommedan, as synonymous
expressions. Their conversion from paganism took
**" place during the I3th, I4th and isth centuries of our era.
ons. -j-^g raja Of Achin, in northern Sumatra, is said to have
been converted as early as 1206, while the Bugis people in Celebes
are supposed not to have become Mahommedans until 1495.
Mahommedanism undoubtedly spread to the Malays of the peninsula
from Sumatra, but their conversion was slow and gradual, and may
even now in some respects be regarded as imperfect. Upon the bulk
of the Malayan peoples their religion sits but lightly. Few are found
to observe the law concerning the Five Hours of Prayer, and many fail
to put in an appearance at the Friday congregational services in
the mosques. The Fast of Ramadhan, however, is generally ob-
served with some faithfulness. Compared with other Mahommedan
peoples, the Malays are not fanatical, though occasionally an out-
break against those of a different creed is glorified by them into a
holy war. The reason of such outbreaks, however, is usually to be
found in political and social rather than in religious grievances.
Prior to their conversion to Mahommedanism the Malays were
subjected to a considerable Hindu influence, which reached them by
means of the traders who visited the archipelago from India. In

Mode of
Life, &c.

the islands of Bali and Lombok the people still profess a form of
Hinduism, and Hindu remains are to be found in many other parts
of the archipelago, though their traces do not extend to the peninsula.
Throughout, however, the superstitions of the Malays show indi-
cations of this Hindu influence, and many of the demons whom
their medicine-men invoke in their magic practices are clearly
borrowed from the pantheon of India. For the rest, a substratum
of superstitious beliefs, which survives from the days when the Malays
professed only their natural religion, is to be found firmly rooted
in the minds of the people, and the influence of Mahommedanism,
which regards such things with horror, has been powerless to eradi-
cate this. Mr W. W. Skeat's Malay Magic (London, 1900) is a
compilation of all the writings on the subject of Malay superstitions
by the best authorities and contains considerable original matter.

The Malays of the coast are a maritime people, and were long
famous for the daring character of their acts of piracy. They are
now peaceable fisher-folk, who show considerable
ingenuity in their calling. Inland the Malays live by
preference on the banks of rivers, building houses on
piles some feet from the ground, and planting groves of coco-nut,
betel-nut, sugar-palm and fruit-trees around their dwellings. Behind
their villages the rice-fields usually spread, and rice, which is the
staple food of the people, is the principal article of agriculture among
them. Sugar-cane, maize, tapioca and other similar products
are grown, however, in smaller quantities. In planting rice three
methods are in use: the cultivation of swamp-rice in irrigated
fields; the planting of ploughed areas; and the planting of hill-rice
by sowing each grain separately in holes bored for the purpose.
In the irrigated fields the rice plants are first grown in nurseries,
and are subsequently transplanted when they have reached a cer-
tain stage of development. The Malays also work jungle produce,
of which the most important are gutta, rattans, agila wood, camphor
wood, and the beautiful kamuning wood which is used by the natives
for the hilts of their weapons. The principal manufactures of the
Malays are cotton and silk cloths, earthenware and silver vessels,
mats and native weapons. The best cotton cloths are those manu-
factured by the Bugis people in Celebes, and the batek cloths which
come from Java and are stamped with patterns. The best silks
are produced by the natives of Pahang, Kelantan and Johor in the
Malay Peninsula. Lord Leighton pronounced the silver ware
from Malaya to be the most artistic of any exhibited at the Colonial
Exhibition held in London in 1886. The pottery of the Malays
is rude but curious. When the first Europeans visited the Malay
Archipelago the Malays had already acquired the art of manufac-
turing gunpowder and forging canon. The art of writing also
appears to have been independently invented by the Malayan races,
since numerous alphabets are in use among the peoples of the
archipelago, although for the writing of Malay itself the Arabic
character has been adopted for some hundreds of years. The Malays
are excellent boat-builders.

While the Malays were famous almost exclusively for their
piratical expeditions they naturally bore an evil reputation among
Europeans, but now that we have come into closer „. ,
contact with them, and have learned to understand ^&a'
them better, the old opinions concerning them have been
greatly modified. They used to be described as the most cruel
and treacherous people in the world, and they certainly are callous
of the pain suffered by others, and regard any strategy of which
their enemies are the victims with open admiration. In ordinary
circumstances, however, the Malay is not treacherous, and there are
many instances recorded in which men of this race have risked their
own lives on behalf of Europeans who chanced to be their friends.
As' a race they are exceedingly courteous and self-respecting.
Their own code of manners is minute and strict, and they observe
its provisions faithfully. Unlike many Orientals, the Malays can
be treated with a friendly familiarity without such treatment
breeding lack of respect or leading to liberties being taken with the
superior. The Malays are indolent, pleasure-loving, improvident
beyond belief, fond of bright clothing, of comfort, of ease, and they
dislike toil exceedingly. They have no idea of the value of money,
and little notion of honesty where money is concerned. They would
always borrow rather than earn money, and they feel no shame in
adopting the former course. They will frequently refuse to work
for a wage when they most stand in need of cash, and yet at the
invitation of one who is their friend they will toil unremittingly
without any thought of reward. They are much addicted to gamb-
ling, and formerly were much given to fighting, though they never
display that passion for war in the abstract which is characteristic
of some of the white races, and their courage on the whole is not
high if judged by European standards. It is notorious, however,
on the coasts that a Malay gang on board a ship invariably gets the
better of any fight which may arise between it and the Chinese crew.
The sexual morality of the Malays is very lax, but prostitution is
not common in consequence. Polygamy, though allowed by their
religion, is practised for the most part among the wealthy classes
only. The Malays are an intensely aristocratic people, and show a
marvellous'Ioyalty to their rajas and chiefs. Their respect for rank
is not marred by any vulgarity or snobbery. The ruling classes
among them display all the vices of the lower classes, and few of the

MALAYS

477

virtues except that of courtesy. They are for the most part, when left
to their own resources, cruel, unjust, selfish and improvident.

Much has been written concerning the acts of homicidal mania
called amuck (amok), which word in the vernacular means to attack.
It was formerly believed that these outbursts were to be attributed
to madness pur el simple, and some cases of amok can certainly be
traced to this source. These are not, however, in any sense typical,
and might equally have been perpetrated by men of another race.
The typical amok is usually the result of circumstances which render
a Malay desperate. The motive is often inadequate from the point
of view of a European, but to the Malay it is sufficient to make him
weary of life and anxious to court death. Briefly, where a man of
another race might not improbably commit suicide, a Malay runs
amok, killing all whom he may meet until he himself is slain.

The nervous affliction called latah, to which many Malays are
subject, is also a curious trait of the people. The victims of this
affliction lose for the time all self-control and all sense of their own
identity, imitating the actions of any person who chances to rivet
their attention. Accounts of these manifestations will be found
in Swettenham's Malay Sketches (London, 1895) and Clifford's
Studies in Brown Humanity (London, 1897).

The Malays wear a loose coat and trousers, and a cap or head-
kerchief, but the characteristic item of their costume is the sarong.
Cost me a s'"c or cotton cloth about two yards long by a yard
' and a quarter wide, the ends of which are sewn together,

eapoas, formmg a ^^j of skirt. This is worn round the waist
folded in a knot, the women allowing it to fall to the
ankle, the men, when properly dressed in accordance with ancient
custom, folding it over the hilt of their waist-weapon, and draping
it around them so that it reaches nearly to the knee. In the hall
of a raja on state occasions a head-kerchief twisted into a peak is
worn, and the coat is furnished with a high collar extending round
the back of the neck only. This coat is open in front, leaving the
chest bare. The trousers are short and of a peculiar cut and material,
being coloured many hues in parallel horizontal lines. The sarong
is of Celebes manufacture and made of cotton, to the surface of which
a high polish is imparted by friction with a shell. The typical
fighting costume of the Malay is a sleeveless jacket with texts from
the Koran written upon it, short tight drawers reaching to the middle
of the thigh, and the sarong is then bound tightly around the waist,
leaving the hilt of the dagger worn in the girdle exposed to view.
The principal weapon of the Malays is the kris, a short dagger with
a small wooden or ivory handle, of which there are many varieties.
The blade of a kris may either be wavy or straight, but if wavy
the number of waves must always be uneven in number. The kns
most prized by the Malays are those of Bugis (Celebes) manufacture,
and of these the kind called tuasek are of the greatest value. Besides
the short kris, the Malays use long straight kris with very narrow
blades, shorter straight kris of the same form, short broad swords
called sundang, long swords of ordinary pattern called pedang,
somewhat shorter swords curved like scimitars with curiously
carved handles called chenangkas, and short stabbing daggers called
tumbok lada. The principal tools of the Malays are the parang or
golok, a heavy knife used in the jungle, without which no peasant
ever stirs abroad from his house, the beliong or native axe, and the
pisau rant, which is used for scraping rattan. Their implements are
very primitive, consisting of a plough fashioned from a fork of a
tree, and a rude harrow. Reaping is usually performed by the aid
of a curious little knife which severs each ear of grain separately.
The fisherfolk use many kinds of nets, which they manufacture
themselves. Sails, paddles, oars and punting-poles are all in use.

MALAY LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

The Malay language is a member of the Malayan section of the
Malayo- Polynesian class of languages, but it is by no means a
representative type of the section which has taken its name from it.
The area over which it is spoken comprises the peninsula of Malacca
with the adjacent islands (the Rhio-Lingga Archipelago), the greater
part of the coast districts of Sumatra and Borneo, the seaports of
Java, the Sunda and Banda Islands. It is the general medium of
communication throughout the archipelago from Sumatra to the
Philippine Islands, and it was so upwards of three hundred and fifty
years ago when the Portuguese first appeared in those parts.

There are no Malay manuscripts extant, no monumental records
with inscriptions in Malay, dating from before the spreading of
Islam in the archipelago, about the end of the ijth century. By
some it has been argued from this fact that the Malays possessed
no kind of writing prior to the introduction of the Arabic alphabet
(\Y. Robinson, J. J. de Hollander); whereas others have maintained,
with greater show of probability, that the Malays were in possession
of an ancient alphabet, and that it was the same as the Rechang
(Marsden, Friederich), as the Kawi (Van der Tuuk), or most like the
Lampong (Kern) — all of which alphabets, with the Battak, Bugi
and Macassar, are ultimately traceable to the ancient Canibojan
characters. \Vith the Mahommedan conquest the Perso-Arabic
alphabet was introduced among the Malays; it has continued ever
since to be in use for literary, religious and business purposes. Where
Javanese is the principal language, Malay is sometimes found written
with Javanese characters; and in Palembang, in the Menangkabo

country of Middle Sumatra, the Rechang or Renchong characters
are in general use, so called from the sharp and pointed knife with
which they are cut on the smooth side of bamboo staves. It is only
since the Dutch have established their supremacy in the archipelago
that the Roman character has come to be largely used in writing and
printing Malay. This is also the case in the Straits Settlements.

By the simplicity of its phonetic elements, the regularity of its
grammatical structure, and the copiousness of its nautical vocabu-
lary, the Malay language is singularly well fitted to be the lingua
franca throughout the Indian archipelago. It possesses the five
vowels a, i, u, e, o, both short and long, and one pure diphthong, au.
Its consonants are k, g, ng, ch, j, n, t, d,. n, p, b, m, y, r, I, w, s, h.
Long vowels can only occur in open syllables. The only possible
consonantal nexus in purely Malay words is that of a nasal and mute,
a liquid and mute and vice versa, and a liquid and nasal. Final
k and h are all but suppressed in the utterance. Purely Arabic
letters are only used in Arabic words, a great number of which have
been received into the Malay vocabulary. But the Arabic charac-
ter is even less suited to Malay than to the other Eastern languages
on which it has been foisted. As the short vowels are not marked,
one would, in seeing, e.g. the word bntng, think first of bintang, a
star; but the word might also mean a large scar, to throw down,
to spread, rigid, mutilated, enceinte, a kind of cucumber, a redoubt,
according as it is pronounced, bantang, banting, bentang, buntang,
buntung, bunting, bonteng, benteng.

Malay is essentially, with few exceptions, a dissyllabic language,
and the syllabic accent rests on the penultimate unless that syllable
is open and short; e.g. datang, namana, besar, diumpatkannalah.
Nothing in the form of a root word indicates the grammatical
category to which it belongs; thus, kdsih, kindness, affectionate,
to love ; ganli, a proxy, to exchange, instead of. It is only in deriva-
tive words that this vagueness is avoided. Derivation is effected
by infixes, prefixes, affixes and reduplication. Infixes occur more
rarely in Malay than in the cognate tongues. Examples are —
gurun, a rumbling noise, gumuruh, to make such a noise; tunjuk,
to point, telunjuk, the forefinger; chuchuk, to pierce, cheruchuk,
a stockade. The import of the prefixes — m6 (meng, men, men,
mfim), pe (peng, pen, pen, pSm), ber (bel), pSr, pel, ka, di, ter, — and
affixes — an, kan, i, lah — will best appear from the following examples
— root word ajar, to teach, to learn; mengajar, to instruct (expresses
an action) ; belajar, to study (state or condition) ; mengajari, to in-
struct (some one, trans.) ; mengajarkan, to instruct (in something,
causative) ; pengajar, the instructor; peldjar, the learner; pengajdran,
the lesson taught, also the school ; petajaran, the lesson learnt ; diajar,
to be learnt; tkrajar, learnt; terajarkan, taught; terajari, instructed;
[perdja (from raja, prince), to recognize as prince; pcrajdkan, to crown
as prince; karajaan, royalty]; ajarkanlah, teach! Examples of
reduplication are — ajar-ajar, a sainted person; ajar-berajar (or
belajar), to be learning and teaching by turns; similarly there are
forms like djar-mengdjar, berdjdr-ajdran, ajar-ajdri, memperdjar,
memperdjarkan, memperajdri, terbeldjarkan, perbelajarkan, &c.
Altogether there are upwards of a hundred possible derivative forms,
in the idiomatic use of which the Malays exhibit much skill. See
especially H. von Dewall, De vormveranderingen der Maleische tool
(Batavia, 1864) and J. Pijnappel, Maleisch-Hollandsch Wooraenboek
(Amsterdam, 1875), " Inleiding." In every other respect the lan-
guage is characterized by great simplicity and indefiniteness. There
is no inflexion to distinguish number, gender or case. Number is
never indicated when the sense is obvious or can be gathered from
the context; otherwise plurality is expressed by adjectives such as
sagdla, all, and bdnak, many; more rarely by the repetition of the
noun, and the indefinite singular by sa or salu, one, with a class-word.
Gender may, if necessary, be distinguished by the words laki-ldki,
male, and perampuan, female, in the case of persons, and of jantan
and betlna in the case of animals. The genitive case is generally
indicated by the position of the word after its governing noun.
Also adjectives and demonstrative pronouns have their places after
the noun. Comparison is effected by the use of particles. Instead
of the personal pronouns, both in their full and abbreviated forms,
conventional nouns are in frequent use to indicate the social position
or relation of the respective interlocutors, as, e.g. hamba tuan, the
master's slave, i.e. I. These nouns vary according to the different
localities. Another peculiarity of Malay (and likewise of Chinese,
Shan, Talaing, Burmese and Siamese) is the use of certain class-
words or coefficients with numerals, such as orang (man), when speak-
ing of persons, ekor (tail) of animals, keping (piece) of flat things, ttji
(seed) of roundish things; e.g. lima biji, telor, five eggs. The number
of these class-words is considerable. Malay verbs have neither
person or number nor mood or tense. The last two are sometimes
indicated by particles or auxiliary verbs; but these are generally
dispensed with if the meaning is sufficiently plain without them.
The Malays avoid the building up of long sentences. The two
main rules by which the order of the words in a sentence is regulated
are — subject, verb, object; and qualifying words follow those which
they qualify. This is quite the reverse of what is the rule in Burmese.

The history of the Malays amply accounts for the number and
variety of foreign ingredients in their language. Hindus appear to
have settled in Sumatra and Java as early as the 4th century of our
era, and to have continued to exercise sway over the native

478

MALAY STATES

populations for many centuries. These received from them into their
language a very large number of Sanskrit terms, from which we can
infer the nature of the civilizing influence imparted by the Hindu
rulers. Not only in words concerning commerce and agriculture,
but also in terms connected with social, religious and administra-
tive matters that influence is traceable in Malay. See W. E.
Maxwell, Manual ef the Malay Language (1882), pp. 5-34, where
this subject is treated more fully than by previous writers. This
Sanskrit element forms such an integral part of the Malay vocabu-
lary that in spite of the subsequent infusion of Arabic and Persian
words adopted in the usual course of Mahommedan conquest it has
retained its ancient citizenship in the language. The number of
Portuguese, English, Dutch and Chinese words in Malay is not con-
siderable; their presence is easily accounted for by political or
commercial contact.

The Malay language abounds in idiomatic expressions, which con-
stitute the chief difficulty in its acquisition. It is sparing in the
use of personal pronouns, and prefers impersonal and elliptical
diction. As it is rich in specific expressions for the various aspects
of certain ideas, it is requisite to employ always the most appropriate
term suited to the particular aspect. In Maxwell's Manual,
pp. 120 seq., no less than sixteen terms are given to express the
different kinds of striking, as many for the different kinds of speaking,
eighteen for the various modes of carrying, &c. An unnecessary
distinction has been made between High Malay and Low Malay.
The latter is no separate dialect at all, but a mere brogue or jargon,
the medium of intercourse between illiterate natives and Europeans
too indolent to apply themselves to the acquisition of the language
of the people; its vocabulary is made up of Malay words, with a
conventional admixture of words from other languages; and it varies,
not only in different localities, but also in proportion to the individual
speaker's acquaintance with Malay proper. A few words are
used, however, only in speaking with persons of royal rank — e.g.
santap, to eat (of a raja) instead of makan; beradu, to sleep, instead
of tidor; gring, unwell, instead of sakit; mangkat, to die, instead of
mdti, &c. The use is different as regards the term JawH as applied
to the Malay language. This has its origin in the names Great
Java and Lesser Java, by which the medieval Java and Sumatra
were called, and it accordingly means the language spoken along the
coasts of the two great islands.

The Malays cannot, strictly speaking, be said to possess a litera-
ture, for none of their writings can boast any literary beauty or value.
Literature Their most characteristic literature is to be found, not
' in their writings, but in the folk-tales which are trans-
mitted orally from generation to generation, and repeated by the
wandering minstrels called by the people Peng-llpor Lara, i.e.
" Soothers of Care." Some specimens of these are to be found in
the Journal of the Straits Branch of the Asiatic Society (Singapore).
The collections of Malay Proberbs made by Klinkert, Maxwell and
Clifford also give a good idea of the literary methods of the Malays.
Their verse is of a very primitive description, and is chiefly used for
purposes of love-making. There are numerous rhymed fairy tales,
which are much liked by the people, but they are of no literary merit.
The best Malay books are the Hikayat Hang Tilak, Bestamam and the
Hikayat Abdullah. The latter is a diary of events kept during Sir
Stamford Raffle's administration by his Malay scribe.

AUTHORITIES. — Hugh Clifford, In Court and Kampong (London,
1897); Studies in Brown Humanity (London, 1898); In a Corner of
Asia (London, 1899); Bush-whacking (London 1901); Clifford and
Swettenham, Dictionary of the Malay Language, parts i. to v. A-G.
Taiping (Perak, 1894-1898); John Crawfurd, History of the Indian
Archipelago (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1820); Grammar and Dictionary of
the Malay Language (2 vols., London, 1852) ; A Descriptive Dictionary
of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries (London, 1856) ; Journal
of the Indian Archipelago (12 vols., Singapore, 1847-1862) ; Journal of
the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 33 Nos. (Singapore,
1878-1900) ; H. C. Klinkert, Nieuw Maleisch-Nederlandisch Woorden
boek (Leiden, 1893); John Leyden, Malay Annals (London, 1821);
William Marsden, The History of Sumatra (London, 1811); Malay
Dictionary (London, 1824); Sir William Maxwell, A Manual of the
Malay Language (London, 1888); T. J. Newbold, Political and
Statistical Account of the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca;
W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic (London, 1900) ; Skeat and Blagden,
Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (London, 1906); Sir Frank
Swettenham, Malay Sketches (London, 1895); The Real Malay
(London, 1899); British Malaya (London, 1906); H. von- de Wall,
edited by H. N. van der Tuuk, Maleisch-Nederlandisch Woorden-
boek (Batavia, 1877-1880); Malay Dictionary (Singaoore, 1903),
Wilkinson. ' (H. CL.)

MALAY STATES (BRITISH). The native states of the Malay
Peninsula under British protection are divided into two groups:
(i) federated, and (2) non-federated.

I. — FEDERATED STATES

The federated states, under the protection of Great Britain,
but not British possessions, are Perak, Selangor and the con-
federation of small states known as the Negri Sembilan (i.e. Nine

States) on the west coast, and the state of Pahang on the east
coast. Each state is under the rule of a sultan, who is assisted in
his legislative duties by a state council, upon which the resident,
and in some cases the secretary to the resident, has a seat, and
which is composed of native chiefs and one or more Chinese
members nominated by the sultan with the advice and consent
of the resident. The council, in addition to legislative and other
duties, revises all sentences of capital punishment. The adminis-
trative work of each state is carried on by the resident and his
staff of European officials, whose ranks are recruited by success-
ful candidates in the competitive examinations held annually
by the Civil Service commissioners. The sultan of each state
is bound by treaty with the British government to accept the
advice of the resident, who is thus practically paramount; but
great deference is paid to the opinions and wishes of the sultans
and their chiefs, and the British officials are pledged not to
interfere with the religious affairs of the Mahommedan com-
munity. In the actual administration of the Malay population
great use is made of the native aristocratic system, the peasants
being governed largely by their own chiefs, headmen and village
elders, under the close supervision of British district officers.
The result is a benevolent autocracy admirably adapted to local
conditions and to the character and traditions of the people.
A recognition of the fact that the welfare of the Malays, who are
the people of the land and whose sultans have never ceded their
territories to the British, must be regarded as the first considera-
tion has been the guiding principle of the administration of the
Malay States, and this has resulted in an extraordinary ameliora-
tion of the condition of the natives, which has proceeded con-
currently with a notable development of the country and its
resources, mineral and agricultural. To the work of develop-
ment, however, the Malays have themselves contributed little,
sound administration having been secured by the British officials,
enterprise and capital having been supplied mainly by the
Chinese, and the labour employed being almost entirely Chinese
or Tamil. Meanwhile the Malays have improved their ancestral
holdings, have enjoyed a peace and a security to which their past
history furnishes no parallel, have obtained easy access to new
and important markets for their agricultural produce, and for
the rest have been suffered to lead the lives best suited to their
characters and their desires. Each principal department of
the administration has its federal head, and all the residents
correspond with and are controlled by the resident-general, who,
in his turn, is responsible to the high commissioner, the governor
of the Straits Settlements for the time being.

The estimated aggregate area of the Federated Malay States is
28,000 sq. m., and the estimated population in 1905 was 860,000,
as against 678,595 in 1901. Of these only about 230,000 are Malays.
The revenue of the federation in 1905 was $23,964,593 (about
(£2>795,ooo), and the expenditure was $20,750,395 (about £2,460,000).
The imports for the same year were valued at $50,575,455 (about
£5,900,000), and the exports at $80,057,654 (about £9,340,000),
making a total trade of nearly 15! millions sterling. The principal
sources of revenue are an export duty on tin, the rents paid for the
revenue farms of the right to collect import duties on opium, wine and
spirits, and to keep licensed gambling-houses for the exclusive use
of the Chinese population, railway receipts, land and forest revenue
and postal revenue. The tin is won from large alluvial deposits
:ound in the states of the western seaboard, and the mines are worked
almost exclusively by Chinese capital and labour. Since 1889 the
Federated Malay States have produced considerably more than half
:he tin of the world. Recently there has been a great development
n agricultural enterprise, especially with regard to rubber, which is
now grown in large quantities, the estates being mainly in the hands
of Europeans, and the labour mostly Tamil. The states are opened
up by over 2500 m. of some of the best metalled cart-roads in the
world, and by a railway system, 350 m. of which, extending from the
mainland opposite Penang to the ancient town of Malacca, are open
to traffic. Another 150 m. of railway is under construction. The
jovernment offices at Kuala Lumpor, the federal capital of the states,
are among the finest buildings of the kind in Asia. The whole of
this extraordinary development, it should be noted, has been
effected by careful, sound and wise administration coupled with a
courageous and energetic policy of expenditure upon public works.
Throughout, not one penny of debt has been incurred, the roads,
railways, &c., being constructed entirely from current balances.
This of course has only been rendered possible by the extraordinary
mineral wealth which the states on the western seaboard have

MALAY STATES

479

developed in the hands of Chinese miners amid the peace and security
which British rule has brought to these once lawless lands. The
value of the tin output for the year 1905 amounted to $69,460,993
(£8,104,199). Although agricultural enterprise in the Malay States
is assuming considerable proportions and a growing importance,
the total value of the principal agricultural products, including
timber, for the year 1905 only aggregated $2,435,513 (£289,143).

The whole of the Malay Peninsula is one vast forest, through which
flow countless streams that form one of the most lavish water-
systems in the world. The rivers, though many of them are of
imposing appearance and of considerable length, are uniformly
shallow, only a few on the west coast being navigable by ships
for a distance of some 40 m. from their mouths. In spite of the
notable development above referred to, only a very small fraction of
the entire area of the states has as yet been touched either by mining
or agricultural enterprise. It is not too much to assert that the
larger half of the forest-lands has never been trodden by the foot of
man. (For information concerning the botany, geology, &c., of the
Malay States see MALAY PENINSULA. For the ethnology see
MALAYS.)

PERAK is situated between the parallels 3° 37' and 6° 5' N.
and 100° 3' to 101° 51' E. on the western side of the Malay
Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the British possession
of Province Wellesley and the Malay state of Kedah; on the
S. by the protected native state of Selangor; on the E. by the
protected native state of Pahang and the independent states of
Kelantan and Petani ; and on the W. by the Straits of Malacca.
The coast-line is about 90 m. in length. The extreme distance
from the most northerly to the most southerly portions of the
state is about 172 m., and the greatest breadth from east to
west is about 100 m. The total area of the country is estimated
at about 10,000 sq. m.

The Perak river, which runs in a southerly direction almost parallel
with the coast for nearly 150 m. of its course, is navigable for small
steamers for about 40 m. from its mouth, and by native trading boats
for nearly 200 m. The Plus, Batang, Padang and Kinta rivers
arc its principal tributaries, all of them falling into the Perak on its
left bank. The other principal rivers of the state are the Krian,
Kurau, Larut and Bruas to the north of the mouth of the Perak,
and the Bernam to the south. None of these rivers is of any great
importance as a waterway, although the Bernam River is navigable
for small steamers for nearly 100 m. of its course. The mountain
ranges, which cover a considerable area, run from the north-east to
the south-west. The highest altitudes attained by them do not
exceed 7500 ft., but they average about 2500 ft. They are all
thickly covered with jungle. The ranges are two, running parallel
to one another, with the valley of the Perak between them. The
larger is a portion of the main chain, which runs down the peninsula
from north to south. The lesser is situated in the district of Larut.
There are several hill sanatoria in the state at heights which vary
from 2500 to 4700 ft. above sea-level, but the extreme humidity of
the atmosphere renders the coolness thus obtainable the reverse of
enjoyable.

Mr Leonard Wray, curator of the Perak museum, writes as follows
on the subject of the geological formation of the state: "There
Ocglg are really only four formations represented — firstly,
the granitic rocks; secondly, a large series of beds of
gneiss, quartzite, schist and sandstone, overlaid in many places
by thick beds of crystalline limestone; thirdly, small sheets of trap
rock; and fourthly, river-gravels and other Quaternary deposits.
The granites are of many varieties, and also, in all probability, of
several different geological periods. The series of quartzites, schists,
and limestone are of great age, but as no fossils have ever been found
in any of them, nothing definite can be stated as to their exact
chronological position. Their lithological characteristics and the
total absence of all organic remains point to the Archaean period.
The failure to discover signs of life in them is, of course, merely
negative evidence, and the finding of a single fossil would at once
upset it. However, until this happens they may be conveniently
classed as Laurentian. It is at present impossible to form anything
approaching an accurate estimate of the thickness of this extensive
series, but it is probable that it is somewhere between 4000 and
5000 ft. Unconformability has been noticed between the limestones
and the beds beneath, but whether this is sufficient to separate them
or not is a matter for future investigation. . . . The taller hills
are exclusively composed of granite, as also are some of the lower
ones. . . . The ores of the following metals have been found in
the formations named: Granite — tin, lead, iron, arsenic, tungsten
and titanium; Laurentian — tin, gold, lead, silver, iron, arsenic,
copper, zinc, tungsten, manganese and bismuth ; Quaternary — tin,
gold, copper, tungsten, iron and titanium. This is not to be con-
Btdered a complete list, as small quantities_of other metals have also
been found."

The early history of Perak is obscure, the only information on the
subject being obtained from native traditions, which are altogether
untrustworthy. According to these authorities, however, a settle-

ment was first made by Malays in Perak at Bruas, and the capital
was later moved to the banks of the Perak River, the site chosen
being-a little village called Temong, which lies some miles
up stream from Kuala Kangsar, the present residence
of the sultan. When the Malacca sultanate fell, owing to the invasion
of the Portuguese in 1511, a member of that royal house is said to
have migrated to Perak, and the present dynasty claims to have been
descended from him. As this boast is also made by almost every
ruling family in the peninsula, the tradition is not worthy of any
special attention. What is more certain is the tradition that Perak
was twice invaded by the Achinese, and its rulers carried off into
captivity, one of them, Sultan Mansur Shah, subsequently becoming
the ruler of Achin. The first European settlement in Perak was made
by the Dutch in 1650, under a treaty entered into with the Achinese,
but the natives of the country rose against the Dutch again and again,
and it was abandoned in 1783, though it was afterwards reoccupied,
the Dutch being finally ejected by the British in 1795. In 1818
the Siamese conquered Perak, but its independence was secured
by a treaty between the British and Siamese governments in 1824.
From that date until 1874 Perak was ruled by its own sultans, but
in that year, owing to internal strife, Sultan Abdullah applied to
the then governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir Andrew Clarke, for
the assistance of a British Resident. The treaty of Pangkor was
concluded on the 2Oth of January 1874, and the first resident,
Mr J. W. W. Birch, was murdered on the 2nd of November 1875.
A punitive expedition became necessary; sultan Abdullah and the
other chiefs concerned in the murder were banished, the actual
murderers were hanged, and Raja Muda Jusuf was declared regent.
He died in 1888, and was succeeded by the sultan Raja fdris,
K.C.M.G., a most enlightened ruler, who was from the first a strong
and intelligent advocate of British methods of administration. Sir
Hugh Low was appointed resident, a position which he held until
1889, when he was succeeded by Sir Frank Swettenham. Since
then the history of Perak has been one of continuous peace and
growing prosperity and wealth. Although the federal capital is
Kuala Lumpor in Selangor, Perak still enjoys the honour of being
the senior and leading state of the federation.

By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of
Perak was shown to be as follows: Europeans, 366; Eurasians,
Jews and Armenians, 293; Malays, 96,719; Chinese,- ...
94,345; Tamils, 13,086; aborigines, 5779; other nation-
alities, 3666; thus making a grand total of 214,254, of whom
156,408 were males and 57,846 were females. The estimated
population in 1905 was 400,000, of whom 200,000 were Chinese and
160,000 were Malays, but owing to the disparity of the proportions
between the sexes the deaths in each year largely outnumber the
births, and the increase in the population is accounted for solely by
the number of immigrants, chiefly from the mainland of China, and
to a lesser extent from India also.

The revenue of Perak in 1874 amounted to $226,333. That for
1905 amounted to $12,242,897. Of this latter sum $4,876,400 was
derived from duty on exported tin, $2,489,300 from railway receipts,
$505,300 from land revenue and $142,800 from postal and telegraphic
revenue. The remainder is mainly derived from the revenue farms,
which are leased to Chinese capitalists for a short term of years,
conveying to the lessee the right to collect import duties upon
opium, wine and spirits, to keep pawnbroking shops, and to keep
public licensed gambling-houses for the use of Chinese only. The
expenditure for 1905 amounted to $10,141,980. Of this sum
$4,236,000 was expended upon railway upkeep and construction
and $2,176,100 upon public works. The value of the imports
into Perak during 1905 was over $20,000,000, and that of the ex-
ports exceeded $40,000,000, making a total of over $60,000,000,
equivalent to about seven million sterling. The output of tin from
Perak ranged between 18,960 tons, valued at $23,099,506 in 1899,
and 26,600 tons, valued at $35,500,000, in 1905. The fluctuating
character of the output is due, not to any exhaustion of the mineral
deposits of the state — that is not to be anticipated for many years
yet to come — but to the uncertainty of the labour supply. The
mining population is recruited exclusively from the districts of
southern China, and during certain years an increased demand for
labourers in China itself, in French Indo-China, in the Dutch colonies,
and in South Africa temporarily and adversely affected immigra-
tion to the Straits of Malacca. The output has, moreover, been
affected from time to time by the price of tin, which was $32.20 per
pikul in 1896, rose to $42.96 in 1898, to $74.15 in 1900, and averaged
$80.60 in 1905. Exclusive of tin, the principal exports were
$108,000 worth of Para rubber, $181,000 of copra, $54,000 of hides,
$48,000 of patchouli, and considerable quantities of timber, rattans
and other jungle produce. The agricultural development of the
state is still in its infancy, but rubber is cultivated in rapidly increas-
ing areas, and the known fertility of the soil, the steady and regular
rainfall, the excellent means of communication, and the natural and
artificial conditions of the country, justify the expectation that the
future of Perak as an agricultural country will be prosperous.

Although so much has been done to develop the resources of Perak,
by far the greater portion of the state is still covered by dense.and
virgin forest. In 1898 it was calculated that only 330,249 acres of
land were occupied or cultivated out of a total acreage of 6,400,000.

480

MALAY STATES

The area of agricultural holdings has notably increased, but a con-
siderable period must yet elapse before it will amount to even one-
_ . tenth of the whole. A line of railway connects the port
eaera . Qj Teluk Anson with the great mining district of Kinta,
whence the line runs, crossing the Perak River at Enggor, to Kuala
Kangsar, the residence of the sultan, thence to Taiping, the admini-
strative capital of the state, and via Krian to a point opposite to the
island of Penang. A second line runs south from Perak and connects
with the railway system of Selangor, which in its turn connects with
the Negri Sembilan and Malacca line, thus giving through railway
communication between the last-named town and Penang. Perak
also possesses some 600 miles of excellent metalled cart-road, and the
length of completed road is annually increasing.

For administrative purposes the state is divided into six districts :
Upper Perak, Kuala Kangsar and Lower Perak, on the Perak River;
Kinta ; Batany Padang and Larut and Krian. Of these, Larut and
Kinta are the principal mining centres, while Krian is the most
prosperous agricultural district. The districts on the Perak River
are mostly peopled by Malays. The administrative capital is
Taiping, the chief town of Larut. Kuala Kangsar is chiefly memor-
able as. having been the scene of the first federal meeting of native
chiefs, who, with the British Residents from each state, met together
in 1897 for friendly discussion of their common interests for the first
time in history, under the auspices of the high commissioner, Sir
Charles H.B. Mitchell. This, in the eyes of those who are acquainted
with the character of the Malays and of the relations which formerly
subsisted between the rulers of the various states, is perhaps the most
signal token of the changes which British influence has wrought in
the peninsula.

SELANGOR is situated between the parallels 2° 32' and 3° 37' N.
and 100° 38' and 102° E., on the western side of the Malay
Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the protected native
state of Perak, on the S. by the protected states of the Negri
Sembilan, on the E. by Pahang and the Negri Sembilan, and
on the W. by the Straits of Malacca. The coast-line is about
loo m. in length, greatest length about 104 m., and greatest
breadth about 48 m., total area estimated at about 3000
sq. m.

The state consists of a narrow strip of land between the mountain
range which forms the backbone of the peninsula and the Straits of
Malacca. Compared with other states in the peninsula, Selangor
is poorly watered. The principal rivers are the Selangor, the Klang
and the Langat. The principal port of the state is Port Swettenham,
situated at the mouth of the Klang River, and is connected with the
capital, Kuala Lumpor, by a railway. The geology of the state
closely resembles that of Perak. The state is possessed of most
valuable deposits of alluvial tin, and mining for this metal is the chief
industry of the population. Kuala Lumpor is also the federal
capital of the Malay States.

According to native tradition, the ruling house of Selangor is
descended from a Bugis raja, who, with two of his brothers, settled
... in the state in 1718, the son of the youngest brother

**' eventually becoming ruler of the country. In 1783 the
then sultan of Selangor joined with the lang-di-per-Tuan Muda of
Riau in an unsuccessful attack upon the Dutch who then held
Malacca. In retaliation the Dutch, under Admiral Van Braam,
invaded Selangor and drove the sultan out of his country. In
1785, aided by the Bendahara of Pahang, Sultan Ibrahim of Selangor
reconquered his state; but the Dutch blockaded his ports, and even-
tually forced him to enter into a treaty whereby he consented to
acknowledge their sovereignty. The earliest British political
communication with Selangor began in 1818, when a commercial
treaty was concluded with the governor of Penang. In 1867 Sultan
Abdul Samad of Selangor appointed his son-in-law, Tungku Dia
Udin, to be viceroy; and this gave rise to a civil war which lasted
almost without intermission till 1873, when the enemies of Tungku
Dia Udin were finally vanquished, largely by the agency of the
Bendahara of Pahang, who, at the invitation of the governor of the
Straits Settlements, sent a warlike expedition to the assistance of
the viceroy. In 1874 the occurrence of an atrocious act of piracy
off the mouth of the Langat River led to the governor, Sir Andrew
Clarke, appointing, at the request of the sultan, a British Resident
to aid him in the administration of his kingdom. Since that date
there has been no further breach of the peace, and the prosperity
of Selangor has increased annually.

By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of
Selangor was given at 81,592 souls, of whom 67,051 were males and
only 14,541 were females. The census taken on the 5th of April
1901 gave a total population of 168,789 souls, of whom 136,823 were
males and 31,966 females. Of these 108,768 were Chinese, 33,997
were Malays, 16,748 were Tamils, and only 487 were Europeans.
The returns deal with nearly a score of different nationalities. Since
1901 the population has been much increased and now certainly
exceeds 200,000 souls. Now, however, that instead of a single port
of entry there exist easy means of access to the state by rail both
from the north and the south, it is no longer possible to estimate

the annual increase by immigration with any approach to accuracy.
It will be noted that the inhabitants of this erstwhile Malayan state
were, even at the time of the census of 1901, over 64 % Chinese,
while the Malays were little more than 20 % of the population.
In Selangor, as elsewhere in the Malay Peninsula, the deaths annually
far outnumber the births recorded (e.g. in 1905 births 8293, deaths
12,500). The disproportion of the female to the male sections of the
population is greater in Selangor than in any other part of the colony
or Malay States. The development of planting enterprise in Selan-
gor, and more especially the cultivation of rubber, has led during
recent years to the immigration of a considerable number of Tamil
coolies, but the Tamil population is still insignificant as compared
with the Chinese.

The revenue of Selangor in 1875 amounted to only $115,656;
in 1905 it had increased to $8,857,793. Of this latter sum $3,195,318
was derived from duty on tin exported, $1,972,628 from _
federal receipts, and $340,360 from land revenue. The ~
balance [is chiefly .derived from the revenue farms, '
which include the right to collect import duty on opium and spirits.
The expenditure for 1905 amounted to $7,186,146, of which sum
$3.717.238 was on account of federal charges and $1,850,711 for
public works. The value of the imports in 1905 was $24,643,619
and that of the exports was $26,683,316, making a total of
$51,326,935, equivalent to £5,988,000. Tin is the principal export.
The amount exported in 1905 was 17,254 tons. The total area of
alienated mining land at the end of 1905 amounted to 65,573 acres,
and it was estimated that over 00,000 Chinese were employed in
the mines.

The main trunk line of the Federated Malay States railways
passes through Selangor. It enters the state at Tanjong Malim
on the Perak boundary, runs southward through Kuala Lumpor and
so into the Negri Sembilan. It runs for 81 m. in Selangor territory.
A branch line 27 m. long connects Kuala Lumpor with Port Swetten-
ham on the Klang Straits where extensive wharves, capable of
accommodating ocean-going vessels, have been constructed. A
second branch line, measuring rather more than 4 m. in length,
has been opened to traffic. It connects the caves at Batu with
Kuala Lumpor. Frequent communication is maintained by
steamer between Port Swettenham and Singapore, and by coasting
vessels between the former port and those on the shores of the
Straits of Malacca. All the principal places in the state are con-
nected with one another by telegraph.

For administrative purposes Selangor is divided into six dis-
tricts: Kuala Lumpor, in which the capital and the principal tin-
fields are situated ; Ulu Selangor, which is also a prosperous mining
district ; Kuala Selangor, which is agricultural, and poorly populated
by Malays; Ulu Langat, mining and agricultural; Kuala Langat,
the residence of the late sultan Abdul Samad, agricultural; and
Klang, the only prosperous port of the state. Much money has been
expended upon the capital, Kuala Lumpor, which possesses some
fine public buildings, waterworks, &c., and where the principal
residence of the Resident-General is situated. In some sort Kuala
Lumpor is the capital not only of Selangor, but also of the whole
federation. Its scenery is very attractive.

NEGRI SEMBILAN (the Nine States) is a federation of small
native states which is now treated as a single entity, being under
the control of a British Resident, and is situated between parallels
2° 28' and 3° 18' N. and 101° 45' and 102° 45' E., on the western
side of the Malay Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the
protected state of Pahang, on the S. by the territory of Malacca,
on the E. by Pahang and the independent state of johor, and on
the W. by the Straits of Malacca. The coast-line is about 28 m.
in length, and the extreme distance from north to south is 55 m.,
and that from east to west about 65 m. The estimated area is
about 3000 sq. m. Port Dickson, or Arang-Arang, is the only
port on the coast. It is connected with the capital, Seremban,
by a railway 24 m. in length. Most of the states comprising the
federation depend largely for their prosperity upon agriculture,
but in some of the districts tin is being worked in considerable
quantities, with good results. ,

As is the case with the history of most Malayan states, much
rests upon no surer ground than tradition, in so far as the records
of the Negri Sembilan are concerned. At the same time „. .
the native story that the states which now form the
federation of the Negri Sembilan were originally peopled by tribes
of Sakai, or aborigines of the peninsula, who descended from the
mountains of the interior and peopled the valleys, is supported by
much corroborative evidence. Not only does the Malay's contempt
for the Sakai make it exceedingly unlikely that the tradition, which
is hardly a matter for pride, should have been preserved if it were not
true, but also many of the laws and customs in force in these states
are wholly foreign to those of the Malays, and can plainly be traced
to the aborigines. As an instance, the custom of inheriting rank and
property through the mother instead of through the father may be
mentioned. Tradition further relates that towards the end of the

MALAY STATES

481

l8th century a raja of the royal house of Menangkabu came from
Sumatra to rule over the federation of smajl states, each of which
:ontinued to be governed in all its local affairs by its own chief and
by the village and other councils sanctioned by ancient custom. The
Sumatran raja took the title of lang-di-per-Tuan of Sri Menanti.
Although they bore the name of the " Nine States," only six seem
to have belonged to the federation during the time of which history
speaks. These are Sri Menanti, Johol, Tampin, Rembau, Jelebu,
and Sungei Ujong. Later the two latter separated themselves
from the confederation. Ancient tradition says that the names of
the nine states were originally Klang, Jelebu, Sungei Ujong, Johol,
Segamat, Pasir Besar, Naning, Rembau and Jelai. Of these Klang
was annexed by Selangor, Segamat and Pasir Besar by Johor, and
Naning by Malacca. During the last years of the i8th century
the lang-di-per-Tuan appointed an lang-di-per-Tuan Muda to rule
Rembau, and the state of Tampin was created to provide for the
"amily of the new chief. In 1887 the governor of the Straits Settle-
nents sent Mr Martin Lister to the Negri Sembilan, which had
jecome disintegrated, and by his influence the ancient federal
system was revived under the control of a Resident appointed by
the governor. The states which formed this new confederation
vere Johol, Ulu Muar, Jempol,Terachi,Inas,Gunong Pasir, Rembau,
fampin and Gemencheh. Prior to this, in 1873, owing to a civil
war in Sungei Ujong, Sir Andrew Clarke sent a military force to
that state, put an end to the disturbances, and placed the country
undiT the control of a British Resident. Jelebu was taken under
British protection in 1886, and was thenceforth managed by a magis-
trate under the orders of the Resident of Sungei Ujong. In 1896,
when the federation of all the Malayan states under British control
was effected, Sungei Ujong and Jelebu were reunited to the con-
federation of small states from which they had so long been separated
and the whole, under the old name of the Negri Sembilan, or Nine
States, was placed under one Resident.

The population of the Negri Sembilan, which according to the
census taken in April 1891 was only 70,730, had increased to 96,028
by 1901, and was estimated at 119,454 m I9°5- Of these 46,500
are Chinese, 65,000 Malays, 6700 Tamils, and 900 Europeans and
Eurasians. The births registered slightly exceed the deaths in
number, there being a large Malay population in the Negri Sembilan
among whom the proportion of women to men is fair, a condition of
things not found in localities where the inhabitants are mostly
Chiiu-se immigrants.

The revenue of the Negri Sembilan amounted to only $223,435
in 1888. In 1898 it had increased to $701,334, in 1900 to $1,251,366,
Finance and in I9°5 to $2'335-534- The revenue for 1905 was
and Trade derived mainly as follows: — customs $1,268,602, land
revenue $145,475, land sales $21,407, while the revenue
farms contributed $584,459. The expenditure in 1905 amounted
to $2,214,093, of which $1,125,355 was expended upon public works.
The trade returns for 1905, which are not, however, complete, show
an aggregate value of about $13,000,000. The value of the tin
exported during 1905 exceeded $6,900,000, and the value of the
agricultural produce, of which gambier represented $211,000 and
damar $80,000, amounted to $407,990.

Seremban, the administrative capital of the Negri Sembilan,
is connected with Port Dickson by a railway line, owned by the
General Sungei Ujong Railway Company, which is 24$ m. in
length. It is also situated on the trunk line of the
Federated Malay States, and is thus joined by rail to Selangor on the
north and to Malacca on the south. Frequent steam communication
is maintained between Port Dickson and the ports on the Straits
of Malacca and with Singapore.

For administrative purposes the Negri Sembilan is divided into
five districts, viz. the Seremban District, the Coast District, Jelebu,
Kuala Pilah and Tampin. Each of these is under the charge of
a European district officer, who is responsible to the Resident.
The lang-di-per-Tuan lives at Kuala Pilah, but the capital of the
federation is at Seremban in Sungei Ujong, where the Resident is
stationed. The hereditary chiefs of the various states aid in the
government of their districts, and have seats upon the state council,
over which the lang-di-per-Tuan presides. The watering-place
of Magnolia Bay, where excellent sea-bathing is obtainable, is one
of the pleasure resorts of this part of the peninsula.

PAHANG, on the east coast of the peninsula, is situated between
parallels 2° 28' and 3° 45' N. and 101° 30' and 103° 30' E. It is
bounded on the N. by the independent native states of Kelantan
and Trengganu; on the S. by the Negri Sembilan and Johor; on
the E. by the China Sea; and on the W. by the protected states
of Perak and Selangor. The coast-line is about 1 1 2 m. in length ;
the greatest length is about 210 m., and greatest breadth about
130 m. The state is the largest in the peninsula, its area being
estimated at 15,000 sq. m. The ports on the coast are the mouths
of the Endau, Rompin, Pahang and Kuantan rivers, but during
the north-east monsoon the coast is not easy of approach,
and the rivers, all of which are guarded by difficult bars, are
impossible of access except at high tides,
xvu. 16

The principal river of the state is the Pahang, from which it takes
its name. At a distance of 180 m. from the coast this river is formed
by two others named respectively the Jelai and the Tembeling.
The former is joined 20 m. farther up stream by the Lipis, which has
its rise in the mountains which form the boundary with Perak.
The Jelai itself has its rise also in a more northerly portion of this
range, while its two principal tributaries above the mouth of the
Lipis, the Telom and the Serau, rise, the one in the plateau which
divides Perak from Pahang, the other in the hills which separate
Pahang from Kelantan. The Tembeling has its rise in the hills
which divide Pahang from Kelantan, but some of its tributaries
rise on the Trengganu frontier, while the largest of its confluents
comes from the hills in which the Kuantan River takes its rise. The
Pahang is navigable for large boats as far as Kuala Lipis, 200 m.
from the mouth, and light-draught launches can also get up to that
point. Smaller boats can be taken some 80 m. higher up the
Jelai and Telom. The river, however, as a waterway is of little
use, since it is uniformly shallow. The Rompin and Kuantan
rivers are somewhat more easily navigated for the first 30 m. of their
course, but taken as a whole the waterways of Pahang are of little
value. The interior of Pahang is chiefly noted for its auriferous
deposits. Gunong Tahan is situated on the boundary between
Pahang and Kelantan. Its height is estimated at 8000 ft. above
sea-level, but it has never yet been ascended. Pahang, like the states
on the west coast, is covered almost entirely by one vast forest,
but in the Lipis valley, which formerly was thickly populated, there
is a considerable expanse of open grass plain unlike anything to be
seen on the western sea-board. 'The coast is for the most part a
sandy beach fringed with casuarinu trees and there are only a few
patches of mangrove-swamp throughout its entire length.

The ancient name of Pahang was Indrapura. It is mentioned in
the history of Hang Tuah, the great Malacca brave, who flourished in
the i6th century, and succeeded in abducting a daughter History
of the then ruling house of Pahang for his master, the
sultan of Malacca. Prior to this, Pahang had been ruled by the
Siamese. When Malacca fell into the hands of the Portuguese in
1511 the sultan, Muhammad Shah, fled to Pahang, and the present
ruling house claims to have been descended from him. The title
of the ruler of Pahang was Bendahara until 1882, when the present
(1902) ruler, Wan Ahmad, assumed the title of sultan, taking the
name of Sultan Ahmad Maatham Shah. Up to that time the Benda-
hara had been installed on his accession by the sultan of Riau, and
held his office by virtue of that chief's letter of authority. About
1855 the father of the present sultan died at Pekan, and his son
Bendahara Korish, who succeeded him, drove Wan Ahmad from
the country. After making three unsuccessful attempts to conquer
the land and to dethrone his elder brother, Wan Ahmad at last
succeeded in 1865 in invading the state and wresting the throne
from his nephew, who had succeeded his father some years earlier.
From that time, in spite of two attempts to shake his power by
invasions from Selangor which were undertaken by his nephews
Wan Aman and Wan Da, Bendahara Ahmad ruled his country with
a rod of iron. In 1887 he consented to enter into a treaty with the
governor of the Straits by which he accepted a consular agent at his
court. This treaty was finally signed on the 8th of October 1887.
In February of the following year a Chinese British subject was
murdered at Pekan in circumstances which pointed to the respon-
sibility of the sultan for the crime, and in October 1888 a Resident
was appointed to assist the sultan in the administration of hiscountry,
that being, in the opinion of the British government, the only
guarantee for the safety of the life and property of British subjects
which it could accept. In December 1891 disturbances broke out
in Pahang, the nominal leaders of which were certain of the sultan's
most trusted chiefs. The sultan himself took no part in the out-
break, but it undoubtedly had his sympathy, even if it was not
caused by his direct commands. The rebels were driven to seek
safety in flight in November 1892, but in June 1894 they gathered
strength for a second disturbance, and raided Pahang from Kelantan,
in which state they had been given shelter by the Mahommedan
rulers. This event, added to the occurrence of other raids from across
the border, led to an irregular expedition being led into Trengganu
and Kelantan by the Resident of Pahang (Mr Hugh Clifford) in 1895,
and this had the desired result. The rebel chiefs were banished to
Siam, and no further breach of the peace has troubled the tran-
quillity of Pahang since that time. Pahang joined the Federated
Malay States by a treaty signed in 1895, and the sultan and his
principal chiefs were present at the federal durbar held at Kuala
Kangsar in Perak in 1897.

The census taken in April 1901 gave the total population of Pahang
at 84,113, of whom 73,462 were Malays, 8695 Chinese, 1227 Tamils
and other natives of India, 180 Europeans and Eurasians, py,.,,;^/,,,,
and 549 people of other nationalities. The population
in 1905 was estimated at 100,000, the increase being due to immigra-
tion mainly from the states on the western seaboard. In former days
Pahang was far more thickly populated than in modern times,
but the long succession of civil wars which racked the land after the
death of Bendahara AH caused thousands of Pahang Malays to fly
the country. To-day the valley of the Lebir River in Kelantan and
the upper portions of several rivers near the Perak and Selangor

482

MALAY STATES

boundaries are inhabited by Pahang Malays, the descendants of
these fugitives. The Pahang natives are almost all engaged in
agriculture. The work of the mines, &c., is performed by Chinese
and foreign Malays. In the Lipis valley the descendants of the
Rawa Malays, who at one time possessed the whole of the interior
in defiance of the Pahang rajas, still outnumber the people of the
land.

The revenue of Pahang in 1899 amounted to only $62,077; 'n
1900 to $419,150. In 1905 it was $528,368. The expenditure in
1905 amounted to $1,208,176. Of this sum $736,886 was expended
Finance on Puljl'c works. Pahang is still a source of expense
and Trade. to t^ie federation, its progress having been retarded
by the disturbances which lasted from December 1891
until 1895, with short intervals of peace, but the revenue is
now steadily increasing, and the ultimate financial success of the
state is considered to be secure. Pahang owes something over
$3,966,500 to Selangor and $1,175,000 to Perak, which have
financed it now for some years out of surplus revenue. The value
of the imports in 1905 was $1,344,346, that of the exports was
$3,838,928, thus making a total trade value of $5,183,274. The
most valuable export is tin, the value of which in 1905 amounted
to $2,820,745. The value of the gutta exported exceeded $140,000,
that of dried and salted fish amounted to nearly $70,000, and that
of timber to $325,000.

The geological formation of the states lying to the eastward of
the main range of mountains which splits the peninsula in twain
General differs materially from that of the western states. At
a distance of about a dozen miles from the summits of
the mountains the granite formation is replaced by slates, which in
many places are intersected by fissures of quartz, and in others are
overlaid by vast thicknesses of limestone. Those of the quartz
fissures which have been exploited are found to be auriferous, and
several mining companies have attempted to work the deposits.
Their efforts, however, have not hitherto been successful. A magnifi-
cent road over the mountains, with a ruling grade of I in 30, joins
Kuala Lipis, the administrative capital of Pahang, to Kuala Kubu,
the nearest railway station in Selangor. The road measures 82 m.
in length. Pekan, where the sultan has his residence, was the capital
of Pahang until the middle of 1898, when the administrative head-
quarters were transferred to the interior as being more central.
None of these towns is of any size or importance. In the Kuantan
valley, which lies parallel to the Pahang River, a European company
is working tin lodes with considerable success. These lodes are the
only mines of the kind being worked in the Federated Malay States.
Pahang is fertile and well suited for agriculture of many kinds.
The rainfall is heavy and regular. The climate is cooler than that
of the west coast, and the full force of the monsoon is felt from
October to February in each year. For administrative purposes
Pahang is divided into four districts — Ulu Pahang, in which the
present capital is situated; Temerloh, which includes 80 odd miles
of the Pahang valley and the Semantan River; Pekan, which includes
the coast rivers down to Endau; and Kuantan. Each of these is
under the charge of a district officer, who is responsible to the
resident. The boundary with Johor and the Negri Sembilan was
rectified by a commission which sat in London in 1897-1898.

AUTHORITIES. — Journal of the Eastern Archipelago (Singapore) ;
Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore) ;
Maxwell, Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, vol. xxiii. ; Swet-
tenham, ibid. vol. xxvii; Clifford, ibid. vol. xxx. (London, 1892,
1895, 1899); Swettenham, About Perak (Singapore, 1893); Malay
Sketches (London, 1895); The Real Malay (London, 1899); British
Malaya (London, 1906) ; Clifford, In Court and Kampong (London,
1897); Studies in Brown Humanity (London, 1898); In a Corner
of Asia (London, 1899); Bush-whacking (London, 1901); Further
India (London, 1904) ; De la Croix, Les Mines d'etins de Perak
(Paris, 1882); Bluebook, C. 9524 (London, 1899); The Straits
Directory (Singapore, 1906) ; Skeat, Malay Magic (London, 1900) ;
Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (London,
1906). (H. CL.)

II. — NON-FEDERATED STATES

In 1909 a treaty was made between Great Britain and Siam,
one provision of which was the cession to the former of the
suzerain rights enjoyed by the latter over certain territories in
the Malay Peninsula. These territories consisted of the four
Siamese Malay States: Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis,
very ancient dependencies of Siam, all of which except Trengganu,
were in a flourishing condition and had been administered by
British officers in the service of Siam for some years prior to their
transference. Though the four states were loyal to Siam and
wished to retain their former allegiance, the change was effected
without disturbance of any kind, the British government on
assuming the rights of suzerainty placing an adviser at the court
of each raja and guaranteeing the continuance of the administra-
tion on the lines already laid down by Siam so far as might be
compatible with justice and fair treatment for all. The four

states lie to the north of the Federated Malay States, two on the
east and two on the west side of the peninsula.

KELANTAN. — This state on the east coast, bounded N. and
N.E. by the China Sea, E. by Trengganu, S. by Pahang and W.
by Perak and Ra-nge, lies between 4° 48' and 6° 20' N. and
101° 33' and 102° 45' E. The greatest length from north to
south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth from east to west 60 m.
The area is about 5000 sq. m. The northern part of the state is
flat and fertile, but the southern district which comprises more
than half the total area, is mountainous and uncultivated.

Next to the Pahang, the Kelantan River is the largest on the east
coast. It is 120 miles long and is navigable for shallow-draft launches
and big country boats for about 80 miles, and for vessels of 8 ft.
draft for about six miles. Its principal tributaries are the Galasj
Pergau and Lebir. The Golok and Semarak rivers water the west
and east parts of the state, falling into the sea a few miles on either
side of the mouth of the Kelantan River. The climate of Kelantan
is mild and singularly healthy in the open cultivated regions. The
population is about 300,000 of which 10,000 are aboriginal tribes
(Sakeisand Jakuns), 10,000 Siamese and Chinese and the rest Malays.
The Chinese are increasing and natives of different parts of India
are resorting to the state for purposes of trade. Kota Bharu (pop.
10,000) is the only town in the state. It lies on the right bank of
the river, about six miles from the sea. Since 1904 it has been laid
out with metalled roads and many public and private buildings have
been erected. The town is the commercial as well as the admini-
strative centre of the state. Tumpat and Tabar on the coast, with
population 4000 and 3000 respectively, are the places next in im-
portance after Kota Bharu. A net work of creeks render communica-
tion easy in the northern districts, the river and its tributaries afford
means of access to all parts of the south ; 20 miles of road have been
made in the neighbourhood of Kota Bharu. Kelantan is connected
by telegraph with Bangkok and Singapore, and maintains regular
postal communication with those places. Rice cultivation is the
principal industry and is increasing rapidly. Coco-nut and betel-nut
growing are also largely practised. Much livestock is raised. About
400,000 acres of land are under cultivation. Though reputed rich
in minerals, past misrule prevented mining enterprise in Kelantan
until, in 1900, a large concession was given to an Englishman and
the country was opened to foreigners. In 1909 three mining syn-
dicates were at work, and several others were in process of formation.
Gold, tin and galena have been found in several localities and during
the years 1906-1909 28,000 ounces of gold were dredged from the
Kelantan River. The Kelantanese are expert fishermen, some
30,000 finding employment in fishing and fish-drying. Silk- weaving
is a growing industry. Foreign trade, which in 1909 reached the
value of two and a half million dollars, is chiefly with Singapore.
Principal exports are copra, rice, fish, cattle and gold ; chief imports
are cotton goods, hardware and specie. The currency is the Straits
Settlements dollar and small silver coin, supplemented by a locally
made tin coin of low value.

By virtue of a mutual agreement made in 1902 Siam appointed
a resident commissioner to Kelantan and consented, so long as the
advice of that officer should be followed, to leave internal affairs to
be conducted locally. Under this arrangement a council of state
was appointed, departments of government were organized, penal,
civil and revenue laws were passed and enforced, courts were estab-
lished and a police force was raised. Though formerly of an evil
reputation, the people were found to be naturally peaceful and law-
abiding, and serious crime is rare. The state revenue, which was
practically nothing in 1902, amounted to $320,000 in 1907. Islam-
ism was adopted about 300 years ago but the old animistic supersti-
tions are still strong. The state is divided into mukim or parishes,
but the imam no longer exercise temporal authority. There are
three schools at Kota Bharu, education in the interior being in the
hands of the imam assisted with government grants.

No historical records of Kelantan exist, and the state was not
noticed by the European merchants of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries.
Consequently little is known of its early history beyond what is to
be gathered from brief references in the Malay annals and the old
chronicles of Siam. The sites of ancient towns and the remains of
former gold diggings are visible here and there, but all knowledge of
the men who made these marks has been lost. The present ruling
family dates from about 1790. Siam was frequently called upon to
maintain internal peace and in 1892 a royal prince was sent to reside
in Kelantan as commissioner. Complications brought about by the
incapacity of the ruler led to the making of the agreement of 1902
above mentioned, to the fixing of a regular tribute in money to Siam,
and ultimately to the merging of the state from chaotic lawlessness
into the path of reform. On the 15th of July 1909 the state came
under British suzerainty and the commissioner of Siam was replaced
by a British adviser, from which date the liability to payment of
tribute ceased, though in all other respects the administrative
arrangements of Siam ^remained unaltered.

TRENGGANU. — This state on the east coast, bounded N. and
N.E. by the China Sea, S. by Pahang and W. by Pahang and

MALAY STATES

483

Kelantan, lies between parallels 4° 4' and 4° 46' N. and 102° 30'
and 103° 26' E. The greatest length from north to south is
1 20 m., and the greatest breadth from east to west 50 m. It has
a coast-line of 130 m. and an estimated area of about 5000 sq. m.
There are several islands off the coast, some of which are
inhabited. The surface is generally mountainous.

Principal rivers are the Besut, Stiu, Trengganu, Dungun and
Kmamun, none of which is navigable for any distance. Theclimate
N mild and fairly healthy. The population numbers about 180,000,
almost all Malays, and mostly clusters round the mouths and lower
reaches of the rivers. The capital, which is situated at the mouth
of the Trengganu River, contains, with its suburbs, not less than
30,000 people. Difficulty of access by river and by land render the
interior districts almost uninhabitable. Communication is main-
tained by boat along the coast. There are no roads and no postal
ir telegraphic communications.

The majority of the people are sailors and fishermen. Rice is
grown, but not in sufficient quantities to supply local needs. Much
pepper and gambler were at one time grown and exported, but about
the year 1903 agriculture began to fall off owing to prevailing in-
security of life and property. Not much livestock is raised, the few
head of cattle exported from' Besut being mostly stolen from across
the neighbouring Kelantan border. A successful tin mine under
European control exists in the Kmamun district, but as everything
possible was done in the past to discourage all foreign enterprise, the
probable mineral wealth of the country is still practically untouched.
Silk-weaving, carried on entirely by the women, is a considerable
industry. The silk is imported raw and is re-exported in the form
of Malay clothing (sarongs) of patterns and quality which are widely
celebrated. The manufacture of native weapons and of brassware
was at one time brisk but is declining. The trade of Trengganu
is not increasing. It is valued roughly at about one and a half
million dollars a year, is chiefly with Singapore, and is to a great
extent carried in Trengganu-built ships, which latter also do some
carrying trade for other states on the east coast._

The Trengganu sultanate is one of the most ancient in the peninsula
and ranks with that of Riau. The state was feudatory to Malacca
in the I3th century and during the I4th, isth and i6th centuries its
possession was frequently disputed between Malacca and Siam.
\he present sultan Is the descendant of an ancient family, the
members of which have quarrelled and fought with each other for
the succession from time immemorial. The last serious disturbance
was in 1837 when the grandfather of the present sultan stole the
throne from his nephew. Until the acquisition of the state by Great
Britain a triennial tribute of gold flowers was paid to Siam, and this
with occasional letters of instructions and advice, constituted almost
the only tangible evidence of Siamese suzerainty. Of government
there was practically none. The sultan, having alienated most of
his powers and prerogatives to his relatives, passed his life in religious
seclusion and was ruler in no more than name. The revenues were
devoured by the relatives, a small part of those accruing from the
capital sufficing for the sultan's needs. There were no written laws,
no courts and no police. All manner of crime was rampant, the
peasantry was mercilessly downtrodden, but the land was full of
holy men and the cries of the miserable were drowned in the noise of
ostentatious prayer. In fine, Trengganu presented in the beginning
of the year 1909 the type of untrammelled Malay rule which had
fortunately disappeared from every other state in the peninsula.
In July of that year, however, the first British adviser or agent
arrived in the state, which was shortly afterwards visited by the
• governor of the Straits Settlements, who discussed with the sultan
the changed conditions consequent upon the Anglo-Siamese treaty
and laid the foundations of future reform.

KEDAH. — This state, on the west coast of the peninsula, lies
between parallels 5° 20' and 6° 42' N., and is bounded, N. by
Palit and Songkla, E. by Songkla and Raman, S. by Province
Wellesley and Perak, and W. by the sea. The coast-line is 65 m.
long, the greatest distance from north to south is 1 1 5 m. and the
greatest breadth 46 m. Off the coast lies a group of islands, the
largest of which is Langkawi, well peopled and forming a district
of the state.

The total area of Kedah is about 4000 sq. m. The land is low-
lying and swampy near the coast except towards the south where
the height known as Kedah Hill rises from the shore opposite Penang,
flat and fertile farther inland, and mountainous towards the eastern
border. The rivers are small, the Sungei Kedah, navigable for a few
miles for vessels of 50 tons, andtheS.Muda.which forms the boundary
with Province Wellesley, being the only streams worthy of notice.
The plains are formed of marine deposit, and in the mountains lime-
Jtone and granite preponderate. The population is estimated at
220,000, of whom about 100,000 are Malays, 50,000 Siamese and
Samsams and 70,000 Chinese and Madrassis (Klings). There are
ihree towns of importance. Alor Star, the capital, on the Kedah
river, 10 miles from the sea, in a flat, unhealthy, but fertile locality,
is a well laid out town with good streets, many handsome public and

private buildings, and good wharfage for small vessels. The popula-
tion is about 20,000, of whom more than half are Chinese and the
remainder government servants and retainers of the local aristocracy.
Kuala Muda (pop. 10,000) and Kulim (pop. 8000) situated in the
south, are unimposing collections of small birch houses and thatched
bamboo huts; the latter is the centre of the Kedah tin mining
industry. The bulk of the population is scattered over the plains
in small villages. A good road runs north from Alor Star to the
border of the state, a distance of 40 miles, and other roads are being
constructed. The state has 185 miles of telegraph line and 75 miles
of telephone line. Mails are closed daily at Alor Star for Penang
and there is a good internal postal service. The chief industry is
rice cultivation. Coco-nut, betel-nut and fruit plantations are
many, and the cultivation of rubber has recently been taken up with
prospects of success. The estimated area under cultivation is about
300,000 acres. There are rice-mills at Alor Star and at Kuala Muda.
The principal exports are rice, cattle and tin. The chief imports
are cotton goods, provisions, hardware and raw silk. Accurate
trade statistics are not available. The ruler holds the rank of
sultan and is assisted in the government by a council and by
the British adviser who since the state passed from Siamese
to British protection in 1909, has replaced the officer formerly
appointed by Siam. The sultan comes of a family long recognized
by Siam as having hereditary right to the rulership. The penal
and civil laws are administered in accordance with the precepts
of Islamism, the official religion of the state. Though much
has been done to improve the courts, justice is not easily obtain-
able. A land registration system is in force but is in a state of
confusion, though a land law passed in 1905 gives security of
tenure over lands newly acquired. The mining laws are similar to
those of Siam. In 1905 the Siamese government advanced two and
a half million dollars to Kedah, to pay the debts of the state, which
sum was refunded by the British Government on assuming the posi-
tion of protector. The annual revenue is $1,000,000 and the ex-
penditure about the same. Chief heads of revenue are opium and
land tax. Many revenue monopolies, created in the past, have not
yet expired; but for this the revenue would be greater than it is.
There is no army. In 1906 the police service was reorganized under
British officers, resulting in great improvement to this department.
The state is divided into a number of administrative districts under
Malay officials. Each district comprises several mukim or parishes,
the imam of which exercise both spiritual and temporal control.
There are schools in the chief towns, but education has not yet been
seriously undertaken.

Kedah was founded by colonists from India in A.D. 1200, about
which time the Siamese had subdued Nakhon Sri Tammarat and
claimed the whole Malay Peninsula. When the rise of Malacca
shook Siamese authority in the peninsula, Kedah oscillated between
them, and on the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese, fell to
Siam, though the capital was raided and burnt by the Europeans.
The ruler and his people were converted to Islam in the isth century.
In 1768, the Siamese kingdom being disorganized, the sultan of
Kedah entered into direct political relations with the Hon. East
India Company, leasing the island of Penang to the latter. Further
treaties followed in 1791 and 1802, but in 1821 Siam reasserted her
control, expelling the rebellious sultan after a sanguinary war. The
sultan made several fruitless efforts to recover the state, and at
length made full submission, when he was reinstated. In 1868 an
agreement between Great Britain and Siam was substituted for the
treaties of the East India Company with the sultan. The present
sultan succeeded in 1881, and for 14 years governed well, but in
1895 he began to contract debts and to leave the government to his
minions. The result was chaos, and in 1905 the Siamese government
had to intervene to avert a condition of bankruptcy, adjusting the
finances and reorganizing the general administration to such effect
that when, four years later, the state became a British dependency,
a government was found established on a sound basis and requiring
nothing but the presence'of a firm and experienced officer as adviser
to maintain its efficiency and assist its further advance.

PERLIS (Palit).— This small state, consisting of the left bank
drainage area of the Perlis River, lies between Setul and Kedah,
which bound it on the N. and W. and on the E. respectively.
It touches the sea only round the mouth of the river.

The population is about 10,000, Malays and Chinese. The chief
town, Perlis, is situated about 12 m. up the river. A good deal of
tin is worked, and rice and pepper are grown and exported. In the
early part of the loth century Perlis was a district of Kedah, but
during a period of disturbance in the latter state it established itself
as a separate chief dom. In 1897 Siam restored the nominal authority
of Kedah, but the measure was not productive of good. In 1905 the
Siamese government advanced a loan of $200,000 to Perils, and
appointed an English adviser to assist in the general administration.
This money was refunded to Siam and the adviser relieved by a
British officer when the state became British in July 1909. The
condition of the state has improved, but the revenue, $80,000, is
not sufficient for the immediate needs of government.

AUTHORITIES. — Norman, The Far East (London, 1895); H.
Clifford, in the Geographical Journal (London, 1896); Carter, The

MALAY STATES— MALCOLM

Kingdom of Siam (London, 1904) ; Graham, Reports on Kelanlan
(Bangkok, 1905-1909) ; Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay
Peninsula (London, 1906) ; Hart, Reports on Kedah (Calcutta, 1907-
1909) ; Graham, Kelantan, a Handbook (Glasgow, 1907).

(W. A. G.)

MALAY STATES (SIAMESE). The authority of Siam, which at
one time covered the whole of the Malay peninsula, now extends
southward to an irregular line drawn across the Peninsula at
about 6° 30' N. Between that line and the Isthmus of Kra,
usually accepted as the northernmost point of the Malay Penin-
sula, there lie some 20,000 sq. m. of territory inhabited by a
mixed population of Siamese and Malays with here and there
a few remnants of the aboriginal inhabitants clinging to the
wilder districts, and with a few Chinese settlers engaged in com-
merce. Formerly this tract was divided into a number of states,
each of which was ruled by a chief (Siamese, Chao Muang;
Malay, raja), who held his title from the king of Siam, but,
subject to a few restrictions, conducted the affairs of his state
in accordance with his own desires; the office of chief, moreover,
was hereditary, subject always to the approval of the suzerain.
The states formed two groups: a northern, including Langsuan,
Chaya, Nakhon Sri Tammarat, Songkla, Renawng, Takoapa,
Pang Nga, Tongka and Trang, in which the Siamese element pre-
dominated and of which the chiefs were usually Siamese or
Chinese; and a southern, including Palean, Satun (Setul),
Patani, Raman, Jering, Sai (Teloban), Re Nge (Legeh), Yala
(Jalor) and Nong Chik, in which the population was principally
Malay and the ruler also Malay . Four other states of the south-
ern group, Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, of which the
population is entirely Malay, passed from Siamese to British
protection in 1909.

With the gradual consolidation of the Siamese kingdom all
the states of the northern group have been incorporated as
ordinary provinces of Siam (<?.».), the hereditary Chao Muang
having died or been pensioned and replaced by officials of the
Siamese Civil Service, while the states themselves now con-
stitute provinces of the administrative divisions of Chumpon,
Nakhon Sri Tammarat and Puket. The states of the southern
group, however, retain their hereditary rulers, each of whom
presides over a council and governs with the aid of a Siamese
assistant commissioner and with a staff of Siamese district
officials, subject to the general control of high commissioners
under whom the states are grouped. This southern group, with
a total area of about 7000 sq. m. and a population of 375,000,
constitutes the Siamese Malay States. A British consul with
headquarters at Puket, and a vice-consul who resides at Songkla,
watch over the interests of British subjects in the states of
the west and east sides of the peninsula respectively. Other
foreign powers are unrepresented.

Palean. — This small state on the west coast, bounded N. by the
province of Trang, E. by the Songkla division, S. by the state of
Setul, and W. by the sea, is about 900 sq. m. in area, and has a
population of about 20,000. It is attached for administrative
purposes to the province of Trang, and its people are chiefly engaged
in the cultivation of pepper, of which about 150 tons are annually
exported. A few tin mines are also worked.

Satun (Setul). — This small state, bounded N. by Palean, E. by
Songkla, S. by Perlis, and W. by the sea, contains about 1000 sq. m.
area with a population of about 25,000, Malays, Siamese and a few
Chinese. The principal production is pepper, which is exported in
junks and in the small Penang steamers which ply on the west coast
of the peninsula. In 1897 Setul was placed under the control of
Kedah, then a Siamese dependency, but the arrangement was not
a success, and in 1907 the Siamese government was forced, owing to
prevailing corruption and misrule, to restrict the powers of the chief
and, cancelling the authority of Kedah, to place him to some extent
under the orders of the high commissioner of Songkla. By the terms
of the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909 about half of the state of Perlis
was added to Satun, an arrangement by which the importance of the
latter was considerably increased.

Patani. — The seven Malay states of Nawng Chik, Patani, Jering,
Yala (Jalor), Sai (Teloban), Raman and Ra-ng6 (Legeh) were con-
stituted from the old state of Patani at the beginning of the igth
century. In 1906 they were reunited to form the Patani admini-
strative division of Siam, but each state retains its Malay ruler, who
governs jointly with a Siamese officer under the direction of, the
Siamese high commissioner, and many of the ancient privileges
and customs of Malay government are preserved. The group of

states is situated between 5° 34' and 6° 52' N. and 100° 54' and 101°
58' E. It is bounded N. by the China Sea, E. by the China Sea and
Kelantan, S. by Perak, and W. by Kedah. The total area is about
5000 sq. m. The country is mountainous except close to the coast.
The principal rivers are the Patani and tie Teloban, long, winding
and shallow, and navigable for small boats only. The population
is about 335,000, of whom the great majority are Malays. Each
state has its capital, but Patani (the headquarters of the high com-
missioner) is the only town of importance. Communications are
poor and are chiefly by river, but roads are under construction.
Patani and Sai are in telegraphic communication with Bangkok and
Singapore, and regular weekly mails are despatched to those places.
The area under cultivation is small except round about Patani and
in Nawng Chik, where much rice is grown. Tin mining is a growing
industry ; many Chinese own mines and several European syndicates
are at work in Raman, Ra-ng£ and Patani, prospecting for, or mining,
this metal. Fishing and salt-evaporation occupy a large proportion
of the population. The annual export of tin is about 400 tons, and
dried fish, salt, cattle and elephants are other exports. Steamers
up to 300 tons maintain frequent communication with Bangkok and
Singapore, and the Patani roads afford good anchorage at all seasons.
Mahommedan law is followed in the settlement of inherited
property disputes and of matrimonial affairs; otherwise the laws of
Siam obtain. Efficient law courts have been established in each
state, and there is a serviceable force of gendarmerie recruited from
amongst Malays and Siamese alike. The revenue amounts to about '
600,000 ticals, or £45,000 a year, one-third being payable to the rulers
as private income for themselves and their relatives, one-third
expended on the administration, and one-third reserved for special
purposes, but it is usually found necessary to devote the last-
mentioned third to the expenses of administration. Patani has
been subject to Siam from the remotest times. It is said that the old
state adopted Islamism in the l6th century, the chief, a relative of the
kings of Siam, embracing that religion and at the same time revolting
to Malacca. It has several times been necessary to send punitive
expeditions to recall the state to its allegiance. The present rulers
are mostly descended from the ruling families of the neighbouring
state of Kelantan, but the chief of Patani itself is a member of the
family which ruled there in the days of its greatness. Throughout
the 1 7th century Patani was resorted to by Portuguese, Dutch and
English merchants, who had factories ashore and used the place as
an emporium for trade with Siam. In 1621 an engagement took
place in the Patani roads between three Dutch and two British ships,
the latter being taken after the president of the British merchants,
John Jourdain, had been killed. In 1899 the border between the
state of Perak and Raman was fixed by an agreement between
England and Siam, a dispute of old standing being thereby settled,
but the question was reopened in the negotiations which preceded
the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909, when a new border line was fixed
between British and Siamese possessions in the Peninsula.

(W. A. G.)

MALCHIN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Meck-
lenburg-Schwerin, on the river Peene, between lakes Malchin
and Kummerow, 28 m. by rail N.W. of Neu-Brandenburg. Pop.
(1900), 7449. It is, alternately with Sternberg, the place of
assembly of the Diet of Mecklenburg. Here are the chateaux of
Remplin, Basedow and Schlitz; a church dating from the I4th
century, and a fine town-hall. The well-wooded and undulating
country, environing the shores of Lake Malchin, is known as the

Mecklenburg Switzerland," and is increasing in favour as a
summer resort. A canal unites Lake Kummerow with the Peene.
The industries of the town include the manufacture of sugar
and bricks, and brewing and malting. Malchin became a town
in 1236.

MALCOLM, the name of four kings of the Scots, two of whom,
MALCOLM!. ,kingfrom 943 to 954, and MALCOLM II. ,kingfrom 1005
to 1034, are shadowy and unimportant personages.

MALCOLM III. (d. 1093), called Canmore or the " large-
headed," was a son of King Duncan I., and became king after
the defeat of the usurper Macbeth in July 1054, being crowned
at Scone in April 1057. Having married as his second wife,
(St) Margaret (q.v.) , a sister of Edgar /Etheling, who was a fugitive
at his court, he invaded England in 1070 to support the claim of
Edgar to the English throne, returning to Scotland with many
captives after harrying Northumbria. William the Conqueror
answered this attack by marching into Scotland in 1072, where-
upon Malcolm made peace with the English king at Abemethy
and " was his man." However, in spite of this promise he
ravaged the north of England again and again, until in 1091
William Rufus invaded Scotland and received his submission.
Then in 1092 a fresh dispute arose between the two kings, and
William summoned Malcolm to his court at Gloucester. The

MALCOLM, SIR J.— MALDEN

485

Scot obeyed, and calling at Durham on his southward journey
present at the foundation of Durham Cathedral. When he
reached Gloucester Rufus refused to receive him unless he did
homage for his kingdom; he declined and returned home in
high dudgeon. Almost at once he invaded Northumbria, and
was killed at a place afterwards called Malcolm's Cross, near
Almvick, on the I3th of November 1093. Four of Malcolm's
sons, Duncan II., Edgar, Alexander I., and David I., became
kings of Scotland; and one of his daughters, Matilda, became
the wife of Henry I. of England, a marriage which united the
Saxon and the Norman royal houses.

MALCOLM IV. (c. 1141-1165) was the eldest son of Henry,
earl of Huntingdon (d. 1 1 52), son of King David I., and succeeded
his grandfather David as king of Scotland in 1153. He is called
the " Maiden," and died unmarried on the pth of December
1165.

Sec E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. iv. and v. (1867-
1879), and The Reign of William Rufus (1882); W. F. Skene, Celtic
Scotland (1876-1880); E. W. Robertson, Scotland under her Early
Kings (1862) ; and A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900).

MALCOLM, SIR JOHN (1760-1833), Anglo-Indian soldier,
diplomatist, administrator and author, was born at Burnfoot on
the Esk, near Langholm, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, on the 2nd
of May 1769. His father was a humble farmer, but three of
his sons attained the honour of knighthood. At the age of
twelve he received a cadetship in the Indian army, and in April
1 783 he landed at Madras, shortly afterwards joining his regiment
at Vellore. In 1792, having for some time devoted himself
to the study of Persian, he was appointed to the staff of Lord
Cornwallis as Persian interpreter, but two years afterwards was
compelled by ill health to leave for England. On his return to
India in 1796 he became military secretary to Sir Alured Clarke,
commander-in-chief at Madras, and afterwards to his successor
General Harris; and in 1798 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley
assistant to the resident at Hyderabad. In the last-mentioned
capacity he highly distinguished himself by the manner in which
he gave effect to the difficult measure of disbanding the French
corps in the pay of the nizam. In 1799, under the walls of
Seringapatam, began his intimacy with Colonel ArthurWellesley,
which in a short time ripened into a life-long friendship. In the
course of the same year he acted as first secretary to the commis-
sion appointed to settle the Mysore government, and before its
close he was appointed by Lord Wellesley to proceed as envoy
to the court of Persia for the purpose of counteracting the policy
of the French by inducing that country to form a British alliance.
Arriving at Teheran in December 1800, he was successful in
negotiating favourable treaties, both political and commercial,
and returned to Bombay by way of Bagdad in May 1801. He
now for some time held the interim post of private secretary
to Lord Wellesley, and in 1803 was appointed to the Mysore
residency. At the close of the Mahratta War, in 1804, and again
in 1805, he negotiated important treaties with Sindhia and
Holkar, and in 1806, besides seeing the arrangements arising out
of these alliances carried out, he directed the difficult work of
reducing the immense body of irregular native troops. In 1808
he was again sent on a mission to Persia, but circumstances
prevented him from getting beyond Bushire; on his reappoint-
ment in 1810, he was successful indeed in procuring a favourable
reception at court, but otherwise bis embassy, if the information
which he afterwards incorporated in his works on Persia be left
out of account, was (through no fault of his) without any sub-
stantial result. He sailed for England in 1811, and shortlyafter
his arrival in the following year was knighted. His intervals
of leisure he devoted to literary work, and especially to the com-
position of a History of Persia, which was published in two
quarto volumes in 1815. On his return to India in 1817 he was
appointed by Lord Moira his political agent in the Deccan,
with eligibility for military command; as brigadier-general
under Sir T. Hislop he took a distinguished part in the victory
Mchidpur (December 21, 1817), as also in the subsequent
work of following up the fugitives, determining the conditions
of peace and settling the country. In 1821 he returned once

more to England, where he remained until 1827, when he was
appointed governor of Bombay. His influence in this office was
directed to the promotion of various economical reforms and use-
ful administrative measures. Leaving India for the last time
in 1830, he shortly after his arrival in England entered parliament
as member for Launceston, and was an active opponent of the
Reform Bill. He died of paralysis on the 3oth of May 1833.

Besides the work mentioned above, Sir John Malcolm published
Sketch of the Political History of India since . . . 1784 (in 1811 and
1826) ; Sketch of the Sikhs (1812) ; Observations on the Disturbances in
the Madras Army in 1809 (1812) ; Persia, a Poem, anonymous (1814) ;
A Memoir of Central India (2 vols., 1823); and Sketches of Persia,
anonymous (1827). A posthumous work, Life of Robert, Lord Clive,
appeared in 1836. See Life and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm,
by J. W. Kaye (2 vols.. 1856).

MALDA, a district of British India, in the Rajshahi division of
Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 1899 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
884,030, showing an increase of 8-5 in the decade. The adminis-
trative headquarters are at English Bazar (pop. 13,667) near the
town of Old Malda. The district is divided into two almost
equal parts by the Mahananda river, flowing from north to south.
The western tract between the Mahananda and the main stream
of the Ganges is an alluvial plain of sandy soil and great fertility.
The eastern half is an ekvated region broken by the deep valleys
of the Tangan and Purnabhaba rivers and their small tributary
streams. The soil here is a hard red clay; and the whole is
overgrown with thorny tree jungle known as the kdlal. Agri-
cultural prosperity centres on the Mahananda, where mango
orchards and high raised plots of mulberry land extend continu-
ously along both banks of the river. The Ganges nowhere
intersects the district, but skirts it from its north-western corner
to the extreme south. The Mahananda flows in a deep well-
defined channel through the centre, and joins the Ganges at the.
southern corner. Its tributaries are the Kalindri on the right,
and the Tangan and Purnabhaba on the left bank. The two
principal industries are the production of indigo and silk. The
first has declined, and so has the second as far as concerns the
weaving of piece goods, but the rearing of silkworms and the
export of raw silk and silk thread are carried on upon a large
scale. No railway touches the district, but the communications
by water are good.

Malda supplied two great capitals to the early Mahommedan kings
of Bengal ; and the sites of Gaur and Pandua exhibit the most inter-
esting remains to be found in the lower valley of the Ganges. (See
GAUR.) The connexion of the East India Company with Malda dates
from a very early period. As far back as 1676 there was a factory
there. In 1770 English Bazar was fixed upon for a commercial
residency, the buildings of which at the present day form both the
public offices and private residence of the collector.

MALDEN, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Maiden river, about
5 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 23,031, (1900), 33,664, of whom
9513 were foreign-born, 3673 being English Canadians, 870
English, and 617 Swedes; (1910 census) 44,404. Maiden
had in 1906 a land area of 4-78 sq. m. It is served by the
Boston & Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric railways.
Although it is largely a residential suburb of Boston — its post
office is a Boston sub-station — it has important manufacturing
industries. The most valuable manufactured product is rubber
boots and shoes. The capital invested in manufacturing in
1905 was $5,553,432; and the value of the factory product,
$11,235,635, was 70.2% greater than the value of the factory
product in 1900. Among Maiden's institutions are the public
library (endowed by Elisha S. Converse), the Maiden hospital,
the Maiden day nursery, a Young Men's Christian Association,
and a home for the aged. A fine system of parks is maintained;
the best known is possibly Pine Banks. To the north and west is
the Middlesex Fells, a state reservation; about 60 acres of this
and about 20 acres of the Middlesex Fells Parkway lie within
Maiden. Maiden, when first settled about 1640, was part of
Charlestown, and was known for some years as Mystic Side.
It was incorporated as a town under the name of " Mauldon "
in 1649, and was chartered as a city in 1881. The north part of
Maiden was set off in 1850 to form Melrose, and the south part

MALDIVE ISLANDS— MALEBRANCHE

in 1870 to form the town of Everett. Maiden was the birthplace
of Adoniram Judson, the " apostle to Burma." Michael
Wigglesworth was pastor here from 1656 until 1705.

See D. P. Corey, History of Maiden (Maiden, 1899) ; and Maiden,
Past and Present (Maiden, 1899).

MALDIVE ISLANDS, an archipelago of coral islets in the
Indian Ocean, forming a chain between 7° 6' N. and o° 42' S.
It consists of seventeen atolls with an immense number of
islands, of which some three hundred are inhabited. In the
extreme south are the isolated atolls of Addu and Fua-Mulaku,
separated from Suvadiva by the Equatorial Channel, which is
itself separated from the main chain of atolls by One-and-a-
half-degree Channel.1 Following the chain northward from
this channel we have Haddumati and Kolumadulu, after which
the chain becomes double: to the east the chief atolls are
Mulaku, Felidu, South Male, North Male, Kardiva (where the
channel of the same name, 35 m. broad, partly breaks the chain),
and Fadiffolu. To the west are South Nilandu, North Nilandu,
Ari, South Mahlos, North Mahlos and Miladumadulu. To the
north again are Tiladumati and Ihavandifulu. Finally, to the
north of Eight-degree Channel is Minikoi, 71 m. from the nearest
point of the Maldives, and 1 10 m. from that of the Laccadives to
the north. The main part of the archipelago, north of One-and-
a-half-degree Channel, consists of a series of banks either sur-
rounded or studded all over with reefs (see J. S. Gardiner, " For-
mation of the Maldives," in Geographical Journ. xix. 277 seq.).
Mr Gardiner regarded these banks as plateaus rising to different
elevations beneath the surface of the sea from a main plateau
rising steeply from the great depths of the Indian Ocean.

After the Portuguese, from about 1518 onwards, had at-
tempted many times to establish themselves on the islands by
force, and after the Maldivians had endured frequent raids by
the Mopla pirates of the Malabar coast, they began to send tokens
of homage and claims of protection (the first recorded being in
1645) to the rulers of Ceylon, and their association with this
island has continued practically ever since. The hereditary
sultan of the archipelago is tributary to the British government
of Ceylon. The population of the Maldives is estimated at
30,000. All are Mahommedans. By Messrs. Gardiner and
Cooper they are classed in four ethnological divisions, (i)
Those of the atolls north of the Kardiva Channel. Here the
reefs are generally less perfect than elsewhere, seldom forming
complete central lagoons, and as they were formerly exposed
to the constant attacks of the Mopla pirates from India, the
people are hardier and more vigorous than their less warlike
southern neighbours. They annually visited the coasts of
India or Ceylon, and often married Indian wives, thus acquiring
distinct racial characters of an approximately Dravidian type.
(2) Those of the central division, comprising the atolls between
North Male and Haddumati, who are under the direct rule of
the sultan, and have been more exposed to Arab influences.
They formerly traded with Arabia and Malaysia, and many
Arabs settled amongst them, so that they betray a strong strain
of Semitic blood in their features. (3 and 4) The natives of
Suvadiva, Addu, Mulaku and the other southern clusters, who
have had little communication with the Central Male people,
and probably preserve more of the primitive type, approximat-
ing in appearance to the Sinhalese villagers of Ceylon. They
are an intelligent and industrious people, growing their own
crops, manufacturing their own cloth and mats, and building
their own boats, while many read Arabic more or less fluently,
although still believers in magic and witchcraft. The language
is a dialect of Sinhalese, but indicating a separation of ancient
date and more or less mahommedanized.

The sultan's residence and the capital of the archipelago is
the. island of Male. From the earliest notices the production
of coir, the collection of cowries, and the weaving of excellent
textures on these islands have been noted. The chief exports
of the islands besides coir and cowries (a decreasing trade) are
coco-nuts, copra, tortoise-shell and dried bonito-fish.

1 These and other channels in the locality are named from their
position under parallels of latitude.

Minikoi atoll, with the numerous wrecks on its reefs, its light-
house, and its position on the track of all eastward-bound
vessels, is a familiar sight to seafarers in these waters. The
atoll, which is pear-shaped and disposed in the direction from
S.W. to N.E. is 5 m. long, with an extreme breadth of nearly
3 m., with a large but shallow lagoon approached from the
north by a passage two fathoms deep. The atoll is growing out-
wards on every side, and at one place rises 19 ft. above sea-level.
The population, which numbers about 3000, is sharply divided
into five castes, of which the three highest are pure Maldivians,
the lower two the same as in the Laccadives. All are centred
in a small village opposite Mou Rambu Point on the west or
lagoon side; but most of the men are generally absent, many
being employed with the Lascar crews on board the large liners
plying in the eastern seas.

In 1899-1900 Messrs. J. Stanley Gardiner and C. Forster Cooper
carried out an expedition to the Maldives and Laccadives, for the
important results of which see The Fauna and Geography of the
Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes, ed. J. S. Gardiner (Cambridge,
1901-1905), also Proceedings of tlie Cambridge Philosophical Society,
vol. xi. pt. i (1900), and the Geographical Journ., loc. cit., &c. A
French adventurer, Frangois Pyrard de la Val, was wrecked in the
Maldives in 1602 and detained there five years; he wrote an interest-
ing account of the archipelago, Voyage de F. P. de la Val (Paris,
1679; previous editions 1611, &c.). See also A. Agassiz, "An Ex-
pedition to the Maldives ".in Amer. Journ. Science, vol. xiii. (1902).

MALDON, a market town, municipal borough and port, in
the Maldon parliamentary borough of Essex, England, on an
acclivity rising from the south side of the Blackwater, 43 m.
E.N.E. from London by a branch from Witham of the Great
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 5565. There are east and west
railway stations. The church of All Saints, dating from 1056,
but, as it stands, Early English and later, consists of chancel,
nave and aisles, with a triangular Early English tower (a unique
form) at the west end surmounted by a hexagonal spire. The
tower of St Mary's Church shows Norman work with Roman
materials. The other public buildings are the grammar school,
founded in 1547; the town-hall, formerly D'Arcy's tower, built
in the reign of Henry VI.; and the public hall. There are manu-
factures of crystallized salt, breweries, an oyster fishery and some
shipping. On Osea Island, in the Blackwater estuary, there is a
farm colony for the unemployed. A mile west of Maldon are re-
mains of Beeleigh Abbey, a Premonstratensian foundation of
the 1 2th century. They consist of the chapter-house and
another chamber, and are of fine Early English work. The
borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 3028 acres.

At Maldon (Maelduna, Melduna, Mealdon or Meaudon)
palaeolithic, neolithic and Roman remains that have been found
seem to indicate an early settlement. It is not, however, an
important Roman site. An earthwork, of which traces exist,
may be Saxon or Danish. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates
that Edward the Elder established a " burh " there about 921,
and that Ealdorman Brihtnoth was killed there by the Danes in
991. The position of Maldon may have given it some commer-
cial importance, but the fortress is the point emphasized by
the Chronicle. Maldon remained a royal town up to the reign
of Henry I., and thus is entered as on terra regis in Domesday.
Henry II. granted the burgesses their first charter, probably in
JJSSi giving them the land of the borough and suburb with sac
and soc and other judicial rights, also freedom from county
and forest jurisdiction, danegeld, scutage, tallage and all tolls,
by the service of one ship a year for forty days. This charter
was confirmed by Edward I. in 1290, by Edward III. in 13441
and by Richard II. in 1378. In 1403 the bishop of London
granted further judicial and financial rights, and Henry V. con-
firmed the charters in 1417, Henry VI. in 1443, and Henry VIII.
in 1525. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and Mary in I5S4>
and received confirmatory charters from Elizabeth in 1563 and
1592, from Charles I. in 1631, Charles II. and James II. In
1 768 the incorporation charter was regranted, with modifications
in 1810.

MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1638-1715), French philo-
sopher of the Cartesian school, the youngest child of Nicolas

MALER KOTLA— MALESHERBES

487

Malebranche, secretary to Louis XIII., and Catherine de Lauzon,
sister of a viceroy of Canada, was born at Paris on the 6th of
August 1638. Deformed and constitutionally feeble, he received
his elementary education from a tutor, and left home only when
sufficiently advanced to enter upon a course of philosophy at
the College de la Marche, and subsequently to study theology
at the Sorbonne. He had resolved to take holy orders, but
his studious disposition led him to decline a stall in Notre Dame,
and in 1660 he joined the congregation of the Oratory. He
was first advised by Pere Lecointe to devote himself to ecclesias-
tical history, and laboriously studied Eusebius, Socrates, Sozo-
men and Theodoret, but " the facts refused to arrange themselves
in his mind, and mutually effaced one another." Richard
Simon undertook to teach him Hebrew and Biblical criticism
with no better success. At last in 1664 he chanced to read
Descartes's TraMdel' homme(de homine), which moved him so
deeply that (it is said) he was repeatedly compelled by palpita-
tions of the heart to lay aside his reading. Malebranche was
from that hour consecrated to philosophy, and after ten years'
study of the works of Descartes he produced the famous De la
recherche de la verite, followed at intervals by other works, both
speculative and controversial. Like most of the great meta-
physicians of the 1 7th century, Malebranche interested himself
also in questions of mathematics and natural philosophy, and
in 1699 was admitted an honorary member of the Academy of
Sciences. During his later years his society was much courted,
and he received many visits from foreigners of distinction. He
died on the i3th of October 1715; his end was said to have been
hastened by a metaphysical argument into which he had been
drawn in the course of an interview with Bishop Berkeley. For
a critical account of Malebranche's place in the history of
philosophy, see CARTESIANISM.

WORKS. — De La recherche de la verite (1674; 6th ed., 1712; ed. Bouil-
lin . 1880; Latin trans, by J. Lenfant at Geneva in 1685; English trans.
by R. Sault, 1694; and T. Taylor, 1694, 1712); Conversations chreti-
enncs (1677, and frequently; Eng. trans., London, 1695); Traite de
la nature et de la grace (1680; Eng. trans., London, 1695) ; Meditations
chrftiennes el metaphysiques (1683); Traite de morale (1684; separate
ed. by II. Joly, 1882; Eng. trans, by Sir J. Shipton, 1699); several
polemical works against Arnauld from 1684 to 1688; Entretiens sur
la metaphysique et sur la religion (1688) ; Traite de I' 'amour de Dieu
(1697); Entretiens d'un philosophe Chretien et d'un philosophe chinois
sur I existence et la nature de Dieu (1708) ; Reflexions sur la promotion
physique (1715).

A convenient edition of his works in two volumes, with an intro-
duction, was published by Jules Simon in 1842. A full account by
Mrs Norman Smith of his theory of vision, in which he unquestion-
ably anticipated and in some respects surpassed the subsequent
work of Berkeley, will be found in the British Journal of Psychology
(Jan. 1905). For recent criticism see H. Joly, in the series Les
Grands philosophes (Paris, 1901); L. Olle'-Laprune, La Philosophic
de Malebranche (1870); M. Novaro, Die Philosophie des Nicolaus
Malebranche (1893).

MALER KOTLA, a native state of India, within the Punjab.
It ranks as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British
influence in 1809. The territory lies south of Ludhiana. Area,
167 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 77,506, showing an increase of 2% in
the decade. Estimated gross revenue, £30,1(50. The military
force numbers 280 men; and there is no tribute. The town
Maler Kotla is 30 m. S. of Ludhiana; pop. (1901), 21,122. The
nawab or chief is of Afghan descent ; his family originally came
from Kabul, and occupied positions of trust in Sirhind under the
Mogul emperors. They gradually became independent as the
Mogul Empire sank into decay in the course of the i8th century.
In General Lake's campaign against Holkar in 1803 the nawab
of Maler Kotla sided with the British. After the subjugation
and flight of Holkar, the English government succeeded to the
F>o\ver of the Mahrattas in the districts between the Sutlej and
the Jumna; and in 1809 its protection was formally extended to
Maler Kotla, as to the other Cis-Sutlej states, against the for-
midable encroachments of Ranjit Singh. In the campaigns
of 1806, 1807 and 1808 Ranjit Singh had made considerable
conquests across the Sutlej; in 1808 he marched on Maler Kotla
and demanded a ransom of £10,000 from the nawab. This led
to the interference of the British, who addressed an ultimatum

to Ranjit Singh, declaring the Cis-Sutlej states to be under
British protection. Finally the raja of Lahore submitted, and
the nawab was reinstated in February 1809. Owing to the
mental incapacity of nawab Ibrahim Ali Khan, the state was
administered in recent years for some time by the chief of
Loharu; but his son, Ahmed Ali Khan, was made regent in
February 1905.

See Maler Kotla Slate Gazetteer (Lahore, 1908).

MALESHERBES, CHRETIEN GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON
DE (1721-1794), commonly known as Lamoignon-Malesherbes,
French statesman, minister, and afterwards counsel for the
defence of Louis XVI., came of a famous legal family. He was
born at Paris on the 6th of December 1721, and was educated for
the legal profession. The young lawyer soon proved his intellec-
tual capacity, when he was appointed president of the cour des
aides in the parlement of Paris in 1750 on the promotion of his
father, Guillaume de Lamoignon, to be chancellor. One of the
chancellor's duties was to control the press, and this duty was
entrusted to Malesherbes by his father during his eighteen years
of office, and brought him into connexion with the public far
more than his judicial functions. To carry it out efficiently
he kept in communication with the literary leaders of Paris,
and especially with Diderot, and Grimm even goes so far as to
say that " without the assistance of Malesherbes the Encyclopedic
would probably never have been published." In 1771 he was
called upon to mix in politics; the parlements of France had
been dissolved, and a new method of administering justice
devised by Maupeou, which was in itself commendable as tending
to the better and quicker administration of justice, but pernicious
as exhibiting a tendency to over-centralization, and as abolishing
the hereditary " nobility of the robe," which, with all its faults,
had from its nature preserved some independence, and been a
check on the royal power. Malesherbes presented a strong
remonstrance against the new system, and was at once banished
to his country seat at St Lucie, to be recalled, however, with the
old parlement on the accession of Louis XVI., and to be made
minister of the maison du roi in 1775. He only held office nine
months, during which, however, he directed his attention to the
police of the kingdom, which came under his department, and
did much to check the odious practice of issuing lettres de cachet.
The protest of the cour des aides in 1775 is one of the most
important documents of the old regime in France. It gives a
complete survey of the corrupt and inefficient administration,
and presented the king with most outspoken criticism. On
retiring from the ministry with Turgot in 1776, he betook himself
entirely to a happy country and domestic life and travelled
through Switzerland, Germany and Holland. An essay on
Protestant marriages (1787) did much to procure for them the
civil recognition in France. He had always been an enthusiastic
botanist; his avenue at St Lucie was world famous; he had
written against Buffon on behalf of the botanists whom Buffon
had attacked, and had been elected a member of the Acadfmie
des sciences as far back as 1750. He was now elected a member
of the Academic fran$aise, and everything seemed to promise a
quiet and peaceful old age spent in the bosom of his family and
occupied with scientific and literary pursuits, when the king in
his difficulties wished for the support of his name, and summoned
him back to the ministry in 1787. Lamoignon-Malesherbes
held office but a short time, but returned to his country life this
time with a feeling of insecurity and disquiet, and, as the troubles
increased, retired to Switzerland. Nevertheless, in December
1792, in spite of the fair excuse his old age and long retirement
would have given him, he voluntarily left his asylum and under-
took with Tronchet and Deseze the defence of the king before
the Convention, and it was his painful task to break the news of
his condemnation to the king. After this effort he returned once
more to the country, but in December 1793 he was arrested with
his daughter, his son-in-law M. de Rosamb6, and his grand-
children, and on the 23rd of April 1794 he was guillotined, after
having seen all whom he loved in the world executed before his
eyes for their relationship to him. Malesherbes is one of the

488

MALET— MALIBRAN

sweetest characters of the i8th century; though no man of
action, hardly a man of the world, by his charity and unfeigned
goodness he became one of the most popular men in France, and
it was an act of truest self-devotion in him to sacrifice himself for
a king who had done little or nothing for him.

There are in print several scientific works of Malesherbes of varying
value, of which the most interesting is his Observations sur Buffpn
et Daubenton, written when he was very young, and published with
a notice by Abeille in 1798. There exist also his Memoire pour
Louis XVI., his Memoire sur la liberte de la presse (published 1809)
and extracts from his remonstrances, published as CEuvres choisies
de Malesherbes in 1809. For his life should be read the Notice
historique (3rd ed., 1806) of Dubois, the Eloge historique (1805) of
Gaillard, and the interesting Essai sur la vie, les ecrits et les opinions de
M. de Malesherbes (in 2 vols., 1818), of F. A. de Boissy d'Anglas. There
are also many eloges on him in print, of which the best-known is that
of M. Dupin, which was delivered at the Academy in 1841, and was
reviewed with much light on Malesherbes's control of the press by
Sainte-Beuve in the 2nd volume of the Causeries du lundi. The
protest of the cour des aides has been published with translation
by G. Robinson in the Translations and Reprints of the University
of Pennsylvania (1900). For his defence of Louis XVI. see Marquis
de Beaucourt, Captivite et derniers moments de Louis XVI. (2 vols.,
1892, Soc. d'hist. contemp.), and A. Tuetey, Repertoire general des
sources manuscrites de I' hist, de Paris pendant la Rev. fr., vol. viii.
(1908).

MALET, LUCAS, the pen-name of Mary St Leger Harrison
(1852- ), English novelist. She was the eldest daughter
of Charles Kingsley, and was born at Eversley on the 4th
of June 1852. She studied at the Slade school and at
University College, London, and married in 1876 William
Harrison, rector of Clovelly. After her husband's death in
1897 she eventually settled in London. She had already
written several books — Mrs Larimer (1882), Colonel Enderby's
Wife (1885), Little Peter (1887), A Counsel of Perfection
(1888) — when she published her powerful story, The Wages of
Sin (1891), which attracted great attention. Her History of Sir
Richard Calmady (1901) had an even greater success. Her other
novels include The Carissima (1896), The Gateless Barrier (1900),
On the Far Horizon (1906).

MALHERBE, FRANQOIS DE (1555-1628), French poet,
critic and translator, was born at Caen in 1555. His family
was of some position, though it seems not to have been able to
establish to the satisfaction of heralds the claims which it made
to nobility older than the i6th century. The poet was the
eldest son of another Francois de Malherbe, conseiller du roi
in the magistracy of Caen. He himself was elaborately educated
at Caen, at Paris, at Heidelberg and at Basel. At the age of
twenty-one, preferring arms to the gown, he entered the house-
hold of Henri d'Angouleme, grand prior of France, the natural
son of Henry II. He served this prince as secretary in Provence,
and married there in 1581. It seems that he wrote verses at
this period, but, to judge from a quotation of Tallemant des
Reaux, they must have been very bad ones. His patron died
when Malherbe was on a visit in his native province, and for a
time he had no particular employment, though by some servile
verses he obtained a considerable gift of money from Henry III.,
whom he afterwards libelled. He lived partly in Provence and
partly in Normandy for many years after this event; but very
little is known of his life during this period. His Larmes de
Saint Pierre, imitated from Luigi Tansillo, appeared in 1587.

It was in the year parting the two centuries (1600) that he
presented to Marie de' Medici an ode of welcome, the first of
his remarkable poems. But four or five years more passed
before his fortune, which had hitherto been indifferent, turned.
He was presented by his countryman, the Cardinal Du Perron,
to Henry IV.; and, though that economical prince did not at
first show any great eagerness to entertain the poet, he was at
last summoned to court and endowed after one fashion or
another. It is said that the pension promised him was not
paid till the next reign. His father died in 1606, and he came
into his inheritance. From this time forward he lived at court,
corresponding affectionately with his wife, but seeing her only
twice in some twenty years. His old age was saddened by a
great misfortune. His son, Marc Antoine, a young man of

promise, fell in a duel in 1626. His father used his utmost
influence to have the guilty parties (for more than one were
concerned, and there are grounds for thinking that it was not
a fair duel) brought to justice. But he died before the suit
was decided (it is said in consequence of disease caught at the
camp of La Rochelle, whither he had gone to petition the king),
in Paris, on the i6th of October, 1628, at the age of seventy-
three.

The personal character of Malherbe was far from amiable,
but he exercised, or at least indicated the exercise of, a great
and enduring effect upon French literature, though by no means
a wholly beneficial one. The lines of Boileau beginning Enfin
Malherbe vint are rendered only partially applicable by the
extraordinary ignorance of older French poetry which distin-
guished that peremptory critic. But the good as well as bad
side of Malherbe's theory and practice is excellently described
by his contemporary and superior Regnier, who was animated
against him, not merely by reason of his own devotion to Ronsard
but because of Malherbe's discourtesy towards Regnier's uncle
P. Desportes, whom the Norman poet had at first distinctly
copied. These are the lines: —

" Cependant leur savoir ne s'6tend nullement
Qu'a r6gratter un mot douteuse au jugement,
Prendre garde qu'un qui ne heurte une diphthongue,
Epier si des vers la rime est breve ou longue,
Ou bien si la voyelle a 1'autre s'unissant
Ne rend point £ 1'oreille un vers trop languissant.

C'est proser de la rime et rimer de la prose."
This is perfectly true, and from the time of Malherbe dates that
great and deplorable falling off of French poetry in its more
poetic qualities, which was not made good till 1830. Never-
theless the critical and restraining tendency of Malherbe was
not ill in place after the luxuriant importation and innovation
of the Pleiade; and if he had confined himself to preaching
greater technical perfection, and especially greater simplicity
and purity in vocabulary and versification, instead of super-
ciliously striking his pen through the great works of his prede-
cessors, he would have deserved wholly well. As it was, his
reforms helped to elaborate the kind of verse necessary for the
classical tragedy, and that is the most that can be said for him.
His own poetical work is scanty in amount, and for the most
part frigid and devoid of inspiration. The beautiful Consolation
d Duperier, in which occurs the famous line — •

Et, rose, elle a veeu ce que vivent les roses —
the odes to Marie de' Medici and to Louis XIII., and a few other
pieces comprise all that is really worth remembering of him.
His prose work is much more abundant, not less remarkable
for care as to style and expression, and of greater positive value.
It consists of some translations of Livy and Seneca, and of a
very large number of interesting and admirably written letters,
many of which are addressed to Peiresc, the man of science of
whom Gassendi has left a delightful Latin life. It contains also
a most curious commentary on Desportes, in which Malherbe's
minute and carping style of verbal criticism is displayed on the
great scale.

The chief authorities for the biography of Malherbe are the Vie de
Malherbe by his friend and pupil Racan, and the long Historiette
which Tallemant des R&iux has devoted to him. The standard
edition is the admirable one of Ludoyic Lalanne (5 vols., Paris,
1862-1869). Of the poems only, there is an excellent and handsome
little issue in the Nouvelle collection Jannet (Paris, 1874). Of modern
works devoted to him, La Doctrine de Malherbe, by G. Brunot (1891),
is not only the most important but a work altogether capital i
regard to the study of French language and literature. Others are
A. Gast6, La Jeunesse de Malherbe (1890); V. Bourrienne, Points
obscurs dans la vie normande de Malherbe (1895); and the due de
Broglie's " Malherbe " in Les Grands ecrivains fran^ais. On his
position in French and general critical history, G. Saintsbury s
History of Criticism, vol. ii., may be consulted. (G. SA.)

MALIBRAN, MARIE FJSLICITfi (1808-1836), operatic . singer,
daughter of Manoel Garcia, was born in Paris on the 24th of
March 1808. Her father was then a member of the company of
the Theatre des Italiens, and she accompanied him to Italy and
London. She possessed a soprano voice of unusual beauty and

MALIC ACID— MALINES

489

phenomenal compass, which was carefully cultivated by her
father. She was only seventeen when, in consequence of an
indisposition of Madame Pasta, she was suddenly asked to take
her place in The Barber of Seville at Covent Garden. She was
forthwith engaged for the remaining six weeks of the season,
and then followed her father to New York, where she appeared
in (>t lii'llo, The Barber of Seville, Don Juan, Romeo and Juliet,
Tiincred. Her gifts as an actress were on a par with her magnifi-
cent voice, and her gaiety made her irresistible in light opera,
although her great triumphs were obtained chiefly in tragic
parts. She married a French banker of New York, named
Malibran, who was much older than herself. The marriage was
an unhappy one, and Mme Malibran returned alone to Europe
in 1828, when she began the series of representations at the
Theatre des Italiens, which excited an enthusiasm in Paris only
exceeded by the reception she received in the principal towns
of Italy. She was formally divorced from Malibran in 1835,
and married the Belgian violinist, Charles de Beriot; hut she
died of fever on the ajrd of September 1836.

See Memoirs of Mme Malibran by the comtesse de Merlin and other
intimate friends, with a selection from her correspondence (2 yols.,
1840) ; and M. Teneo, La Malibran, d'aprks des documents inedits, in
Sammelbdnde der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft (Leipzig, 1906).

MALIC ACID (HYDROXYETHYLENE SUCCINIC ACID), C4H605,
an organic acid found abundantly in the juices of many plants,
particularly in mountain-ash berries, in unripe apples and in
grapes. The acid potassium salt is also found in the leaves
and stalks of rhubarb. Since the acid contains an asymmetric
carbon atom, it can exist in three forms, a dextro-rotatory, a
laevo-rotatory and an inactive form; the acid obtained in the
various synthetical processes is the inactive form. It may be
prepared by heating racemic acid (see TARTARIC ACID) with
fuming hydriodic acid; by heating fumaric acid (q.v.) with water
at 1 50- 200° C.; by the action of nitrous acid on inactive aspartic
acid; and by the action of moist silver oxide on monobrom-
succinic acid. It forms deliquescent crystals, which are readily
soluble in alcohol and melt at 100° C. When heated for some
time at 130° C. it yields fumaric acid (<?.».), and on rapid heating
at 1 80° C. gives maleic anhydride and fumaric acid. It yields
coumarins when warmed with sulphuric acid and phenols (H.
•. Pechmann, Ber., 1884, 17, 929, 1649 et seq.). Potassium
bichromate oxidizes it to malonic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it
to oxalic acid; and hydriodic acid reduces it to succinic acid.
The inactive variety may be split into the component active
forms by means of its cinchonine salt (G. J. W. Bremer,
Ber., 1880, 13, 352).

MALIGNANT (Lat. malignus, evil-disposed, from maligenus),
wicked, of a malicious or wilfully evil disposition. The word
was early applied by the Protestants to the Romanists, with an
allusion to the " congregation of evil doers " (Vulgate Ecclesiam
malignanlium) of Psalm xxvi. 5. In English history, during
the Great Rebellion, the name was given to the Royalists by
the Parliamentary party. In the Great Remonstrance of 1641
occur the words "the malignant partie, wherof the Archbishop
(Laud) and the earl of Strafford being heads." The name
throughout the period had special reference to the religious
differences between the parties. In medical science, the term
" malignant " is applied to a particularly virulent or dangerous
form which a disease may take, or to a tumour or growth of
rapid growth, extension to the lymphatic glands, and recurrence
after operation.

MALIK IBN ANAS'(c. 718-795), the founder of the Malikite
school of canon law, was born at Medina about A.D. 718: the
precise date is not certain. He studied and passed his life
there, and came to be regarded as the greatest local authority
in theology and law. (For his legal system and its history see
MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) His life was'one of extreme honour and
dignity, but uneventful, being given to study, lecturing on law
and acting as mufti and judge. Only two episodes stand out
in his biography. When Mahommed ibn 'Abdallah, the 'Alid,
rose in A.D. 762 at Medina against the 'Abbasids, Malik gave a
Jatwa, or legal opinion, that the oath of allegiance to the

'Abbasids was invalid, as extorted by force. For this inde-
pendence he was severely scourged by the 'Abbasid governor,
who, apparently, did not dare to go beyond scourging with a
man of his standing with the people. The second episode gave
equal proof of independence. In 795 Harun al-Rashld made
the pilgrimage, came with two of his sons to Medina, and sat
at the feet of Malik as he lectured in the mosque. The story,
legendary or historical, adds that Malik had refused to go to
the caliph, saying that it was for the student to come to his
teacher. Late in life he seems to have turned to asceticism and
contemplation. It is said that he retired from all active, public
life and even neglected plain, pubb'c duties, replying to re-
proaches, " Not every one can speak in his own excuse " (Ibn
Qutaiba, Ma 'arif, 250). He is also entered among the early
ascetic Sufis (cf. Fihrist, 183). He died in Medina, A.D. 795.

For a description of his principal book, the Muwa((a', see Gold-
ziher's Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 213 sqq. He wrote also a
Koran commentary, now apparently lost, and a hortatory epistle to
Harun al-Rashld. See further, de Slane's trans, of Ibn Khallikan,
ii. 545 sqq. ; von Kremer, Culturgeschichte, i. 477 sqq. ; Brockel-
mann, Gesch. der arab. Lilt., \. 175 sqq.; Macdonald, Muslim
Theology, &c., 99 sqq. and index; Fihrist, 198 seq.; Nawawi, 530
sqq. (D. B. MA.)

MALINES (Flemish, Mechelen, called in the middle ages by
the Latin name Mechlinia, whence the spelling Mechlin), an
ancient and important city of Belgium, and the seat since 1559
of the only archbishopric in that country. Pop. (1004), 58,101.
The name is supposed to be derived from maris linea, and to
indicate that originally the sea came up to it. It is now situated
on the Dyle, and is in the province of Antwerp, lying about
half-way between Antwerp and Brussels. The chief importance
of Malines is derived from the fact that it is in a sense the
religious capital of Belgium — the archbishop being the primate
of the Catholic Church in that country. The archbishop's palace
is in a picturesque situation, and dates from the creation of the
dignity. The principal building in the city is the exceedingly
fine cathedral dedicated to St Rombaut. This cathedral was
begun in the i2th and finished early in the I4th century, and
although modified in the isth after a fire, it remains one of the
most remarkable specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe.
The massive tower of over 300 ft., which is described as unfinished
because the original intention was to carry it to 500 ft., is its
most striking external feature. The people of Malines gained
in the old distich — " gaudet Mechlinia stultis " — the reputation
of being " fools," because one of the citizens on seeing the moon
through the dormer windows of St Rombaut called out that the
place was on fire, and his fellow-citizens, following his example,
endeavoured to put out the conflagration until they realized the
truth. The cathedral contains a fine altar-piece by Van Dyck,
and the pulpit is in carved oak of the I7th century. Another
old palace is that of Margaret of Austria, regent for Charles V.,
which has been carefully preserved and is now used as a court
of justice. In the church of Notre Dame (i6th century) is
Rubens' masterpiece " the miraculous draught of fishes," and
in that of St John is a fine triptych by the same master. Malines,
although no longer famous for its lace, carries on a large trade
in linen, needles, furniture and oil, while as a junction for the
line from Ghent to Louvain and Li6ge, as well as for that from
Antwerp to Brussels and the south, its station is one of the
busiest in Belgium, and this fact has contributed to the general
prosperity of the city.

The lordship of Malines was conferred as a separate fief by
Pippin the Short on his kinsman Count Adon in 754. In the
9th century Charles the Bald bestowed the fief on the bishop
of Liege, and after being shared between Brabant and Flanders
it passed into the hands of Philip the Bold, founder of the house
of Burgundy, in 1384. During the religious troubles of the i6th
century Malines suffered greatly, and in 1572 it was sacked by
Alva's troops during three days. In the wars of the I7th and
i8th centuries it was besieged many times and captured by the
French, Dutch and English on several occasions. The French
finally removed the fortifications in 1804, since which year it
has been an open town;

49°

MALLANWAN— MALLESON

MALLANWAN, a town in Hardoi district, the United Pro-
vinces, India. Pop. (1901), 11,158. Under native rule the town
possessed considerable political importance, and upon the British
annexation of Oudh it was selected as the headquarters of the
district, but was abandoned in favour of Hardoi after the Mutiny.
Saltpetre and brass utensils are manufactured.

MALLARME, FRANCOIS RENE AUGUSTS (1755-1835),
French Revolutionist, the son of a lawyer, was born at Nancy
on the 25th of February 1755. He was brought up in his father's
profession, and was appointed procureur-syndic of the district
of Pont-a-Mousson. During the Revolution he was elected by
the department of Meurthe deputy to the Legislative Assembly
and the Convention, where he attached himself to the Mountain
and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was elected president
of the Convention on the 3oth of May 1793, and by his weakness
during the crisis of the following day contributed much to the
success of the insurrection against the Girondists. He took an
active part in the levee-en-masse, and in November 1793 was
given the task of establishing the revolutionary government in
the departments of Meuse and Moselle, where he gained an
unenviable notoriety by ordering the execution of the sentence
of death decreed by the revolutionary tribunal on some young
girls at Verdun who had offered flowers to the Prussians when
they entered the town. After the fall of Robespierre he joined
the group of " Thermidorians " and was sent on mission to the
south of France, where he closed the Jacobin club at Toulouse
and set free a number of imprisoned " suspects." On the ist
of June 1795 he was denounced and arrested, but was soon set
at liberty. In 1796 he was appointed by the Directory commis-
sioner for the organization of the departments of Dyle and
Mont-Tonnerre. Under the empire he was receiver of the droits
reunis at Nancy, and lost his money in 1814 in raising a levy of
volunteers. Appointed sub-prefect of Avesnes during the Hun-
dred Days, he was imprisoned by the Prussians in revenge for
the death of the maidens of Verdun, and lived in exile during
the Restoration. He returned to France after the revolution
of 1830, and died at Richemont (Seine-Inferieure) on the 25th
of July 1835.

MALLARME, STEPHANE (1842-1898), French poet and
theorist, was born at Paris, on the i8th of March 1842. His
life was simple and without event. His small income as pro-
fessor of English in a French college was sufficient for his needs,
and, with his wife and daughter, he divided the year between
a fourth-floor flat in Paris and a cottage on the banks of the
Seine. His Tuesday evening receptions, which did so much to
form the thought of the more interesting of the younger French
men of letters, were almost as important a part of his career as
the few carefully elaborated books which he produced at long
intervals. L'Apres-midi d'unfaune (1876) and other fragments
of his verse and prose had been known to a few people long
before the publication of the Poesies completes of 1887, in a
facsimile of his clear and elegant handwriting, and of the Pages
of 1891 and the Vers el prose of 1893. His remarkable transla-
tion of poems of Poe appeared in 1888, " The Raven " having
been published as early as 1875, with illustrations by Manet.
Divagations, his own final edition of his prose, was published in
1897, and a more or less complete edition of the Poesies, post-
humously, in 1899. He died at Valvins, Fontainebleau, on the
9th of September 1898. All his life Mallarme was in search of
a new aesthetics, and his discoveries by the way were often
admirable. But he was too critical ever to create freely, and
too limited ever to create abundantly. His great achieve-
ment remains unfinished, and all that he left towards it is not
of equal value. There are a few poems and a few pieces of
imaginative prose which have the haunting quality of Gustave
Moreau's pictures, with the same jewelled magnificence, myste-
rious and yet definite. His later work became more and more
obscure, as he seemed to himself to have abolished limit after
limit which holds back speech from the expression of the
absolute. Finally, he abandoned punctuation in verse, and
invented a new punctuation, along with a new construc-
tion, for prose. Patience in the study of so difficult an author

has its reward. No one in our time has vindicated with more
pride the self-sufficiency of the artist in his struggle with the
material world. To those who knew him only by his writings
his conversation was startling in its clearness; it was always,
like all his work, at the service of a few dignified and misunder-
stood ideas.

See also Paul Verlaine, Les Poetes maudits (1884); J. Lemaitre,
Les Contemporains (sth series, 1891); Albert Moekel, Stephane
Mallarme, un heros (1899) ; E. W. Gosse, French Profiles (1905) and
A. Symons, The Symbolist Movement in Literature (1900). A com-
plete bibliography is given in the Poetes d' aajourd' hui (1880-1900,
nthed., 1905) of MM. A. van Bever and P. L&iutaud. (A. SY.)

MALLECO, a province of southern Chile, once a part of the
Indian territory of Araucania (q.v.), lying between the provinces
of Bio-Bio on the N. and E., Cautin on the S. and Arauco on the
W. Area, 2973 sq. m. Pop. (1895), 98,032. It belongs to the
rainy, forested region of southern Chile, and is thinly populated,
a considerable part of its population being Araucam'an Indians,
who occupy districts in the Andean foothills. Gold placer
mining has attracted some attention, but the output is small.
The principal industries are cattle and wheat raising and timber-
cutting. The capital is Angol (pop., 7056 in 1895; estimated at
7638 in 1902), a small town in the northern part of the province,
on the Malleco river, and a station on the Traiguen branch of the
state railway. Traiguen (pop., 5732 in 1895; estimated at 7099
in 1902) in the southern part of the province is the second town in
importance, and Victoria (pop., 6989 in 1895; estimated at
10,002 in 1902), about 20 m. E. of the last-named town, was for
a time the terminal station of the main line of the railway.

MALLEMUCK, from the German rendering of the Dutch
Mallemugge (which originally meant small flies or midges that
madly whirl round a light), a name given by the early Dutch
Arctic voyagers to the Fulmar (q.v.), of which the English form
is nowadays most commonly applied by our sailors to the smaller
albatrosses, of about the size of a goose, met with in the Southern
Ocean — corrupted into " molly mawk," or " mollymauk." A
number of species have been identified. Diomedea irrorata of
West Peru is sooty-brown with white mottlings and a white head;
D. migripes of the North Pacific is similar in colour but with
white only near the eye and at the base of the tail and bill; D.
immutabilis of Japan is darker but has a white head. D. melan-
ophrys of the southern oceans has been found in summer both
in California, in England, and as far north as the Faeroes, Ac-
cording to J. Gould the latter is the commonest species of albatross
inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and its gregarious habits and
familiar disposition make it well known to every voyager to or
from Australia, for it is equally common in the Atlantic as well
as the Pacific. The back, wings and tail are of a blackish-grey,
but all the rest of the plumage is white, except a dusky super-
ciliary streak, whence its name of black-browed albatross, as also
its scientific epithet, are taken. The bill of the adult is of an
ochreous-yellow, while that of the young is dark. This species
breeds on the Falkland Islands. D. bulleri of the New Zealand
seas is greyish-brown, with white underparts and rump and ashy
head. Diomedea (or Thalassogerori) culminata and chlororhyncha
of the southern seas, D. (or T.) cauta of Tasmania, salvini of New
Zealand and layardi of the Cape resemble D. bulleri, but have a
strip of naked skin between the plates of the maxilla towards its
base. H. N. Moseley (Notes of a Naturalist, 130) describes
D. culminata as making a cylindrical nest of grass, sedge and
clay, with a shallow basin atop and an 9verhanging rim — the
whole being about 14 in. in diameter and 10 in height. The bird
lays a single white egg, which is held in a sort of pouch, formed
by the skin of the abdomen, while she is incubating. The feet
of D. bulleri are red, of D. chlororhyncha flesh-coloured, of the
others yellow. (A. N.)

MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE (1825-1898), Indian officer
and author, was born at Wimbledon, on the Sth of May 1825.
Educated at Winchester, he obtained a cadetship in the Bengal
infantry in 1842, and served through the second Burmese War.
His subsequent appointments were in the civil line, the last being
that of guardian to the young maharaja of Mysore. He retired

MALLET, D.— MALLET DU PAN

491

with the rank of colonel in 1877, having been created C.S.I, in
1872. He died at Kensington, on the ist of March 1898. He
was a voluminous writer, his first work to attract attention
being the famous " Red Pamphlet," published at Calcutta in
1857, when the Mutiny was at its height. He continued, and
considerably rewrote the History of the Indian Mutiny ( 6 vols.,
1878-1880), which was begun but left unfinished by Sir John
Kaye. Among his other books the most valuable are History
of the French in India (and ed., 1893) and The Decisive Battles of
India (3rd ed., 1888).

MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?i7os-i76s), Scottish poet
and dramatist, the son of a Perthshire farmer, was born in that
county, probably in 1705. In 1717 he went to the high school
at Edinburgh, and some three years later to the university, where
he made the friendship of James Thomson, author of The
Seasons. As early as 1720 he began to publish short poems in
the manner of the period, a number of which appeared during
the next few years in collections such as the Edinburgh Miscellany
and Allan Ramsay's Tea Table Miscellany, in which his ballad
"William and Margaret" was published in 1724. For some
years from 1723 he was private tutor to the duke of Montrose's
sons, with whom he travelled on the Continent in 1727. His real
name was Malloch; but this he changed to Mallet in 1724. In
1735 he took the M.A. degree at Oxford. He had already made the
friendship of Pope, whose vanity he flattered in a poem on Verbal
Criticism, in 1733; and through Pope he became acquainted
with Bolingbroke and other Tory politicians, especially those
attached to the party of the prince of Wales, who in 1742 ap-
pointed Mallet to be his paid secretary. After Pope's death, in
1744, Mallet, at the instigation of Bolingbroke and forgetful of
past favours and friendship, vilified the poet's memory, thereby
incurring the resentment of Pope's friends. For his services as
a party pamphleteer, in which character he published an attack
on Admiral Byng, Mallet received from Lord Bute a lucrative
sinecure in 1760. He died on the 2ist of April 1765. Mallet
was a small man, in his younger days something of a dandy and
inordinately vain. He was twice married; by his first wife he
had a daughter, Dorothy, who married Pietro Paolo Celesia, a
Genoese gentleman, and was the author of several poems and
plays, notably Almida, produced by Garrick at Drury Lane in

mi-
Mallet's own works included several plays, some of which were
produced by Garrick, who was Mallet's personal friend. Eury-
dice, a tragedy, with prologue and epilogue by Aaron Hill, was
produced at Drury Lane in 1731; Mustapha, also a tragedy, had
considerable success at the same theatre in 1739; in 1740, in
collaboration with Thomson, he produced the masque Alfred,
of which he published a new version in 1751, after Thomson's
death, claiming it to be almost entirely his own work. This
masque is notable as containing the well-known patriotic song,
" Rule Britannia," the authorship of which has been attributed
to Mallet, although he allowed it to appear without protest in his
lifetime with Thomson's name attached. His other writings
include Poems on Several Occasions (1743); Amyntor and Theodora,
or the Hermit (1747); another volume of Poems (1762).

In 1 759 a collected edition of Mallet's Works was published in three
volumes; and in 1857 his Ballads and Songs were edited by F.
Dinsdate with notes, and a biographical memoir of the author.

MALLET, PAUL HENRI (1730-1807), Swiss writer, was born
on the 2oth of August 1730, in Geneva. After having been
educated there, he became tutor in the family of the count of
Calenberg in Saxony. In 1752 he was appointed professor of
belles lettres to the academy at Copenhagen. He was naturally
attracted to the study of the ancient literature and history of his
adopted country, and in 1755 he published the first fruits of his
researches, under the title Introduction a I'histoire du Dane-
marck oit I'on traite de la religion, des mceurs, des lots, et des usages
des anciens Danois. A second part, more particularly relating
to the ancient literature of the country, Monuments de la mytho-
logie et de la poesir des Celtes, et particulitrement des anciens
Scandinaves, was issued in 1756, and was also translated into
Danish. A translation into English, with notes and preface, by

Bishop Percy, was issued in 1770 under the title of Northern
Antiquities (republished with additions in 1847). The book had
a wide circulation, and attracted much attention on account of
its being the first (though a very defective) translation into
French of the Edda. The king of Denmark showed his apprecia-
tion by choosing Mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince. In
1760 he returned to Geneva, and became professor of history in
his native city. While there he was requested by the czarina
to undertake the education of the heir-apparent of Russia (after-
wards the czar Paul I.), but declined the honour. An invitation
more congenial to his tastes led to his accompanying Lord
Mountstuart in his travels through Italy and thence to England,
where he was presented at court and commissioned to write the
history of the house of Brunswick. He had previously received
a similar commission from the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel for the
preparation of a history of the house of Hesse, and both works
were completed in 1785. The quietude of a literary life was
rudely broken by the shock of the Revolution, to which he was
openly hostile. His leanings to the unpopular side were so
obnoxious to his fellow-citizens that he was obliged to quit his
native country in 1792, and remained in exile till 1801. He died
at Geneva, on the 8th of February 1807.

A memoir of his life and writings, by Sismondi, was published at
Geneva in 1807. Besides the Introduction to the History of Denmark,
his principal works are : Histoire du Danemarch (3 vols., Copenhagen,
1758-1777); Histoire de la maison de Hesse (4 vols., 1767-1785);
Histoire de la maison de Brunswick (4 vols., 1767-1785); Histoire de
la maison et des etats du Mecklenbourg (1796) ; Histoire des Suisses ou
Helvetiens (4 vols., Geneva, 1803) (mainly an abridgment of J. von
Muller's great history) ; Histoire de la ligue hanseatique (1805).

MALLET, ROBERT (1810-1881), Irish engineer, physicist and
geologist, was born in Dublin, on the 3rd of June 1810. He was
educated at Trinity College in that city, and graduated B.A. in
1830. Trained as an engineer, he was elected M.Inst.C.E. in
1842; he built in 1848-1849 the Fastnet Rock lighthouse, south-
west of Cape Clear, and was engaged in other important works.
Devoting much attention to pure science, he became especially
distinguished for his researches on earthquakes, and from 1852-
1858 he was engaged (with his son John William Mallet) in the
preparation of his great work, The Earthquake Catalogue of the
British Association (1858). In 1862 he published two volumes,
dealing with the Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857 and The
First Principles of Observational Seismology. He then brought
forward evidence to show that the depth below the earth's
surface, whence came the impulse of the Neapolitan earthquake,
was about 8 or 9 geographical miles. One of his most important
essays was that communicated to the Royal Society (Phil. Trans.
clxiii. 147; 1874), entitled Volcanic Energy: an Attempt to develop
its True Origin and Cosmical Relations. He sought to show that
volcanic heat may be attributed to the effects of crushing, con-
tortion and other disturbances in the crust of the earth; the
disturbances leading to the formation of lines of fracture, more
or less vertical, down which water would find its way, and if the
temperature generated be sufficient volcanic eruptions of steam
or lava would follow. He was elected F.R.S. in 1854, and he
was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of
London in 1877. He died at Clapham, London, on the 5th of
November 1881.

MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES (1740-1800), French journalist,
of an old Huguenot family, was born near Geneva in 1749, the
son of a Protestant minister. He was educated at Geneva, and
through the influence of Voltaire obtained a professorship at
Cassel. He soon, however, resigned this post, and going to
London joined H. S. N. Linguet in the production of his Annales
poliliques (1778-1780). During Linguet's imprisonment in the
Bastille Mallet du Pan continued the Annales by himself (1781-
1783); but Linguet resented this on his release, and Mallet du
Pan changed the title of his own publication to Memoires histo-
riques (1783). From 1783 he incoporated this work with the
Mercure de France in Paris, the political direction of which had
been placed in his hands. On the outbreak of the French
Revolution he sided with the Royalists, and was sent on a mission
(1791-1792) by Louis XVI. to Frankfort to try and secure the

492

MALLING— MALLOW

sympathy and intervention of the German princes. From
Germany he travelled to Switzerland and from Switzerland to
Brussels in the Royalist interest. He published a number of
anti-revolutionary pamphlets, and a violent attack on Bonaparte
and the Directory resulted in his being exiled in 1797 to Berne.
In 1798 he came to London, where he founded the Mercure
britannique. He died at Richmond, Surrey, on the loth of May
1800, his widow being pensioned by the English government.
Mallet du Pan has a place in history as a pioneer of modern
political journalism. His son JOHN LEWIS MALLET (1775-1861)
spent a useful life in the English civil service, becoming secretary
of the Board of Audit; and J. L. Mallet's second son, SIR Louis
MALLET (1823-1890) also entered the civil service in the Board
of Trade and rose to be a distinguished economist and a member
of the Council of India.

Mallet du Pan's Memoires el correspondance was edited by A.
Sayous (Paris, 1851). See Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution
(1902), by Bernard Mallet, son of Sir Louis Mallet, author also of a
biography of his father (1900).

MALLING, EAST and WEST, two populous villages in the
Medway parliamentary division of Kent, England, respectively
5 and 6 m. W. by N. of Maidstone, with a station on the South-
Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), East Mailing, 2391 ;
West Mailing, 2312. They are situated in a rich agricultural
district on the western slope of the valley of the' Medway, and
East Mailing has large paper mills. At West Mailing are remains
of Mailing Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1090 by
Gundulf, bishop of Rochester. The remains, which are partly
incorporated in a modern building, include the Norman west
front of the church, the Early English cloisters, the chapter-
house, gate-house (the chapel of which is restored to use), and
other portions. About Addington near West Mailing are con-
siderable prehistoric remains, including mounds, single stones,
stone circles and pits in the chalk hills; while at Leybourne
are the gateway and other fragments of the castle held by the
Leybourne family from the i2th to the i4th century.

MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL (1849- ), English
author, was born at Cockington Court, Devonshire. He was
educated privately, and at Balh'ol College, Oxford. He won the
Newdigate prize in 1872, and took a second class in the final
classical schools in 1874. He attracted considerable attention
by his satirical story The New Republic (2 vols., 1877), in which
he introduced characters easily recognized as prominent living
men, Mark Pattison, Matthew Arnold, W.K. Clifford and others.
His keen logic and gift for acute exposition and criticism were
displayed in later years both in fiction and in controversial works.
In a series of books dealing with religious questions he insisted
on dogma as the basis of religion and on the impossibility of
founding religion on purely scientific data. In Is Life Worth
Living? (1879) and The New Paul and Virginia (1878) he
attacked Positivist theories, and in a volume on the intellectual
position of the Church of England, Doctrine and Doctrinal Dis-
ruption (1900), he advocated the necessity of a strictly defined
creed. Later volumes on similar topics were Religion as a
Credible Doctrine (1903) and The Reconstruction of Belief (1905).
He published several brilliant works on economics, directed
against Radical and Socialist theories: Social Equality (1882),
Property and Progress (1884), Labour and the Popular Welfare
(1893), Classes and Masses (1896) and Aristocracy and Evolution
(1898); and among his anti-socialist works should be classed his
novel, The Old Order Changes (1886). His other novels include
A Romance of the Nineteenth Century (1881), A Human Document
(1892), The Heart of Life (1895) and The Veil of the Temple (1904).
He published a volume of Poems in 1880, and in 1900 Lucretius
on Life and Death in verse.

MALLOW, a market town and watering place of Co. Cork,
Ireland, on the Blackwater, 144! m. S.W. from Dublin, and 21 N.
from Cork by the Great Southern and Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 4542. It is a junction for lines westward to Killarney
and Co. Kerry, and eastward to Lismore and Co. Waterford.
The town owes its prosperity to its beautiful situation in a
fine valley surrounded by mountains, and possesses a tepid

mineral spring, considered efficacious in cases of general debility
and for scorbutic and consumptive complaints. A spa-house
with pump-room and baths was erected in 1828. The parish
church dates from 1818, but there are remains of an earlier
building adjoining it. There are manufactures of mineral water
and condensed milk, corn-mills and tanneries. Mallow received
a charter of incorporation from James I. Its name was originally
Magh Allo, that is, Plain of the Allo (the old name used by
Spenser for this part of the river) , and the ford was defended by
a castle, built by the Desmonds, the ruins of which remain. A
bridge connects the town with the suburb of Ballydaheen.
Mallow is a centre for the fine salmon fishing on the Blackwater.
The climate is very mild. The town was a parliamentary
borough till 1885. It is governed by an urban district council.
MALLOW, botanically Malva, the typical genus of the natural
order Malvaceae, embracing about sixteen species of annual and
perennial herbaceous plants, widely distributed throughout the
northern hemisphere. The mallows possess the reniform one-

Mallow (Malva sylvestris), J nat. size.

Flower in section.

Stamens showing the union
of the filaments into a
common tube (monadel-
phous).

Fruit with persistent calyx.
I, 2 and 5 enlarged.

4. Same seen from the back

showing the 3-leaved epi-
calyx.

5. Seed.

celled anthers which specially characterize the Malvaceae (?.».).
The petals also are united by their base to the tube formed by
the coalesced filaments of the stamens. The special characters
which separate the genus Maha from others most nearly allied
to it are the involucre, consisting of a row of three separate bracts
attached to the lower part of the true calyx, and the numerous
single-seeded carpels disposed in a circle around a central axis,
from which they become detached when ripe. The flowers are

MALMEDY— MALMESBURY

493

mostly white or pinkish, never yellow, the leaves radiate- veined,
and more or less lobed or cut. Three species are natives of
liritciin. The musk mallow (Malva moschcta) is a perennial
herb with five-partite, deeply-cut leaves, and large rose-coloured
(lowers clustered together at the ends of the branched stems, and
is found growing along hedges and borders of fields, blossoming
in July and August. It owes its name to a slight musky odour
diffused by the plant in warm dry weather when it is kept in a
confined situation. The round-leaved dwarf mallow (Malva
rotundifolia) is a creeping perennial, growing in waste sandy
places, with roundish serrate leaves and small pinkish-white
(lowers produced in the axils of the leaves from June to Septem-
ber. It is common throughout Europe and the north of Africa,
extending to western and northern Asia. The common mallow
(Malva sylvestris ), the mauve of the French, is an erect biennial
or perennial plant with long-stalked roundish-angular serrate
leaves, and conspicuous axillary reddish-purple flowers, blossom-
ing from May to September. Like most plants of the order it
abounds in mucilage, and hence forms a favourite domestic
remedy for colds and sore throats. The aniline dye called mauve
derives its name from its resemblance to the colour of this plant.

The marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis), the guimauve of the French,
belongs to another genus having an involucre of numerous bracts.
It is a native of marshy ground near the sea or in the neighbourhood
of saline springs. It is an erect perennial herb, with somewhat woody
stems, velvety, ovate, acute, unequally serrate leaves, and delicate
pink showy flowers blooming from July to September. The flowers
are said to yield a good deal of honey to bees. The marsh mallow
is remarkable for containing asparagin, C^gNjC^HaO, which, if
the root be long kept in a damp place, disappears, butyric acid
being developed. The root also contains about 25 % of starch and
the same quantity of mucilage, which differs from that of gum
arable in containing one molecule less of water and in being
precipitated by neutral acetate of lead. It is used in pdte de
guimauve lozenges. Althaea rosea is the hollyhock (q.v.).

The mallow of Scripture, Job xxx. 4, has been sometimes identified
with Jew's mallow (Corchorus olitorius), a member of the closely allied
order Tiliaceae, but more plausibly (the word rafe implying a saline
pl.uit) with Atriplex Halimus, or sea orache. In Syria the Halimus
was still known by the name Malluh in the time of Ibn Beitar. See
Bochart, Hieroz. iii. 16.

MALMEDY, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, lying in a wild and deep basin, on the Warche, 20 m.
S. of Aix-la-Chapelle by rail via Eupen. It contains two Roman
Catholic churches, a modern town-hall and a classical school.
Its industries include tanning, dyeing and paper-making. Pop.
(IQOO), 4680. Malmedy was famous for its Benedictine abbey,
founded about 675, which was united with that of Stablo, the
abbot of the joint house being a prince of the empire. In 1802
the lands of the abbey passed to France, and in 1815 they were
divided between Prussia and Netherlands.

See Kellen, Malmedy und die preussische Wattonie (Essen, 1897).

MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, IST EARL OF (1746-1820),
English diplomatist, was born at Salisbury on the zist of April
1746, being the son of James Harris (q.v.), the author of Hermes.
Educated at Winchester, Oxford and Leiden, young Harris
became secretary in 1768 to the British embassy at Madrid, and
was left as chargt d'affaires at that court on the departure of Sir
James Grey until the arrival of George Pitt, afterwards Lord
Rivers. This interval gave him his opportunity; he discovered
the intention of Spain to attack the Falkland Islands, and was
instrumental in thwarting it by putting on a bold countenance.
As a reward he was appointed minister ad interim at Madrid,
and in January 1772 minister plenipotentiary to the court of
Prussia. His success was marked, and in 1777 he was transferred
to the court of Russia. At St Petersburg he made his reputation,
for he managed to get on with Catherine in spite of her predilec-
tions for France, and steered adroitly through the accumulated
difficulties of the first Armed Neutrality. He was made a knight
of the Bath at the end of 1778, but in 1782 he returned home
owing to ill-health, and was appointed by his friend Fox to be
minister at the Hague, an appointment confirmed after some
delay by Pitt (1784). He did very great service in furthering
Pitt's policy of maintaining England's influence on the Continent
by the arms of her allies, and held the threads of the diplomacy

which ended in the king of Prussia's overthrowing the republican
party in Holland, which was inclined to France, and re-establish-
ing the prince of Orange. In recognition of his services he was
created Baron Malmesbury of Malmesbury (Sept. 1788), and
permitted by the king of Prussia to bear the Prussian eagle on
his arms, and by the prince of Orange to use his motto " Je
maintiendrai." He returned to England, and took an anxious
interest in politics, which ended in his seceding from the Whig
party with the duke of Portland in 1793; and in that year he was
sent by Pitt, but in vain, to try to keep Prussia true to the first
coalition against France. In 1794 he was sent to Brunswick to
solicit the hand of the unfortunate Princess Caroline for the
prince of Wales, to marry her as proxy, and conduct her to her
husband in England. In 1796 and 1797 he was at Paris and
Lille vainly negotiating with the French Directory. After 1797
he became partially deaf, and quitted diplomacy altogether; but
for his long and eminent services he was in 1800 created earl of
Malmesbury, and Viscount Fitzharris, of Heron Court in the
county of Hants. He now became a sort of political Nestor,
consulted on foreign policy by successive foreign ministers,
trusted by men of the most different ideas in political crises, and
above all the confidant, and for a short time after Pitt's death
almost the political director, of Canning. Younger men were
also wont to go to him for advice, and Lord Palmerston particu-
larly, who was his ward, was tenderly attached to him, and owed
many of his ideas on foreign policy directly to his teaching. His
later years were free from politics, and till his death on the 2ist
of November 1820 he lived very quietly and almost forgotten.
As a statesman, Malmesbury had an influence among his con-
temporaries which is scarcely to be understood from his writings,
but which must have owed much to personal charm of manner
and persuasiveness of tongue; as a diplomatist, he seems to have
deserved his reputation, and shares with Macartney, Auckland
and Whitworth the credit of raising diplomacy from a pro-
fession in which only great nobles won the prizes to a career
opening the path of honour to ability. He was succeeded as 2nd
earl by his son James Edward (1778-1841), under-secretary for
foreign affairs under Canning; from whom the title passed to
James Howard, 3rd earl of Malmesbury (q.v.).

Malmesbury did not publish anything himself, except an account
of the Dutch revolution, and an edition of his father's works, but
his important Diaries (1844) and Letters (1870) were edited by his
grandson.

MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3RD EARL OF
.(1807-1889), English statesman, son of the and earl, wa.3 born
on the 25th of March 1807, and educated at Eton and Oriel
College, Oxford. He led a life of travel for several years, making
acquaintance with famous people; and in 1841 he had only just
been elected to the House of Commons as a Conservative, when
his father died and he succeeded to the peerage. His political
career, though not one which made any permanent impression
on history, attracted a good deal of contemporary attention,
partly from his being foreign secretary in 1852 and again in
1858-1859 (he was also lord privy seal in 1866-1868 and in
1874-1876), and partly from his influential position as an active
Tory of the old school in the House of Lords at a time when Lord
Derby and Mr Disraeli were, in their different ways, moulding
the Conservatism of the period. Moreover his long life — he
survived till the I7th of May 1889 — and the publication of his
Memoirs of an Ex-Minister in 1884, contributed to the reputa-
tion he enjoyed. These Memoirs, charmingly written, full of
anecdote, and containing much interesting material for the
history of the time, remain his chief title to remembrance.
Lord Malmesbury also edited his grandfather's Diaries and
Correspondence (1844), and in 1870 published The First Lord
Malmesbury and His Friends: Letters from 1745 to 1820. He
was succeeded as 4th earl by his nephew, Edward James
(1842-1899), whose son, James Edward (b. 1872) became the
5th earl in '1899.

MALMESBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the
Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94!
m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1001),

494

MALMS— MALOLOS

2854. It lies on a ridge surrounded on all sides except the north-
west by the river Avon and a small tributary. The church of
St Mary and St Aldhelm, standing high, is a majestic fragment
consisting of the greater part of the nave (with aisles) of a
Benedictine abbey church. The ruined skeleton of the great
tower arches now terminates the building eastward. The nave is
transitional Norman, with a Decorated superstructure including
the clerestory. The south porch is one of the finest Norman
examples extant, both the outer and the inner doorways
(especially the first) exhibiting the typical ornament of the period
in remarkable exuberance. With the exception of a crypt, the
monastic buildings have disappeared. In the market square
stands a fine market cross of the i6th century, borne upon an
octagonal battlemented basement. Early English fragments
of a hospital of St John of Jerusalem appear in the corpora-
tion almshouse. Malmesbury has an agricultural trade, with
breweries, tanneries and manufactures of silk and pillow lace.
It is g